{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "of (UttrtrH atiO ^Ijtlantlji\n\nGIFT\n\nFRO^^\n\nDup.\nU. of C.\nOh.\n\n"}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1903natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "m\nNATIONAL\n\neducational) ASSOCIATION ^'%'«'-*^^\n\n. Journal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF\n\nFORTY-SECOND\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\nHELD\n\nMEETING\n\nAT\n\nBOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS\nJULY 6-10, 1903\n\n1903\n\npublfsbeD bi3 tbe Bssocfatfon\nsecretary's\n\nOFFICE,\n\nWINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\nId\nIQ05\n\nPRINTED\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO\n\nPRESS,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILLINOIS\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nPAGE\n\nConstitution\nBy-Laws\n----.Act of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\nOfficers for 1902-3\nOfficers for 1903-4\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Trustees\nGENERAL\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-.-\n\ni\n4\n4\n6\n8\n12\n16\n18\n\nSESSIONS\n\nJournal of Proceedings\n21\nMinutes of Annual Meeting of Active Members\n23\nReport of Committee on Resolutions\n29\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors 1902-3\n32\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors 1903-4\n35\nAddresses of Welcome — Bates, Collins^ Pritchett\n41\nResponses — Lane, Harris\n-----------44\nPresidential Address: The New Definition of the Cultivated Man — Eliot\n46\nThe Present Peril to Liberal Education — West\n------54\nThe Opportunity and Function of the Secondary School — Woodward 60\nManual, Trade, and Technical Education — Balliet\n-----65\nThe Part of the Manual-Training High School in American Education — Pritchett 71 .\nSchool Gardens, City School Yards, and the Surroundings of Rural Schools — Bright 77\nSchool Gardens — Clapp\n----------85\nSurroundings of Rural Schools — Skinner\n-------89\nSchool Surroundings — Stetson\n96\nThe Teaching of Civics and Good Citizenship in Public Schools — Welling 98\nJustification of City Expenditure on Parks, and Parkways, etc. — Matthews\n- 102\nThe Nature-Study Mowement -:-Bailey •\n- 109\nThe Beginning and Aims of the General Education Board — Buttrick - 116\nThe Educational Needs of the Southern Negro — Walker\n123\nThe Schools of the People — Murphy\n- 129\nDEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\n(Cincinnati Meeting, 1903)\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Human Side of Geography — Wolfe\nDiscussion — Hatch, Redway\nThe Best Methods of E-lecting School Boards — /ones\nDiscussion — Carr, Chalmers, Pearse, Soldan\nThe Freedom of the Teacher — Gilbert\nDiscussion — Van Sickle, Richeson\nA Readjustment of the High-School Curriculum — Coy\nDiscussion — Cooley, Soldan, De Garmo\nIndustrial Training in Rural Schools — Bayliss ^\nDiscussion — Harvey\nLiterature in the Grades, and How to Use It — Mrs. Cooley\nDiscussion — Mrs. Heermans, Miss Holbrook\niii\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n139\n143\n153\n158\n159\n164\n174\n177\n183\n185\n193\n198\n206\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "IV\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nROUND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTABLES\n\nA. Round Table of State and County Superintendents :\n— Thompson\nForm and Extent of Manual Training for Public-School V^ork\nBaxter\nFall,\nMartin,\n,\nThompson\nCole,\nkinson,\nxoxi—lVil\nY^x^zvL^^\n:\nB. Round Table of Normal Schools and City Training Schools\nOrganization and Function of the Training School— Bender C. Round Table of City Superintendents :\n\n-\n\n214\n217\n\n-219\n\nThe Most Effective Use of the Superintendent's Time— ^/^^g--?// \"\n\"\n■\nDiscussion — Brown, Foos, Keating\nPublic Opinion and Good SzhooXs—Stableton\nD\\scviS^\\on—Osg, Chalmers, Hotchkiss\nBuilding? —\nWhat Should Be the Features of a Modern Elementary-School\nCarroll -------■'\"'\"'\nDiscussion — Griffith\nThe Full Utilization of a Public-School Plant— ^//tJ/\nSeven-Year Course for Ward-School Pupils— G^r^^-^w^o^\nDiscvission— Boone, McMurry, Carroll, Carr, Coy\n\n224\n^^7\n228\n233\n\nOxfordUniversity and the Rhodes Scholarships— ^arr/j\nSome Practical Problems in Manual Training— i^zV//ar^5\nDiscussion — La*-sson\n-\n\n263\n278\n\n\"\n-----Coeducation at the University of Chicago —Small\n--------Coeducation in High Schools — Gove\nDiscussion— ^•^at/^r, Gastman, Keating, Wolfe, Prince\nTHE NATIONAL COUNCIL\n\nConstitution\nOfficers and Members\n\n-\n\n-jj\n239\n241\n247\n260\n\n'\n\n^\"5\n288\n297\n\n-\n\n299\n\n30i\n303\n\n-\n\n-----------...--------Secretary's Minutes\n--------Special Committees of Investigation\nThe Voluntary Element in Education — De Garmo\nThe Saving of Time in Elementary and Secondary Education — Balliet, Mrs,\n\n300\n308\n3\"\n\nYoung ....'.\nDiscussion — Woodward, Green, Mrs. Young, Balliet -----\n\n317.322\n327\n\nThe Educational Progress of the Year 1 902-1 903 — Hyde\n----Discussion — Cook. Carr, Swain, Woodward\n-----Contributions of Modern Education to Religion — Coe\n\n330\n339\n341\n\nInfluence of Religious Education on the Motives of Conduct — Pace\nThe Separation of the Church from the Public School — Harris\nDiscussion — Schaeffer, Carr, Miss Stickney, Greenwood, Pearse, Pace Memorial Addresses :\n\n- 346\n-351\n- 360\n\nJabez Lamar Monroe Curry — Alderman\nWilliam Miller Beardshear — Seerley\n\n3^5\n3^8\n\n^iEmerson Elbridge White— Ccj/\n■Remarks — Swain, Greenwood, Bartholomew\nEdward Richard Shaw — Reigart\nDEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN\n\n3^9\n373\n374\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n..------.--Kindergarten Principles in Social Work — Lee\n------Discussion — Eliot, Anagnos, Greenough, Soldan\n...\nThe Kindergarten : An Uplifting Influence in the Home and the District — Gilder\nThe Power of the Kindergarten Training School, etc. — Miss Hart\n■\n\n377\n378\n383\n388\n395\n\nThe Scope and Results of Mothers' Classes — Miss Harrison\nDiscussion — Afrs. Langzettel\nThe International Kindergarten Union — Miss Wood\n\n400\n405\n406\n\n-\n\n.\n\n.\n\n-\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n-----------Secretary's Minutes\n------The Lock-Step in the Public Schools— -5<?o;/^\n------Nature Study True to Life— i^f?^/^-?\nDiscussion — Jackman, Miss Olmstead\nThe Child's Favorite Study in the Elementary Q\\xxx\\Q.yx\\\\xm— Barnes\n..--.-Discussion — Van Sickle y Miss Harris\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nTABLE\n\n407\n408\n412\n-\n\n4^7\n420\n425\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nOpening Remarks by the President of the Department— ^/i^^/£j<:/^\nTendencies as to the Enlargement of the Secondary Field —Halleck\nDiscussion -^Fellee, Farranc/, Thomas, et al.\nCoeducation in the High School — Hall\nDiscussion — Fosdick, Bishop, Bevins, Hall\nThe Teaching of Argumentative Discourse in High Schools — Baker.\nROUND\n\nV\n\n-\n\n-\n\nHariweU\n\n429\n43°\n432\n43^\n44^\n- 45 1\n460, 466\n-\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nI. Classical Conference :\nGeneral Discussion — Husband, Gunnison, Miss Leach, Hart, Lothnian\nII. Principal's Conference :\nThe Formation of a Federation of Secondary School Associations — Bryan\nDiscussion — Wheelock, Lyttle, et al. III. Mathematical Conference :\nGeneral Discussion — Comstock, French, et al.\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n470\n\n-\n\n476\n479\n\n-\n\n480\n\n-\n\n481\n\n-\n\n484\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Length of the Baccalaureate Course, etc. — Brown, Eliot, Butler, Harper, West\nDiscussion — Hering,et al.\nShall the University Concern Itself with the Morals and Manners of the Students,\n\n487\n489\n5^4\n\nReport of Committee on Entrance Requiremeuts in Mathematics — Tyler\nIV. History Conference :\nGeneral Discussion — Sullivan, Haskins, Huling, et al.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\netc.? — Harris, Tucker, Slocum, Gailor\nDiscussion — Baker, Aber, Swain, etal.DEPARTMENT\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.--.\nThe City Normal School of the Future — Brandt\nDiscussion — Carroll\n\n-\n\nEDUCATION\n\n517\n536\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n-------\n\n539\n540\n545\n\nDoes the Teacher's Knowledge of a Subject Differ from the Scholar's Knowledge\n— Parsons, Smith\n547,554\nDiscussion — Soldan, Cook, McMurry, Cheney, et al. ----560\nConditions of Admission to Normal Schools — Beckwiih, Halsey\n■■\n566,569\nDiscussion — Hendricks, Salisbury\n----.\n. ^7^\nThe Academic Side of Normal-School Work — Johnson\n.\n.\n.\n.\n. ^yy\nHow Can the Normal School Increase its Scholarship, etc. — Green\n- 582\nDiscussion, Williams, De Garmo, Kirk, Lyte, Deartnont\n.\n- 586\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n----.-.----.\nEducation for the Trades:\nFrom the Standpoint of the Manufacturer — Higgins\nThe Demand for Trade Schools : From Educator's Point of View — Charnberlain\nDiscussion — Burlingame\nTrade Schools : From the Point of View of the School Superintendent — Balliet\n\n595\n597\n602\n607\n609\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTrade Schools : From the Point of View of a Trade-School Director — Williston\nDiscussion — Bennett, Hammerschlas\nThe Attitude of Trade Unions toward Trade Schools — Sayivard ....\nDiscussion — Foster, Hubbard\nCraftsmanship in Education — Miller\nDiscussion, Martin Goodnough Art Instruction as Related to Manual Work — Churchill\nDiscussion — Daniels, Hopkins, Turner\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nIndian Basketry : Its Poetry and Symbolism —James\nManual Training in the Elementary School — Miss Langley\nThe Boy and His Handicraft at Home — Bryant\nDiscussion — Leavitt, Pearse\nHandwork for High-School Girls\nMiss Marlatt\nDiscussion — Miss Smith\n\n,-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nManual Training z'ffriwj the Manual Arts — Haney\nDEPARTMENT\n\n627\n633\n635\n641\n644\n645\n651\n652\n655\n657\n658\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Teaching of Art — Ross\nThe Practical Study of Drawing in the Public Schools — Miss Snow\nDiscussion — Carter, Davis, Mason\nDEPARTMENT\n\n612\n617\n620\n626\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n-665\n-666\n...\n670\n-676\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n683\nTraining in Sight-Singing and Song Interpretation, etc. — Fullerton, Miss Crane,\nOsborne\n685, 690, 693\nReal Purpose of Teaching Music in Public Schools — Cole^ Miss MacSkimmon\nSchool Music : Has it Made Music Readers ? — Wilmot, Baldwin\nMusic as a Subject for Admission to College — Russell Music as Part of Life — Damrosch\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\n-\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nHistory in the Curriculum of the Commercial High School — Herrick\nDiscussion — Cressy et al. -Mathematics in Commercial Work — Thurston\nDiscussion — Stevenson, Marshall, Gibson, Brown\n.\n.\nCommercial Geography: The New Science — Carpenter\n.....\nDiscussion — Herrick et al.\nScience in Commercial Work : Its Practical Value, eic.—Gilley\n....\nThe Disciplinary Value of Bookkeeping as a Study — Spencer\nDiscussion — Ellis\nThe Disciplinary Value of Stenography and Typewriting as Studies — Wagner\nReport of Committee of Nine on Course of Study\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOE CHILD\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nA Study Based on the Children of a State — Barnes\nDiscussion — Miss Williams, Barnes -\n\n695, 699\n701, 705\n- 708\n713\n\n-719\n- 720\n- 725\n. 726\n- 731\n732\n- 737\n738\n- 741\n746\n- 746\n750\n\nSTUDY\n\n-\n\nThe Teacher's Practical Application of the Results of Child Study — Spaulding\n'T>isc\\i?,s\\on^/ohnson, Miss Bender\nHealth and Growth of School Children — Hastings\nDiscussion — Fitz, Mrs. Putnam\nSchool Hygiene in its Bearing on Child-Life — Wood\nDiscussion — Zirkle\n\n-753\n754\ny^g\n\n-\n\n761\n\n766\n769\n\n775\n778\n784\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "VI 1\n\nCONTENTS\n\nSex Differentiation in Relation to Secondary Education — Yoder Discussion — Starbuck, Snyder --------The Percentage of Boys Who Leave the High School, etc. — Ellis\nDiscussion — Carr^ Balliet\nHow to Increase the Attendance of Boys at the High School — Stableton\nSelf-Direction as a Motive for Increasing Attendance — Scott\n...\nInfluence of Men and Women Teachers — Bell\nPsychic Arrest in Adolescence — Hall Discussion — Myer, Dawson\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\n-\n\n792\n798\n- 801\n- 808\n- 809\n-8ll\n-813\n\n817\n818\n823\n828\n- 829\n837,843\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n....-Practical Methods of Teaching Geology — Shaler\nThe Proper Scope of Geological Teaching in the High School and Academy\n—Rice\nOut-of-Door Class Work in Geography — Gulliver\n-----The Teaching of Biology in High Schools — Pearse\n......\nA New Method of Teaching Physiology — Porter\nLaboratory Work in High-School Physiology — Peabody\n----College Chemistry andits Relation to Preparatory Work — Remsen\nHigh-School Chemistry in its Relation to College Chemistry — Williams\nChemistry from the College Standpoint — Talbot\nThe Laboratory the Place to Teach Fundamental Principles — Smith High-School Chemistry: From the City Superintendent's Point of View — Kunze The Normal-School View of Chemistry Teaching — Newell ----High-School Chemistry in its Relation to College Chemistry — Perkins\nPhysics for Boys and Girls: An Introductory Course — Packard\nPhysics in the Secondary School — Palmer\n-------The High-School Phase of Physics Teaching: Aims and Methods — Twiss Discussion — //all, Mann\nA Course in Physics for Technical High Schools — Warner\n.\n.\n.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\n847\n848\n853\n856\n858\n862\n867\n872\n873\n878\n878\n878\n879\n880\n880\n883\n885\n889\n890\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nSchool Boards: Number of Members, Terms of Service, etc. — Edwards, Gushing,\nSchool Boards: Their Functions, etc. — /^unsicker\nNew Departures in School Administration — //olden\nConsolidation of Rural Schools — Fowler, Prince ...\nLIBRARY\n\n785\n790\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n......\nPhysical Education and Brain-Building — Krohn\nPlace of Physical Education in the Curriculum, etc. — Lyttle\n-----How to Improve Public-School Gymnastics — Wood\nTests of Efficiency of a Normal School of Gymnastics — Posse\n.\n.\nPhysical Training for the Mass of Students — Anderson, Whittier\nDEPARTMENT\n\n-\n\n897\n898-905\n- 91G\n- 914\n919,929\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nSome Co-operative Suggestions — Bayliss\nPublic-Library Work for Public Schools — Miss Doren\nThe Public Library and the Public School— 6^2/^^??\n-----The Mission of the Class Library — Leland\nIs the Public Library a Promptuary for the Public Schools ? — //odges Discussion — //ess, //arris -\n\n937\n938\n943\n948\n- 953\n- 957\n960,961\n-\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe Library as an Adjunct to the Secondary School — Holland\nSome Library Experiments in Nebraska — Miss Mason\nLibrary Instruction in the Normal School — Brett, Miss Ahem\nDiscussion — Green, Lyte, Wilkinson, Dewey\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\n.\n■\n\n.\n-\n\n.\n-\n\n- 961\n. q65\n971, 976\n981,982\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n985\nPresident's Address — Allen -----q86\nInfluence of the Study of the Unusual Child upon the Teaching of the Usual —\nHall, Johnson --.-......\nggy^ gg2\nDiscussion — Brandt, Campbell\nggy^ ggg\nShould the Scope of the Public School Be Broadened ? — Miss Greene\n- 998\nDiscussion — Wood, Le Garde, Prince, Fernald\n-----1003\nHow\n\nCan the Term \"Charitable\" Be Justly Applied to Education ? — Fay\nDiscussion — Wait\n\nThe Importance of Tests of Hearing — Blake\n\n.\n\n- 1007\n. 1012\n\n-..-...\n\n1013\n\nFacts and Fallacies in the Examination of School Children's Eyes — Standish,\nSome Eye Defects of Feeble-Minded and Backward Children — Greenwood Some Diseases of the Nose and Throat of Interest to Teachers — Crockett\n-\n\n- 1020\n- 1023\n- 1028\n\nWhat Teachers Need to Know about Speech Impediments — Mrs. Thorpe\nReport of Committee on Statistics of Defective Sight and Hearing — Booth\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF INDIAN\n\n-\n\n-\n\n1031\n1036\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nAddresses of Welcome — Hale, Guild, Winship, Miss Edmund,\nResponse — Frissell\n\nPrince .\n\n.\n\n. 1039\n- 1040\n. 1043\n\nPresident's Address : Our Work : Its Progress and Needs —/'<?az>j\nThe Present System of Indian Schools in Qualifying Indians\nfor Citizenship\n— Frissell\n-\n\n1044\n\nAlaska's Start toward Citizenship — Jackson\nThe White Man's Burden versus Indigenous Development, etc. — Hall Heart Culture in Indian Education — Meserve\nTenure in the Civil Service — Doyle\n\n1052\n1053\n1056\n\nStatistical Tables of Membership\nInventory and Price List of Publications\n\n-\n\n-\n\n1049\n\n1059\n\n1064\n1066\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPREAMBLE\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of\nteaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following\nCONSTITUTION\nARTICLE\n\nI — NAME\n\nThis association shall be stj-led the National Educational\nARTICLE\n\nAssociation.\n\nII — DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. It shall consist of eighteen departments: first, of Superintendence;\nsecond, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten\nEducation; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education ; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth,' of Physical Education ; thirteenth, of\nNatural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library\nDepartment ; sixteenth, of Special Education ; seventeenth, of Indian Education ; and\neighteenth, the National Council of Education.\nSec. 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this constitution.\nARTICLE\n\nIII — MEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate,\nand corresponding.\nSec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of\neducational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members.\nAll others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate members.\nEminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to be\ncorresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed\nfifty.\nSec. 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application\nindorsed by two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars\nand the annual dues for the current year.\n^\nActive members only have the right to vote and to hold office in the general Association or in the several departments.\nAll active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the\nvolume oi Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\n\nThe annual membership\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSecrefee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, or by remittance to the\ntary before September i of each year. Any active member may discontinue membership\nby giving written notice to the Secretary before September i, and may restore the same\nonly on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current\nyear.\n\nAll life members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall\nenjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues.\nAssociate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance with the\nusual \" coupon \" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without the\npayment of fees or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in\nthe volume of Proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses,\nthe list to be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— OFFICERS\n\nSection i. The officers of this Association shall consist of a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an\nExecutive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National\nEducational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, chairman of the\nBoard of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be\nelected by the Association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen,\nand of all life directors elected previous to July 10, 1895.\nAll past presidents of the Association now living (July 10, 1895), and all future\npresidents at the close of their respective terms of office, and the United States Commis ioner ofEducation, shall be life directors of the Association.\nThe President of the National Educational Association, P'irst Vice-President, Treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association to be chosen\nannually by the Board of Directors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall\nconstitute the Executive Committee.\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the Association, with the exception of the Secretary,\nshall be chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise\nordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being\nnecessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session\nsubsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\nSec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no'\nperson shall be elected to any office of the Association, or of any department, who is not,\nat the time of the election, an active member of the Association.\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\nofficer. In his absence, the first vice-president in order, who is present, shall preside;\nand in the absence of all vice-presidents, a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on\nnomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nSec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and\nshall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his\nrecords present at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The\nsecretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining\nto his office, keep a list of the members of his department.\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nSec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of\nTrustees hold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the Association ; shall expend the same\nonly upon the order of said board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and\nexpenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the ist day of July each\nyear, he shall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall\nreport the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the\nfaithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he\nshall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the\nannual meeting of the Association next succeeding that for which he is elected.\nSec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own\nbody; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein\nintrusted to the Board of Trustees; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon\nthe written application of twenty active members of the Association for permission to\nestablish a new department, it may grant such permission. Such new department shall\nin all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation\nof such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for the\ninsertion of its name in Art. II, and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations.\nSec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board\nof Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall\nbe a member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the trustees in 1886,\none trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one\nfor four years ; and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors\nheld prior to the annual meeting of the'Association, one trustee shall be elected for the\nterm of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and\nthe absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit\nhis membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body\ncorporate of the Association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the\nDistrict of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and\nrecorded in Liber No. 4, \"Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\"\nSec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping\nand investment of all funds which the Association may receive from donations ; and the\nincome of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing\nthe annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall specify\notherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the\npayment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; and, when\npracticable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that\nshall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association\nfor the previous year.\nSec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who\nshall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and\nthe term of office for a period not to exceed four years.\nARTICLE\n\nV— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Direct{#s.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\ndirectors.\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and\nnot less than two hours before the assembling of the Association.\nSec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board\nor the President shall determine.\nSec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first\nmeeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one member from\neach department.\nARTICLE VI — BY-LAWS\nBy-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the Association.\nARTICLE VII — AMENDMENTS\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous\nvote of the members present ; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided\nthat the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous\nmeeting.\n\nBY-LAWS\n*i. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\nappointed by the President a committee on resolutions ; and at the third session of such\nmeeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member\nfrom each state and territory represented, the same to be appointed by the President on\nthe nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present\nat the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination ; provided, however,\nthat such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when the\nactive members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination.\nThe meetings of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee\nshall be held at 5 : 30 p.m. on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at\nsuch place as shall be announced in the general program.\n2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n3. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its Proceedings.\n4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its\ndepartments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npublished in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon\napproval of the Executive Committee.\n5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association\nto appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent\nFund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said\nfund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees.\n\nACT\n\nOF\n\nINCORPORATION\n\nAt a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational\nAssociation, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following\nresolution was passed :\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation\nfor the National Educational Association, under United States or state laws, as speedily\nas may be.\n♦As amended at the meeting of active members held July 9 (see minutes in the Journal of Proceed'\nings, p. 23 J.\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nN. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts;\nand Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee.\nUnder the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the\napproval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman\nobtained a\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF\n\nINCORPORATION\n\nWe, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby\nassociate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of\nthe \" National Educational Association,\" for the full period of twenty years, the purpose\nand objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States.\n.... To secure the full benefit of said act we do here execute this our certificate of\nincorporation as said act provides.\nIn witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February,\n1886, at Washington, D. C.\nNorman A. Calkins,\n[l. s.]\nJohn Eaton.\n[l. s.]\nZalmon Richards\n[l. s.]\nDuly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, Notary Public in and for the District\nof Columbia, and recorded in Liber Nj. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of\nColumbia.\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\nASSOCIATION\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nNATIONAL\n\n1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized.)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW, E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n1858.-CINCINNATI, O.\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n1865.— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon. Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859.-WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\nt866.— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. Wickersham, President.\nS. H, White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\n1860.-BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1867. — No session.\n1868.— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M, Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\n\n1861, 1862. — No session.\n\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer,\n1869.— TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1863.— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1870.— CLEVELAND, O,\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\n\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHANGED\n\nTO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1871.— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. Pickard, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary,\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1876.— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1872.— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. a. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1874.— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P, Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1875 —MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R, Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\n1878. — No session.\n\n1879.— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Okmond Wilson, Treasurer.\n1880.— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\n\n»\n\n.\n\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\n1881.-ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1892.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\n\n1882.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Takbell, Treasurer.\n\n1893.— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1883.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1894.— ASBURY PARK, N. J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, SecretaYy.\n\n1884.— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1895.— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Butler, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1896.— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1886.— TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President,\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1897.— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Can FIELD, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898.— WASHINGTON, D. C.\n.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nI. C. McNeill,\n\nI. C. McNeill,\n\nI. C. McNeill,\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\nI. C, McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1899.— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\ni88g.— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1900.— CHARLESTON, S. C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n1890.-ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901.-DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1891.— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1902.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilliam M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\nL. C. Greenlee,\n\n1903. -BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\nTreasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "iNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nCHARLFS\n\nW. ELIOT\n\niRWIN SHEPARD\nW.M.DAVIDSON\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1902-1903\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n]\n\nPresident\n\nCambridge, Mass.\n\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nWinona, Minn.\nTopeka, Kan.\n\n'\\\nj\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\n\n\\\n\n*W. M. Beard'^hkar, Ames, la.\nOk VI. IE T. IJKIGHT, Chicago, 111.\nChari Es F. Reeves, I.atona, Wash.\n\nMiss Marion Brown, New Orleans, La.\nJames B. Pearcy, Anderson, Ind.\nMrs. Helen L. Grenfell, Denver, Colo.\n\n\\\n\\\n\\\n\nJo<^eph Kenneiy, Grai d Forks, N. D.\nChakles F. Thwing, Cleveland. O,\nW. N. Sheats, Tal.ahassee, Fla.\n\nHenry R. Sanford, Penn Yan, N. Y.\nJ. H. Francis, Los Angeles. Cal.\nWallace G. Nye, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\n]\ni\n\nBOARD\n\nAlbert\n\nG. Lane. Chairman\n\nNewtom C. Douche kty\nF. Louis Soldan\nNicholas Murray Butler\nCharles W. Eliot\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n{^e.& Art. I Vy sec. q, of the constitution.')\nChicago 111\nPeoria, 111\nSt. Louis, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nCambridge, Mass\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCharles\n\nW. Eliot\n\nOrville T. Bkight\nW.M.Davidson\nAlbert G. Lane\nW.T.Harris\nIrwin Shepard\n\nTerm expires July, 1903\n\n, ,\n\nTerm expires July, 1904\n•\nTerm expires July, 1905\nTerm expires July, 1906\nEx officio\n\n|\n4\n;\n\\\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See A rt. /F, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.\")\nPresident\nCambridge, Mass.\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman of Board of Trustees ..\nMember by election\n\nChicago, 111.\nTopeka, Kan.\nChicago. III.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\n(See .<4r/. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Miss.\nW. M. Davidson. Topeka. Kan.\nOrville T. Bright, Chicago, 111.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Mmn.\n\nLife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\n*Bear shear. W. M.. Ames, la.\nBicknell, 1 HoMAs W., Provitlence, R. I.\nKoAKD OF Education, Naslwi le, Tcnn.\nP.rTLKR Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanhei.d, J \\mes H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. II., Boulder, Colo.\n\nCorson, Oscar T.. Columbus, O.\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria. 111.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn.\nGovr, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A,, Mt. Ple.i>;ant, Mich..\nGreen, J. M., Irenton, N. J.\n\n* Deceased.\n\n1\n\nv\n\n\\\n\n\\\n\nj\n\n^\n:\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\nLife H'VCQCXOV^ — continued\nGreenwood, J, M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nHunt, Mrs. Mary H., l>oston, Mass.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Mil ersville, Pa.\n\nPickard, Josiah L., Brunswick, Me.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nStratton, C. C, University Park, Ore.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\n\nMarble, Albert P., New York. N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\n\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\n\nParker, Charles I , South Chicago, 111.\nPhelps, W. F., Duluth, Minn.\n\n* White, E. E., Columbus. O.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\n\nJohn S. Locke\nHenry C. Morrison\nWalter E. Ranger\nGeokge H. Martin\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nCharles H, Keyes\nAugustus S. Downing\n\nSaco\nPortsmouth\nMonipelier\nLynn\nProvidence\nHartford\nNew York\n\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\nH. Brewster Willis\nJ. W. Lansinger\n\nNew Brunswick\nMillersville\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nG eorge W. Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens....\nAlexander T. Siuakt\nH. B. Frissell\nMiss Lucy Robinson\nG. H. Crowell\nJ, J. McM\\han\nW. N. Sheats\n\nWilmington\nBaltimore\nWashington\nHampton\nWheeling\nHigh Point\nColumbia\nTallahassee\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nS. L. Frogge\nJ. L. WivIGHt\nW. F. Slaton\nJ. W. Abercrombie\nE. E. Bass\nWarren Easton\nAlexander Hogg\nDavid R. Boyd\nGeorge B. Cook\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nFrankfort\nNashville\nAtlanta\nMontgomery\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nFort Worth\nNorman\nHot Springs\nMuskogee\n\nNorth Central Division\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\n.-.\n\nJ. K. Baxter\nT. A. Mott\nMiss Catharine\nD. W. Springer\nL. D. Harvey\nA. V. Storm\n\nGoggin\n\nMt. Vernon\nRichmond\nChicago\nAnn Arbor\nMadison\nCherokee\n\nMinnesota\nM issouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\n\nCharles M. Jordan\nW. T. Carrington\nW. E. Hoover\nCM. YouNG\n\nMinneapolis\nJefferson City\nPark River\nVermilion\n\nNebraska\nKa.isas\n\nEdwin J. Bodwell\nJ. W. Spindler\n\nOmaha\nWinficld\n\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\n\nJ. M. Lewis\nMiss I stelle Reel\nH. S. Philips\n\nWestern\n\n* Deceased.\n\nDivision\nHelena\nWashington, D. C.\nDenver\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by \"Ei&oMion.— continued\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\nEdgar L. Hewett\nF. Yale Adams\nW, J. Kerr\nJ. E. Stubbs\nWalter R. Sideks\nF. B. Cooper\nE. D. Ressler\nJames A. Foshay\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nLas Vegas\nTucson\nLogan\nReno\nPocatello\nSeattle\nMonmouth\nLos Angeles\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nWILLIAM R.HARPER\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW\nJ. F. MILLSPAUGH\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nRICHARD G. BOONE\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER\n\n....\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nChicago, III.\nLouisville, Ky.\nWinona, Minn.\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nCincinnati, O.\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nKindergarten\nMrs. PAULINE AGASSIZ SHA^V. . . . President\nMiss STELLA L. WOOD\nVice-President\nMiss CLARA WHEELER\nSecretary\n\nBoston, Mass.\nMinneapolis Minn.\nGrand Rapids, Mich.\n\n. Elementary\nMiss M. ADELAIDE HOLTON\nFREDERICK TREUDLEY\nMiss ADDA P. WERTZ\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMinneapolis, Minn. .\nAthens. O.\nCarbondale, 111.\n\nSecondary\nCHARLES F.WHEELOCK\nREUBEN POSC H ALLECK\nWILBUR F. GORDY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBENJAMIN IDE WHEELER\nWILLIAM H. SMILEY\nJOHN H. MacCRACKEN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary.\n\nLIVINGSTON C. LORD\nALBERT SALISBURY\nEDGAR L. HEWETT\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCHARLES M. JORDAN\nCLARENCE F. CARROLI\nWARREN EASTON\nJ. N. WILKINSON\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice. President\nSecretary\n\nCHARLES F.WARNER\nJ. E. PAINTER\n,\nCHARLES L. KIRSCHNER\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nLouisville, Ky.\nHartford, Conn.\n\nHigher\nBerkeley, Cal.\nDenver, Colo.\nFulton, Mo.\n\nNormal\nCharleston, 111.\nWhitewater, Wis.\nLas Vegas, N. M.\n\nSuperintendence\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nWorcester, Mass.\nNew Orleans, La.\nEmporia, Kan.\n\nManual\nSpringfield, Mass.\nMinneapolis, Minn\nNew Haven, Conn.\n\nArt\nMiss CLARA A. WILSON\nMiss CHARLOTTE W. STODDARD\nWILLIAM H. VOGEL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nDavenport, la.\nRochester, N. Y.\nCincinnati, O.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPAR\n\nTMEN\n\nT OFFICERS\n\n11\n\nMusic\nSTERRIE A. WEAVER\nW. A. WETZELL\nMiss HELEN W. TRASK\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n;\n\n.-.\n\nWestfield, Mass.\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nBusiness\nJ. H. FRANCIS\nTEMPLETON P. TWIGGS\nC. E. STEVENS\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLos Angelas, Cal.\nDetroit, Mich.\nCleveland, O.\n\nChild Study\nG. W. A. LUCKEY\nSTUART H. ROWE\nMiss SUSAN F.CHASE\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLincoln, Neb.\nNew Haven, Conn.\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nPhysical Training\nW. O. KROHN\nBaroness ROSE POSSE\nMiss MABEL L. PRAY\nMiss ALTA WIGGINS\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nChicago, 111.\nBoston, Mass.\nToledo, O.\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nScience\nC. W. HALL\nWILBUR A. FISKE\nFRANK M. GILLEY\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nRichmond, Ind.\nChelsea, Mass.\n\nSchool Administration\nHARLAN P.FRENCH\nJ. F. FORCE\nISRAEL H. PERES\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nChairman Executive Committee\nSecretary\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nMemphis, Tenn.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nLibrary\nJAMES H. CANFIELD\nREUBEN POST HALLECK\nMiss MARY\nEILEEN AHERN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nLouisville, Ky.\nChicago, 111.\n\nSpecial Education\nEDWARD E. ALLEN\nMiss MARY McCQWEN\nMiss SARAH FULLER\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOverbrook, Pa.\nChicago, 111.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nIndian Education\nH. B. PEAIRS\nS. M. McCOWAN\nMiss ESTELLE REEL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLawrence, Kan.\nChilocco, Okla.\nWashington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nJOHNW. COOK\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nMcHENRY\nRHOADS\n\nASSOCIATION\n1903-1904\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident ...'.\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nDe Kalb, 111.\nWinona, Minn.\nOwensboro, Ky.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nEdwin A. Alderman. New Orleans, La.\nJ. W. Searson, Wahoo, Neb.\nWilliam L. Prather, Austin, Tex.\nGeorge B. Cook, Hot Springs, Ark.\nHenry R. Sanford, Penn Yan, N. Y.\nBOARD\n\nGeorge M. Smith, Vermilion, S. D.\nH. Brewster Willis, New Brunswick, N. J.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFrank B. Dyer, Cincinnati, O.\nDflos Fall, Albion. Mich.\nMiss Ellor E. Carlisle, Boston, Mass.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n(See Art. IV, sec. 9, 0/ the constitution.)\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman\nNicholas Murray Butler\nF. Louis Soldan\nNewton C. Dougherty\nJohn W.Cook\n\nChicago, III\nNew York, N. Y..\nSt. Louis, Mo\nPeoria, III\nDe Kalb, 111\nEXECUTIVE\n\nTerm expires July, 1907\nTerm expires July, 1906\nTerm expires July, 1905\nTerm expires July, 1904\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See^r/. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.)\nJohnW.Cook\nCharles W. Eliot\nMcHenry Rhdads\nAlbert G. Lane\nW. T. Harris\n\nPresident ....\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nC hairman of Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n\nDeKalb,Ill.\nCambridge, Mass.\nOwensboro, Ky.\nChicago, 111.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nIrwin Shepard\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\n\n:\n\nk\n\n]\n\n(See A rt. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.')\nJohn W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Owensboro, Ky.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nAlbekt G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nLife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.)\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Na?.hville, Tenn.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. H., Boulder, Colo.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, O.\n\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111.\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGarrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham\nH. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, J. M., Trenton, N. J.\n\n|\n|\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS\n\nOF THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLife 'DirectOTS — continued\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarris, W.T., Washington, D. C.\nHunt, Mrs. Mary H., Boston, Mass.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nLyte, EliphaletOram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\n\n,\n\nPhelps, W. F., Duluth, Minn.\nPickard, Josiah L., Brunswick, Me.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, III.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis. Mo.\nStratton C. C, University Park, Ore.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\n\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nParker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode 1 sland\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\nJohn S. Locke\nCh nning Folsom\nWalter E. Ranger\nLouis P. Nash\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nCharles H. Keyes\nAugustus S. Downing\nJohn Enright\nJohn W. Lansinger\n\nSaco\nDover\nMontpelier\nHolyoke\nProvidence\nHartford\nNew York\nFreehold\nMillersville\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nGeorge W, Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens\nAlexander T. Stuart\nJ. L. Jar man\nMiss Lucy Robinson\nMiss Lydia A. Yates\nW. K. Tate\n\nWilmington\nBaltimore\nWashington\nFarmville\nWheeling\nWilmington\nCharleston\n\nB.C. Graham\n\nTampa\n\nSouth Central Division\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\n\nS. L. Frogge\nD. J. Johns, Jr\nW. F. Slaton\n\nFrankfort\nNashville\nAtlanta\n\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\n\nJohn W. Abercrombie\nE. E, Bass\nWarren Easton\nA. Caswell Ellis\nAndrew R. Hickam\nJ. H. Hinemon\n\nMontgomery\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nAustin\nAlva\nLittle Rock\n\nNorth Central Division\nOhio\nIndiana\n\nW. H. Kirk\nT. A. Mott\n\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\n\nMiss Catharine\nD. W. Springer\nL. D. Harvey\nA. V. Storm\n\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nW. F. Kunze\nBen Blewett\nW. E. Hoover\nCM. Young\nE. J. Bodwell\nJ. W. Spindler\nWestern\n\nEast Cleveland\nRichmond\nGoggc*\n\n*\n\nChicago\nAnn Arbor\nMenomonie\nCherokee\nRed Wing\nSC Louis\nPark River\nVermilion\nOmaha\nWinfield\n\nDivision\n\nMontana\n\nOscar J. Craig\n\nMissoula\n\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\n\nMiss Estelle Reel\nLewis C. Greenlee. .\nHiram Hadley\n\nWashington, D. C.\nDenver\nLas Cruces\n\n13\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by \"^IqcXxotx — continued\nA. J. Matthews\nW. J. Kerr\nJ. E. Stubbs. . . . ;\nMiss May L. Scott\nFrank B, Cooper\nE. D. Ressler\n\nCalifornia\n\nThomas J. Kirk\n\nTempe\nLogan\nReno\nBoise\nSeattle\nMonmouth\n*\n\nSacramento\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\nFRANK A. FITZPATRICK\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nRICHARD G. BOONE\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER\nMiss ANNA TOLMAN SMITH\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Cotnmittee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nMiss JENNY B.MERRILL\nMrs. MARGARET J. STANNARD\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nBoston, Mass.\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nBaltimore, Md.\nBoston, Mass.\nNew York, N. Y.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nKindergarten\n..\n\nMrs. O. S.CHITTENDEN\nMiss ADA VAN STONE HARRIS\nCALVIN N. KENDALL\nMiss EMMA G. OLMSTEAD\n\nSecretary\n\nElementary\n\n..\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nBoston, Mass.\n'\n\nOmaha, Neb.\nRochester, N. Y.\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nScranton, Pa.\n\nSecondary\nREUBEN POST HALLECK\nWILBUR F. GORD Y\nWILLIAM H. SMILEY\nWILLIAM SCHUYLER\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nBENJAMIN IDE WHEELER..\nGEORGE HARRIS\nJOHN H. MacCRACKEN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLouisville, Ky.\nHartford, Conn.\nDenver, Colo.\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nHigher\nBerkeley, Cal.\nAmherst, Mass.\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nNormal\nLEWIS H. JONES\nGRANT KARR\nMrs. grace H. SPROULL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nYpsilanti\nOswego, N. Y.\nGreeley, Colo.\n\nSuperintendence\nHENRY P. EMERSON\nEDWIN B. COX\nJOHN W. ABERCROMBIE\nJOHN\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\n\nH. HINEMON\n\n* Secretary\n\nManual\n\nARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN\nCHARLES L. KIRSCHNER\nFRANK M. LEAVITT\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBuffalo, N. Y.\nXenia, O.\nUniversity, Ala.\nLittle Rock, Ark.\nPasadena, Cal.\nNew Haven, Conn.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nArt\nJAMES FREDERICK HOPKINS\nCHARLES M. CARTER\nMiss LILLIAN S. CUSHMAN\n\n....\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBoston, Mass.\nDenver, Colo.\nChicago, 111.\n\nMusic\nSTERRIE A. WEAVER\nW. A. WETZELL\nP. C. HAYDEN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWestfield, Mass.\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nKeokuk, la.\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\ni5\n\nBusiness\nCHEESMAN A. HERRICK\nH. B. BROWN\nTHOS. H. H. KNIGHT...\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nValparaiso, Ind.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nChild Study\nE. A. KIRKPATRICK\nMiss JENNY B. MERRILL\nA. H. YODER\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nFitchburg, Mass.\nNew York, N. Y.\nSeattle, Wash.\n\nPhysical Training\nW. O. KROHN\nTHOMAS D.WOOD\nMiss REBECCA STONEROA\nBaroness ROSE POSSE\n\nI)\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nChicago, 111.\nNew York, N. Y.\nWashington, D. C.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nScience\nWILBUR\n\nA, FISKE\n\nFRANK M. GILLEY\nA. S. PEARSE\n\nPresident\n\nRichmond, Ind.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nChelsea, Mass.'\nOmaha, Neb.\n\nSchool Administration\nB. F. HUNSICKER\nGRAFTON D. GUSHING\nHARLAN P. FRENCH\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\n\nPresident\nReading, Pa.\nVice-President\nBoston, Mass.\nChairman of Executive Committee .... Albany, N. Y.\nSecretary\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nLibrary\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER\nREUBEN POST HALLECK\nMiss MARY EILEEN AHERN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nLousville, Ky.\nChicago, 111.\n\nSpecial Education\nJ, W. JONES\nF. W. BOOTH\nMiss ELIZABETH\n\nVAN\n\nADESTINE\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nColumbus, O.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nDetroit, Mich.\n\nIndian Education\nVacant (no election)\nH. B. PEAIRS\nMISS ESTELLE REEL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLawrence, Kan.\nWashington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\nTO\n\nREPORT\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1902, to June 30, 1903\nFOR\n\nMEETING\n\nAT MINNEAPOLIS,\n\nMINN., AND\n\nENSUING\n\nYEAR\n\n\"W. M. Davidson, Treasurer, in Acct. with the National Hducational Association\nBALANCE\n\nON\n\nHAND\n\nJULY\n\ni, 1902\n\nCash received from Treasurer Keyes, as per last annual report\n\n$2,287.14\n\nRECEIPTS\nFrom transportation lines :\nAccount of Detroit meeting :\nBig Four (C, C, C. & St. L. Ry.)\nWabash Railroad\nNorthern Steannship Co\nDetroit & Cleveland Navigation Co\n\n$\n\n118.00\n284.00\n2.00\n68.00\n\n' Grand Trjink Railway\nLake Shore & Michigan Southern Railroad\n\n23.00\n18.00\n\nAccount of Minneapolis meeting:\nNorthern Pacific Railway\nChicago Great Western Railway\nMinneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Railway\nSeaboard Air Line Railway\nWisconsin C'^ntral Railway\nChicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha Railway\nGreat Northern Railway\nMinneapolis & St. Louis Railway\nGeorgia Railroad\nBurlington Route\nChicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway\nDetroit & Cleveland Navigation Co\n\n$\n$1,670.00\n716.00\n522.00\n8 . 00\n356.00\n2.717.00\n1,258.00\n604.00\n2.00\n618.00\n4,136.00\n2q . 00\n\n513-00\n\n12.636.00\n\nTotal from transportation lines\nFrom Board of Trustees :\n\n13,149.00\n\nInterest on permanent fund\nFrom Department of Superintendence\nFrom annual meeting (Minneapolis) :\n\n4,715.10\n584.00\n\nAdvance memberships (Minneapolis teachers)\nFrom Registration Bureau (Minneapolis) :\nDues of former active members\nNew active memberships (enrollment and dues)\nAssociate memberships\n\n$ 2,252.00\n$\n\n376.00\n677 . 00\n1,216.00\n\n2.269.00\n\nTotal from annual Ineeting\nFrom royalties on reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen\nSurplus from appropriation for purchase of Washington volume\nFrom Secretary's office during the year:\nMemberships, enrollments, etc\nSale of back volumes\nSale of committee reports, etc\n\n4,521.00\n68.30\n17.00\n$4,452.24\n830.25\n122.47\n\nTotal receipts for the year\n\n5.404.96\n\n$30 746 . 50\n\n16\n\n=5=\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nBoard of Triisttes:\nFor permanent investment\nFor miscellaneous expenses\n\n$10,000.00\n14.23\n\n$10,014.23\n\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nFor President\n\n$\n\nFor Vice-President\nFor Treasurer\nFor Chairman of Trustees\nFor member by election\n\n175.63\n70.80\n317.20\n54-91\n65-95\n\nGeneral Secretary's office :\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express\nClerical services\nExclian^e\nStationery and office supplies\nTraveling\nOffice rent (heat ng. lighting, and care included)\nMiscellaneous (refunds, etc.)\n\n$ 4,000.00\n784 • 38\n69.73\nao.08\n792.15\n32.45\n99-73\n298.30\n550.00\n13-25\n\n684.49\n\n6,660.07\n\nPrinting:\nVolume of Proceedings (6,500 copies)\nReprints from volume\nExecutive Committee bulletins\nMiscellaneous (letter heads, blanks, folders, envelopes, etc.)\n\n$ 5,197. 94\n335-83\n865.05\n510.02\n6,908.84\n\nExpress and freight :\nDistribution of volumes\nMiscellaneous\n\n$ 1,809.52\n175-54\n\nSpecial appropriations :\nDepartment of Superintendence\n\n418.30\n,985-06\n\nAnnual Convention :\nDepartment expenses\nState directors and managers\nClerical services :\n\n$\n\nRegistration\nStenographers\nPrinting:\nPrograms\nMiscellaneous\nExpress and freight\nStationery\n\n270.31\n540. 19\n499 . 80\n166.98\n\n*\n\n199.05\n77.00\n2.95\n12.86\n\n^\n\nTelegrams\nConference meeting of department presidents, Boston\nExpenses speakers, Minneapolis\nMiscellaneous\n\n14.73\n621 .81\n346.50\n47-65\n\n2,799-83\n\nExpenses of depository :\nRent, Washington, D. C\nSalary of custodian. Washington, D. C\nMiscellaneous (removal of volumes from Washington to Winona, etc.)\n\n$\n\n8 . 33\n72.92\n388.42\n469.67\n\nUnclassified disbursements :\nRefunds on memberships\nMiscellaneous (expenses President Beardshear, bonds^)f Treasurer and Secretary, etc.)\nTotal disbursements, for the year\n\n$\n\n160.00\n299.65\n459-65\n$30,400. 14\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "18\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSUMMARY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF DISBURSEMENTS\n\nTotal amount transferred for investment (as per vouchers Nos. 59 and 138)\nTotal expenses as per vouchers Nos. i to 143 inclusive (except Nos. 59 and 138)\n\n$10,000.00\n20,400. 14\n\nTotal amount paid out\nNet receipts for the year\nTotal current expenses\n\n$28,459.36\n_ 20,400 . 14\n\n$30,400. 14\n\nNet balance for the year\n\n$ 8,059.22\nGENERAL\n\nSUMMARY\n\nTotal receipts\nTotal disbursements\n\n$30,746.50\n30,400. 14\n\nBalance in treasury June 30, iQOg\n\nTOPEKA, Kan., June 30, 1903.\n\n$\n\n^^'^°^^^\n\n346. 36\n\nWilliam M. Davidson, Treasurer.\nBoston, Mass., July 6, 1903.\n\nThe undersigned, Trustees of the National Educational Association, have this day examined and\napproved the foregoing accounts of William M. Davidson, Treasurer, with all statements of receipts and\nvouchers for disbursements.\nA. G. Lane, Chairman.\nCharles W. Eliot.\nNicholas Murray Butler.\n(Signed)\nNewton C. Dougherty.\nF. Louis Soldan.\nExecutive Committee, National Educational Association of the United States:\nGentlemen: In accordance with instructions received from Mr. A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, we have examined in detail the books and accounts of the National Educational Association of the\nUnited States, as kept by the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, and the Treasurer, William M. Davidson, for the\nyear ending June 30, 1903. We have verified the Treasurer's report, submitted by Mr. Davidson at the meeting of the Association at Boston, Mass., which we certify to be in accordance with the books.\nWe are pleased to be able to report that the books are correctly and carefully kept, and to state that in\nour opinion the system of bookkeeping and the check both on receipts and expenditure are very suitable to the\nneeds of the Association.\nYours respectfully,\nThe International Audit Company.\nBy Robert Nelson, C. A., Vice-President.\n\nSEVENTEENTH\nANNUAL\nREPORT\nBOARD\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n71? the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nThe Board of Trustees presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational\nAssociation, and its income, for the year ending June 30, 1903 :\nPermanent Fund, July i, 1902 ;\nMortgages on real estate\n$44,600.00\nKansas school and municipal bonds\n12,200.00\nIllinois and Indiana school bonds\n28,000.00\nCash on hand for investment\n13,200.00\nTotal\n$98,000.00\nReceived from William M, Davidson, Treasurer, from proceeds of Minneapolis\nmeeting, and income from Permanent Fund\n10,000.00\nTotal\nPermanent Fund, July I, 1903:\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas school and municipal bonds\nIllinois bonds\nTotal investments\nCash on hand for investment\nTotal permanent fund\n\n$108,000.00\n$78,000,00\n11,200.00\n18,000.00\n$107,200.00\n800.00\n108,000.00\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nINVESTMENTS\nInvestments, July i, iqo2\n84,800,00\n\nPaid during the year :\nFirst mortgage, Providence, R. I\nFirst mortgage, 4802 Lake avenue, Chicago\nNess county, Kan., S. D. 41\nNorton county, Kan., S. D. 95\nEudora City, Kan. , Bond No. 11 . . .\nReno county, Kan., S. D. 51\nNoblesville, Ind\nChicago improvement bonds\nFirst Universalist Church, Englewood, Chicago\n\n$ 3,000.00\n3,100.00\n200.00\n200.00\n100.00\n500,00\n5,000.00\n5,000.00\n1,000.00\n18,100.00\n\nBalance of Investments\n$66,700.00\nInvestments during the year :\n418-20 W. Adams street, Chicago, first mortgage\n5526-28 Jefferson avenue, Chicago, first mortgage\n2268 Kenmore avenue, Chicago, first mortgage\n226 Central avenue, Chicago, first mortgage\n230 Centra] avenue, Chicago, first mortgage\nWadhams'\n\n$ 10,000.00\n11,000.00\n2,500.00\n3,000.00\n4,000.00\n\nestate\n\n10,000.00\n\n40,500.00\n$107,200.00\n\nTotal investments, July i, 1903\n\nINCOME\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nReceipts from interest :\n6.00\n\nNess county, Kan., S. D. 41\nNess county, Kan., S. I). 70\nNorton county, Kan., S. D. 95\nReno county, Kan., S. D. 51\nCity of Eudora, Kan\nHodgeman county, Kan\n\n,\n,\n,\n\nMcPherson county, Kan., Sharp's Creek township\nNoblesville, Ind\nMorgan Park, 111.,\n,\nLemont, 111\nFirst mortgage, 1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 5136 Hibbard avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 5603 Madison avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage. First Universalist Church, Englewood\nFirst mortgage, 4762 Lake avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 4802 Lake avenue, Chicago\nChicago improvement bonds\nFirst mortgage, 312 N. LaSalle street, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 1201 Irving Park boulevard, Chicago\n418-20 W. Adams street, Chicago\n5526-28 Jefferson avenue, Chicago\n2268 Kenmore avenue, Chicago\nInterest on bank deposits\nTotal interest transferred to William M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\n,\n\n6.00\n60.00\n15.00\n60.00\n30.00\n163.19\n60.00\n162.50\n\n306.48\n250.00\n337-50\n.\n\n250.00\n256.12\n814.70\n500.00\n262.50\n134.80\n293.7s\n250.00\n62.50\n275.00\n159.06\n$ 4.715.10\n\nEXPENSE\nExchange for coupon collections\nAccrued interest on loan '\nRent of box in National Safe Deposit Co.\nExpense examining loans\nTotal\n\nACCOUNT\n\n$ .75\n1.58\n1.90\n10.00\n$ 14.23\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n20\nSTATEMENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF\nSECURITIES\nBELONGING\nTO\nTHE\nPERMANENT\nNATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOX,\nJUNE\n30,\nKANSAS COrNTV,\n\nCounty\n\nFUND\n1903\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMUNICIPAL, AND SCHOOL BONDS\n\nKind of Bond\n\nAmount\n\nEudora City\nGarfield*\nGrant*\n\nSchool District 24\nCounty\n\nLane*\nMcPherson\nNess\nReno*\nSeward*\n\nCounty\nSharp's Creek Township\nSchool District 70\nCity South Hutchinson . .\nWith Bentley & Hatfield,\nWichita, Kan.\n\n$\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\nInterest Payable\n\nper Cent\n6\n\nMarch\n\nOne due each year\nMarch 1\n\nJan,\nJuly\nJan. and JulyJan. and July\nJan. and July\nJan. and July\nJan. and July\nFeb. and Aug.\n\nFeb., igio\n1920\nJan.,\n\n6\n6\n6\n6\n6\n6\n7\n\n900\n800\n2.000\n1,000\n1,000\n3.000\n1,000\n\nBond Due\n\nSept. I,I, 1918\n1916\nJuly\nJuly, 1903\nApril, 1908\n\nJudgment obtained\n\n1,000\n\nTotal\n500\n$11,200\n\nILLINOIS BONDS\n\nAND MORTGAGES\nRate of\nInterest\n\nBonds\n\nInterest Payable\n\n4^\nper Cent\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111\nVillage ot Morgan Park, 111\nLemont, 111,, School Nos. 12, 14, 16\n24. 30, 32\nChicago improvement bonds\n\nBond Due\n\n$ 2 500\n\n5\n\nMay and Nov.\nMar. and Sept.\n\nNov. I, 1911\nSept., 15, 1904\n\nI (^000\n\n5\n6\n\nJune\nand Dec.\nDecember\n\n$T,ooo yearly Dec. i\nDec, 1903 and 1904\n\nInterest Payable\n\nBond Due\n\n1,000\n\n4.500\n\nTotal\n\n$18,000\nREAL\n\nESTATE\nR.ite of\n\nFirst Mortgages\n\nAmount\n\nInterest\nper Cent\n\n1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago\n5136 Hibbard avenue, Chicago\n5603 Madison avenue, Chicago\nFirst Universalist Church, Englewood, 111\n4762 Lake avenue, Chicago\n^€2 La Salle street. Chicago\n418 and 420 VV. Adams street, Chicaga\n5526 and 5S28 Jeffer^^on avenue, Chicago\n5526 and 5528 Jefferson avenire, Chicago\n2268 Kenmore avenue\n...\nWadhams' K.state\n226 ('entral avenue, Chicago\n•\n230 Central avenue, Chicago\nTotal\n\nMay and Nov, i\nMay and Nov, i\nJuly\nand Jan.\nOct. and\nApril\nMar and Sept,\nApril\nand July\nOct.\nan, and\n\n$5,000\n5,000\n5.000\n9.000\n10,000\nS,OQG\n5.000\n10,000\n3.500\n\nJan. and July\nApril and Oct.\nApril and Oct,\nMay and Nov.\nJan, and July\n_ an. and July\nJan. and July\n\n2.500\n1,000\n10.000\n\n3,000\n4,000\n$78,000\n\n^ov, I,I, 1908\n1903\nMay\nOct.,\nJuly\n1904\nMar,, I,1904\n1905\nOct., 1906\nOct. I,\nJuly\nI, 1907\n1907\nJuly,\nOct, I,1906\n1904\nNov, 15, 1907\nOn demand\nJuly, no8\nJuly, 1908\n\nApproved by the Board of Trustees and ordered transmitted to the Board of Directors,\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairmnn,\nCharles W. Eliot,\nNicholas Murray Butler,\nNewton C. Dougherty,\nF. Louis Soldan,\nBoard of Trustees.\nThe foregoing securities (except those noted in my detailed report as being in process of collection\nthru the First National Bank of Chicago, 111., and the Seward county, Kan,, $1,000 bond in judgment)\nwere examined at the National Safe D.-posit Co. vaults, in the First National Bank building, in said\nChicago, on Saturday, June 27, 1903, and I certify that the above is a correct statement of the investments belonging to the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association in the custody of Albert\nG. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees. A detailed report on all the securities held was made by me to\nthe Board of Trustees,\n♦Interest or principal in default.\n\n(Signed)\n\nGeorge\n\nE, Adams, Ejcamtuer.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFORTY-SECOND ANNUAL\nOF\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMEETING\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nBOSTON,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMASS., July 6-io, 1903\n\n_\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nOPENING\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July 6, 8 p.m.\n\nThe forty-second annual session was opened in the auditorium of the Massachusetts\nCharitable Mechanics Association at 8 P. M. by President Charles W. Eliot.\nA choral, from Bach, was sung by the St. Cecilia Society — B. J. Lang, leader.\nRev. Edward Everett Hale, B.D., asked a blessing and led the great audience in\nthe Lord's Prayer.\nBrief addresses of welcome were delivered by Hon. John L. Bates, governor of the\ncommonwealth of Massachusetts ; Hon. Patrick A. Collins, mayor of the city of Boston ;\nand Henry S. Pritchett, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.\nResponses were made by Albert G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees of the\nNational Educational Association, Chicago, 111.; and by Hon. W. T. Harris, United\nStates Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C.\nA \"Jubilee Overture,\" Weber ^ was rendered by the orchestra under the leadership of\nMr. B. J. Lang.\nThe President's address, \"The New Definition of the Cultivated Man,\" was delivered\nby the President of the Association, Charles VV. Eliot, president of Harvard University.\nAndrew F. West, dean of the Graduate School, Princeton University, addressed the\nconvention on \" The Present Peril to Liberal Education.\"\nThe following Committee on Resolutions was appointed by the President:\nCOMMITTEE\nNicholas Murray\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nButler, of New York city, Chairman\n\nAndrew S. Draper, of Illinois\nFrank B. Cooper, of Washington\nJames M. Green, of New Jersey\nH. B. Frissell, of Virginia\nE. C. Branson, of Georgia\nMiss Laura Fisher, of Massachusetts\nJ. H. Van Sickle, of Maryland\nMrs. Ella Flagg Young, of Illinois\nMiss Bettie A. Button, of Ohio\nMiss Clara A. Wilson, of Iowa\nWilliam H. Smiley, of Colorado\n\nAfter announcements, the meeting adjourned.\n\nSECOND\nSECOND\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 7, 8 p. m.\n\nThe convention was called to order by PresTdent Eliot at 8 o'clock p. m.\nThe topic for the evening was, \" Manual, Trade, and Technical Education.\"\nPapers were read by Calvin M. Woodward, professor of mathematics and dean of\n21\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nthe School of Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.; Thomas M. Balliet,\nsuperintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.; and Henry S. Pritchett, president of the\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.\nAfter announcements, adjournment was taken to 8 o'clock Wednesday evening.\n\nTHIRD\nTHIRD\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 8, 8 p. m.\n\nThe convention assembled at 8 o'clock, and was called to order by President Eliot.\nThe Committee on Nominations was announced by President Eliot, as follows :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nL. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, Chairman\nJohn H. Phillips\nW. H. Kramer\nGeorge B. Cook\n,\nLyman Gregory\nAaron Gove\nNathan L. Bishop\nA. H. Berlin\nMiss Anna Tolman Smith\n\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\n\nS. D. Largent\nCarroll G. Pearse\nVacant\nJames E. Klock\nJames L. Hays\nEdgar L. Hewett\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nCharles D. Mclver\n\nJohnF. Forbes\nW. F. Slaton\nJames A. MacLean\nMiss Kate Starr Kellogg\nH. B. Brown\nJohn D. Benedict\nF. T. Oldt\nI. L. Ddyhoff\nW. H. Bartholomew\nN. L. A. Bauer\nW.E.Russell\nJ. H. Van Sickle\nGeorge H. Martin\nW. H. Elson\nC. H. Cooper\nJ. G. Deupree\nJ. A. Whiteford\n\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\n'\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIndian Territory\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\n,\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\n\nW.L. Stockwell\nJohn K. Baxter\nMiss Elmira R. Greason\nE. D. Ressler\nE. Oram Lyte\nDavid W. Hoyt\nD. B. Johnson\nW. P. Dunlevy\nThos. J. Gaillord\nL. E. Wolfe\nWilliam J. Kerr\nJohn L. Alger\nH. B. Frissell\nCharles S. Tilton\nRobert A. Armstrong\nL. D. Harvey\nMiss Estelle Reel\n\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\n\nThe President explained that a contest had arisen over the selection of a member\nof the Committee on Nominations from the state of Florida, and as the action of neither\nof the contesting delegations appeared to conform to the by-law governing such selection, he had, in accordance with his constitutional authority, appointed a member not\nbelonging to either delegation.\nThe general topic of the session, \" School Gardens, City School Yards, and the\nSurroundings of Rural Schools,\" was discussed in papers presented by Orville T. Bright,\nprincipal of the James R. Doolittle School, Chicago, 111.; Henry L. Clapp, principal of\nthe George Putnam School, Boston, Mass.; Charles R. Skinner, state superintendent of\npublic instruction, Albany, N. Y.; and W. W. Stetson, state superintendent of public\neducation, Augusta, Me.\nAt the close of the meeting W. N. Sheats, of Florida, presented a protest against the\naction of the President in the appointment of a member of the Committee on Nominations\nfrom that state. He was answered by Miss Clem Hampton, who represented the other of\nthe two contesting delegations. The incident was closed by the remark of the President\nthat the protest and the answer to it illustrated both the occasion and the expediency of\nappointing a third party.\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nMINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\n* OF THE\n\nANNUAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nBUSINESS\n\nMEETING\n\nOF ACTIVE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nIN HUfJTINGTON HALL, JULY 9, 1903\n\n23\n\nMEMBERS\n\nHELD\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Charles W. Eliot at 12:30 P. m.\nAbout two hundred members were present.\nThe reading of the minutes of the last meeting at Minneapolis, July 8, 1902, was, on\nmotion, omitted, and they were approved as printed in the volume of Proceedings of the\nMinneapolis convention.\nThe Treasurer, W. M. Davidson, of Topeka, Kan., presented his annual report,\nprinted copies of which, bearing the certificate of approval of the Board of Trustees, were\ndistributed to the members.\nOn motion of Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, the reading of the report in detail\nwas dispensed with, and the report was approved and ordered printed in the annual\nvolume.\nThe chairman of the Board of Trustees, A. G. Lane, of Chicago, 111., presented the\nseventeenth annual report of that body and distributed printed copies of the same. A\nbrief explanation was made by Chairman Lane regarding the Kansas bonds which were\npurchased about fifteen years ago. A large proportion of them were reported as paid, and\nconfidence was expressed that most, if not all, of the others will be paid. Attention was\ncalled to that part of the report showing that in certain cases payment of either principal\nor interest was in default. Chairman Lane also reported that the Board of Trustees had\nauthorized him to take legal steps to collect the overdue amounts in all cases where it\nmay be found possible to do so.\nOn motion of J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri, the report was received and approved,\nand ordered printed in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was presented by the chairman, L. D.\nHarvey, of Wisconsin, as follows :\nTo the Active Members\n\nof the National Educational\n\nAssociation:\n\nYour Committee on Nominations met pursuant to call in the official announcement, and beg leave to\nsubmit the report of nominations of officers for the year 1903-4, as follows:\n\nFor —\n\nPresident\nTreasurer\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\n\nJohn W. Cook\nMcHenrv Rhoads\nCharles W. Eliot\nEdwin A. Alderman\n\nIllinois\nKentucky\nMassachusetts\nLouisiana\n\nThird Vice-President\nFourth Vice-President\nFifth Vice-President\nSixth Vice-President\nSeventh Vice-President\nEighth Vice-President\nNinth Vice-President\nTenth Vice-President\nEleventh Vice-President\nTwelfth Vice-President\n\nJ. W. Searson\nWilliam L. Prather.\nGeorge B. Cook\nHenry R. Sanford\nGeorge, M. Smith\nH. Br ewster Willis\nJames A. Foshav\nFrank B. Dyer\nDelos Fall\nMiss Ellor E. Carlisle\n\nNebraska\nTexas\nArkansas\nNew York\nSouth Dakota\nNew Jersey\nCalifornia\nOhio\nMichigan\nMassachusetts\n\nFOR\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\n\n;\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nJ. W. Abercrombie\nA. J. Matthews\nJohn H. Hinemon\nThomas J, Kirk\nL. C. Greenlee\nCharles H. Keyes\nNo nomination\nAlexander T. Stuart\nNo nomination\nW. M. Slaton\nMiss May L. Scott\n\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIndian Territory\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaTiie\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\n\n;\n\nMiss Catharine Goggin\nT. A. Mott\nJ. D. Benedict\nA. V. Storm\nJ. W. Spindler\nE. H. Mark\nWarren Easton\nJ. S. Locke\nM. Bates Stephens\nLouis P. Nash\nD. W. Springer\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\nFOR\n\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\n\n.,\n\nOhio\nOklahoma\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nDIRECTORS\n\nW. F. Kunze\nE. E. Lass\nBen Blewett\nOscar J. Craig\nEdwin J. Bodwell\nNo nomination\nChanning Folsom\nJohn Enright\nNo nomination\nA. S. Downing\nLydia A. Yates\nW. E. Hoover\n^V. H. Kirk\nAndrew R. Hickam\n\n—\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ncontinued\n\nOregon\nPennsylvania .n\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\n\nE. D. Ressler\nJ. W. Lansinger\nW. B. J acobs\nNo nomination\nCM. Young\nD. J . Johns, Jr.\nA. Caswell Ellis\nW. J. Kerr\nWalter E. Ranger\nJ. L. Jarman\nF. B. Cooper\nMiss Lucy Robinson\n\nWisconsin\nWyoming\n\nL. D. Harvey\nMiss Estelle Reel\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n(Signed)\n(Signed)\n\nWm.\n\nL. D. Harvey, Chairman.\n\nH. Elson, Secretary.\n\nOn motion of I. C. McNeill, of Wisconsin, the Secretary was instructed to cast the\nballot of the Association for the nominees as reported. The ballot was cast as ordered,\nand the nominees were declared elected for the ensuing year.\nNicholas Murray Butler, of New York, called attention to by-law No. 4, and moved\nthe adoption of the following resolution :\nResolved, That, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, as provided by the existing\nby-law No. 4, the memorial address upon the late President William M. Beardshear, prepared for the meeting\nof the National Council of Education by President William F. King of Mount Vernon College, la , be\nincorporated in the published Proceedings, despite the fact that the paper itself was not read, President\nKing having been detained by serious illness in his family.\n\nThe motion was unanimously carried.\nMr. Butler then asked permission to offer an amendment to by-law No. i, and\nexplained the necessity for the proposed amendment as follows :\nThe by law relating to the appointment of the nominating committee as it now stands\nis unworkable. [Reads the by-law.] It has been tried for six years. The records show\nthat it has never been complied with, except possibly in one or two cases. The records\nof the meetings of active members held this year show that the merest handful attended\nthe state meetings; in some cases fewer than 5 per cent, of those present here in Boston.\nThat the by-law has broken down and is incapable of operation is, I think, the judgment\nof a large majority of the members of the Association from every state who have expressed\nan opinion upon this subject. The fact that the by-law is unworkable became apparent\nalmost as soon as it was adopted. Ea.h year it has been urged that the time had come\nto change it, but each year any proposal for a change has been withheld in order to obtain\na wider experience. I know that 1 am stating a fact when I say that at this great meeting only an insignificant mmority participated in any way in the action contemplated by\nthe existmg by-law. The President of the Association has found that nearly if not quite\nevery certificate sent to him bore upon its face evidences of irregularity. I propose, therefore, that we meet the situation b}' striking oiit an impracticable and unworkable by-law,\nand go back to the condition of things which existed here in this Association for thirtysix years, by which the power to appoint this committee was placed in the hands of the\nPresident for the year. He can be held responsible for his action ; he is known to all of\nus ; and he is chosen because we know him and deem him worthy of the responsibility.\nThis is the democratic and the effective method of procedure. I ask, therefore, that a\ntwo-thirds vote be given, as required by the constitution, for the fullwwing ainemlment to\nthe by-laws, and I offer, Mr. President, a resolution to effect the amendiucnl, o.^ follows :\nResolved, That the by-laws of the National Educational Association be amended as follows:\nExisting by-laws numbered 2, 3, 4, and 5 to be numbered 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively.\nFor existing by-law numbered i, the following by-laws numbered i and 2 to be substituted:\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PKOCKEDIXGS\n\n25\n\n1. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be appointed by the President a committee on resolutions.\n2. Not later than the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be appointed by\nthe President a committee on nominations, consisting of one active member from each state and territory\nrepresented at the meeting.\n\nI move, sir, the adoption of this resolution, noting at the same time that it requires\nfor its passage a two-thirds vote of those present and voting.\nMiss Marg.*ret a. Haley, of Illinois : Mr. President, 1 rise to speak against that\nresolution and the proposed amendment to the by-laws. I am opposed to the centralizing\nof power any more than we have already done in the National Educational Association.\nI believe the proposed amendment would be a backward movement. It is against\ndemocracy; it is centralization. It would take away from the active members in each\nstate the small measure of power which they now have and place it in the hands of one\nwho is selected entirely apart from the action or choice of the state members. I am\nopposed to the proposed amendment on general principles, and I am opposed to it for\nspecial reasons. Illinois had in active members present on Tuesday morning at 9\no'clock at the state headquarters at the meeting of active members, and there were some\nten or twelve more who came in a few minutes too late to vote. I do not know whether\nit is because the women of Illinois have awakened to the situation and to their power as\nshown by the vote cast at that meeting, 74 to 37, that this attempt is made to shut us out,\nbut it looks like it. If you men pass this amendment, you certamly leave yourselves\nopen to that charge, whether right or wrohg. Under the present constitution and by-laws\nyou have left an opening for the women. Why^io you want to close it? The women\npay about nine-tenths of the money in this Association, and they make up a corresponding proportion of the attendance at the convention. If such an important matter as\nthis was intended to be brought befoie this body, at least one year's notice should have\nbeen given. It certainly should not be passed today. It should be postponed for one\nyear, and if next year we cannot secure enough activity on the part of the members to\nmake the present by-law operative, then bring up this amendment. But for myself, I\nthink it is wrong in principle. I believe the proper people to make the selection of\nmembers of the nominating committee are the people from each state. If there were only\nthree present at any meeting, you have no right to take away the rights of those three\nmembers. Do you think the people would tolerate for a moment the proposal to take\naway 4;heir right to vote at the primary elections because 95 per cent, of the qualified\nvoters stayed at home ? Not at all. You men would not do it. I move that the resolution be deferred for one year.\nThe President : \" Miss Haley has made the motion that consideration of the resolutions presented by President Butler be postponed until next year.\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Nebraska : I regret to see any attempt made in this Association toline up the men and the women on opposite sides of this question. I think\nthis matter should be considered as one of principle, to be decided on its own merit, and\nnot upon a division of the sexes. The by-law which it is now proposed to change was\npassed in response to what was regarded as essential in the conduct of the affairs of the\nAssociation. That by-law has in many instances been inoperative for lack of a quorum;\nstill I believe that it is a useful rule. I should think it extremely unfortunate if this\nAssociation should take away from its members the right which they now enjoy of participating inthis matter. I move, therefore, as an amendment to Dr. Butler's motion, that\nby-law No. i be so amended as to provide that a majority of the active members present at\nthe meeting called for the purpose of selecting the member of the nominating committee,\nif more than three, shall have the right to select tlie member of the nominating committee.\nThe President: Does President Butler accept the amendment?\nMr. Butler : I should prefer the amendment to the existing by-law, but I should\nprefer my motion to either of them.\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nThe President : Does that mean that President Butler declines to accept the\namendment ?\nMr. Butler : Yes.\nS. Y. GiLLAN, of Wisconsin : I rise to support Miss Haley's motion. I wish she had\nmade the motion for indefinite postponement, instead of to postpone for one year. To\nme this seems to be a reappearance of the old spirit of centralization, which was\nscotched, but not killed, in 1897, when the meeting was held in Milwaukee.\nThe President : It is entirely impossible to obtain evidence that the by-law has\nbeen conformed to during its existence; it was not conformed to in a single case in\nthe meetings of this week for the election of members of the nominating committee.\nMr. Gillan, of Wisconsin : Why do you give that interpretation ? May not that\nword \"attendance\" mean attendance at that particular meeting of the active members\nfrom that state ? It is entirely a matter of interpretation.\nThe President : The reading of the by-law is this : \" The same to be appointed\nby the President on the nomination of a majority of the active members in attendance\nfrom such state or territory,\" etc. It is perfectly clear that the by-law expects an action in\nnominatio» by the majority of the active members present at the Association meeting, and\nJ found that the expectation had not been realized in a single case this year. Moreover,\nit is next to impossible, even in a small convention, and it was absolutely impossible in this\nBoston convention, to ascertain in season what number of active members was in attendance\nfrom any particular state or territory.\nThe Secretary could not furnish that information.\nThomas W. Bicknell, of Rhode Island : The principle of the present by-law is a\ncorrect one. Representatives of the various states should have the power to elect the\nofficers called for by this by-law. Of that there can be no question. It seems to me we\nhave reached the point in state and national life where that is recognized. It seems to\nme that this matter should go over for another year. It has now been brought to our\nnotice. President Butler has very clearly set Eorth the condition of things, and I have no\ndoubt that that condition will be removed, and, instead of three members being present, I\nbelieve the majority of active members from every state will be present hereafter, I hope,\ntherefore, that the motion of Miss Haley will prevail, that action on this matter may be\npostponed, and that we may be allowed a year for the consideration of the question.\nJames H. Canfield, of New York: I simply desire to say that what I have heard\nhere today with regard to centralization and autocracy is just as absurd and as foreign to the spirit of this Association as the talk of deciding this question by a division\nof the sexes. I very earnestly desire that this matter shall be considered on its merits,\"\nand that a motion made here to amend the by-laws shall not immediately bring up someone who will speak about movements that have been \"scotched, but not killed,\" and use\nlanguage which certainly does not properly apply to the motives, the purpose, or the\nthought of any member of this Association as I have known it for over twenty years,\nEugene Bouton, of Massachusetts : I move an amendment to the motion offered\nby Dr. Butler so that the by-law shall provide that any number in attendance at this\nmeeting of active members shall constitute a quorum.\nMiss Haley : Mr. President, I wish to accept that amendment in place of my motion.\nThe President : Miss Haley withdraws her motion to postpone until next year.\nDoes President Butler accept the amendment to his motion made by Mr. Bouton ?\nMr. Butler : No, sir, I do not. I prefer to have a vote upon my motion.\nMiss Gertrude Edmund, of Massachusetts : I wish to say that, altho I am a\nwarm admirer of Miss Haley and the work she has done, I do not agree that we have not\nbeen fairly treated by the gentlemen of this convention. I want to thank the gentlemen\nwho are present for all that they have done for the women who have shown an interest in\nthe work of the Association.\nMr. Butler : I trust that the members of the Association will consent to vote upon\nthe pending motion solely from the standpoint of principle and of practical effectiveness.\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n27\n\nand not be misled by wholly irrelevant matters. I should not have made any motion\nwhatever had I not been very jealous of the Association's standards of effectiveness and\nmethods of procedure. Nothing would please me more than to see 75 per cent, or 100 per\ncent, of the active membership of each state present at every meeting and co-operating to\nelect the member of the nominating committee from that state. But it is absolutely and\nutterly impracticable. Experience has shown this conclusively. Anyone who will examine the records of this year's state meetings and those of previous years will find that,\nunder the guise of transferring a privilege to active members, this privilege has been\ntransferred to one or two active members in many of the states. This is the very reverse\nof demociatic. It is a concentration of power in a wholly irresponsible group of persons.\nI saw a certificate last year which was signed by a member of the Association saying that\nat the meeting the number of active members present was \" one,\" that the meeting nominated for member of the nominating committee \" himself,\" and he signed the certificate\nas chairman of the meeting. There are several certificates in my hand which show just\nabout the same facts. That is not a proper condition of affairs. My proposition for a\nchange is a purely practical proposition. This is a very large and businesslike association, and why shouldn't it do its business in a businesslike and responsible way ? Why\nlet ourselves be confused by an abstract and untrue proposition about \" democracy \" when\nwe are faced by six years' experience of the most undemocratic action imaginable ?\nDuring all of this time the President has appointed the nominating committee because\nof the illegality of the elections themselves or the illegality of almost every record that\ncame to his hands. Therefore I do not see how the situation would be improved by\ndecreasing the number of active members who are obliged to attend in order that this\nelection may be legal, as would be the effect of the proposed amendment to my resolution;\nnor do I see the use of postponing action upon this question, now that it has been raised.\nI should prefer to see a direct vote taken in order that this matter may be settled.\nThomas A. Mott, of Indiana : To me it seems like a backward step to take away\nfrom the members of the several states the power to make the selections for the nominating\ncommittee. In my opinion, it is better that three who are interested shall make the nomination than that a by-law should be so carefully constructed that the members in attendance from the several states shall have no voice in this matter. State representation was\nthe thing we fought for in Milwaukee, and I am in favor of voting for it here.\nThe President : Before the question is put I will takethe liberty of stating to the\nmembers just how the by-law has worked this year. I was simply an observer. I wished\nto conform to this by-law, of course. I immediately found that to be impossible. I\nfound that I was obliged personally to appoint all the members of this nominating committee. Ifthe amendment which is made by Mr. Bouton prevails, the appointing, however, will lie in the hands of whatever small number of persons attend the meetings\nby states, and the President of the Association will then accept and confirm those\nnominations. A very small number of persons will, presumably, attend those meetings.\nI think the active members here present would deceive themselves if they felt that under\nsuch a provision the state would really be getting any representation at all. That is the\ndifficulty with the present situation. All of us, I suppose, would desire a real representation of the members by states in the selection of this nominating committee. The present\narrangement gives no such real representation by states, and I conceive that Mr. Bouton's\namendment will not give that desirable thing. The advantage of the amendment proposed by President Butler is that the nominations will be made by a responsible person,\nresponsible to the Association. He is a person who is in office but a year, and he cannot\nhave any motive for preferring one man to another in the representation on this nominating committee. He is a temporary official himself, immediately replaced after this act.\nThe existing method and the method proposed in the amendment will inevitably result in\nthe delegation of this appointing power to small irresponsible bodies, which I think our\npolitical experience has taught us is not a desirable method of nomination.\nWhat more\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n28\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ndesirable method than the present can be arrived at I am not prepared to advise, but I\nhave felt it my duty to say that it has seemed to me, from my experience this week, that\nthe former method of nomination was certainly better than the present method. That is\nas far as my official experience enables me to go.\nMiss Haley : I should like to ask two questions, if I may. Under the plan presented byDr. Butler, the President of the National Educational Association appoints the\nnominating committee, and the nominating committee in turn appoints the President, and\nthen the President appoints the next nominating committee, and that nominating committee appoints the President.\nMay I ask the chair if I am right ?\nThe President : The answer to Miss Haley's question seems to me to be this :\nOne President appoints a committee to nominate all the officers for the ensuing year, and\nthat committee nominates another President — a totally different person; but the election\nis by the general meeting of active members, and not by any committee whatever. It is\nimportant to notice, as a qualification of Miss Haley's argument, that the President of\nthe year cannot be a nominee for re-election.\nMiss Haley : You have answered one question to the effect that we should have\nunder Dr. Butler's amendment a self-perpetuating machine. The question that I desire\nnext to ask is this : Does not the amendment presented by Mr. Bouton, the one which I\naccepted in place of my motion, remove the objection, which the President makes, that\nhe was obliged to appoint, or did appoint, the members of the nominating committee,\nsince none of the appointments made by the different states conformed to the provisions\nof the by-law ? Is not that objection removed by providing that any number of active\nmembers present at the meeting shall constitute a quorum competent to do business ?\nThe President: The answer to Miss Haley's question is that Mr. Bouton's amendment\nwill provide a legal mode of operation.\nOur present method cannot be legally operated.\nAt this point a general discussion ensued as to the effect of the amendment offered by\nMr. Bouton to the resolution of Mr. Butler amending the by-laws.\nA motion by A. S. Downing, of New York, to lay the question on the table for one\nyear was defeated.\nPresident Eliot explained, in answer to a question, that the adoption of Mr. Bouton's\namendment and the subsequent adoption of Mr. Butler's motion by a two-thirds vote\nwould amend the by-law to read, after the word \" President \" in the fourth line, as follows :\n\"On the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state and territory\npresent at the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination;\" and would\neliminate the provision of the by-law requiring for a quorum the presence of a majority,\nnot less thanthree, of the active members in attendance (on the convention) from each\nstate or territory.\nThe amendment of Mr. Bouton was then passed.\nA vote on the resolution of Mr. Butler, as amended, was then taken, resulting in: ayes,\n123 ; noes, 43. The resolution as amended was declared adopted by a two-thirds vote.\nIn answer to a question as to the future -relations of the President of the Association\nto the nominating committee, President Eliot stated that, as he understood the action just\ntaken, the President under the new by-law will simply record the nominations made by\nthe state meetings, and will then proceed to fill vacancies where state meetings have\nfailed to make nominations.\nThe Secretary announced the receipt of a communication and resolutions from Miss\nMargaret A. Haley, president of the National Federation of Teachers, as follows :\nresolutions adopted at mass meeting of teachers held at chickering hall,\nBOSTON,\n\nJULY\n\nWhereas,\n\n7, I903, UN.UER\n\nAUSPICES\n\nOF NATIONAL\n\nFEDt-RATlON\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nDemands are continually made on teachers for a higher scholastic and professional attain-\n\nment; cost of living is sieadiiy increasing', with stationary or decreasing sa'aries, insecure tenure of office, no\nprovision for old age, and conditions generally under which teachers work such that further progress in education demands immediate betterment of these conditions ; therefore\n\ny\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n29\n\nResolved, That it is the sense of this mass meeting of teachers held under the ar.spices of the National\nFederation of Teachers that the time has come to bring the facts as to these conditions to public attention, and\nto this end that the subjects of Teachers' Salaries, Tenure of Office, and Pensions should be placed on the\ngeneral program of the National Educational Association next year; and\nRfsolved, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the Secretary of the National Educational Association with the request that they be brought to the attention of the body at its meeting July g.\n(Signed)\n\nMargaret\n\nA. Haley.\n\nThe communication and accompanying resolutions were referred to the Committee\non Resolutions.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nFOURTH\nFOURTH\n\nDAY'S\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9, 8 p. m.\n\nPresident Eliot opened the session at 8 o'clock P. M., and introduced R. W. G. Welling, of New York city, who read a paper on \" The Teaching of Civics and Good Citizenship in the Public Schools.\"\n\"Ihe Justification of City Expenditure on Parks and Parkways — Material for Public\nEducation\" was discussed by Nathan Mathews, Jr., of Boston, Mass., and \"The NatureStudy Movement\" by L. H. Bailey, director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.\n\nFIFTH\nFIFTH\n\nDAY'S\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July iq, 8 p. m.\n\nThe closing session of the forty-second annual convention of the National Educational\nAssociation was called to order by President Eliot at 8 o'clock P. M.\nThe topic for the evening was \"Education in the Southern States.\" This subject\nwas presented in addresses as follows:\n'* The Beginning and Aims of the General Educa^on Board,\" by Wallace Buttrick,\nsecretary and executive officer of the General Education Board, New York city.\n\"The Educational Needs of the Southern Negro,\" by Rev. Charles T. Walker, of\nNew York city.\n\" Public Education in the South,\" by Edgar Gardner Murphy, executive secretary of\nthe Southern Education Board, Montgomery, Ala.\nFollowing the addresses, the President introduced Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University, New York city, chairman of the Committee oh Resolutions,\nwho presented on behalf of the committee the following\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nThe members of the National Educational Association, assembled in their fortysecond convention, make the following\nDECLARATION\n\nI. The United States Bureau of Education has amply proved its usefulness to the\nnation. Its publications are standard works of reference for school officers and teachers\neverywhere. The Bureau of Education should be made an independent administrative\ndepartment, such as were the Departments of*Agnculture and of Labor before their\nelevation to cabinet rank. Sufficient appropriations should be made by the Congress to\nenable the Commissioner of Education to extend the scope and add to the usefulness\nof his work.\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n2. The condition of affairs in the Indian Territory, where fully three-quarters of the\npopulation are reported as being without schools for their children, demands the immediate\nattention of the Congress. Provision should be speedily made by which the people of\nthe Indian Territory will have power to establish and carry on a system of public\nschools, so that all classes of citizens in the Indian Territory may have the educational\nopportunities which are enjoyed by their fellow-citizens in other parts of the country.\n3. Teaching in the public schools will not be a suitably attractive and permanent\ncareer, nor will it command as much of the ability of the country as it should, until the\nteachers are properly compensated and are assured of an undisturbed tenure during efficiency\nand good behavior. A large part of the teacher's reward must always be the pleasure in\nthe character and quality of the work done; but the money compensatipn of the teacher\nshould be sufficient to maintain an appropriate standard of living. Legislative measures\nto give support to these principles deserve the approval of the press and the people.\n4. The true source of the strength of any system of public education lies in the\nregard of the people whom it immediately serves, and in their willingness to make sacrifices for it. For this reason a large share of the cost of maintaining public schools should\nbe borne by a local tax levied by the county or by the town in which the schools are.\nState aid is to be regarded as supplementary to, and not as a substitute for, local taxation\nfor school purposes. In many parts of the United States a large increase in the amount\nof the local tax now voted for school purposes, or the levying of such a tax where none\nnow exists, is a pressing need if there are to be better schools and better teachers.\n5. The highest ethical standards of conduct and of speech should be insisted on\namong teachers. It is not becoming that commercialism or self-seeking should shape\ntheir actions, or that intemperance should mark their utterances. A code of professional\nconduct clearly understood and rigorously enforced by public opinion is being slowly\ndeveloped, and will doubtless one day control all teachers worthy of the name.\n6. It is important that school buildings and school grounds should be planned and\ndecorated so as to serve as effective agencies for educating, not only the children, but the\npeople as a whole, in matters of taste. The school is becoming more and more a community center, and its larger opportunities impose new obligations. School buildings\nshould be attractive as well as healthful, and the adjoining grounds should be laid out\nand planned with appropriateness and beauty.\n7. Disregard for law and for its established modes of procedure is as serious a danger\nas can menace a democracy. The restraint of passion by respect for law is a distinguishing mark of civilized beings. To throw off that restraint, whether by appeals to brutal\ninstincts or by specious pleas for a law of nature which is superior to the laws of man, is\nto revert to barbarism. It is the duty of the schools so to lay the foundations of character in the young that they will grow up with a reverence for the majesty of the law.\nAny system of school discipline which disregards this obligation is harmful to the child\nand dangerous to the state. A democracy which would endure must be as law-abiding\nas it is liberty-loving.\nNicholas Murray Butler, of New York, Chairman;\nAndrew S. Draper, of Illinois;\nJames M. Green, of New Jersey ;\nBettie a. Dutton, of Ohio;\nH. B. Frissell, of Virginia;\nLaura Fisher, of Massachusetts;\nJames H. Van Sickle, of Maryland;\nClara A. Wilson, of Iowa ;\nFrank B. Cooper, of Washington ;\nWm. H. Smiley, of Colorado;\nElla Flagg Young, of Illinois;\nCommittee on Resolutions.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\nAfter submitting the above declaration, which was adopted by a unanimous vote, the\nfollowing resolutions of thanks were offered by the committee and unanimously adopted\nby the convention ;\nResolved, That the thanks of the National Educational Association be given with\nheartiness and sincerity to the citizens of Boston for their hospitable welcome, as graceful\nand as gracious as it has been generous ; and particularly to His Honor the Mayor of Boston; to Mr. Edward R.Warren, chairman of the Local Executive Committee; to Mr.\nGrafton D. Gushing, chairman of the Boston School Committee ; to Mr. Edwin P. Seaver,\nsuperintendent of schools; to the teachers of Boston, who have assisted in untold ways\nwith effective service ; and to the women who have assumed full responsibility for the\nadmirable work of the Hospitality Committee. We are grateful, too, for the opportunities\nto hear stately music, to visit museums and collections of various kinds, and to enter private homes whose doors have been thrown open to us.\nRecognition is also due to the newspapers, for their reports of proceedings ; to the\nrailroads, for their co-operation ; and to the Remington Typewriter Company, for expert\nservice so freely given to the officers and members of the Association.\nResolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered to the retiring President,\nCharles W. Eliot, of Massachusetts, and to the retiring Treasurer, William M. Davidson,\nof Kansas, for their year of skillful and effective service.\nPresident Eliot then introduced Dr. John W. Cook, president of the Northern Illinois\nState Normal School, De Kalb, III., as the President-elect for the ensuing year. President Cook briefly addressed the convention, expressing appreciation of the honor conferred upon him, and asking the members of the Association for their active co-operation\nin the work of the convention for the coming year.\nPresident Eliot, after a few words of thanks to the members of the Association for\ntheir co-operation during the past year, declared the forty-second annual convention\nadjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMEETING\n\nOF DIRECTORS\nBOSTON,\n\nFOR\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBOARD\n\n1902-1903\n\nMASS., July 6, 1903\n\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order in Trinity Chapel\nat 12 : 30 P. M., July 6, by President Charles W. El.ot.\nThe following directors answered to roll-call :\nCharles W. Eliot, Massachusetts; William M. Davidson, Kansas; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; W, T.\nHarris, District of Columbia ; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York ; James H. Lanfield, Ne v York , Newton\nC. Dougherty, Illinois; Aaron Gove, Colorado; James M. Green, New Jersey ; J. M.Greenwood, Missouri; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; Charles R, Skinner, New York; F. Louis Soldan, Mis ouri ; Charles\nH. Keyes, Connecticut; Augustus S. Downing, New York; J. W. Lansinger, PenuFylvania ; M. Bates\nStephens, Maryland: Ale::ander T. Stuart, District of Columbia; H. B, Frissell, Virginia; G. H. Crowell,\nNorth Carolina; S. L. Frogge, Kentucky; J. W. Abercrombie, Alabama ; J. L. Wright, Tennessee: E. E.\nBass, Mississippi; Alexander Hogg, Texas; George B. Cook, Arkansas ; John D. Benedict Indian Territory; J.K. Baxter, Ohio; T. A. Mott, Indiana; Miss Catharine Goggin, Illinois; D. W. Springer. Michigan; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin ; A. V. Storm, Iowa ; C. M. Young. South Dakota; J. W. Spmdler, Kansas;\nW. J. Kerr, Utah; F. B. Cooper, Washington; E. D. Ressler, Oregon\n\nPresent, thirty-eight directors.\nOn motion, the reading of the minutes of the last meeting, held at Minneapolis,\nMinn., July 10, 1902, was dispensed with, and the minutes were approved as printed m\nthe volume of Proceedings of the Minneapolis meeting.\nThe Secretary read communications from several absent directors tendering their\nresignations and nominating successors to be appointed by the board, as follows :\nWarren Easton, of Louisiana, nominating Nicholas L. A. Bauer.\nF. Yale Adams, of Arizona, nominating A. J. Matthews.\nH. S. Philips, of Colorado, nommating Lewis C. Greenlee.\nJames A, Foshay, of California, nominating Thomas H. Kirk.\nDavid R. Boyd, of Oklahoma, nominating A. R. Hickam.\nJohn J. McMahan, of North Carolina, nominating P, T. Brodie.\n\nliic^ctor N. C. Dougherty, of Illinois, moved that the Secretary be instructed to cast\nthe ballot of the members present for the election of the nominees named to fill the vacancies occasioned by the several resignations which had been read.\nAfter discussion concernmg the authority of the board to fill temporarily a vacancy\noccasioned by the absence of a director, the chairman, President Charles W. Eliot, ruled\nthat, while the board had authority under the provisions of the constitution to fill a\nvacancy, it had no authority to appoint a temporary representative of an absent director\nwhose resignation had not been received.\nThe motion of Director Dougherty was then carried.\nThe Secretary reported that the ballot had been cast as ordered. The nominees\nnamed in the several letters of resignation were then declared duly elected to fill the\nrespective vacancies.\nOn motion, the Executive Committee was authorized to appoint temporary representatives ofabsent directors to receive and distribute to members from the respective\nstates the invitations to receptions and tickets of admission to various entertainments\nwhich the Local Executive Committee had arranged to distribute thru the state directors.\nThe report of the Treasurer, W. M. Davidson, of Topeka, Kan., for the year ending\nJune 30, 1903, was then read.\nThe report was accepted and adopted by a unanimous vote.\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n33\n\nThe seventeenth annual report of the Board of Trustees was presented by the chairman, A. G. Lane, of Chicago, 111., and, on motion, was accepted and adopted by a unanimous vote.\nPresident Eliot: As President of this Association 1 have had an opportunity to\nexamine into the state of the property and the receipts and expenditures of this institution, and am glad to be able to assure the directors that the National Educational Association has on hand a substantial endowment of more than $100,000, the income of which\nmeets its permanent expenses. Moreover, this is increasing, as you have heard. It\nincreased ;$ 10,000 last year, and I am quite sure it will increase still more this year.\nAppreciating their responsibilities, the Board of Trustees have today decided upon an\nexceedingly conservative policy in the management of this property.\nDirector Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, member of the Committee of Eleven on\nFormulation of Contemporary Educational Doctrine, called attention to the action of the\nDepartment of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, at the recent\nCincinnati meeting, requesting that an appropriation not exceeding ;552,500 be made to\nsaid committee for expenses in pursuance of its work. Director Keyes urged the propriety of this appropriation, and reported the fact that the committee had already accomplished some work in the line of its duties.\nOn motion, the application was referred to the National Council for investigation\nand recommendation.\nDirector L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, offered the following resolution :\nResolved, That the National Council of Education be requested by the Board of Directors of the\nNational Educational Association to appoint a committee to report to that body, after such investigation as\nmay seem desirable, conclusions as to what should be undertaken in the field of industrial education in schools\nin rural communities, and to recommend such an appropriation as may be necessary for carrying on the investigation and preparation of the report.\n\nDirector Harvey, in support of his resolution, said : The reason for offering this\nresolution at this time-is that all thru the middle West, in the South, and even in some\nof the New England states, the question of what can be done, especially in the field of\nelementary agricultural instruction in rural schools, is a live one. In a number of states\nlaws have been enacted requiring teachers to pass examinations on that subject in order\nto teach. In other states laws have been passed making it mandatory that instruction in\nelementary agriculture be given in the rural schools.\nThere is a very widespread feeling that something should be done, but the difficulty\nis that nobody knows today what ought to be done, or what can be done. In Canada in\n1872 they undertook by law to put the teaching of agriculture into the public schools,\nwithout a definite idea of what should be done. The result was a failure, and the movement dropped out of sight three or four years ago. They are now taking it up again.\nWe are, however, undertaking certain lines of work from which we expect good results.\nA number of states — New York, Wisconsin, and others — are carrying on successful\nwork in this field today. It seems to me there is no subject that is more important for our\ncountry schools than this. We are in danger of making a serious mistake in attempting\nthis work without something definite being suggested as to what we shall do. It seems\nto me there is no more important work for the National Council than to appoint a committee of investigation on this subject and to recommend such an appropriation as may\nbe necessary to carry on the work.\nDirector W. T. Carrington seconded Director Harvey's motion, which was unanimously carried.\nThe Secretary then read the following communication :\nTo the Board\n\nof Directors, National Educationl\n\nAssociation :\n\nGentlemen :— In view of the increased interest shown thruout the country in the matter of the condition of the teachers, as to salary, tenure of position, pensions, and cost of living;\nIn view of the remarkable increase in cost of the necessities of life :\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "3 4-\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\nIn view of the rise of wages and salaries of workers of all other kinds above and beyond the increase\nin the salaries of teachers ;\nIn view of the impossibility of maintaining the highest grade of instruction in the United States under\npresent conditions of low salaries in the country;\nYou are respectfully urged to make the investigation of the condition of teachers thruout the United\nStates a special order for the coming year. You are earnestly requested to appoint a committee for investigaB\ntion and report. You are earnestly requested to appropriate from two to three ythousand dollars for the\nexpenses of correspondence, canvassing, tabulating, and printing. The New York delegation of members of\nthe National Educational Association, having enjoyed a great improvement in the matter of salaries, etc.,\nfeels especially concerned for their brother and sister teachers of America, whose average yearly salary is\nshown by the last report of the Commissioner of Education to be less than $350 per year. We feel that we\nshould do all in our power to contribute toward the improvement of the condition of the teachers thruout the\ncountry.\nRespectfully,\nNew\n\nYork\n\nMembers\n\nof the National\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation,\n\nCharles R. Skinner.\nC. T. McFarlane.\nHarry F. Towle.\nWm. McAndrew.\nKatherine Blake.\nW. B. Gunnison.\n\nOn motion, the communication was referred to the Committee on Investigation and\nAppropriations of the National Council for recommendation.\nThe Secretary made an explanation of the conflicting announcements in the Advance\nProgram-Bulletin and the Official Program regarding the time for the meeting of active\nmembers to select members of the Committee on Nominations. The change of the\nopening of the convention from Tuesday afternoon to Monday evening had rendered\ninoperative the by-law which provides for the meetings to occur at 5 : 30 P. M. of the first\nday of the convention, since, if strictly followed, the meetings wquld occur before the\nopening of the convention, before the various state headquarters would be open for use,\nand before the arrival of many of the members. It had therefore seemed advisable for\nall interests to announce these meetings for 9 o'clock A. M. Tuesday morning; but,\nobjection having been raised to this technical violation of the provisions of the by-law,\nthe announcement was changed in the Official Program to the effect that the meetings be\nheld at 5:30 p. m., Monday afternoon, and it was recommended in the announcement that\nthe meetings adjourn, without action, to the more favorable time sug;gested in the ProgramBulletin, namely, 9 o'clock A. M., Tuesday, July 7.\nDirector Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, gave notice that, in view of the\nimpracticable provisions of by-law No. i, he should, at the proper time at the regular\nannual meeting of active members, move an amendment to the by-law in question.\nAfter announcements by the Secretary, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "MEETING\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\nFOR\n\nBOSTON,\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n1903-1904\nMASS., July 9, 1903\n\nThe Board of Directors of the National Educational Association met in Trinity\nChapel, Boston, at 4:30 P. M., President-elect John W. Cook, of Illinois, in the chair.\nThe following directors responded to roll-call :\nPresident John W. Cook, Illinois; McHenry Rhoads, Kentucky; Charles W. Eliot, Massachusetts;\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York; James H. Canfield, New York; Newton C. Dougherty, Illinois; Aaron\nGove, Colorado; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri ; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; Eliphalet Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania;\nF. Louis Soldan, Missouri; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Miss Catherine\nGoggin, Illinois; T. A. Mott, Indiana; A. V. Storm, Iowa; E. H. Mark, Kentucky; J. S. Locke, Maine;\nM. Bates Stephens, Maryland; Louis P. Nash, Massachusetts; D. W. Springer, Michigan; W. F. Kunze,\nMinnesota; Ben Blewett, Missouri; Edwin J. Bodwell, Nebraska; A. S. Downing, New York; E. D.\nRessler, Oregon ; J. W. Lansinger, Pennsylvania ; W. B. Jacobs, Rhode Island ; Walter E. Ranger, Vermont; Miss Lucy Robinson, West Virginia; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Miss Estelle Reel, Wyoming.\nNumber of directors present, thirty-two.\n\nThe reading of the minutes of the meeting of the former Board of Directors was, on\nmotion, omitted.\nDirector A. G. Lane, of Illinois, called attention to the fact that no director had been\nelected for the state of Florida ; that the member of the Committee on Nominations for\nthat state, Dr. John F. Forbes, did not learn of his appointment until after the meeting of\nthat body had adjourned ; and that he now wished to address the board on the question\nof filling the vacancy.\nNo objection being made. Dr. Forbes was introduced by President Cook, and made\na brief explanation of the conditions in Florida which led to the two contesting delegations from that state in the appointment of a member of the Committee on Nominations.\nHe recommended that B. C. Graham, county superintendent of schools for Hillsborough\ncounty, be appointed director.\nOn motion, the recommendation of Dr. Forbes was accepted, and B. C. Graham was\nunanimously appointed director for Florida.\nDirector E. H. Mark, of Kentucky, stated that it had been his own wish and the wish\nof the entire delegation from that state that S. L. Frogge, of Frankfort, Ky,, should be\nelected director; but, thru a misunderstanding, his own name had been entered for\n-that office in the report of the Committee on Nominations, and he had been duly elected.\nHe therefore tendered his resignation as director, with the request that S. L. Frogge be\nappointed to the vacancy.\nOn motion of Director Dougherty, of Illinois, the resignation of Director Mark was\naccepted, and S. L. Frogge was unanimously appointed director for Kentucky.\nOn motion, the chairman was authorized to appoint a committee of three to nominate\nmembers of the National Council.\nDirectors E. Oram Lyte, Newton C. Dougherty, and A. G. Lane were appointed\nsuch committee.\nThe next order of business being the election of a member of the Board of Trustees\nto fill the vacancy occasioned by the expiration of the term of service of A. G. Lane,\nDirector James M. Green, of New Jersey, moved that Director A. G. Lane be elected\ntrustee to succeed himself.\nThe motion was unanimously carried.\n35\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\nOn motion of Director Aaron Gove, of Colorado, Director Wm. T. Harris, United\nStates Commissioner of Education, was elected to succeed himself as member of the\nExecutive Committee.\nA communication was received from the National Council transmitting the following\nreports to that body by its Committee on Investigations and Appropriations on certain\napplications to the Council for recommendation of appropriations by the Board of Directors. These reports were accompanied by resolutions embodying the action of the Council\non the reports.\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nTo the Council:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations begs leave to report as follows relative to the\nseveral matters which have been before it either by reference from the Council or from the Board of Directors,\nor upon the initiative of the committee itself :\n1. Action on the proposal of President Baker, of Colorado, to appoint a committee, and to ask for an\nappropriation to inquire into the contemporary judgment as to the culture element in education and the time\nthat should be devoted to the combined school and college course, should await a clear definition of the topic\nto be studied and a precise indication of the methods of inquiry to be pursued. We recommend that the president of the Council be authorized to appoint a committee of five active members of the Association to undertake to define the question as presented by President Baker, the report of this committee to be printed and\ndistributed in advance of the next annual meeting of the Council, and its discussion made a special order for\nthat meeting.\n2. In reference to the request of a number of active members of the Association, made to the Board\nof Directors and referred by that board to this committee, that an investigation be undertaken to determine the economic condition of public-school teachers thruout the United States, your committee feels that\nthe time is ripe for the prosecution of such an inquiry. There is a great and growing interest thruout the\ncountry in matters relating to the condition of public- school teachers and their compensation, and there is\nevery reason to believe that, if the facts could be correctly ascertained and lucidly set forth, the effect upon\npublic opinion, and consequently upon the status of the teachers themselves, would be excellent. We, therefore,\nrecommend that the president of the Council be authorized to appoint a committee of seven, to consist of active\nmembers of the Association, and of not more than two experts in statistical and economic science, who may or\nmay not be members of the Association, to inquire and report to the Council upon the salaries, tenure of office,\nand.pension provisions for public- school teachers in the United States. We recommend that an appropriation\nof $1,500, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be asked from the Board of Directors to defray the necessary expenses of conducting the work of this committee.\n3. The committee is unable to recommend any appropriation to defray the cost of the work being carried\non by the so-called Committee on Formulation of Contemporary Educational Doctrine. The attention of the\nCouncil is called to the fact that, by resolution of the Board of Directors, and by <erms of the constitution of\nthe Council, Art. IV, all investigations made in the name of the National Educational Association shall originate\nin the Council, or, if not, shall be made under its direction or authority. To the best of our knowledge and\nbelief, no request has ever been made that the Council should authorize or approve the work of a Committee\non the Formulation of Contemporary Educational Doctrine.\n4. With reference to the request of the Board of Directors that this committee report upon the expediency\nof undertaking an investigation in the field of industrial education in schools in rural communities, we report\nthat such an investigation seems to be urgently needed in view of the requests for information and advice that\nare reaching the school authorities in several states of the middle West. We recommend that the president of\nthe Council be authorized to appoint a committee of five, consisting of active members of this Association, and\nof not more than one expert in agricultural education, who may or may not be a member of this Association,\nto undertake such an investigation and to report to the Council. We recommend that the Board of Directors\nbe requested to appropriate $500, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to defray the cost of the investigation to be conducted by such committee.\n5. Several times during the past few years the National Educational Association has explicitly declared\nin favor of strengthening the Bureau of Education, and of increasing its dignity and importance in the scheme\nof governmental adm.inistration at Washington. At a meeting of the Department of Superintendence held at\nChicago February 28, 1900, upon motion of the Commissioner of Education, a committee of six members was\nappointed for the purpose of aiding the Bureau of Education to accomplish its work. This committee has from\ntime to time had under consideration the needs and opportunities of the bureau. It has recently held a series\nof prolonged sessions for the purpose of giving careful consideration to the whole matter, and, in conjunction '\nwith the Commissioner of Education himself, has arrived at the conclusion that the time has now come when\na determined effort should be made to secure from the administration and from Congress such action as will\nput into practical effect the oft-repeated recommendations of this Association relative to the Bureau of Education. Itis the judgment of the committee referred to that the Bureau of Education should be speedily restored\nto the status which it had at the time of its formation, namely, that of an independent department — a status\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n37\n\nwhich the Departments of Agriculture and of Labor had befoie they were raised to cabinet rank. Inasmuch as\neducation in the United States is not a matter committed to the general government, the Bureau of Education\ncan never become a strictly administrative ofhce save in certain limited respects. The bureau should, however,\nhave the dignity of a separate organization, and there is reason to believe that it would fare better if it enjoyed\nsuch status rather than continued in its present rank as a bureau of the Department of the Interior. The\nsalary of the Commissioner of Education should be raised to at least $5,000, preferably to $6,000. He should\nbe given two assistants, at salaries of $3,000 or $3,500 each, and the annual appropriation now made to the\nbureau should be increased by not less than $50,000, primarily to enable the commissioner to bring together\nand to make public a still greater and more practical amount of information than he now collects and brings to\nthe attention of school officers and school-teachers in every state and territory. One assistant commissioner\nmight well have charge of the division of statistics and reports — the work which has been so effectively carried\non under Dr, Harris' personal direction for fourteen years. The second assistant commissioner should have\ncharge of the administrative division of the Department of Education, whose duty it should be to deal more\ndirectly and more strongly than now with education in those parts of our domain that are not organized\ninto states and territories, and where in consequence the matter of public education is either neglected or is\nunder a local control which is not in touch with the experience and the resources of the educational system of\nthe nation as a whole.\nIt is our belief that the National Council should take vigorous action in the matter of the status of the\nBureau of Education, and that it should either assume as its own the committee appointed by the Department\nof vSuperlntendence in 1900, as mentioned above, or should name a committee in succession to that one, whose\nduty it shall be to undertake an active propaganda before Congress and the country in favor of the upbuilding\nof the Bureau of Education into a department, as outlined above.. We, therefore, recommend that the president of the Council be authorized to appoint such a committee, to consist of seven active members of the\nAssociation, and that the sum of $1,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be asked from the Board of\nDirectors to pay the necessary expenses of the work.\nAppropriate resolutions to carry these recommendations into effect are attached to this report.\nRespectfully submitted for the committee,\n(Signed)\nBoston, Mass., July 8, 1903.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nChairman.\n\n'\nRESOLUTIONS\n\n1. Resolved, That the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, made under date\nof July 8, 1903, be accepted and its recommendations adopted.\n2. That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be requested to make the following appropriations :\nOne thousand five hundred dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for a committee of seven to\ninquire and report to the Council upon the salaries, tenure of office, and pension provisions of public -school\nteachers of the United States.\nFive hundred dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for a committee of five to investigate and\nreport to the Council upon the subject of industrial education in schools in rural communities.\nOne thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for a committee of seven to urge upon\nCongress and the country the erection of the Bureau of Education into a separate administrative department\nand its adequate equipment and financial support.\nThe above report and resolutions were adopted by unanimous vote.\n(Signed)\n\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nJ. F. Millspaugh,\nSecretary, National Council,\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\nTo the Council:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations begs leave to report as follows relative to the\napplication made to it, upon reference from the Board of Directors by a committee of nine appointed by the\nDepartment of Superintendence on February 27, 1902. This committee was appointed \" to formulate, on a\nsound educational basis, contemporary educational doctrines, submit statements covering contemporary educjitlonal experience, and indicate the tendencies of contemporary educational methods.\"\nThe committee has asked for an appropriation of $2,500 with which to meet the expenses of its work.\nAfter a full hearing of representatives of the committee, your committee begs leave to report that in its\njudgment the Council should request the committee to designate a subcommittee of three of their own number,\nwhich subcommittee shall report to the Council at its next ^nual meeting —\n1. A detailed and specific statement of the field of proposed investigation.\n2. A precise indication of the method or methods to be pursued.\n3. A careful estimate of the cost of the proposed investigation and the amount of time it will probably\nconsume.\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIt is further recommended that an appropriation of $750 be placed at the disposal of the chairman of the\nQjmmittee of Nine for the purpose of defraying the expenses of the subcommittee of three, as well as of meeting the cost of the work hitherto prosecuted by the full committee.\nAn appropriate resolution is attached to this report.\nRespectfully submitted,\n(Signed)\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\nChairman of the Committee.\n\nBoston, Mass., July 8, 1903.\nResolved, That the Board of Directors be requested to appropriate the sum of $750, or so much thereof\nas may be necessary, in order to defray the expenses of the work of the subcommittee of three on a proposed\ninvestigation of the facts of contemporary educational experience, and the expenses already incurred by the\nCommittee of Nine appointed by the Department of Superintendence on February 27, 1902.\nThe above report and resolution were adopted by the National Council July 9, 1903, and, under the direction of that body, are hereby referred to the Board of Directors for its approval.\n(Signed)\nJ. F. Millspaugh,\nSecretary, N'ational Council.\n\nOn motion of Director Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, seconded by Director\nAaron Gove, of Colorado, the report and recommendations of the Council were accepted\nand approved, and the amounts named appropriated, respectively, for the expenses of the\nseveral committees.\nThe Secretary read a communication from Miss Laura E. Aldrich, delegate to the\nNattional Educational Association from the National Association of Elocutionists, asking\nfor information as to the steps to be taken to become affiliated with the National Educational Association.\nOn motion of Director Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, the communication was\nreceived and referred to the Executive Committee.\nDirector Charles W. Eliot called attention to an action, taken by the Executive Committee at his request, for which perhaps there may not have been authority, as follows :\n\"Last January i a meeting of the presidents of departments was held in Boston at my\ninstance, in order that we might consult together concerning the preparation of the programs for the convention which is now in progress. That meeting, according to my\nobservation, and also according to the testimony of the presidents of departments, was a\nuseful one. The members of this board have had some opportunity of judging whether\nthe programs on which we have been conducting our meetings have been good. The\npresidents of departments, I think, attributed some of the merits of the programs to the\nopportunity they had for consultation. In the interests of my successor, I believe it\nwould be well to continue to hold a meeting of the presidents of departments about\nthe 1st of January, and I venture to suggest that the Board of Directors authorize the\nExecutive Committee to incur the necessary expenses of such a meeting.\"\nOn motion of Director Gove, the Executive Committee was authorized to incur the\nnecessary expenses of a meeting of department presidents in accordance with the suggestion of Director Eliot.\nDirector Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, moved that ^800 be appropriated for the\nexpenses of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence which is to meet in\nAtlanta, Ga., in February next.\nSome objections being liaised to the appropriation of so large an amount, the motion was\namended by Director A. S. Downing, of New York, to appropriate ;?4G0. The amendment\nwas accepted by Director Keyes, and the amended motion passed by a unanimous vote.\nDirector E. Oram Lyte, chairman of the Committee on Nominating Members of the\nCouncil, reported as follows :\nTo the Board of Directors :\nYour committee finds the following vacancies in the Coimcll to be filled at this time, viz. :\nWm. T. Harris, by reason of expiration of term.\nC. B. Gilbert, by reason of expiration of term.\nWilliam R. Harper, by reason of expiration of term.\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n39\n\nGeorge J. Ramsey, by reason of expiration of term.\nCharles R. Skinner, by reason of expiration of term.\nEmerson E. White, deceased.\nR. B. Fulton, by reason of absence for two years.\nThe following nominations are submitted for your approval:\nWm. T. Harris, to succeed himself, term to expire in 1909.\nWilliam R. Harper, to succeed himself, term to expire in 1909.\nCharles R. Skinner, to succeed himself, term to expire in 1909.\nElla Flagg Young, to succeed C. B. Gilbert, term to expire 1909.\nHoward J. Rogers, to succeed George J. Ramsey, term to expire 1909.\nLivingston C. Lord, to succeed Emerson E. White, term to expire 1906.\nE. H. Mark, to succeed R. B. Fulton, term to expire 1907.\nI E. Oram\n(Signed)\n\nLvte, Chairman,\n\n' N.\nA. G.\nLane.\nj\nC. Dougherty.\n\nOn motion, the report of the committee was received and adopted, and the nominees\nwere declared elected members of the Council for their respective terms.\nThe President announced the next order of business to be the consideration of invitations for the next place of meeting, and instructed the Secretary to call the roll of states.\nWhen California was reached, the Secretary reported that he had received from\nPresident Benjamin Ide Wheeler and the authorities of the city of San Francisco an invitation to hold the convention for 1904 in that city.\nAt the call of Missouri, the Secretary reported that he had received a communication\nfrom Howard J. Rogers, of the department of education of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, transmitting letters from the president of the exposition, the mayor of St. Louis, and\nthe Business Men's League of St. Louis inviting the Association to hold its next convention\nin that city in 1904.\nThe roll-call of states was continued to the state of Washington. Director F. B.\nCooper, of Washington, in behalf of the north Pacific coast, renewed the invitation presented atDetroit in 1901, and again in 1902 at Minneapolis, to meet in that section at such\npoint as should be chosen by the Executive Committee. He also extended formal invitations from the chamber of commerce and the citizens of Seattle to meet in that city in\n1904.\nThe roll-call of states was completed without other invitations being presented.\nDirector Ben Blewett, of Missouri, stated that he held in his possession an outline of\ncertain facts, bearing on railroad concessions and other matters that would affect the\npecuniary interests of the Association, should the next meeting be held in St. Louis, and\nthat he would be pleased to present the same if the board desired to consider it at this\ntime.\nDirector F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, suggested that the statement referred to by\nDirector Blewett be presented.\nDirector Springer, of Michigan, moved that, in accordance with the custom for some\nyears past, all the invitations be referred to the Executive Committee, with full power to\nselect the next place of meeting and make all arrangements for the same. The motion\nwas seconded.\nDirector Soldan : While I do not wish to oppose this motion, may I direct the\nattention of the board to the fact that this is perhaps an extraordinary occasion; that it\nmay not be desired by the Executive Committee to have to settle this matter without\nsome suggestions or advice from this body ? I agree fully that its hands should be left\nuntrammeled by any instructions; but should there not be some indication as to the\npleasure of this body concerning the question of location ?\nDirector Aaron Gove, of Colorado, stated* that, since the selection of the place of\nmeeting must ultimately rest with the Executive Committee, statements and arguments\npresented here will have little weight in determining the result. The Executive Committee have some months before it for the consideration and determination of this question\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirector J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri, moved, as a substitute for the motion ot\nDirector Springer, that the board proceed to take an informal vote on the question of\nthe next place of meeting ; seconded.\nA general discussion followed on the advisability of receiving at this time presentation of the facts referred to by Director Blewett relating to the invitations that had been\npresented from the city of St. Louis.\nObjections being withdrawn. Director Blewett was recognized by the chair and said\nin part: \"I wish to speak only of the financial questions involved in the invitations\ntransmitted by Mr. Rogers. St. Louis will guarantee two thousand advance members.\nThe exposition, in spite of the fact that it has placed the congresses of education in September and October, guarantees its best effort to make the gathering of teachers in July,\nif held in St. Louis, not only a national, but an international, affair. It guarantees to\ntake care of any number, no matter if it be thirty thousand, that you may bring to St.\nLouis. I am authoritatively informed that it is the intention of the railroads to offer a\nhalf rate to St. Louis and return from the beginning of the exposition, if not on all\ntrains, at least on certain trains, and that it will be impossible to add the $2 membership\ncoupon to these tickets, as has been done in the past. I understand that it has been a\nmatter of anxiety to the directorate as to what effect it will have on the relations of the\nAssociation with the transportation companies in the future. I hold in my hand a copy\nof a letter toMr. C. S. Crane, general passenger agent of the Wabash road, conveying\nassurances that waiver of the collection of the membership fee for one year will not\nunfavorably affect the Association in its future relations with the railroads. I simply\nwish to assure this body that as a monetary consideration the Association need not fear\ncoming to St. Louis, and she should not fear investing money in the educational advantages of a meeting in St. Louis, even if a financial loss followed.\nDirector Soldan said in part : \" I wish to speak only of the one vital point. Is it\nnot advisable for the National Educational Association to take cognizance of the fact\nthat the largest educational exhibit that we have ever seen will be collected, arranged,\nand placed before the world at the St. Louis exposition in 1904 ? Is it expedient for this\nAssociation, representing the teachers of America, whose vital interests will center in\nthat exposition, to appoint a meeting at the extreme end of the country, and seek to keep\nas far away as possible from the place of chief common interest? If such is the decision,\nlet it go on record that for the first time in the history of any national exhibit the body of\nteachers chiefly interested in that exhibit takes its meeting as far away from it as it can\ngo. Now, I shall not dwell on any other point. I shall not speak of the attractions or\nthe asperities of the month of July in St. Louis. Shall it be the rule of the Association\nto draw a geographical line and say: * Below that line we shall not take the Association\nin the future, because it is too warm ? ' Is the Association becoming a geographic body\nthat transacts its business in a limited space, or shall we keep open the chance that all\nparts of the country may have the advantages of this Association, as has been the custom\nin the past ? I plead that the reasons advanced for taking the Association away from the\ngreat exposition are not sound. I say that the Association should go to that place where\nthere is to be the largest exposition and the largest educational exhibit ever organized.\"\nAfter a brief general discussion, in which objections were again urged against the\nadvisability of taking a ballot on the question of the next place of meeting, Director\nGreenwood withdrew his substitute motion, and the motion of Director Springer to refer\nthe question to the Executive Committee, with full powers, was passed by a unanimous\nvote.\nAfter an informal discussion of a proposition by Director A. V. Storm, of Iowa, that\nthe board should make appropriations for the expenses of state headquarters, on which no\naction was taken, the board adjourned.\n(Signed)\nIrv^in Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\n\nHON.\n\nJOHN\n\nL.\n\nBATES,\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF WELCOME\nOF\nTHE\nCHUSETTS\n\n[stenographic\n\nCOMMONWEALTH\n\nOF\n\nMASSA-\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nIf I had the voice of Niagara, and of all its waters, I could not in the\nthree minutes assigned to me express the welcome of Massachusetts, even\ntho I could speak ten thousand words a minute.\nWe are glad to see you within our borders. We hope you will receive\npleasure from this coming together, and we hope as the result of your\ndeliberations there will be profit for all mankind.\nI welcome you as a phalanx that carries lanterns to bring light into\ndark places, as an army that carries swords to cut down superstition, and\nspears to defeat the enemies of the American republic.\nI welcome you as men and women engaged in one great organization\nfor the uplifting of humanity. I welcome you as men and women\nengaged in a calling that takes hold of the future, and thereby makes\nfor immortality. I welcome you to the commonwealth of Massachusetts— to the land where the Puritans lived, who, forgetful of their poverty, built colleges for the expansion of the mind. I welcome you to\nthe rocks that the Pilgrims trod, who, forgetful of the palaces of earth,\nbuilt more stately mansions for the soul.\nI welcome you to the state that has set in the place of honor at the\nright of the entran(?e of its capitol a bronze statue of Horace Mann, the\neducator.\nWelcome to the old Bay State ! And with this word of welcome take\nthe hand, and with the hand goes the heart.\n\nHON.\n\nPATRICK\n\nA.\n\nCOLLINS,\n\nMAYOR\n\n[stenographic\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nOF\n\nBOSTON\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association:\nAn official word of welcome to Boston is superfluous.\nBocton has\nalready given you a welcome, louder, stronger, more genuine than any\nchief magistrate can speak.\nIndeed, I very much question whether you\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "4^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nneed any sort of welcome, for in the freest way that I ever knew men\nand women to act, you have taken Boston by storm. Whether that was\nthe intention, or whether it was contrived by the committee that prepared\nthe most admirable plan of reception — and is executing it most admirably— or whether it came from your innate belief that Boston was an easy\ncity to capture, it is hard to tell ; but Boston is yours today.\nVery little has Boston as a corporation been permitted to have as an\nagency in this reception. Thanks to the great organization that invited\nyou here, thanks to the intelligence, the judgment, the spirit, and the\nenthusiasm of the gentlemen who have the management, there is very\nlittle for official Boston to do except to stand and look on — and admire.\nIt is common report that nine out of ten delegates to this convention\nare women. That is the most gratifying intelligence that has reached the\ncity hall in School street since I have been mayor. Not that we are in\ngreat need of women in Boston, but we need just your kind of women.\nI have noticed tonight, and I think it must have also passed under the\nobservation of everybody on the platform, that Dr. Hale tested whether\nyou, engaged in secular employment and in imparting secular education,\nhave still a grip upon the spiritual. But that was settled when you joined\nin repeating Our Lord's Prayer.\nI need say no more, because an official welcome is entirely unnecessary. One word, however : while you are in Boston if the state authorities, who have some control over the city, don't quite behave themselves\nto your liking, come down to the city hall, and we will try to rectify that,\nas we have rectified a good many other things.\n\nHENRY\n\nS. PRITCHETT,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nMASSACHUSETTS\nTECHNOLOGY,\nBOSTON\n[stenographic\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President^ Ladies and Gentlemen :\nFrom his excellency, the governor, and from his honor, the mayor,\nyou have already had ^ most cordial welcome to the hospitality of Massachusetts and of Boston. It remains for me only to tender to you the\neducational hospitality of the city as well; for just as there is an educational and an intellectual sincerity, a quality of mind which will not\nadmit the idea which rings false, so also is there the intellectual hospitality\nand mental quality which welcomes cordially the new idea, which gives it\nan entrance at least to the antechamber of the mind, where it may find\nwarmth, comfort, and shelter.\nBoston will not be altogether immodest if she claims some pre-eminence in this intellectual hospitality. For a hundred years in politics, in\nreligion, and, as you have heard so well said, in education, all those facile\nbirds of the air which fly in the intellectual realm have been finding here\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n43\n\na homing place ; for they know there is in Boston, for the idea at least, a\nfriendly twig.\nOn the other hand, your convention represents such an intellectual\ngathering as no other body in this country can bring together. There is\nrepresented here, not only the college, the technical school, and the university, but the high school, the normal school, and the kindergarten.\nEvery reach and every prospect of human study which man may undertake\nare within the province of those who belong to this organization ; and\ntherefore I think that my welcome ought to mean more to you even than\nthat of the governor of the commonwealth or that of the mayor; for, after\nall, the welcome to the schools and institutions of Massachusetts and of\nBoston is the heartiest and greatest the state and the city can bring.\nYou will find here institutions which represent every phase of our educational development. Nowhere else in these United States can you study\na college two hundred and fifty years old; and yet in this same community\n— and when I speak of Boston I mean always that greater Boston which\nincludes some million and a half of people — in this Boston you will find\none of the newest colleges, founded to increase the facilities for women\nto prepare for the practical callings of life.\nYou will find here in this greater Boston a college in the suburban\nquiet growing year by year in numbers and strength, and you will find a\nuniversity also growing year by year in power — a university one of whose\nalumni has today greeted you as the governor of the commonwealth, and\nwhich stands in the very heart and in the midst of the city. You will find\nthe old Boston Latin School, with its long roll of famous names, among\nthem the name of him whose blessing and benediction you have just\nreceived, whom Boston loves above any other citizen, and who may well\nbe called the friend of all the world. You will find this old Latin School,\nand you will find by the side of it the new Mechanics Art School, to\nrepresent the new idea in education.\nAnd at all these institutions, whether they be of one kind or another,\nwhether at Harvard or the Boston University, whether at the Institute of\nTechnology or Tufts College, whether at Boston College, Radcliffe, or\nSimmons College, whether at the high school, the common school, or the\nkindergarten — to all of you who come to this convention there stands\nopen the door of welcome.\nTherefore, in behalf of all these educational institutions, I offer to\nyou, in the most hearty, the most genuine, and the warmest possible\nspirit, the educational hospitality of greater Boston.\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nRESPONSES\nALBERT\n\nG. LANE,\n\nMr. President:\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\n[stenographic\n\nOF TRUSTEES,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nreport]\n\nThe cordial and gracious words of welcome from the governor of\nthe commonwealth of Massachusetts, the mayor of the city of Boston, and\nthe president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are gratefully\nreceived. On behalf of the members of the National Educational Association, Iwish to extend to them, and to the citizens and teachers of this\ncity and vicinity, the thanks of the Association for the successful preparations for this great meeting. Boston and Massachusetts have set standards\nin education that have been followed by the cities and states of this country,\nand especially of the great West. I may name as among these standards\nthe first beginnings of the distinctively free-school system; the grading of\nschools; the establishment of normal schools; the plan of city supervision;\nof state superintendence ; of the enforcement of the rights of children thru\ncompulsory-attendance laws ; the establishment of parental schools; the\nintroduction of manual and technical training in education ; the beginning\nof the kindergarten; the study of psychology and its application in teaching; and the strong, cultivating, diffusing, controlling influence of college\ntraining.\nThese questions are still before this country, and with other vital\nquestions need consideration. Earnest, noble men and women thruout this\nland are studying these questions with reference to the development of the\nlove of truth and of the higher life in the community. Twenty thousand\nat least of the teachers of this country come to join the thousands of\nprogressive teachers of New England in discussing the questions presented\non the program, which has been arranged by Massachusetts' most distinguished educator, the honored president of this Association.\n\nWM.\n\nT. HARRIS,\n\nU. S. COMMISSIONER\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nYour Excellency the Governor of the State of Massachusetts, and Your Honor\nthe Mayor of Boston :\nIn response to the gracious welcome that you have extended to this\nnational association of teachers, supervisors, and directors of education, I\nreturn thanks in the name of the nation. Some three hundred thousand\neducators have sent hither a tenth of their number to represent them on\nthis occasion. More than seventeen millions of school children have been\nenrolled in the schools, public and private, of the nation during the past\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n45\n\nyear. The teachers of the middle and western states have mostly descended\nfrom ancestors that migrated from New England. They return bringing\nwith them their dear friends, the teachers and superintendents of the south\nAtlantic and south central states, full of enthusiasm in the great work\nwhich they are accomplishing in the schools of their native states.\nThis Association comes to see the places which have been gilded by\nthe imaginations of your native poets — places wedded by history to\nimmortal deeds and marked by a grateful posterity with fitting and\nimpressive monuments. They will not only visit the memorials of colonial\nhistory and of the War of the Revolution, but they will visit the beginnings\nof great educational movements, the parent of all our colleges and\nuniversities, as Ralph Waldo Emerson named Harvard University, which\ncounts over six hundred Colleges and Universities in its progeny. The\nfirst public high school in the United States, the Boston Latin School, now\ncounts in the United States over six thousand public high schools in the\ntrain of its followers; the first normal school founded in the United States\nnow counts two hundred normal schools as its children; some forty\nthousand graded-school buildings have for their original model the\nQuincy schoolhouse built here in 1847, the first structure happily adapted\nto a large graded school, fitted so as to secure good order without harshness\nand brutal severity in discipline.\nWhen one wonders at the educational reforms that have had their\norigin here, and have been gladly adopted from Massachusetts by the\nremotest cities of the land, he understands on a visit to your people why\nthey were so successful ; for they were purified here of their crudeness by\na sevenfold heated furnace of intelligent criticism on the part of the\nadvocates of the old order, and they had their dross of imperfection\neliminated before they set out on their journey across the continent.\nThru your bountiful provision for us, which has extended even to\nprodigality, you have made our visit a festival of pleasure and profit both\nto body and soul never to be forgotten ; and not only to our profit, but\nto the profit of millions of children living in distant states and territories.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nADDRESSES\nPRESIDENTIAL\nTHE\nCHARLES\n\nNEW\nW.\n\nDEFINITION\n\nELIOT,\n\nOF\n\nADDRESS\nTHE\n\nCULTIVATED\n\nHARVARD\nUNIVERSITY,\nPRESIDENT\nEDUCATIONAL\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMAN\nNATIONAL\n\nTo produce the cultivated man, or at least the man capable of becoming cultivated in after-life, has long been supposed to be one of the fundamental objects of systematic and thoro education. The ideal of\ngeneral cultivation has been one of the standards in education. It is often\nasked : Will the education which a given institution is supplying produce\nthe cultivated man ? Or, Can cultivation be the result of a given course\nof study? In such questions there is an implication that the education\nwhich does not produce the cultivated man is a failure, or has been misconceived, or misdirected. Now, if cultivation were an unchanging ideal,\nthe steady use of the conception as a permanent test of educational processes might be justified; but if the cultivated man of today is, or ought\nto be, a distinctly different creature from the cultivated man of a century\nago, the ideal of cultivation cannot be appealed to as a standard without\npreliminary explanations and interpretations. It is the object of this\npaper to show that the idea of cultivation in the highly trained human\nbeing has undergone substantial changes during the nineteenth century.\nI ought to say at once that I propose to use the term \"cultivated\nman \" in only its good sense — in Emerson's sense. In this paper, he is\nnot to be a weak, critical, fastidious creature, vain of a little exclusive\ninformation or of an uncommon knack in Latin verse or mathematical\nlogic; he is to be a man of quick. perceptions, broad sympathies, and\nwide affinities ; responsive, but independent ; self-reliant, but deferential ;\nloving truth and candor, but also moderation and proportion ; courageous,\nbut gentle ; not finished, but perfecting. All authorities agree that true\nculture is not exclusive, sectarian, or partisan, but the very opposite;\nthat it is not to be attained in solitude, but in society ; and that the best\natmosphere for culture is that of a school, university, academy, or church\nwhere many pursue together the ideals of truth, righteousness, and love.\nHere someone may think : This process of cultivation is evidently a\nlong, slow, artificial process ; I prefer the genius, the man of native'\npower or skill, the man whose judgment is sound and influence strong,\ntho he cannot read or write — the born inventor, orator, or poet. So\ndo we all. Men have always reverenced prodigious inborn gifts, and\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENTIAL\n\nADDRESS\n\n47\n\nalways will. Indeed, barbarous men always say of the possessors of such\ngifts : These are not nien, they are gods. But we teachers, who carry on\na system of popular education which is by far the most complex and\nvaluable invention of the nineteenth century, know that we have to do,\nnot with the highly gifted units, but with the millions who are more or\nless capable of being cultivated by the long, patient, artificial training\ncalled education. For us and our system the genius is no standard, but\nthe cultivated man is. To his stature we and many of our pupils may in\ntime attain.\nThere are two principal differences between the present ideal of cultivation and that which prevailed at the beginning of the nineteenth century.\nAll thinkers agree that the horizon of the human intellect has widened\nwonderfully during the past hundred years, and that the scientific method\nof inquiry, which was known to but very few when the nineteenth century\nbegan, has been the means of that widening. This method has become\nindispensable in all fields of inquiry, including psychology, philanthropy,\nand religion; and therefore intimate acquaintance with it has become\nan indispensable element in culture. As Matthew Arnold pointed out\nmore than a generation ago, educated mankind is governed by two passions— one the passion for pure knowledge, the other the passion for\nbeing of service or doing good. Now, the passion for pure knowledge is\nto be gratified only thru the scientific method of inquiry. In Arnold's\nphrases, the first step for every aspirant to culture is to endeavor to see\nthings as they are, or \"to learn, in short, the will of God.\" The second\nstep is to make that will prevail, each in his own sphere of action and\ninfluence. This recognition of science as pure knowledge, and of the scientific method as the universal method of inquiry, is the great addition\nmade by the nineteenth century to the idea of culture. I need not say\nthat within that century what we call science, pure and applied, has\ntransformed the world as the scene of the human drama; and that it is\nthis transformation which has compelled the recognition of natural science as a fundamental necessity in liberal education. The most convinced exponents and advocates of humanism now recognize that science\nis the \"paramount force of the modern as distinguished from the antique\nand the mediaeval spirit,\"* and that \"an interpenetration of humanism\nwith science and of science with humanism is the condition of the high•\nest culture.\"\nA second modification of the earlier idea of cultivation was advocated\nby Ralph Waldo Emerson more than two generations ago. He taught\nthat the acquisition of some form of manual skill and the practice of some\nform of manual labor were essential elements of culture. This idea has\nmore and. more become accepted in the systematic education of youth;\nand if we include athletic sports among the desirable forms of manual\nJjoHN Addington\n\nSymonds, Culture.\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nskill and labor, we may say that during the last thirty years this element\nof excellence of body in the ideal of education has had a rapid, even an\nexaggerated, development. The idea of some sort of bodily excellence\nwas, to be sure, not absent in the old conception of the cultivated man.\nThe gentleman could ride well, dance gracefully, and fence with skill.\nBut the modern conception of bodily skill as an element in cultivation is\nmore comprehensive, and includes that habitual contact with the external\nworld which Emerson deemed essential to real culture. We have lately\nbecome convinced that accurate work with carpenters' tools, or lathe, or\nliammer and anvil, or violin, or piano, or pencil, or crayon, or camelshair brush, trains well the same nerves and ganglia with which we do\nwhat is ordinarily called thinking. We have also become convinced that\nsome intimate, sympathetic acquaintance with the natural objects of the\nearth and sky adds greatly to the happiness of life, and that this acquaintance should be begun in childhood and be developed all thru adolescence\nand maturity. A brook, a hedgerow, or a garden is an inexhaustible\nteacher of wonder, reverence, and love. The scientists insist today on\nnature study for children ; but we teachers ought long ago to have learned\nfrom the poets the value of this element in education. They are the best\nadvocates of nature study. If any here are not convinced of its worth,\nlet them go to Theocritus, Virgil, Wordsworth, Tennyson, or Lowell for\nthe needed demonstration. Let them observe, too, that a great need of\nmodern industrial society is intellectual pleasures, or pleasures which,\nlike music, combine delightful sensations with the gratifications of observation, association, memory, and sympathy. The idea of culture has\nalways included a quick and wide sympathy with men; it should hereafter include sympathy with nature, and particularly with its living forms,\na sympathy based on some accurate observation of nature. The bookworm, the monk, the isolated student, has never been the type of the\ncultivated man. Society has seemed the natural setting for the cultivated\nperson, man or woman ; but the present conception of real culture contains not only a large development of this social element, but also an\nextension of interest and reverence to the animate creation and to those\nimmense forces that set the earthly stage for man and all related beings.\nLet us now proceed to examine some of the changes in the idea of\nculture, or in the available means of culture, which the last hundred years\nhave brought about.\nL The moral sense of the modern world makes character a more\nimportant element than it used to be in the ideal of a cultivated man.\nNow, character is formed, as Goethe said, in the \"stream of the world\" —\nnot in stillness or isolation, but in the quick-flowing tides of the busy\nworld, the world of nature and the world of mankind. At the and of the\nnineteenth century the world was wonderfully different from the world at\nthe beginning of that eventful period; and, moreover, men's means of\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "49\n\nSessions]\n\nPRESIDENTIAL\n\nADDRESS\n\nmaking acquaintance with the world were vastly ampler than they were\na hundred years earlier. To the old idea of culture some knowledge\nof history was indispensable. Now, history is a representation of the\nstream of the world, or of some little portion of that stream, one hundred,\nfive hundred, two thousand years ago. Acquaintance with some part of\nthe present stream ought to be more formative of character, and more\ninstructive as regards external nature and the nature of man, than any\npartial survey of the stream that was flowing centuries ago. We have,\nthen, thru the present means of reporting the stream of the world from\nday to day, material for culture such as no preceding generation of men\nhas possessed. The cultivated man or woman must use the means\nwhich steam and electricity have provided for reporting the play of physical forces and of human volitions which make the world of today; for the\nworld of today supplies in its immense variety a picture of all stages of\nhuman progress, from the stone age, thru savagery, barbarism, and medisevalism, to what we now call civilization. The rising generation should\nthink hard, and feel keenly, just where the men and women who consti•tute the actual human world are thinking and feeling most today. The\npanorama of today's events is not an accurate or complete picture, for\nhistory will supply posterity with much evidence which is hidden from\nthe eyes of contemporaries; but it is nevertheless an invaluable and a new\nmeans of developing good judgment, good feeling, and the passion for\nsocial service ; or, in other words, of securing cultivation. But someone\nwill say: The stream of the world is foul. True in part. The stream\nis, what it has been, a mixure of foulness and purity, of meanness and\nmajesty; but it has nourished individual virtue and race civilization.\nLiterature and history are a similar mixture, and yet are the traditional\nmeans of culture. Are not the Greek tragedies means of culture? Yet\nthey are full of incest, murder, and human sacrifices to lustful and revengeful gods.\nII. A cultivated man should express himself by tongue or pen with\nsome accuracy and elegance ; therefore linguistic training has had great\nimportance in the idea of cultivation. The conditions of the educated\nworld have, however, changed so profoundly since the revival of learning\nin Italy that our inherited ideas concerning training in language and\nliterature have required large modifications. In the year 1400 it might\nhave been said with truth that there was but one language of scholars, the\nLatin, and but two great literatures, the Hebrew and the Greek. Since\nthat time, however, other great literatures have arisen, the Italian, Spanish,\nFrench, German, and above all the English, which has become incomparably the most extensive and various an^ the noblest of literatures. Under\nthese circumstances it is impossible to maintain that a knowledge of any\nparticular literature is indispensable to culture. Yet we cannot but feel\nthat the cultivated man ought to possess a considerable acquaintance with\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe literature of some great language, and the power to use the native\nlanguage in a pure and interesting way. Thus, we are not sure that\nRobert Burns could be properly described as a cultivated man, moving\npoet tho he was. We do not think of Abraham Lincoln as a cultivated\nman, master of English speech and writing tho he was. These men do\nnot correspond to the type represented by the word \"cultivated,\" but\nbelong in the class of geniuses. When we ask ourselves why a knowledge\nof literature seems indispensable to the ordinary idea of cultivation, we\nfind no answer except this, that in literature are portrayed all human passions, desires, and aspirations, and that acquaintance with these human\nfeelings, and with the means of portraying them, seems to us essential to\nculture. These human qualities and powers are also the commonest\nground of interesting human intercourse, and therefore literary knowledge\nexalts the quality and enhances the enjoyment of human intercourse. It\nis in conversation that cultivation tells as much as anywhere, and this\nrapid exchange of thoughts is by far the commonest manifestation of its\npower. Combine the knowledge of literature with knowledge of the\n\"stream of the world,\" and you have united two large sources of the influence of the cultivated person. The linguistic and literary element in cultivation therefore abides, but has become vastly broader than formerly;\nso broad, indeed, that selection among its various fields is forced upon\nevery educated youth.\nIII. The next great element in cultivation to which I ask your attention is acquaintance with some part of the store of knowledge which\nhumanity in its progress from barbarism has acquired and laid up. This\nis the prodigious store of recorded, rationalized, and systematized discoveries, experiences, and ideas. This is the store which we teachers try to\npass on to the rising generation. The capacity to assimilate this store and\nimprove it in each successive generation is the distinction of the human\nrace over other animals. It is too vast for any man to master, tho he had\na hundred lives instead of one ; and its growth in the nineteenth century\nwas greater than in all the thirty preceding centuries put together. In\nthe eighteenth century a diligent student, with quick powers of apprehension and strong memory, need not have despaired of mastering a large\nfraction of this store of knowledge. Long before the end of the nineteenth century such a task had become impossible. Culture, therefore,\ncan no longer imply a knowledge of everything — not even a little knowledge of everything. It must be content with general knowledge of some\nthings, and a real mastery of some small portion of the human store.\nHere is a profound modification of the idea of cultivation which the nineteenth century has brought about. What portion or portions of the\ninfinite human store are most proper to the cultivated man ? The answer\nmust be : Those which enable him, with his individual personal qualities,\nto deal best and sympathize most with nature and with other human\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENTIAL\n\nADDRESS\n\n51\n\nbeings. It is here that the passion for service must fuse with the passion\nfor knowledge. It is natural to imagine that the young man who has\nacquainted himself with economics, the science of government, sociology,\nand the history of civilization in its motives, objects, and methods, has a\nbetter chance of fusing the passion for knowledge with the passion for\ndoing good than the man whose passion for pure knowledge leads him\nto the study of chemical or physical phenomena, or of the habits and\nclimatic distribution of plants or animals. Yet, so intricate are the relations of human beings to the animate and inanimate creation that it is\nimpossible to foresee with what realms of nature intense human interests\nmay prove to be identified. Thus the generation now on the stage has suddenly learned that some of the most sensitive and exquisite human interests,\nsuch as health or disease and life or death for those we love, are bound\nup with the life-histories of parasites on the blood corpuscles or of certain\nvarieties of mosquitoes and ticks. When the spectra of the sun, stars, and\nother lights began to be studied, there was not the slightest anticipation\nthat a cure for one of the most horrible diseases to which mankind is\nliable might be found in the X-rays. While, then, we can still see that\ncertain subjects afford more obvious or frequent access to means of doing\ngood and to fortunate intercourse with our fellows than other subjects,\nwe have learned from nineteenth-century experience that there is no field\nof real knowledge which may not suddenly prove contributory in a high\ndegree to human happiness and the progress of civilization, and therefore\nacceptable as a worthy element in the truest culture.\nIV. The only other element in cultivation which time will permit me\nto treat is the training of the constructive imagination. The imagination\nis the greatest of human powers, no matter in what field it works — in\nart or literature, in mechanical invention, in science, government, commerce, or religion ; and the training of the imagination is, therefore, far\nthe most important part of education. I use the term \"constructive\nimagination\" because that implies the creation or building of a new\nthing. The sculptor, for example, imagines or conceives the perfect form\nof a child ten years of age. He has never seen such a thing, for a child\nperfect in form is never produced ; he has only seen in different children\nthe elements of perfection, here one element and there another. In his\nimagination he combines these elements of the perfect form, which he\nhas only seen separated, and from this picture in his mind he carves the\nstone, and in the execution invariably loses his ideal — that is, falls short\nof it, or fails to express it. Sir Joshua Reynolds points out that the\npainter can picture only what he has somewhere seen ; but that the more\nhe has seen and noted, the surer he is to be original in his painting,\nbecause his imaginary combinations will be original. Constructive imagination is the great power of the poet as well as of the artist ; and the\nnineteenth century has convinced us that it is also the great power of the\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nman of science, the investigator, and the natural philosopher. What\ngives every great naturalist or physicist his epoch-making results is precisely the imaginative power by which he deduces from masses of fact the\nguiding hypothesis or principle.\nThe educated world needs to recognize the new varieties of constructive imagination. Dante gave painful years to picturing on many pages\nof his immortal comedy of hell, purgatory, and paradise the most horrible\nmonsters and tortures, and the most loathsome and noisome abominations, that his fervid imagination could concoct out of his own bitter\nexperiences and the manners and customs of his cruel times. Sir Charles\nLyell spent many laborious years in searching for and putting together\nthe scattered evidences that the geological processes by which the crust of\nthe earth has been made ready for the use of man have been, in the main,\nnot catastrophic, but gradual and gentle; and that the forces which have\nbeen in action thru past ages are, for the most part, similar to those we\nmay see today eroding hills, cutting caiions, making placers, marshes, and\nmeadows, and forming prairies and ocean floors. He first imagined, and\nthen demonstrated, that the geologic agencies are not explosive and\ncataclysmal, but steady and patient. These two kinds of imagination —\nDante's and Lyell's — are not comparable, but both are manifestations of\ngreat human power. Zola in La Bete humaine contrives that ten persons,\nall connected with the railroad from Paris to Havre, shall be either\nmurderers or murdered, or both, within eighteen months ; and he adds\ntwo railroad slaughters criminally procured. The conditions of time and\nplace are ingeniously imagined, and no detail is omitted which can\nheighten the effect of this homicidal fiction. Contrast this kind of constructive imagination with the kind which conceived the great wells sunk\nin the solid rock below Niagara that contain the turbines, that drive the\ndynamos, that generate the electric force that turns thousands of wheels\nand lights thousands of lamps over hundreds of square miles of adjoining\nterritory; or with the kind which conceives the sending of human thoughts\nacross three thousand miles of stormy sea instantaneously on nothing\nmore substantial than ethereal waves. There is no crime, cruelty, or lust\nabout these last two sorts of imagining. No lurid fire of hell or human\npassion illumines their scenes. They are calm, accurate, just, and\nresponsible ; and nothing but beneficence and increased human well-being\nresults from them. There is going to be room in the hearts of twentiethcentury men for a high admiration of these kinds of imagination, as well\nas for that of the poet, artist, or dramatist.\nAnother kind of imagination deserves a moment's consideration —\nthe receptive imagination which entertains and holds fast the visions\ngenius creates or the analogies of nature suggest. A young woman is\nabsorbed for hours in conning the squalid scenes and situations thru\nwhich Thackeray portrays the malign motives and unclean soul of Becky\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENTIAL\n\nADDRESS\n\n-53\n\nSharp. Another young woman watches for days the pairing, nesting,\nbrooding, and foraging of two robins that have established home and\nfamily in the notch of a maple near her window. She notes the unselfish\nlabors of the father and mother for each other and for their little ones,\nand weaves into the simple drama all sorts of protective instincts and\nhuman affections. Here are two employments for the receptive imagination. Shall systematic education compel the first, but make no room for the\nsecond ? The increasing attention to nature study suggests the hope that\nthe imaginative study of human ills and woes is not to be allowed to\nexclude the imaginative study of nature, and that both studies may count\ntoward culture.\nIt is one lesson of the nineteenth century, then, that in every field of\nhuman knowledge the constructive imagination finds play — in literature,\nin history, in theology, in anthropology, and in the whole field of physical and biological research. That great century has taught us that, on\nthe whole, the scientific imagination is quite as productive for human\nservice as the literary or poetic imagination. The imagination of Darwin\nor Pasteur, for example, is as high and productive a form of imagination\nas that of Dante, or Goethe, or even Shakespeare, if we regard the human\nuses which result from the exercise of imaginative powers, and mean by\nhuman uses not. merely meat and drink, clothes and shelter, but also the\nsatisfaction of mental and spiritual needs. We must, therefore, allow in\nour contemplation of the cultivated man a large expansion of the fields\nin which the cultivated imagination may be exercised. We must extend\nour training of the imagination beyond literature and the fine arts, to\nhistory, philosophy, science, government, and sociology. We must recognize the prodigious variety of fruits of the imagination that the nineteenth\ncentury has given to our race.\nIt results from this brief survey that the elements and means of cultivation are much more numerous than they used to be ; so that it is not\nwise to say of any one acquisition or faculty: With it cultivation becomes\npossible ; without it, impossible. The one acquisition or faculty may be\nimmense, and yet cultivation may not have been attained. Thus, it is\nobvious that a man may have a wide acquaintance with music, and possess\ngreat musical skill and that wonderful imaginative power which conceives\ndelicious melodies and harmonies for the delight of mankind thru\ncenturies, and yet not be a cultivated man in the ordinary acceptation of\nthe words. We have met artists who were rude and uncouth, yet possessed\na high degree of technical skill and strong powers of imagination. We\nhave seen philanthropists and statesmen whose minds have played on\ngreat causes and great affairs, and yet >^o lacked a correct use of their\nnative language, and had no historical perspective or background of historical knowledge. On the other hand, is there any single acquisition or\nfaculty which is essential to culture, except, indeed, a reasonably accurate\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand refined use of the mother-tongue ? Again, tho we can discern in\ndifferent individuals different elements of the perfect type of cultivated\nman, we seldom find combined in any human being all the elements of\nthe type. Here, as in painting or sculpture, we make up our ideal from\ntraits picked out from many imperfect individuals and put together. We\nmust not, therefore, expect systematic education to produce multitudes of\nhighly cultivated and symmetrically developed persons ; the multitudinous\nproduct will always be imperfect, just as there are no perfect trees, animals, flowers, or crystals.\nIt has been my object this evening to point out that our conception of\nthe type of cultivated man has been greatly enlarged, and on the whole\nexalted, by observation of the experiences of mankind during the last\nhundred years. Let us as teachers accept no single element or kind of\nculture as the one essential ; let us remember that the best fruits'of real\nculture are an open mind, broad sympathies, and respect for all the\ndiverse achievements of the human intellect at whatever stage of development they may actually be — the stage of fresh discovery, or bold\nexploration, or complete conquest. Let us remember that the moral\nelements of the new education are individual choice of studies and career\namong a great, new variety of studies and careers, early responsibility\naccompanying this freedom of choice, love of truth now that truth may\nbe directly sought thru rational inquiry, and an omnipresent sense of\nsocial obligation. These moral elements are so strong that the new forms\nof culture are likely to prove themselves quite as productive of morality,\nhigh-mindedness, and idealism as the old.\n\nTHE PRESENT\nANDREW\n\nF. WEST,\n\nDEAN\n\nPERIL\nOF THE\n\nTO LIBERAL\n\nGRADUATE SCHOOL\nSITY, PRINCETON, N. J.\n\nEDUCATION\nOF PRINCETON\n\nUNIVER-\n\nThe cause of liberal education, like the cause of political liberty, is\nalways worth preserving and always in peril. In such causes, if anywhere,\nmen need to be ever resolute as well as intelligent; for only thus does it\nbecome possible, even when distressed, to face grave crises without becoming for an instant pessimistic, inasmuch as the priceless value of what we\nare seeking to defend assures us that our efforts are well worth making,\nand that no effort is too great in maintaining so good a cause.\nWe have such a cause today, the cause of liberal education. I need\nnot argue in this presence that, as it prevails, our American life is lifted,\nand that, as it fails, our American life is degraded. It is today, as ever,\nin peril, but in unusual peril as embodied in its noblest representative,\nthe American college.\n\ny\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESENT\n\nPERIL\n\nTO LIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n55\n\nLet us picture the situation in its worst possible outcome. Suppose\nthe chances are that the college is to fail, to be crushed out between the\nupper and nether millstones of professional and secondary schools by\nreason of the violent demand for something more \"practical.\" What\nthen ? If it must go, it must go, of course. But ought it to go ? x\\nd above\nall, ought it to go without a struggle ? Those who know most about colleges\nthink not, while those who know least about them — and they form a huge\nmajority — are often indifferent and sometimes hostile. Scarcely one in\na hundred of your young men of college age has gone to college. They,\nat least, are with the college, and so is the rest of the better intelligence\nof the land. But educated intelligence does not always prevail over\nignorance, even in deciding matters of education. One can hardly fail,\nwhen painting the danger at its blackest, to recall the great words of Stein,\nwhen appealing to his fellow-Prussians in the Napoleonic wars: \"We\nmust look the possibility of failure firmly in the face, and consider well\n.... that this contest is begun less in regard to the probability of success\nthan to the certainty that without it destruction is not to be avoided.\"\nIt is by no means as black as that, nor does it seem likely to become\nso. But even if the peril were far greater than it is, there would be no\ngood reason why we should not continue the struggle. There is good\nreason to believe that the forces with us are strong enough not only to\nsave but to strengthen, the American college, and that, when once its real\nvalue is brought home anew to the minds and consciences of men, it will\nassert its rights with ample power.\nLet us think for a moment of what the American college is. It has\nbeen evolved out of our own needs and has proved its extraordinary usefulness bya long record. It has been democratic in its freedom of access\naud in the prevailing tone of its life. It has furnished our society and\nstate with a small army of well-trained men. In it supremely are centered\nour best hopes for liberal education, both as focused in the college itself\nand as radiating outward on the secondary schools below and the professional schools above. It is the best available safeguard against the\nmechanical cramping of an unliberalized technical education. It is our\none available center of organization for true universities. It has produced a class of men unequaled in beneficent influence by any other class\nof equal numbers in our history.\nIn the rush of American life it has stood us the quiet and convincing\nteacher of higher things. It has been preparing young men for a better\ncareer in the world by withdrawing them a while from the world to cultivate their minds and hearts by contact with things intellectual and spiritual,\nin a society devoted to those invisible things on which the abiding greatness of our life depends. By reason of this training most college men\nhave become better than they would have been, and better in important\nrespects than they could have been, had they not gone to college.\nTheir\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nvision has been cleared and widened, and their aims have been elevated.\nNot least of all, they have been taught incessantly the lesson, so deeply\nneeded to steady them in our fiercely practical surroundings, that the\nmaking of a good living is not so important as the making of a good life.\nThe college has proved its right to live. To preserve, maintain, and\nenergize it to its highest capacity for good, to prune its excesses, strengthen\nits weak places, and supply its needs, is therefore the bounden duty of\nthose who care for the best interests of our nation.\nThe perils which beset it come from various sources: first, from the\ncommon defects of our American civilization; second, from the weaker\ntendencies in young men ; and, third, from the confusion of counsels\ninside the college itself. The first two we must be prepared to encounter\nalways, but the last one ought to be avoidable.\nThis is no place to draw up a catalog of our common defects as a\npeople. Our virtues we know well. They are self-reliance, quick ingenuity, adventurousness, and a buoyant optimism. Our national faults are\nnot so pleasant to think of — as, for example, the faults of boastful vulgarity and reckless excitability. Yet there are some that must be mentioned\nas being especially perilous to our college education. The chief one, I\nthi,nk, is commercialism — the feverish pursuit of what \" pays \" as the one\nend of life. Are we not subjected today, as never before, to demands for\nteaching the things of commerce as part of the college course? And are\nnot the mechanical arts and crafts, admirable indeed in their true uses,\ntrying to mix in with the other things, as tho they were of the same\nfamily of studies, and saying they must have room in the same house, even\nif other members of the family are pushed out? Are not technical studies\nbeing called liberal, and is not even the technique of the professions\nsometimes labeled liberal also, on the plea that all knowledge is liberalizing?\nSo it is, but in what differing degrees and senses! The instinct for the\nuseful is being perverted and exalted above the love of knowledge as a\nchief end. And why? Because what is wanted is something immediately,\nobviously, almost mercenarily useful. Is it not time we read again the\nbooks of philosophy to learn again that the true utility is the long utility\nwhich serves to make a whole life useful, and that it is the end for which\nmen live that makes them useful and useless? Do we not feel that we are\nhere coming close to the sanctions of religion, and need to answer that\ndeep question, \" What shall it profit a man? \" once more?\nAnother peril is a companion and natural follower of commercialism,\nnamely, illiteracy ; not in the meaning of that word in the census tables, but\nin the meaning of ignorance of good literature. ** No man can serve books\nand Mammon,\" said Richard de Bury long ago. Is it not a fact that the\nmajority of college students today are not familiar with the commonplacesof\nliterary information and the standard books of history, poetry, and so on?\nDo they know that greatest book of our tongue, the Engli-sh Bible, as their\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESENT\n\nPERIL\n\nTO LIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n57\n\nfathers did? What have so many of them been reading? The newspapers, of course, and fiction — not always the better fiction. As between\nbooks and the short stories in magazines, how few read the former! I am\nrrot now speaking of the handbooks of philosophy and science, or generally\nof the books that involve severe thought, but of the readable, delightful\nbooks, the pleasant classics of English. What a confession of the state of\nthings it is that colleges have to make the reading of a few books of\nEnglish literature a set task as an entrance requirement, and then ask formal\nquestions on what ought to be the free and eager reading of every boy at\nhome ! How far it is true that the advocacy of teaching science may have\noperated, not to beget a taste for science, but merely a neglect of literature, is perhaps idle to ask. It is at least true that these neglecters of\nliterature are not usually giving laborious hours to reading scientific\nworks. Perhaps some day our schools generally will get \" Readers \" that\nhave literature in them, and that will help matters a little. But the socalled students who do not care to read, or do not know how to read as\nall students should, are with us in abundance as an ever-present peril.\nThe quiet book by the quiet lamp is a good charmer. -Here the true\nstudent forms his friendships with the masters of thought and fancy ; here\nthey speak to him, not under the constraints of the class-room ; here he\nmay relax without weakness, adventure without limit, soar without fear, and\nhope without end. It is the old story. Books are, as Huxley put it, \"his\nmain helpers,\" and the free reading outside the set tasks is, perhaps next\nto music, his most ennobling pleasure. The loss of this is today the thing\nthat does so much to deprive our college life and conversation of the fine\nflavor of that much misunderstood thing. Culture.\nAnother peril comes from the students themselves. It is a disposition\nto do the pleasant rather than the hard thing, even when the hard\nthing happens to be the best thing. This is most common among\nthose whose main interest in college life is social. It is also fostered\nby the general absorption in athletics, tho it is not so much the athletes who are affected — for they are at least used to a vigorous discipline in things physical — as it is the mass of onlookers who attend the\ngames and waste so much time discussing them. This social and athletic\nenvironment — with all its undeniable and, I believe, indispensable good —\nis just now doing much harm to the intellectual life of students. Because\nit is unduly exaggerated, it is operating powerfully to disperse the\nstudent's energies in a miscellany of things outside his studies. Things\nwhich should come second, as the relaxation of those whose first business\nis study, often come first, and studies must get what they can of\nwhat is left. How natural it is that such students should crowd into the\neasier courses ! They have little interest left for anything intellectual.\nSo far as this occurs, liberal education dies, and college students come to\ntheir manhood with men's bodies and boys' minds.\n\nWhat is being lost is\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe development of virile intellectual power, a thing which simply cannot\ngrow without exercise.\nThis is a matter which goes far below the question of one or another\nplan of studies, tho it is greatly affected by the relative wisdom or\nunwisdom of what the student is offered. If he finds a course which\nimpels him and his comrades to regular effort day by day, and also gives\nhim the immense help that comes to all young men of ordinary abilities\nfrom moving together with their fellows in the same direction, his progress in studies is part of the orderly advance of a march, with little\nchance for straggling or loitering. If he is confused by failure to discover that there is a rational order of studies, or that his college believes\nthere is at least some preferable order for the mass of students, he thus\nloses much or all of a kind of help he ought to have. If the educated\nexperience of his college cannot tell him, at least approximately, what\nthings he ought to take, and some definite things which all college students ought to take, how is he to find out with any strong probability that\nhe is going straight on the right road? Those who are ready to move an\nindefinite distance along any of the diverging directions of elective freedom may well pause to ask whether the keen words of Descartes on\nprogress in knowledge are not worth heeding in this connection : \"It is\nbetter to go a short distance on the right road than a long distance on\nthe wrong one.\"\nThe love of freedom from control and of pleasure in our labor are\nsplendid things. They are at once the charm and peril of student effort.\nThe true freedom of the human spirit is the true end of the college\ncourse. This is not injured, however, by creating places where students\nmay go, if they will, and where they must take some subjects of study\nwhich experience shows to be eminently fitted in their combination to\nserve this very end. We are asking simply for some of the central truths\nof literature, science, and philosophy, what Locke called the \" teeming\ntruths, rich in store, with which they furnish the mind, and, like the\nlights of heaven, are not only beautiful and entertaining in themselves,\nbut give light and evidence to other things that without them could not\nbe seen or known.\" ' And as for the element of pleasure, why should we\nnot desire it? How exquisitely did Aristotle say: \"Pleasure perfects\nlabor, even as beauty crowns youth.\"\" Not the idle pleasure, however,\nbut the achieved pleasure, the deep pleasure that comes from noble mastery, from winning on the hard-fought field of athletics of the mind, and,\nabove all, from winning in the fight against intellectual sloth and easygoing indulgence — this is the crown of our best young college manhood.\nA few words must suffice to set forth another peril which especially\nbesets us at this time. It is the peril of confusion in college counsels. It\n\n/\n\nOf the Conduct of the Hziman\n\nUnderstanding,\n\ni,i.\n\n2 Ethics, \"X., ^,Z.\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPRESENT\n\nPERIL\n\nTO\n\nLIBERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n59\n\nhas been inevitable because of the extreme diversity of educational\nconditions in our land and because of conflicting theories of college\ntraining.\nThe pole of law and the pole of freedom are the two contrasted\nstandpoints, with many a halting-place between. It is clear that any\nattempt to cast all our colleges in one mold is foredoomed to failure. We\nmust seek some other remedy. But if the present confusion cannot be\ncured, the colleges will be seriously and permanently weakened. Here\natleast we must do something, and do it soon. The colleges must at all\nevents do one thing, and that is to make as clear as possible what it is\nthey are severally seeking to accomplish. Certain very practical questions need to be answered. They are questions of the substance and aim\nof liberal education.\nOne of the questions is : Should a college exact a substantial amount\nof prescribed study for its degree? If so, there is room to organize one\nor more ba9helor's degrees according to the types now slowly, tho\nimperfectly, evolving in our time. If not, the free elective plan with one\nbachelor's degree is the true alternative. There are many halting-places\nbetween, but none of them is a resting-place. Here, then, is a basis of\nclear division without confusion, and one that plain folk can understand.\nThe nature of the answer given will depend on whether or not a given\ncollege believes that there are substantial studies above the stage of our\npreparatory schooling which are essential to the best liberal education.\nIntermediate or minimizing positions on this question will result in corresponding vagueness and uncertainty in organization, and will tend to\nperpetuate the confusion. It is worth sacrificing something, even in a\ntransitional stage, for the sake of the assured gain that accrues to a welldefined plan. If it turns out to be a wrong plan, its defects become\nvisible sooner and may be more promptly amended.\nLet us ask a second question : Is there or is there not a proper field\nof college studies, exclusive of the fields of secondary, technical, and professional learning? If so, such studies alone should constitute the college\ncourse. If not, studies from the other fields may be brought in. It will\nnot do to say no sharp line can be drawn between fields of education for\nthe reason that the domain of knowledge is one and all knowledge is\nliberalizing. Follow this out consistently, and important distinctions,\nneeded to effect a working scheme of division for the parts of education, are obscured. We may distinguish between great regions, even\ntho we are unable to settle all boundary disputes. There are enough\ncollege studies of undisputedly and eminently liberal character to fill the\ncollege course to repletion. Let those wj^o believe this organize accordingly, and let those who believe that any respectable study possible to\nstudents of college age may be put in the college course put such studies\nin. TJie two kinds of colleges will then be distinctly discernible.\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIf the college is to prevail, the confusion, tho not necessarily a division of counsels, must cease. The two opposing tendencies indicate the\ntwo available lines for at least making the division clear to the country at\nlarge. Intermediate positions are unstable and transitional. They make\nconfusion. What parents, teachers, and students need to know as\ndefinitely as possible is precisely what it is a given college stands for.\nUncertainty here breeds loss of confidence in liberal education. It is to\nbe hoped that most of the colleges will be able to stand together. If they\ndo, I hope and believe they will stand for the conviction that there ^e\ncollege studies essential for all who take the college course; that it is the\ncompletion of these which opens to the student the best all-around view\nof the knowledge most serviceable for his whole after-life; and that the\nideas of discipline and duty, in studies as well as in conduct, underlie\nany real development of the one true freedom of the human spirit.\n\nTHE\n\nCALVIN\n\nOPPORTUNITY AND FUNCTION\nSECONDARY SCHOOL\n\nM.' WOODWARD,\n\nDEAN\nOF SCHOOL\nOF\nUNIVERSITY,\nST. LOUIS,\n\nOF\n\nENGINEERING,\nMO.\n\nTHE\n\nWASHINGTON\n\nThe curriculum of the secondary school must be broadened. The\ndemand for it comes from new constituencies with increasing emphasis\nevery year. Secondary education is rapidly becoming universal, and its\nform and content must take into account new fields of activity for educated people. The curriculum must adapt itself to modern requirements.\nIt must touch modern life, modern conditions, modern forces, modern\nresponsibilities. As Huxley expressed it, \"It is folly to continue, in this\nage full of modern artillery, to train our boys to do battle in it equipped\nonly with the sword and shield of the ancient gladiator.\" Sir Lyon Playfair changed the figure in protesting against the English system of secondary education, as follows: \"In a scientific age and in an industrial\nsection, an exclusive education in the dead languages is a curious anomaly. Th& flowers of literature should indeed be cultivated, but it is not\nwise to send men into our fields of industry to reap the harvest, when\nthey have been taught to pick the poppies and push aside the wheat.\"\nWhen the wide-awake, inquisitive boy knows that electricity, and\nsteam, and heat, and the art of designing and constructing machines, can\nbe studied and understood with no more effort and in less time than it\ntakes to commit to memory a Latin grammar, or to read Demosthenes\nwithout a dictionary, and that those former things are ten times as interesting as the latter, and a hundred times as likely to be of service to him\nin the struggle for life and the battle for success — he will choose them,\nif he has a chance.\nAnd it is our business to give him a chance.\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions J\n\nOPPOR\n\nTUNITY\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF SECOND\n\nA R V SCHOOL\n\n61\n\nWe want living languages and living issues. We must teach the\nduties of an American citizen rather than the manner of life of a slaveowner in Athens or Babylon; not merely what may be the solace and\ndelight of a man of leisure, but what will increase his value and use in\npractical affairs. We must teach the mechanics, hydraulics, electricity,\nand chemistry of today, rather than the doctrines and fallacies of Aristotle\nand the alchemists. We must illustrate and explain the battle of Santiago,\nrather than the battle of Salamis. It is a thousand times more interesting\nand more useful to the average boy to know how modern engineers tunneled under the Alps, than to read the fabulous stories of how Hannibal\nmade a road over them ; to know how Eads built a railway bridge across\nthe Mississippi, than to decipher Caesar's foot-bridge over the Rhine ; to\nanalyze and comprehend the waterworks of Boston, St. Louis, or London,\nthan the hydraulic system of ancient Rome, marvelous as it was; to\nmaster the universal language of drawing, than to get a smattering of a\nlanguage which no one speaks and no -one writes ; to become familiar with\nmodern methods of construction and the skillful use of tools and machinery, than to speculate over the tower of Babel or the pyramids of Egypt. As\nEmerson said, we must take the step from knowing to doing, and we\nmust teach the rising generation to do the things that the world today\nwants done.\nHere is the magnificent opportunity for the secondary school ; to use\na military phrase, let it change front and face the world of today. Let it\nopen all its doors and windows to the humanities of today. Look around\nand look forward, not always backward. Weep not, as Ruskin did, for\ndeparted days, for the lumbering stagecoach, the storm-driven wooden\nships, the hand-loom, the log-hut, and the good old days of blissful feudalism. Iam amazed when I think how much we are spellbound by tradition. Perhaps I have been as foot-loose as any of you, yet I find\nmyself continually approving of educational features for no good reason\nexcept that they are fashionable. We somehow seem to think it means\nfar more and is in far better form to know that certain nymphs gave a\nGreek hero a helmet which Vulcan made for Pluto, and which rendered\nhim invisible, than to know that Thomas A. Edison invented the incandescent lamp and made it possible for Niagara Falls to light a whole city\nwith it, twenty-five miles away; and yet we don't believe one word of the\nformer story, while we accept every word of the latter.\nIt is, of course, a matter of association. Sir Lecester Deadlock, in\nBleak House, could not endure a man who experimented with a steam\nengine and who seemed quite at home with a coal-burning furnace. He\ndrew inferences as you and I do. Sir Leoester inferred that the man who\nunderstood engines and power-houses must be ignorant of polite learning\nand unfamiliar with the ways of good society. So you jump to the conclusion that the man who knows all about Edison and th«e generation of\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nelectricity by a waterfall is probably ignorant of Greek mythology and\nnot very proficient in spelling.\nWell, perhaps you are right and perhaps you are wrong. But this is\ncertain : it is no longer safe to assume that your engineer or your electrician isan uneducated man, or that he lacks culture. There is more\nthan one kind of culture. Emerson speaks of \"having a mechanical craftfor culture.\" By \"culture\" I mean a knowledge of some of the best\nthings that have been said and done in the world ; a certain refined and\ngracious spirit ; a soul of honor ; a depth of human sympathy; a wise\nand understanding heart ; an all-pervading love for what is useful and\ntrue, and therefore good and beautiful. That kind of culture can be\ngained with or without much ancient literature; with or without much\nmathematics; with or without the physical, biological, or dynamic laboratory ;with or without the art-room or the drafting-room ; with or without the theory of typical tools and correct methods of construction. But\nthere is no necessary divorce between the skilled hand and the cultured\nmind ; both are needed for the highest culture.\nPresident Woodrow Wilson says that the colleges are not planned for\nthe majority; they are for the minority. When we consider colleges of\nthe Princeton type, we must admit that he is right. They are not for the\nmajority. So of the classical secondary school ; it is not for the majority,\nand the majority know it and feel it.\nI am not pleading tonight for the minority who are already in our\nsecondary and higher schools. I am pleading for that vast majority who\nare not in them, who need and desire education, and who are coming in\nincreasing numbers. The program which the majority want is fairly well\nknown. It is in force in many cities; it is embodied in the manualtraining high school ; and it has been met with a hearty response. I\nneed not quote St. Louis to prove this. The Manual -Training High\nSchool of Kansas City has doubled the high-school attendance of the city\nin six years. Similar results have been reached in other cities. The\ntechnical college or school of engineering logically follows this new kind\nof high school. It takes equal rank with the traditional college, and it\nwill soon outstrip it in attendance.\nWhen Hawthorne got thru college he wrote to his mother : \" I cannot\nbecome a physician and live by men's diseases ; I cannot be a lawyer and\nlive by their quarrels ; I cannot be a clergyman and live by their sins. I\nsuppose there is nothing for me to do but write books.\"\nNow, the majority who are coming will inherit no wealth ; they expect\nand desire to earn their own living. We do not need them as lawyers,\nor ministers, or doctors; we hope they won't all write books; but we do\nneed them as teachers, as engineers, as accomplished workmen in our\nindustries and in our unhistorical methods of trade and commerce. Let\nus persuade them that education and skill dignify and adorn and enrich\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOPPOR TUNITY\n\nAND\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF SECOND AR Y SCHOOL\n\n63\n\nevery occupation ; that the legitimate fruit of a combination of literary and\nscientific culture and technical skill in dealing with materials and forces\nwill be a generation of stronger, abler, and more successful men in industrial, commercial, and political life.\nLet us begin, if you please, by training a part of this majority in the\nprinciples underlying crafts, rather than induce them to feel that they are\nsuperior to all crafts, and so be unwilling to be put to any.\nLet us avoid the serious mistake of educating the majority as tho they\nwere a privileged minority. Let us accept once and for all the doctrine\nthat any occupation may be ennobled, enriched, and dignified by education, training, and skill ; that there is a score of new professions requiring\na high order of intellect, and the close and continued study of subjects as\ndifficult and as profound as are the branches which lead up to the so-called\nlearned professions.\nThe educated and highly accomplished architect or engineer is a learned\nman, and he stands second to none in the forum and in the arena of\nactivity today. There is a great and an increasing demand for such men\nin every city in the land. I have been training engineers for nearly half\na century, and I know how inadequate the supply is. The other day I\nwas told that there were twelve hundred educated engineers in Pittsburg,\nand the demand was continually for more. The number of students in\nthe technical schools — that is, the schools for applied science in the various\nbranches of engineering and architecture — ought to be as numerous as in\ncolleges for letters and pure science; and they will be as numerous when the\nsecondary schools recognize the majority as they now do the minority.\nWhat has been done in Philadelphia, Kansas City, and in some other\ncities, and what is now being done in St. Louis, ought to be done in every\ncity that can maintain a high school ; viz., offer facilities for a secondary\neducation looking toward industrial occupations and technical professions\nequal at least to those offered for students looking forward to clerical or\nmercantile occupations and the traditional professions.\nAre you doubtful about the intellectual, moral, and social standing of\nthe graduates of schools which incorporate a thoro course of manual training, including practical drafting, with a modest academic course ? If so,\nit will be of value if I give you the record of the graduates of a high-grade\nmanual-training school, which has been in existence twenty-three years\nand has graduated 960 men in twenty classes. I refer to the school\nconnected with Washington University in St. Louis.\nBefore I read the list, please bear in mind that the school does not aim\nto produce mechanics. Not every boy is fit to be, or has the ability to be,\na good mechanic. Many graduates who sorted life as mechanics have\npushed along, and have been called up higher, to greater responsibilities\nand to larger rewards. At the start we do not pretend to know what a\nboy is by nature best fitted for, nor what opportunities his environment\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwill offer. We attach no value to the whims and fancies of a fourteenyear-old boy, and very little to the ambitious hopes of parents. When a\nboy stands four-square on a broad foundation-training at the age of seventeen or eighteen, he is pretty sure to build aright.\nOCCUPATIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGRADUATES\n\nWASHINGTON\nAgriculture and stock-raising\nArchitects\nArtists\n\n-\n\n-\n\nOF THE\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nST. LOUIS '\n\n14\n24\n4\n\nBankers\n7\nBookkeepers, general assistants, and\nclerks\n153\nCashiers\n----5\nChemists\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n9\nContractors\n.\n.\n.\n2\nDentists\n4\nDraftsmen\n100\nElectricians\n- 19\nFieldmen\n4\nForemen\n3\nGeneral managers\n...\n32\nInsurance men\n.\n.\n.\ng\nLawyers\n30\nLibrarian\ni\n\nMechanics\nMerchants and manufacturers\nMinisters\n\nSCHOOL\n\n-\n\nOF\n\n-\n\n14\n90\ni\n\nPhysicians\n22\nReal-estate men\n18\nReporters\n2\nSalesmen and agents\n41\nStudents in higher schools\n- 75\nSuperintendents of manufactories 44\nTeachers\n----39\nTechnical engineers\n.\n65\nU. S. navy engineers\n...\n4\nMiscellaneous\n....\n15\nUnknown\n56\nNo. of graduates who have entered\nelsewhere upon higher education of\nsome sort and have already taken\ndegrees\n159\n\nThis outcome suggests an important function of a secondary school\nwhich I have not seen clearly stated. The secondary school should enable\na boy to discover the world and to find himself. I use the word \"discover\" in the sense of uncover — that is, lay bare — the problems, the\ndemands, the opportunities, the possibilities of the eternal world. A boy\nfinds himself when he has taken a correct inventory of his inherited and\nacquired tastes and capacities.\nIf the secondary school shall do those two things, it will do what generally has never been done at all. This cannot be done with a single\ncurriculum along any line. All your windows and doors must be open.\nThis is a superb function of the secondary school, and every pupil should\nstay in school till he has secured the benefit of it. Nothing in education can outweigh the importance of these two discoveries : the\nexternal world and oneself. The elementary school comes too early,\nand the college and real life come too late. The secondary school is the\nplace for discovery and intelligent choice.\nWhen the whole boy has been put to school three or four years in a\nsecondary school, he finds out what his strong points are, if he has any;\nand he works into the occupation where he is most likely to achieve success. In point of fact, the round plug gets into the round hole, and the\nI Forty-five have died, so that, counting the class of last month, whose occupations are largely \" unknown,\"\nthere are 915 on the list, many only boys still.\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMANUAL,\n\nTRADE,\n\nAND\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n65\n\nsquare plug gets into the square hole, with an infinite sense of compatibility pervading both plugs and holes.\nWhile I plead for the neglected majority and point out the glorious\nopportunity of the secondary school, I must speak a word for the benefit\nof the minority.\nThe great mass of American teachers has as yet no adequate conception of the fine invigorating effect of a correct system of manual training\nupon the mind and character of a healthy, normal boy. I do not refer\nto manual training falsely so called ; to the wishy-washy tinkering with\ntools and materials, where the child is the victim of his own whims, and\nof his teacher's ignorance ; where, under the pretense of developing originality, initiative, altruism, or concrete expression, the child is prematurely\nmisled, misdirected, and mistreated, until the possibility of well-timed\nand well-regulated manual training is utterly lost. I regret that I must\nspeak so strongly of a tendency utterly to emasculate manual training by\na method of treatment which would be instantly condemned if applied to\nany other branch of study. We must, I suppose, excuse a great deal of\nsentimentalism and extravagance on the ground that the most recent converts are apt to be unbalanced by excess of zeal.\nManual training furnishes many of the elements of culture and discipline which are lacking in the ordinary secondary course of study.\nContact with the concrete ; clear concepts of materials, forces, and instrumentalities; exact knowledge of mechanical processes; analyses of complex operations ; the idea of precision ; habits of system, of foresight, and\nof intellectual honesty — these mental, moral, and physical elements are\ninvaluable ; and it is not strange that President Eliot said : \" Manual\ntraining not only trains the eye and hand, but develops the habit of accuracy and thoroness in any kind of work. It develops the mental faculties\nof some boys better than books do.\" Professor James, of Harvard, says\nthat \"the most colossal improvement which recent years have seen in\nsecondary education lies in the introduction of manual training.\" And\nDr. Stanley Hall says : **No kind of education so demonstrably develops\nbrain as hand-training.\"\nThe minority should have a chance at this improvement and enjoy\nthese benefits most assuredly. So here is another splendid opportunity\nfor the secondary school.\n\nMANUAL,\nTHOMAS\n\nM.\n\nBALLIET,\n\nTRADE,\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTECHNICAL\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nEDUCATION\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nCivilization rests at the present time far more than at any previous\nperiod upon an economic basis. The life and progress of nations are\ndependent on industry and comm-erce rather than, as formerly, on agri-\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nculture ; and in the struggle for national supremacy these make for survival. There is a natural limit to the consumption of food products, but\nthe demand for the products of manufacture, of industry, and of industrial\nart which minister to our comfort, our pleasure, and our higher needs is\nlimited only by our means. With the rapid increase in wealth, the world's\nmarket for these products has in recent years become enormously enlarged ;\nand the great nations of the earth are struggling in fierce, if bloodless,\ncombat for the possession of it. In this contest for industrial and commercial supremacy, next to natural resources, the chief determining factor\nis industrial and commercial efficiency. The conflicts between nations are\nno longer religious, as they were in the seventeenth century, nor political,\nas they were in the eighteenth ; but they have become economic ; and\neconomic strength has shifted from agriculture to manufacturing and\ncommerce. Hence it comes to pass that the leading modern nations are\nrapidly becoming transformed from agricultural to manufacturing nations.\nThis transformation in the case of England has been in progress for over\na hundred years, and is well-nigh complete ; while in Russia it has but\nscarcely begun, in Germany, Japan, and the United States it has made\nimmense progress within a generation.\nThis radical economic change has created a new environment, to which\nnations and individuals must adjust themselves; and, as the adjustment\nhas not kept pace with the changes, we are confronted with the problem of\nhow to further this adjustment so as to increase both national and individual efficiency.\nIt is the function of education to fit for life; to make the individual\nintellectually, socially, morally*, and industrially efficient ; to adjust him\nto his environment. A change so revolutionary as the one described\ndemands, accordingly, a radical change in the organization of schools as\nwell as in the curriculum and the methods of teaching. It demands that,\nwhile the school must above all else aim to develop men and women, it must\nnot stop with that ; it must also train them to do with skill and effectiveness some form of work which has economic and commercial value in this\ncomplex environment, dominated by industry and commerce, in which\nthey must live. The general development of mind and character, while it\nmust always remain the chief aim of education, can no longer remain its\nsole aim ; the schools must produce, not merely a good man, but a good\nman who is good for something — good for some specific thing. . Economic efficiency as well as quality of mind and character must be made a\ntest of education. This is a form of utilitarianism in education which is\nnot only not antagonistic to the highest idealism, but which reinforces\nidealism by giving it specific content and an ethical quality which connects itclosely with life. The idealism which should dominate modern\neducation is not an idealism which is based on the life of the past, but an\nidealism which idealizes the life of the present and emphasizes its moral\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n•\n\nMANUAL,\n\nTRADE,\n\nAND\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n67\n\nproblems and its duties. This was the idealism of the prophets and of\nJesus himself; it is the only idealism which has ethical vitality.\nThe progressive nations of the world are rapidly readjusting their educational systems so as to meet these new demands of the age. The\nnatural sciences, which have made the phenomenal development of modern\nindustry possible, are emphasized as never before; and technical and\ncommercial schools of all grades, as well as trade and industrial schools of\nevery variety, have sprung up. In this movement Germany, France, and\neven Austria have outstripped England and the United States.\nOn a visit to Europe a few years ago, for the purpose of studying these\nschools, I found in Berlin alone twenty-eight industrial and trade schools,\nattended by over twenty-five thousand students. Almost every important\ntrade was represented. Schools of the same kind are found in every city\nof the German empire, and the technical training which Germany gives to\nits industrial classes and skilled mechanics far transcends anything found\nin this country. The German army which this country will have to fear\nis not the army which carries guns, but the army which carries tools. All\nover Europe the apprentice system still obtains to quite a large extent, and\nthis makes it possible to have trade schools in which expensive shops are\nnot necessary, and in which academic and theoretical instruction is the\nimportant feature. This makes these schools comparatively inexpensive.\nMany small trades which have long since passed away here still survive in\nall European countries. Moreover, as is well known, many processes of\nmanufacture are there still done by hand which in this country are performed bymachines. These and other considerations make it inadvisable\nfor us to copy their trade schools, altho we have many lessons to learn\nfrom them. On the other hand, their commercial schools and their\ntechnical schools are organized to meet conditions which are not radically\ndifferent from our own and may safely serve as models for us.\nThere is no other country in the world that has accomplished as much\nin manual training as our own ; there is no other country in which manual training has been made so extensively a feature of secondary education.\nThe manual-training high school is an American institution, and it contains possibilities which have not yet been realized. There should be a\nsharp line of distinction drawn in our thinking between manual training\nwhose aim is general education, and technical training in various industrial occupations and in trades. Manual training in some form should be\nan integral part of the course of study of all elementary and secondary\nschools, either as a required or as an optional study. There should be a\nworkshop for this purpose connected with every high school. Moreover,\na broad course in manual training should^recede instruction in specific\ntrades and form the basis of such instruction.\nThe manual-training high school, however, besides providing for a\ncourse in general manual training, ought to provide also courses in\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstrictly technical lines of work whose aim should be to train foremen,\nsuperintendents, and, in short, that large group of skilled experts who\ncome between the engineer and the mechanic, and whose duty it is to\nsuperintend the work of the latter under the general direction of the former. In a word, our manual-training high schools should be converted\ninto technical schools of high-school grade. We have enough engineering schools of college rank for our present industrial needs, but there is a\nvery great demand for technical high schools in which thoro instruction may be given in English, in history, in the modern languages; and\nin mathematics, physics, and chemistry, especially in their applications to\ntechnical processes; together with courses in shop-work, beginning with a\ngeneral course in manual training and ending in specialized courses\nleading to specific lines of technical work. Such schools ought to have a\nthreefold function: first, to provide a general course in manual training\nfor purely educational purposes ; second, to serve as fitting schools for\nthe higher technical schools; third, to give technical instruction of highschool grade for the purposes stated.\nThese should be the function of the day high school. But these\nschools may serve another purpose by ministering to the needs of an\nentirely different class of students from those of the day school. Its\nexpensive shop equipments may be used for the purpose of giving instruction in trades to men employed during the day either as apprentices or\nas journeymen. These equipments, which would otherwise lie idle after\nthe session of the day school closes, make it possible to organize, at comparatively small expense, evening trade schools for the broader training of\nmen already at work at their trade.\nAn evening trade school of this kind has been conducted for the last\nfour years at public expense in the city in which I reside, and I have\nbeen requested by the President of the Association to give a brief\naccount of it.\nPrevious to 1898 manual training was taught as an elective in our\nCentral High School. In September of that year a manual-training high\nschool was organized as a separate and independent school. In October,\n1899, when the equipment of the shops had become measurably complete, an evening trade school was organized, which has been continued\nevery year since from October to March. The school is in session six\nevenings a week, from 7:15 to 10 o'clock, each class meeting two or\nthree times a week. The first year only three departments were organized :(i) mechanical drawing, (2) machine-shop practice and tool-making, and (3) plumbing. During the past winter classes were conducted\nin the following subjects: (i) mechanical drawing, (2) machine-shop\npractice and tool-making, (3) plumbing, (4) wood-turning and patternmaking, (5) mechanics and applied mathematics, (6) electricity (lectures\nand laboratory\nwork).\nRecognizing the fundamental\ncharacter of\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMANUAL,\n\nTRADE,\n\nAND\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n69\n\nmechanical drawing for all the mechanical trades, the students in all the\nother classes are encouraged, tho not required, to join some class in\ndrawing. The course in mathematics is arranged with reference to the\nspecial needs of mechanics, and includes such topics in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry as find a direct application in the\nmechanical trades. The course in electricity consists of a lecture course\nfor persons who have only a scientific interest in the subject, and of a\nlaboratory course whose aim is to offer practical instruction in electrical\nmeasurements aftd electrical construction to persons who are employed\nwholly or in part at such work, or who desire to fit themselves for it.\nThe instruction in mechanical drawing is given by a man who has\noccupied important positions as draftsman in manufacturing establishments. The instructors in machine-shop practice and tool-making are\nmen who have had wide experience as mechanics and as superintendents\nof shops. The teacher of pattern-making had learned the trade as a\nyoung man and had practical experience in it for years. The teacher of\nplumbing is the plumbing inspector for the city, and is recognized as an\nauthority in his trade. The teachers of electricity, mechanics, and\nmathematics are technically trained men. All of these teachers, except\nthe teacher of plumbing and the assistant teacher in the machine shop,\nare employed in the day high school and are skillful teachers. The\nschool is under the supervision of the principal of the day high school. I\nneed not add that only technically trained teachers are available in a\ntrade school, and I believe we shall demand such teachers in the future\nalso for the shop-work in our manual-training high schools. This will\nremove a chief objection that is urged against the use of the equipments\nof these schools by evening trade schools, inasmuch as the same teachers\nwill be in charge of the shops and the laboratories both of the day and\nof the evening schools.\nThe enrollment for the past winter was 311, and the percentage of\nattendance was 86.8, ranging in the different classes from 81.5 in plumbing to 89.5 in pattern-making. This will be recognized as a considerably\nhigher percentage of attendance than is found in other types of evening\nschools. In enrolling students, when all applicants properly qualified\ncannot be accommodated, preference is invariably given to men already\nengaged at their trade either as apprentices or as journeymen ; and such\nmen constitute the large majority of students in the school. This policy\nrecommends the school to manufacturers and other employers of skilled\nlabor, because it educates their men and trains them to do a higher\nquality of work ; it recommends the school to the workingmen, because it\nenables them to secure promotions and^iigher wages; and it wins for the\nschool the good-will of the labor unions, because it does all this without\nappreciably increasing the labor market and becoming a means of\ndepressing wages.\n\nI believe that\n\nsuch\n\na policy '^ fundamental\n\nin the\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\norganization of all public trade schools in this country at the present time.\nAny other policy is likely to incur the opposition of the labor unions.\nThe men ranged in age from fifteen to fifty-four, and their average age\nwas 23.7 years — 150 being below twenty-one and 161 above.\nSpringfield has, besides a limited number of large manufacturing\nindustries, including the shops of the United States Armory, also a large\nvariety of small industries requiring skilled labor. There were represented\nin the school fifty-eight different occupations, most of which could be\nroughly grouped under the following heads: iron -workers, wood-workers,\nengineers and draftsmen, men employed in electrical work, apprentices,\nlaborers, and clerks employed in connection with various trades.\nThe reasons which the men gave in their application blanks for entering the school vary but little. They either want to prepare themselves to\ndo a higher grade of work in their own trade, for the purpose of receiving\na higher rating and increased wages, or they wish to change from the\ntrade in which they are engaged to some other in which the remuneration\nis higher. Of the men enrolled in the machine shop 69 per cent, gave the\nformer as the reason for joining, while only 9 per cent, gave the latter.\nOn the other hand, of the mep enrolled in the plumbing class only 43 per\ncent, had joined for the purpose of advancing in their trade, while 47 per\ncent, joined the class because they wished to change from their present\ntrade to that of plumbing. A limited number entered the various classes\nfor the sake of the indirect help which the instruction will give them in\ntheir trade. These are generally engaged in trades not taught in the\nschool, but closely allied to those which are taught. A certain number of\nmen who have had opportunity to learn only a small part of their trade in\nthe shops, on account of the minute specialization which modern production makes necessary, enter the school in order to broaden their\ntraining. One of the men in the machine-shop class said that he had\nbeen working at a drill for fourteen years and could not run any other\nmachine; another had worked about the same number of years on a\nshaper; and a third had been drilling on the same part of rifles in the\nUnited States Armory for eight years. These are but examples of many\ninstances which might be cited where the broader training of the school\nsupplements the narrow training of the shop. For such men the learning\nof a full trade is a liberal education.\nThis is a brief account of an experiment in teaching trades at public\nexpense ; it is a feature of our public-school work which has provoked but\nlittle criticism and is rapidly growing in favor ; and I believe it is destined\nto become a permanent part: — and a very important part — of the school\nsystem of our city. Our experience has convinced me that there is no\ninsuperable difficulty in the way of organizing an evening trade school in\nevery well-equipped manual-training high school in the country, and I\nbelieve that this is^ the point from which instruction in trades at public\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n71\n\nexpense can be most effectually developed with the least expenditure of\nmoney. Such evening trade schools can not only use the shop equipments of manual-training high schools, but they can have the free use of\ntheir laboratories, of their drawing-room with its equipment, and of other\nfacilities for academic instruction. No trade school, even for men who\nare mature and are already engaged at their trade, ought to confine its\ninstruction to shop-work ; it must not lose sight of the man in training\nthe mechanic. Thoro courses in mechanical drawing, in mechanics, in\napplied physics and applied mathematics, and if possible in other academic\nstudies, should be offered ; and every student in the shop-work classes\nshould be encouraged to take as many of these courses as his time and his\nstrength will permit.\nTHE\n\nPART\n\nHENRY\n\nS.\n\nOF\n\nPRITCHETT,\n\nTHE\nMANUAL-TRAINING\nHIGH\nIN AMERICAN EDUCATION\nPRESIDENT\nOF THE\nMASSACHUSETTS\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nThe philosophy of education has changed but little in two thousand\nyears. One might fairly describe the discussions of today's convention\nin the words of Aristotle : \"What is education and how are we to educate,\nwith a view either to perfect training or to the best life ?\" The systems\nof schools which exist in civilized countries today recognize the two\nfunctions of the school which Aristotle here suggests: (i) the part which\nthe school takes in training men for effective work in some station in life,\nand (2) the part which it takes in educating them for the best life in that\nstation.\nDuring the past quarter-century increasing emphasis has been laid\nupon the first of these roles, but never as divorced from the second. In\nEuropean systems of schools a constant differentiation has taken place in\nthe effort to meet the„ varying needs of different classes of citizens and\nwith the purpose of making each citizen an effective economic unit. In\nAmerica this differentiation has gone but a short distance, and far greater\nattention has been given to the training of the technical engineer of high\ngrade than to the training of the foreman, the mechanician, or the commercial agent. The most distinctive effort to widen the work of secondary education is that found in the establishment of the manual-training\nhigh schools, which has now had a history in this country of some twentyfive years. They are, in my judgment, the forerunners of a more complete differentiation in our school system, and under the topic for this\nevening, \" Manual Trade and Technical Education,\" I am inclined to\nthink that twenty minutes can be spentin no better way than to attempt\nan estimate of the results which have accrued to American education\nfrom the establishment of such schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWhat service has the manual-training school done in the training of\nmen for work and for their education in life, and what have been its contributions to pedagogic methods during the two or three decades which\nhave elapsed since its transfer to this country ? Such an inquiry will at\nleast be definite rather than general.\nIt will lead somewhither.\nIt may be fairly answered in the beginning that the manual-training\nhigh school, as it exists today, makes its contribution to the second rather\nthan to the first of the functions of a modern school to which I have\nalluded. It does not fit men for the life of the foreman or the mechanician. It is in no sense a trade school. Few of its graduates gain their\nlivelihood in any of the crafts. The facilities which it offers in shop-work\nlend themselves almost wholly to pedagogic ends. Manual training, as\nwe have it in the high school, is a culture study, and it is upon this side\nof school work that one must look for its contribution to American education.\nFor many reasons it is to be regretted that the manual-training schools\nhave not lent themselves more directly to the training of men who\ndesired to better themselves in industrial callings and in the arts and\ncrafts. In this country as yet almost nothing has been done to bridge\nover the gap which lies between the trained engineer and the untrained\nworkman. The vast majority of pupils of necessity leave the public\nschool at the end of the preparatory term. For them the manual-training school does not exist. If they enter industrial callings, their opportunities for improvement of their theoretical knowledge are limited to\nsuch hours as can be gleaned from evenings and holidays. Even in the\nmost progressive American cities the opportunity for such instruction in\nsubjects bearing directly on practical callings is most meager. The\napprentice in Berlin may turn to an evening trade school in any calling,\nbut the young mechanic in Boston can find only such as private foresight\nprovides.\nThere is, to my thinking, no more suggestive fact in connection with\nour popular education than the lists of the thousands of students, drawn\nlargely from ambitious men in industrial callings, who are enrolled in the\ncorrespondence schools. In my judgment, the manual-training school\nwhich will open its doors to this class of students, adapting the instruction to their needs, and using its expensive plant to its full value, will fill\na much-needed place in our educational system.\nWhen one studies the record of the manual-training high school from\nthe second standpoint to which I have alluded, the educational function\nof the school, it becomes evident that the training school has made real\nand important contributions to our educational needs. Undoubtedly the\nmost direct contribution to which one can point is the widening of our\nideal of culture, and the new avenue which has been opened up for\nfresh quickening of the mind and of the imagination.\nThe mind has,\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n73\n\nindeed, a thousand eyes, and there are a thousand lanes by which the\nlight may be let in. No school and no human agency can hope to offer\nto a youth all the opportunities by which these approaches to the soul\nmay be utilized. The manual-training school has brought an intellectual\nquickening to a very large number who would never have responded to\nthe teaching of the old-time school. To have furnished such an avenue\nof development for minds which failed to find such under older formal\nmethods of instruction is a distinct and noteworthy gain.\nThe manual-training school has made also a great contribution to the\ncause of education by the fresh demonstration which it has given of the\npedagogic value of mechanical and free-hand drawing. The value of this\nlesson it would be difficult to overestimate. There is no study, not even\nchemistry, which approaches drawing as a means for training the eye and\nfor developing the power of observation. For the purposes of the school\nit is one of the ready and most available studies, and it ought to form a\npart of the curriculum of every high school. The manual-training schools\nowe, in a very large degree, the measure of pedagogic success which they\nhave attained to the presence in their curriculum of well-taught courses\nin drawing. And one of the reasons for this has been that this subject,\naltho taught in an elementary way, has been made to conform to an\naccurate standard of scholarship.\nThese and other positive contributions of the manual-training high\nschool have not been rendered without results on the negative side. The\nmanual-training school has shared with all other educational efforts in\nAmerica the characteristics of our time and of our people. Enthusiastic\nfriends have claimed for it more than it has done or can do. While it is\ntrue that some, nay many, students find in the manual instruction new\nmeans for intellectual quickening, it is also true that this school is no more\nfitted to the needs of all boys than is the school of any other type. And\nno school has shared more fully in the dilution of scholarship which\ncomes from trying to teach many subjects in a short time than the manualtraining school. The motto, ''The cultured mind, the skillful hand,\"\nwhich one finds over the doorway of every manual-training school, is\nadopted in the spirit of Paul's definition of faith : \" the substance of things\nhoped for, the evidence of things not seen.\" The evidence which the\naverage boy has to furnish of the possession of this culture and skill consists of a very limited knowledge of his own language, a smattering of\nGerman, French, or Spanish, a very fair grounding in plane and solid\ngeometry and elementary algebra, excellent training in drawing, a notebook containing forty experiments in some one or more of the natural\nsciences, and a very limited knowledge of and experience with tools in a\nwell-appointed shop, which last he is inclined to consider of greater value\nthan all the rest.\nThere are two popular impressions concerning the work of the manual-\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntraining school which are, to my mind, somewhat misleading. One is the\nbelief that the practice and the instruction which a boy receives in the\nschool shop are an equivalent for the experience which he obtains in dealing with the physical problems of an outdoor life, such, for instance, as\ncomes to a boy raised on a farm. The experience which a boy gets in the\nuse of tools in the school, as well as that which he gets in the use of tools\non a farm, falls short of skill ; but in the one case he deals with the actual\nproblems and difficulties of daily life, and his resourcefulness and ability\nto solve a problem with the means at hand are constantly strengthened.\nFor most city boys the work in a well-kept shop is as much apart from the\ndaily problems of life as are the lessons in Latin ; and, while they appeal\nin a new way, and often a most successful way, to the boy's intelligence,\nthey do not take the place of the experience with living problems.\nThe other impression to which I refer is that voiced in the attractive\nphrase: \"Send the whole boy to school.\" Whatever this may mean, it\nhas no significance with respect to a manual -training school which it does\nnot have with respect to any other well-conducted school. While it is\ntrue that for certain boys the manual-training school furnishes just the\nopportunity needed to call out their latent powers, the whole boy goes to\nschool there in no greater sense than to any other school. What does it\nmean to send the whole boy to school ? If the boy is to grow up to be a\nwhole man or a citizen of the state, in the best sense, it means that his\nmoral nature is to be developed, that his mind is to be trained to think\nclearly, that his sympathy with his fellow-man is to be quick and true, and\nthat all these qualities are to join in effective work.\nAn infinite number of agencies contribute to this end, of which the\nschool is one of the most important, and is the only one which is devoted\nto the formal training of the mind. Doubtless the school will always continue to give its best service by developing the intellectual power of men.\nIt no doubt contributes most directly to all human progress by teaching\nmen to think ; for clear thinking lies at the base of all right progress. A\nschool which gives a part of its instruction by means of manual training\nmay prove the very place to develop a particular boy, but it no more puts\nthe whole boy to school than does any other school. West Point and\nAnnapolis, in this narrow sense, come nearer to putting the whole boy to\nschool, because they require him to give attention, not alone to the training of the hand, but to the training of the foot as well ; and their experience\nhas shown that dancing as a required course has no small value.\nLet me say one word concerning the work of the manual-training high\nschool as a preparation for the technical training of the engineer. More\nand more in the past decade the tendency has strengthened to regard the\nmanual-training high school as the natural fitting school for the school of\ntechnology, while the regular high school leads to the college, just as\nin Germany the Gymnasium is the door to the university, while the Real-\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n75\n\ngymnasiiifu leads to the technical school. I do not believe that in this\ncountry our educational progress has yet come to the point where this\ncan be assumed. Assuredly it is true that for some boys the manual training high school is the most inspiring school of preparation, but it is\nequally true that for a very large number of boys its training will be onesided, and will tend to put the emphasis on the wrong place. The question\nas to whether the boy who is looking toward the profession of the engineer\nshould go thru the manual-training high school, or the English or classical\nhigh school, is one which depends largely on the boy's temperament, preparation, and attitude of mind. It goes without saying that when a large\nproportion of the school day is given to hand-training, this part of the\neducation will have, in the boy's estimation, a very large value, and there\nwill not only be left less time for other studies, but they are likely to\nreceive less relative emphasis.\nIt is only fair to parents who have boys to educate to set these facts\nclearly before their eyes and let them judge in the light of their knowledge of the boy whether he should get his preparation in the one school\nor in the other.\nI hesitate to speak from my own personal experience, and yet such\nexperience is after all a real test. For sixteen years I taught mathematics\nin a western university whose pupils were drawn almost wholly from three\nschools. One was a city high school of high grade, offering courses with\nthe classics, and also courses without Latin and Greek ; one was a similar\nhigh school of high grade, conducted under private control ; and the\nthird was a manual-training high school of wide reputation. As a teacher\nof mathematics I came in contact with all students. My observation was\n— and the experience of my colleagues coincided with my own — that the\nstudents who came to us from the city high school were uniformly the\nbest prepared in respect to those matters which have to do with general\nscholarship, such as correct use of English, neatness and accuracy of work,\nand scholarly interest in all subjects. In these matters the students\ncoming from the manual-training school were; on the whole, the most\nbackward. The reason for this may have been partly found in the difference in the quality of the students, but on the whole it seemed to me to\nbe in large measure due to the two causes which I have mentioned — the\nsmaller amount of time spent on such subjects, and the higher importance\nvery naturally given by the pupils to manual training.\nThere are, in my judgment, many cases in which the manual-training\nschool is better fitted to take the boy who is to enter college than the boy\nwho is to enter the school of technology. It is also a question whether a\nstudent who is to enter the technical school may not better get at least a\npart of his instruction in the mechanic arts in the technical school itself.\nWhile elementary work in wood and metal may well be given in the high\nschool, advanced wood-work, such\n\nas\n\npattern-making\n\nand\n\nwork\n\nwith\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nmachine tools, will mean much\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmore after the student has reached a\n\ngreater maturity and has studied mechanism, and the mature student will\nattain in less time a higher skill and a far more definite and practical\npoint of view.\nIt seems to me, therefore, that in trying to estimate the value of the\nmanual-training school in American education we must not only give it\ncredit for the really great service it is doing in the way of preparing men\nfor business life, or as a school of preparation for college and the technical\nschool, but we must also recognize clearly its weaknesses and its limitations. It has opened a new door to intellectual and moral progress for a\nclass of students who under the old regime would never have found their\nway to scholarship, and it has shown the way to improved pedagogic\nmethods. But its ministry has as yet been almost wholly on the side of\npedagogics. It has not reached down to serve the great mass of youth to\nwhom mechanical training and manual skill would mean most of all. Its\nadvocates have taken pride rather in supplanting the old instruction than\nin serving a class of citizens for whom in America no instruction that is\navailable has been offered. The manual-training school is no educational\nspecific. It is no better adapted to meet the wants of all boys than is any\nother school. And, finally, the manual-training school must share with\nmost American educational projects the responsibility for that dilution of\nscholarship which comes from the effort to teach a great many subjects in\na limited time.\nOur schools reflect, or possibly account for, the national tendency to\nmake a little knowledge go a great way. The American is alert, energetic, resourceful, and superficial. He can make a little knowledge go\nfarther than the citizen of any other country, and this lesson he has had\nevery opportunity to learn in the school. Initiative, resourcefulness, and\nnervous energy were great factors in our pioneer work, and they are great\nfactors still; but they will not endure in competition with efficient training, patient study, and exact knowledge.\nThe pioneer epoch has passed.\nTo my thinking, an American boy who has a good knowledge of his\nown language — a knowledge which has led him to read and to love good\nbooks — who is master of his elementary mathematics, whose accuracy\nof observation has been trained by a good elementary course in drawing,\nand who knows well Latin or some modern language, with such familiarity\nwith natural science as his own reading and simple laboratory talks and\nexperiments supply; such a boy has a better education with which to go\ninto the world, and is better prepared to enter the college or technical\nschool, than a student who knows' in a partial and superficial way four\ntimes as many things, even tho these include subjects of such apparent\nsignificance as the shop and the workbench suggest. Iri a word, the\nstudy of the manual-training school suggests, as will the study of any\nother American school, that those who have to do today with American\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nYARDS\n\n77\n\neducation must turn their eyes, not so much toward the making of newschools for fitting men for college, as toward providing simple and effective schools which may reach those who never go to college ; and that, so\nfar as pedagogic methods are concerned, it is not to a multiplication of\nsuch methods which we should look, but rather turn our faces and the\nfaces of the American people toward simplicity, sincerity, and thoroness\nin education.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORVILLE\n\nT.\n\nGARDENS, CITY SCHOOL\nYARDS, AND\nSURROUNDINGS OF RURAL SCHOOLS\n\nTHE\n\nBRIGHT,\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\nTHE\nJAMES\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nR.\n\nDOOLITTLE\n\nWhen one considers that all sustenance for animal life comes directly\nor indirectly from the plants that grow out of the ground; that all clothing for human beings, and most of their shelter, are derived from the\nsame source ; and that these same plants, more than all else combined,\nare responsible for the beauty that makes the earth so pleasant a dwelling-place, the indifference of the schools of the United States to plant\nculture as matter for study is, indeed, cause for amazement.\nWhether this culture is considered from the economic, botanic, or\naesthetic standpoint, the indifference is much the same. To be sure, the\nsubject of botany has been in the curriculum of the secondary schools for\nmany a year, but the study, in so far as it has affected the lives and characters of students, has been comparatively barren of results. It has been\na study in dissection and classification rather than of growth. Colleges\nhere and there have very effectively engaged in the scientific study of\nagriculture; but these are so few, and the classes have been so poorly\nattended, that their influence has scarcely affected the masses or practices\nof the farmers. This may be because the lavish supply of land has led to\nthe vicious waste that has obtained in American farming. Fortunately\nthe vast acreage that has been had almost for the asking is no longer\navailable. Consequently, with increasing population farming must\nbecome more intensive, scientific, and economic.\nWhen we come to the study of plants, because of their value in\nenhancing the beauty of city, village, or country, neither the college, high\nschool, nor elementary school has as yet to any extent felt even the thrill\nof movement. The school garden is a thing almost unknown in the\nUnited States. As compared with European countries, we have assumed\nsuperiority in public-school educatio^j, and in some respects perhaps with\njustice; but in this regard we have no standing for comparison. Long\nbefore public schools had an existence, the value of the school garden\nwas recognized in Europe, and we are told that by the middle of the six-\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nteenth century almost all of the Italian universities and many Italian\ncities possessed botanical gardens. Two hundred and fifty years ago\nbrave old Comenius said : \" A garden should be connected with every\nschool, where children can at times gaze upon trees, flowers, and herbs,\nand be taught to enjoy them.'* As if in response to this prophetic declaration, his native country, two hundred years later, was the first to require\nby law the establishment of school gardens in connection with elementary\nschools. The Austrian imperial school law of 1869 prescribes that,\n\"when practicable, a garden and a place for agricultural experiments\nshall be established with every rural school.\" Today Austro-Hungary\ncan boast of nearly twenty thousand school gardens. In the province of\nStyria every school has a garden. Bohemia has four thousand five hundred, and its enormous crops of fruit are by many ascribed to school\ninstruction.\nIn Sweden in 1869 a royal proclamation required school gardens,\nvarying from seventy to one hundred and fifty square rods, to be appropriately laid out for the children of elementary schools. In 1876 Sweden\nhad one thousand six hundred such gardens, and now the number is\nnearly five thousand. It is quite worthy of note that, while the Swedish\nsystem of manual training and gymnastics has been deemed so worthy of\nstudy and exploitation by American teachers, the school gardens, of\nvastly greater importance, seem entirely to have escaped their notice.\nIn Belgium the school law of 1873 provides that every school shall\nhave a garden of at least one-fourth acre, and a royal decree of 1897\nrequires that all teachers shall be able to give theoretical and practical\ninstruction in botany, horticulture, and agriculture.\nIn Switzerland this has been a live question for twenty years past.\nMost of the cantons have encouraged the establishment of school gardens\nthru prizes and other financial aid, and ample provision has been made for\nsuitable instruction in the normal schools. The effect on the home surroundings has been marked. Indeed, this is true wherever the gardens\nhave been established for any length of time.\nFrance has rapidly developed the higher teaching of all forms of agriculture during the past twenty years, and now has at least one hundred\ninstitutions for this purpose, among the finest in the world. There are\nbotanical gardens almost without number, and nomadic lecture courses\nfor the public schools have been established. In 1882 the teaching of\nagriculture in the public schools was made obligatory. Today France has\nnearly thirty thousand elementary-school gardens, and no new school can\nreceive governmental aid without such equipment.\nEven Russia, with all her inherent barbarism, is making great headway\nin school instruction in gardening. In a single province in southern\nRussia 257 out of 504 schools have gardens aggregating 300 acres. In\n1895 these gardens contained, among other things, 111,000 fruit trees,\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nYARDS\n\n79\n\n240,000 forest trees, and more than 1,000 beehives. Almost every form\nof economic gardening is carried on.\nGermany has not as yet made the garden an organic part of its school\nsystem, but thousands of schools are trying the experiment. A charming\ndescription of one of these, by Dr. Herman Lukens, may be found in the\nEducational Review for March, 1899. This garden contains four-fifths of\nan acre, in the form of an irregular oblong well laid out, with gravel walks\nalong the sides and center lengthwise, and with three cross-walks. In the\ncenter is a fountain, and at the intersections of the walks are circular\nplantings. At the north end, one-tenth of an acre is planted with specimens of native trees, some exotics, and common ornamental shrubs.\nEvery tree and shrub has label with name and habitat. Next is the botanical division, containing plants for special study in the school. The\nremainder of the garden is divided into six large plats, each surrounded\nby dwarf fruit trees or fruit bushes. Each of these six plats is divided into\nindividual gardens, one meter wide and two long, or about twenty square\nfeet. One garden in each plat is allotted to the teacher. During the\nyear 1898-99 six hundred pupils from the Burgerschulc'^Xz.ViX.t,^ and cared\nfor six hundred of these little gardens, cultivating either vegetables or\nflowers, as they chose.\nThe work is optional, but one hour a day is expected from each young\ngardener wko undertakes it. On Sundays the garden is open all day as\na park, and parents have shown great appreciation of this element of school\ntraining ; and it is a proud event for the child when the product of his\nown labor and care first finds its way to the family table. Pupils who show\nmarked ability are chosen as helpers to the teachers, and it is their business\nto see that everything is in order at the close of the day. They also settle\nall matters of dispute and behavior. In one end of the garden is a rustic\nshed for recitations, whenever such are desirable. Each of the eight grades\nis well represented, the instruction being adapted as in other school work.\nWhat do the six hundred children get out of the garden ? The teaching of the school is brought into contact with life, and, best of all, with\nthe lives and experiences of the children. The point of contact reaches\nthe home interests just as directly as those of the school. The tiny garden\nof the school is almost sure to be duplicated at the home — probably on\na larger scale; and this alone is worth the whole effort.\nThe interest of the parents in at least one phase of the school work of\nthe children will be immediate and certain, because here is something sure\nto be inspected and understood, the inspection being made possible on\nSunday and other holidays. This interest will naturally extend to the\nother school work and be the cause of its betterment. The little garden\nis the child's own, and whatever it is comes as the certain sequence of his\ncare or neglect. This is as evident to his parents as to his teachers. The\nresponsibility of the garden develops strength and independence in charac-\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nter. Nothing but honest effort can win, and this effort involves judgment\nas well as physical exertion. The great variety of plants, including trees\nall in healthy growth, and in which the children are personally interested,\nmakes ideal conditions for nature study; and it will be study of life and\ngrowth rather than of death and dissection. In other words, after study,\nthe plants remain for greater interest and love instead of being thrown\naway because destroyed.\nThe beauty of school -garden arrangement develops taste, which is sure\nto react upon the home premises — doubly so because both parents and\nchildren are interested. Related topics of study, as reading, music, drawing, painting, language and composition, literature, geography, and\nnumber, almost of necessity range themselves alongside the garden lessons.\nThe healthy out-of-door physical exercise of itself would justify all that\nthe garden costs ; and this is all the better because the motive is something\nelse besides mere exercise, which is always more or less stupid when pursued\nfor its own sake. The school becomes a rational factor in the economic\nlife of a people in something sweeter and more wholesome than commercialism. The children learn to love and respect Mother Earth and the\nhonest labor which she rewards so fully and so freely. New phases of\nchild-nature are opened up to the teacher — phases which the ordinary\nwork of the schoolroom might effectually obscure. The more complete\nthe sympathy between teacher and pupils, the richer the results in character\non both sides. Lastly, thru school and home improvement and beautiful\nenvironment the young people become interested in civic improvement\nof neighborhood, ward, or city, and thus begin the study of civics at the\nright end — because they are in touch with something that has to do with\nbetter civic life.\nIf the results indicated are at all attainable, they are well worth the\ngravest attention of this splendid organization of American teachers.\nEurope has well toward one hundred thousand school gardens of all kinds.\nThe United States has not one-half of one per cent, of that number. The\nsubject has as yet received no serious attention even from educators, and,\nso far as I can ascertain, has in no way found its way into the school code\nof any state.\nCan we make the school-garden idea a factor in our free school education ? The few scattered efforts already made give only one answer to\nthis question — a most enthusiastic \"Yes.\"\nSome fundamental principles must be determined upon. The all too\ncommon notion that any old place will answer for a school site must be\nexterminated root and branch. The plat of ground that nature has made\nmost attractive in any city, village, hamlet, or rural district is just good\nenough for the public school.\nEvery schoolhouse should be supplied with adequate playgrounds, at\nwhatever cost.\nThe yard will be adequate only when there is ample space\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nYARDS\n\n81\n\nfor games, and for characteristic trees, flowering shrubs and plants, and\nclinging vines as an integral part of the playgrounds. With the school\ngarden added, the out-of-door conditions will be ideal.\n\"But the cost 1 \" is the cry of the taxpayer; and the politician takes up\nthe cry to further his selfish aims. In some cases it costs more not to\nspend money than to spend it, and this is one of the cases.\nWe read that the first motive for the establishment of \"common\nschools\" in America was that the children might learn to read the Bible,\nand from our records of Puritan character in Massachusetts we may safely\nassume this to be correct. Recently Bishop John Spaulding gave utterance\nto these words : \"In the midst of all this noise and rush of business, of\nexpansion and success, we are rapidly growing incapable of taking or loving the deeper views of life. Our faith in education is, at the bottom, the\nfaith in its power to enable us to get more money.\" I think the truth of\nthis statement will hardly be questioned. Have not we Americans reached\na point in our tremendous development of wealth where we may pause to\nconsider the children?\nOur schools cost enormously, to be sure, but scarcely more than our\npenal and reformatory institutions, taken in their entirety ; and we may\nwell turn some of the millions poured out for the latter purpose into\nattempts for prevention.\n\" Can't afford it ! \" is a stock cry that may well be analyzed and carefully considered. During the past thirty years Republican Philadelphia\nand Democratic New York have squandered money enough on political\nparasites to furnish ample playgrounds and gardens for every public\nschool in either city. Cities that can afford Tweeds, Crokers, and Quays\nneed scarcely talk about the expense of schools. In the same manner, tho\nnot to the same extent, more than half of the great cities of this country\nare luxuriating in corrupt political bosses. One party is as deep in this\nrobbery of the taxes as the other.\n\" Can't afford it? \" A few years ago Chicago spent twenty millions on\na world's fair, and nobody regrets the vision of exquisite beauty then\ncreated. At the same time there is not a beautiful school yard in the city,\nand many magnificent school buildings have no playgrounds at all. Now\nSt. Louis is indulging the same luxury, to say nothing of past enterprises\nof Buffalo, Atlanta, and Charleston, and the same public-schoolyard conditions may be pointed out in these cities as in Chicago.\nThe question of expense is secondary, the first and dominant question\nbeing, \"What do the children need?\" Education into good citizenship\nwith high ideals will be genuine economy, no matter what the cost.\nIn connection with one of the vacation schools in Chicago last summer\na garden was established on an adjoining lot. The preparation and\nplanting were by the children of the public school before vacation; the\ncultivation, by the charity vacation school ; and the harvest gathered after\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nvacation, all or mostly by the same children. Each pupil had his individual garden, and each took to his home the product of his labor, thus\nbecoming a responsible factor in the home institution.\nThe children worked persistently and enthusiastically, many making\napplication where one could be admitted. Mr. Frank Darling, the superintendent, told me that in point of genuine educational value, viewing\ncharacter as the product, this garden experience was the greatest he had\never known.\nBloomington, 111., a city of 25,000, has during the past two years\nexperienced a genuine educational inspiration. His name is J. K. Stableton, one of those schoolmasters whom God occasionally sends into the\nwork to make us wonder why he does not send more. Mr. Stableton\ndetermined that the unsightly school grounds of Bloomington should be\nbeautified with flower gardens thru the work of the school children, and\nthat the influence of the school planting should extend to the homes of\nthe pupils to make them more beautiful along with the schools. The\naccount of the first year's work reads like a fairy-story. Wiseacres said :\n\"You can't do it ! The children will destroy your flower beds, and the\nboys will steal your plants.\" And the children and the boys did nothing\nof the kind. The cussedness and total depravity of the children exist\nmainly in the imagination of the elect. Give the children a chance, and\nwe shall know more about them. They were enthusiastic in making the\nugliest spots in the yards the most attractive ; and they did it. Volunteers cared for the plants during the summer vacation. Hundreds of\nhome. gardens were planted, and in September a flower show from school\nand home plants brought together thousands of delighted parents and\npatrons, whose views of the mission of the public schools underwent a\nmighty change. Space forbids any detailing of the process, and it is not\nnecessary. A consecrated man, a devoted band of teachers, and willing\nchildren can solve any problem.\nWhat results? All of the school work felt the impulse; discipline\ntook care of itself; the lessons were illuminated; the loveliness of childnature grew with the growing plants and blossomed with the flowers ; and\nthe sum -total of happiness of children, teachers, and parents was vastly\nincreased. This work was accomplished in one year, and is possible in\nany village or small city in the country even under present conditions.\nMr. Stableton wrote me recently : 'T did not at first know just how, but I\nknew that we should do it.\" That tells the whole story.\nThis enterprise was from the school seeking the co-operation of the\npeople. Cleveland has had a similar experience, but from the people\nseeking the co-operation of the schools. Overtures were heartily met by\nSuperintendent Jones and the teachers, and the \"Home Gardening Association of Cleveland Public Schools \" was the result. A study of flowering\nplants was made, and seeds procured and put up in packages, which were\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nYARDS\n\n§3\n\nsold to the school children at one cent each for home planting. This\ncovered the entire expense, including printed directions for planting and\ncultivation. The first year (1900) nearly 49,000 packages were sold and\nplanted. The second year nearly 122,000 packages, or 458^ pounds,\nwere sold, besides several thousand bulbs. Three annual reports have been\nissued, and they are very interesting reading. To speak of the effect on\nschools and homes would but repeat the experiences of Bloomington.\nThe Outlook for May 2, 1903, contains a fascinating article entitled\n\"The First Children's School Farm in New York City.\" I imagine\nthere could be few more hopeless undertakings than this garden, begun\nlate in the season of 1902, on a patch of land only one-fourth of an\nacre, hitherto used as a dumping-ground for rubbish, in one of the most\ncongested districts of New York. But it was a triumphant success. The\nland was cultivated by children in individual gardens three feet by six,\nand the effect of these gardens on a neighborhood where before only\nvandalism reigned is absolutely startling. I pray you find the article\nand read it.\n\"Afford it?\" What sort of investment would be too large for such\nreturns? A bonded debt upon every village and every city of this country, sufficiently large to provide a suitable yard with garden attached for\nevery public school, would be an obligation that the next generation\nmight well afford to meet and be thankful for.\nAnd what of the country schools? From one end of our great country to the other the most unlovely, lonesome, forlorn, uncared-for, and\nGod-forsaken premises to be found are the country schoolhouses and\nschool yards; and this in the older as well as in the younger states. A\ncountry school can be identified as far as it can be seen by its ugliness.\nThe life of the farm in no way enters into the instruction of\nthe school. We teach the country girls and boys about banking,\nbrokerage, stocks and bonds, and the foreign exchange peculiar to\nschoolhouses. We teach obsolete compound numbers and compound\nproportion which never existed outside of a schoolhouse. Days and\nweeks of instruction are given to the greatest common divisor and to fourstory complex-fraction monstrosities ; but never a word about the soil ; the\ngrowth of crops, which make the farm life possible; or of trees, shrubs,\nand flowers, which may make the farm home so beautiful. The country\nschool has undoubtedly been a considerable factor in the mighty exodus\nfrom the farms to the villages and cities. It is time that a halt and an\nabout-face be called in the great procession. The possibilities of comfort,\nfreedom, and health ; of competence and happiness ; of the dignity and\nbeauty of labor as connected with farm life — should be exploited in the\ncountry schools. Fill the curriculum with material having to do with\ncountry life and give the business processes of city and village a rest.\nThey need it, and so do the children.\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe rural delivery of mail, the daily paper, and the telephone will\nlend their aid in making the isolation of the farmer's home less acute.\nThe school and the home must come into close sympathy thru what\nis taught in the school, and the knowledge of the teacher as to the farm\nand its interests.\nThese must be brought close to the school thru the planning and\nplanting of the school ground, which shall have ample space for playgrounds and a garden. The average price of land surrounding country\nschools does not exceed fifty dollars per acre. The very minimum yard\nshould contain an acre. There are several in Cook county, each containing ten square rods or less. I know of many quarter-acre school yards\nlaid out when land was at government price — 31^ cents for a school\nyard for a hundred years or even longer.\nIn a way country children are familiar with growing plants, but rarely\nare the plants of interest to them as matter for study, either as to their\nwonderful growth or their beauty. They are taken as a matter of course\nin the getting of the farm living; and it comes to pass that hill, vale, and\nprairie, with their abund*ance of trees, shrubs, clambering vines, flowering\nplants, and grasses, make little impress upon the characters of the children. Hence the wealth of natural beauty in the farm surroundings is\nrarely counted as an asset of the farm life.\nHere is the opportunity for the country school. The school vard\nshould be an object-lesson in attractiveness to all dwellers of the district,\nbecause it is more beautiful than any other yard. Its trees should be\nthe handsomest, its trailing vines the most tasteful, its shrubs the most\nthrifty, and its flowers the most beautiful. The taste and appreciation of\nthe children should be as vitally the care of the teacher as is their learning to spell or to add and subtract.\nThe sordid scramble after dollars, the long hours of monotonous toil,\nespecially on the part of farmers' wives, have more than any other one\ncause furnished the inmates for insane hospitals; and the number and\nmagnitude of these hospitals are frightful. What is needed in the\nfarmers' homes is healthful mental stimulus; and this must be the outgrowth of the schools.\nA schoolmaster in Sangamon county, 111., had an idea, and it grew\ninto a country school garden — the only one I know of in the state with\nits twelve thousand country schools. The school was closed from May\n13 to September i, which fact would seem to preclude success; but the\nidea of the schoolmaster meant business, and it succeeded. In all of the\nwonderfully fertile prairie of that portion of the great state, that little\ngarden 38 by 40 feet is the most significant thing and promises to make\nCottage Hill and Schoolmaster Pruitt famous. It has revolutionized\nthe spirit of the school and the sentiment of the district. Suppose\nthat twelve thousand Pruitts should bless the twelve thousand country\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\n85\n\ndistricts of Illinois for the next ten years. The results in scholarship, in\nmanners and morals, in good health and good citizenship are almost\nbeyond the power of imagination.\nWho shall be equal to these things? The teachers of America, of\ncourse. What can be done in Sweden and Austria can be 'done in the\nUnited States. For the scholars, an admixture of Mother Earth, growing plants, fresh air, and blue sky, with their book lessons, will make\nhealthier and happier children. For the teachers, a part of the lessons out\nof doors, the making of beautiful school yards and school gardens, the\npreparation in healthful study and planning necessary thereto, and less\nof school-room drudgery and examination papers on subjects often\nuninteresting either to pupil or teacher, will make healthier, happier,\nand more effective teachers.\n\nSCHOOL\nHENRY\n\nLINCOLN\n\nCLAPP,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nBOSTON,\n\nGARDENS\nOF\nTHE\nMA§S.\n\nGEORGE\n\nPUTNAM\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nI have noticed, during the last twenty years especially, that most city\nchildren have few responsibilities placed upon them, do exceedingly little\nmanual labor, and get almost no physical exercise in that way. So physical exercises are required of them in the schoolroom. \"Shoulder arms!\"\nand \"Hips firm !\" are overworked commands. Here compulsion has the\nwhole field ; spontaneity nothing.\nSeveral years ago, as I was thinking over the nature of physical exercises in the schoolroom, I thought of the possibilities of the garden in\nview of my own experience with it for more than half a century. T said\nto myself: Here is the thing for the children. Here is an opportunity for\nspontaneity, responsibility, and the exercise of every muscle in the body\nthat needs to be exercised. Here the children can dig in the earth, as\nnearly all children like to do ; can study plant growth under the most\nfavorable conditions ; and can take vigorous physical exercise without\nbeing conscious of it or being forced to it.\nSo three years ago a vegetable garden was established for the instruction and exercise of some of the children in the George Putnam School,\nKoxbury District, Boston. The lot used was four rods square. Formerly\na man had used it for a garden ; but, having lain fallow for a number of\nyears, it was overgrown with stout turf when the thought of converting it\ninto a school garden occurred. A friend plowed it free of charge, and the\nchildren of the seventh grade, averaging about thirteen years of age, did\nthe remainder of the work. The surface after the plowing was very rough.\nElevations and depressions were to be brought to a common level. There\nwere sods to turn under ; grass roots to bury beyond the prospect of\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntrouble; beds and paths to mark out and make; fertilizing material to\nbring in and work into the soil ; and finally many kinds of vegetable and\nflower seeds to plant in various ways. A great deal of hard work was done\nwith evident pleasure in making and planting the beds.\nEighty-two beds, each eight feet long and three and a half feet wide,\nwere made and planted with seeds of lettuce, radish, beet, turnip, parsnip,\nparsley, carrot, cabbage, kohl-rabi, onion, peanut, beans, peas, corn, tomatoes, potatoes, and a great variety of flower seeds.\nPotatoes were raised only one year, on account of the advent of a multitude of potato bugs. Altho the beetles were treated with Paris green\nand the most persistent hostility, what we raised that year were \"pretty\nsmall potatoes and few in a hill.\" The devotion of the children was not\nsufficient to cope with the insect pests.\nWhy is it that in the widespread awakening to the educational value of\nthe school garden the vegetable garden or the flower garden is generally\nadmitted ? The vegetable garden commends itself as a practical thing.\nThe produce can be eaten or sold for money, which can be put in a bank\nor used for purchasing various desirable things. In other words, it will\npay. Cultivated flowers — roses, pinks, pansies, nasturtiums, and chrysanthemums— make a fine display of color, can be used for decoration, and\nsold readily even by school children.\nTheir cultivation will pay.\nNo doubt we should use motives that will move; but there are motives\nbetter than mercenary ones. Generally one who studies shells, minerals, mosses, lichens, algae, ferns, the flowers of the field, color, music,\nliterature, and similar subjects does not associate them with money values, but he studies them for the pleasure they bring, with the desire to\nknow, to understand, to lay up resources for happiness, and to be of service to those interested in such studies. It is happiness and satisfaction\nwhich should be provided for to a degree by the establishment of the\nschool garden.\nIn this regard the German school gardens seem to have a more philosophical basis than ours. They are intended to furnish the most direct\nmeans of teaching school children, not only to raise vegetables and cultivated plants, but to know the flora of their own province — the trees,\nshrubs, ferns; medicinal, coloring, oil-bearing, aromatic, poisonous,\nfibrous, and other kinds of plants, classified according to their uses in the\narts, as well as those illustrating botanical families. There is nothing,\nuncertain about that kind of nature study, nothing lifeless about that sort\nof botanical instruction. So the scope of their gardens is very much\nbroader than that of ours. They take in more than the market gardener\nand the professional florist attempt. Botany is considered worth teaching\nin the higher institutions of learning, its educational value is recognized\nand provided for, and so it is introduced early and in the proper manner\nin the common schools.\nThere is a practicality about the whole system\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGARDENS\n\n^7\n\nthat we in America have not yet reached. The vegetable garden or cultivated flower garden, without the botanical garden, does not complete the\nscheme of outdoor instruction which the German educator has in mind.\nHe prizes sound scholarship more than land, more than something to eat,\nmore than something for decoration.\nWith the botanical part of the German school garden in view, our wildflower garden, now including about one hundred and fifty species of\nnative plants, was begun in 1890. The purpose was to acquaint teachers\nand pupils with the life-history of the common wild flowers and to furnish some available material for plant study in the schoolroom.\nFor eight years pupils of the ninth grade in the George Putnam\nschool have studied ferns delightedly, and therefore successfully, by means\nof an excellent equipment consisting of a fine collection of herbarium\nspecimens for winter use, a collection of one hundred and fifty lantern\nslides illustrating nearly every phase of the life- history of ferns for use at\nany time and, best of all, all the species studied growing in the fernery\nfor observation during the spring and fall. So the pupils studied the\ncycle of fern life from the spore thru the prothallus, crozier, and frond\nwith its son forward to the spore again. Annulus, sporangium, indusium,\npinna, and pinnale were as familiar to them as chalk, pencil, and paper.\nSo they studied fifteen species, most of which they recognized at sight in\ntheir habitat, not only by their specific characteristics, but by the generic\nas well. More than half the members of each class made fern gardens at\ntheir homes. During their summer vacations they sought out the wellknown species in woods and meadows, made herbarium collections, took\nprizes on them at Horticultural Hall, and even interested and assisted\nteachers in the study of ferns.\nThe number of women who raise flowers and are fond of gardening,\nwithout any regular schooling therein, is well-nigh countless. So city\nchildren especially should have all possible opportunities to find out\nwhether they have natural tastes for such work.\nThe Boston Normal School is training teachers in garden work in a\nfine garden established two years ago on the grounds of the English High\nSchool, Dartmouth street, Boston.\nAbout three centuries ago Francis Bacon wrote : \"God Almighty first\nplanted a garden, and, indeed, it is the purest of human pleasures ; it is\nthe greatest refreshment to the spirits of man, without which building and\npalaces are but gross handiworks.\" During the past three hundred years\nour city-bred people apparently have made little or no progress toward\nrealizing Bacon's idea of the purest form of human pleasure. They try\nto find pleasure in nearly everything except gardens, perhaps for the\nreason that in childhood they had no opportunities to acquire a taste\nfor gardening. City school gardens, and teachers trained in normal\nschools to conduct them, will change this unfavorable\ncondition and\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncreate more and purer sources of enjoyment than are common\nour cities.\n\nnow in\n\nWe read in that delightful little book, Elizabeth and Her German\nGarden, this statement for our encouragement: \"If Eve had had a spade\nin Paradise and known what to do with it, we should not have had all\nthat sad business of the apple.\"\nOne who has given special attention to this subject could not fail to\nobserve how much more common private gardens are in large German\ncities like Dresden, Leipsic, and Munich than in our large cities. He\nwould note the delight which the German citizen of this country finds in\nhis garden and the great number of skillful German gardeners in charge\nof the gardens of our wealthy men. This is the result of training in the\nGerman school gardens. The garden ought to be valued here as it is in\nGermany. So give city children spades and hoes, and teach them what\nto do with them in order to increase the sources of pure pleasure and\ndiminish the sources of mischief. It has been said that of all the people\nwho love gardening ninety-nine out of a hundred are good men an-d\nwomen.\nTo leaven the great masses of foreigners coming to our shores in increasing numbers every year, and make good citizens of them, much dependence\nis placed on the public schools. The schools cannot do much with the\nadults, but they can influence the children powerfully ; and to do their\nbest work, it seems to me their aim and conduct should be changed\nsomewhat. We now aim at concentration on furnishing the best condition for efficiency ; but the concentration of people in cities is attended\nwith fearful evils ; and crowded people thrive no better than crowded\nplants.\nOur instruction now tends more to gentility than to the sweat of the\nbrow, because it is brainy rather than brawny. All our young people are\nproud to work with their brains, but too many of them are ashamed to\nwork with their hands. Greater respect for manual labor should be\ninculcated somehow. We need, in our high schools especially, more\nunquestioning obedience and less military disobedience, more interested\nwork and less competitive parade, and in all our schools more productive\nlabor and less unproductive motion. We must really believe that work,\nwith the hands as well as with the brains, out of doors as well as indoors,\nis the greatest civilizer,and conduct our schools accordingly.\nGardening conduces directly to all the desirable results indicated;\ngardening induces a desire for room, light, air, and sweetness ; gardening\nwill do more than the whole curriculum of the present time to turn away\nthe turbid current of human life from the city toward the country, to the\ninconceivable advantage of both.\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n.\nCHARLES\n\nSURROUNDINGS\n\nSURROUNDINGS\n\nR. SKINNER,\n\nSTATE\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nALBANY, N. Y.\n\n89\n\nSCHOOLS\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nWhat we need in education today is not an enriched curriculum or\ngreater intellectual activity, but more attention to some of the simple things\nconnected with the everyday life and experience of the pupils in our\nschools.\nIt has been truthfully said :\nThe public school is the place to which we should turn our chief attention in the effort\nto promote a more beautiful public life in America. The schoolhouse and school grounds\nshould be beautiful, and the child should be surrounded by beauty in the schoolroom from\nfirst to last. Trained in the habit of seeing beauty and knowing it, he will come\ninstinctively to hate ugliness in the house and in the street, as he goes out in life.\n\nTo do better mental work, not more, and to do it easier, we need more\nwholesome school surroundings. Millions of the future citizens of this\nrepublic are getting their education under most wretched conditions.\nThousands of our schoolhouses do not present a single attractive feature,\nbut even repel the child who has any sense of order, cleanliness, or\nbeauty. If the schoolhouse is forbidding, the school grounds, often located\nas if by design in the worst possible spot, are made to correspond with it in\nugliness. There is absence of the influences which inspire to higher conceptions oflife, or ennoble and enrich human action.\nSaid Whittier:\nStill sits the schoolhouse by the road,\nA ragged beggar sunning.\n\nHow many school grounds today are fit only for such a \" ragged beggar !\"\nFifty- eight years ago a school officer in New York referred to a large\nnumberof schoolhouses in his district as \"miserable apologies with gaping\nroofs, yawning walls, stilted benches, highway playgrounds, and, in fine,\nevery accompaniment calculated to make them all objects most loathsome\nand repulsive to the juvenile mind.\" Has the half-century or more of\nexperience and progress wholly removed these conditions? Grand old\nHarvard boasts of her two hundred and fifty years of life and usefulness.\nThere are thousands of schoolhouses all over the country, in city, village\nand hamlet, which, judged by appearances, are much older than Harvard.\nIn respect to our school buildings, our school grounds, our outbuildings\n— in fact, our whole system of school surroundings — for many years we\nhave been traveling in a well worn rut. We are still there, struggling with\nuncleanliness and deformity. It is in the power of teachers, parents, pupils,\nand all friends of education to change these conditions, correct these\nabuses, and get us out of this rut. The situation is a disgrace without\nexcuse. This great Association, which h^s already done splendid service\nin improving our rural schools, reaching out in every state and territory,\nis the right agency to bring about a much needed reform. Mr. Bright\nsays we are behind Europe.\nWe are certainly behind the times as well.\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nTeachers of the republic, will you help in this movement? Will you\nagitate this question among your people until every schoolhouse in the\nland shall be an attractive building, standing on attractive grounds, leading attractive pupils and attractive teachers to higher ideals of beauty and\norder ? The teachers of the countrymust take the initiative. Public opinion\nmust be educated ; then the people will respond. The expense will not\nbe great. Order and cleanliness need not increase the tax rate. A little\nwell-directed energy and effort will oftentimes be all the expenditure\nrequired.\nMan is able. to use for his advancement only such material as has\nbecome valuable thru experience. He sees a piece of machinery, but it\nhas no value to him for intellectual growth unless he can comprehend\nthe principle of its construction. He may pronounce the words of a\nmasterly essay; but unless he follows the author's reasoning and weighs\nhis arguments, his mind fails to act in consonance with that of the author,\nand there is no growth. He may look upon a work of art ; but if he fails\nto catch the spirit of the master, it will bring to him no culture.\nThe public school aims at a development of all the faculties, with the\nultimate purpose of leading to better citizenship and nobler character. It\nmust not, therefore, neglect any opportunity for broadening and deepening\nthe experience upon which to build the essentials of a complete life.\nThe child judges by comparison, and, as he begins to reach out into\nthe real world beyond the teacher's influence, his natural tendency is to\ncompare the new things with the old ones made familiar in the years of\nhis school life. How can we expect children to have pleasant memories\nof school life when these memories are associated with constant contentions on the playgrounds with animals and tramps? I pity the man or\nwoman who has not pleasant recollections of school days — of the schoolhouse and its surroundings, as well as of teacher and associates. There\nis a prime necessity for correct ideals and motives during the school period.\nIf the teacher guides and develops, if the schoolroom is the place for\ncreating and directing, it is on the school grounds that the principles\ntaught are put into execution ; it is here that elementary problems of society\nand of citizenship are worked out thru the independent action of the child\nin play. On the result of these problems depends the future of the childlife.\nDr. Bailey tells us : \" Children cannot be forced to like the school.\nThey like it only when it is worth liking, and when they like it they learn.\nThe finest school apparatus will not atone for a charmless school ground.\"\nWe are making progress in education. Altho the steps are short and\nthe pace is slow, we need to look back but a few years to see how truly\nwe have advanced. It is not many years since the popular conception of\nschool was only a place where book-lore is to be acquired ; then, later, we\nbegan to realize that school is a preparation for life ; and now slowly —\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSURROUNDINGS\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n91\n\nand it seems sometimes very slowly — but surely we are becoming conscious\nthat school is life; and if the broader and deeper life of maturity is to be\nworthy the name, this earlier life must have such stimulus and be nourished\nin such environment that the greater life will come forth as naturally and\nas vigorously as the oak comes from the acorn.\nIt is unfortunate that so many school sites have been selected for other\nreasons than adaptability. The first essential is a healthy location. Then\nit is desirable for the needs and comfort of the children that the grounds\nshould cover at least an acre. A part should be set aside for play and a\npart for adornment. Play is too vital an element in child-growth to be\nhampered even at the expense of beautiful lawns and artistic flower beds.\nOn the other hand, the child is entitled to a knowledge of the beautiful ;\nand it lies within the power of the teacher to see that in this he receives\njustice; and the teacher's reward will be a realization that the child has\nnot only caught a glimpse of that world of beauty that makes his life more\nworth the living, but has felt its influence and knows its pleasures. School\ngrounds may be made beautiful without restricting free play, and the work\nmay be so done as to bring rich returns to hand, head, and heart. Our\nteachers will teach more effectively; our pupils will study with happier\nspirit and with better results.\nOne difficulty in carrying on this work is lack of definite purpose.\nTrees are planted where they are liable to injury, or where children must\nplay. Flower beds are sometimes placed where they are sure to be trampled upon. The loss of the tree or the flower in such cases is of far less\nconsequence than is the spirit of negligence and discouragement which\nfollows.\nThere should first be a well-considered plan. In forming this the children should have a part, not only because it is their right, but also because\nthey will be able to make valuable suggestions that will not occur to one\nwho does not make use of every part of the grounds.\nWe have been slow to realize that a child is educated by every influence with which he comes in contact. We have been too much inclined\nto look upon the church and Sunday school as the sole source of religious\nand moral inspiration — the school as a place to acquire skill in booklearning, and the home as a place where the child is fed and clothed.\nWhat today, in the discussion of educational problems, we need most to\nfeel is that the child is being educated ; being changed somehow for better or worse, every moment of his life. We cannot pour into his consciousness religion today, mathematics tomorrow, and manual training on the\nfollowing day.\nBut every day contributes to his whole living.\nThose of us who were reared on farms can readily recall the feeling of\ninterest and pride that came to us when we were given some pet animal\nor some plot of ground that we could call our own. It was ours. We\nrejoiced in this individual ownership, and there came pleasure and satis-\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfaction in caring for our own. To have the same kind of interest, the\nchild needs but to feel this sense of ownership in the school grounds.\nEncourage parents and patrons properly to fence and improve their\ngrounds so as to make this ownership possible; then encourage the\nchildren to realize that the school grounds belong to them, that they have\nan opportunity to make them what they should be — and we have taken an\nimportant step toward giving principles taught inside the schoolhouse an\nopportunity for expression in the life of the child. Here we may have the\nawakening of real enthusiasm in school work in patron, pupil, and teacher.\nWhen we talk of enriching courses of study, let us not forget how much\nof life's course of study is furnished by environment, and that its enrichment makes possible nobler tastes, more refined ideals. As Ruskin has\nsaid : \"What we like determines what we are; and to teach taste is inevitably to form character.\"\nNot long ago I heard an address by a superintendent of schools of one\nof our cities on the subject we are now discussing. He was urging the\nnecessity of school gardens for cities, but said he saw no necessity for them\nin rural districts. This man was bred on a farm ; he is today a celebrated\neducator, yet he has either forgotten his early training, or it was exceptional. Today, thruout this country we have the rural-school problem.\nThe well-to-do farmers are moving to town, where better facilities for education may be furnished their children, and the problem is how to furnish\nthe best education to those who cannot go. Economic conditions have\nchanged both in town and country since forty years ago. Then the town\nboy spent his vacation in the local shoe-shop, grist-mill, tannery, or general store; and the boy on the farm learned to make sugar, to plow, and\nto harvest. The girls could dye, weave, and spin. Then there was an\neducation of the hand, closely correlated with that of the head. Now these\nlocal industries are practically all absorbed by large corporations, an-d the\nchild lacks the training that came from them. Towns and cities have\nappreciated the conditions, and manual training has come to take the\nplace of what is gone. But in the rural districts we do not yet fully appreciate that there is education outside the four walls of the schoolroom. The\nshop and the school have been brought together, but the farm and the\nschool are still apart. The farm boy goes to school to be e-du-cated, literally \"led out,\" away from the farm to desire and seek employment in\nsome bank, office, or factory in the city; and the country girl is trained\nto look upon home, not as an integral part of her education, but only as\na place where she may be housed while being educated as a stenographer,\na clerk, or a teacher. As a result, thruout my own state and thruout New\nEngland the old homestead is no longer a place of life and youthful\nactivity. There is a tenant on the farm ; or the old father and mother,\nif they are there, are alone. The boys and girls have been drawn away by\nthe charms and attractions of city life. Telephones, rural free delivery,\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSURROUNDINGS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n93\n\nand trolley cars have done much to increase the attraction of rural life;\nbut this is not enough. All these will fail to hold the boys and girls to\nthe farm, unless they are made to feel the interrelation between school\nand home; made to feel that the farm is as much a means of education as\nis the schoolroom.\nIt is far from my purpose to discourage the ambitious youth who seeks\na business or professional career. Let the boy who would be a lawyer or\nthe girl who would be a teacher strive for that end ; and, with a true conception of the educational value of a rural home, that goal will be all the\nmore easily attained ; and, in addition, those without such ambition may\nsee something of the possibilities on the farm of a life rich in physical,\nintellectual, and spiritual content.\nThe study of the natural sciences has until recently been static — a\nstudy of what plants and animals are; it is now becoming kinetic — of\nwhat they do. We are doing valuable work in nature study in our schools,\nbut we need to go a little farther and show how this study finds its highest and noblest expression on the school grounds — which must be the\nlink that binds the schoolroom to the home and the farm.\nIn this matter of improving and beautifying school grounds there is a\ngrowing interest and general awakening thruout the country. The press\ngenerally is lending its great influence to encourage the efforts made.\nThe Youth* s Companion, of this city, one of the purest and most helpful\npublications in the world, is doing a service which deserves the fullest\nrecognition. Speaking every week to nearly a million subscribers and\nfive million readers, it is keeping up constant agitation for better school\nsurroundings. It is doing more than this. In every part of our country\nit is rendering assistance in practical ways. It has given hundreds of\nAmerican flags as rewards for honest effort. In New York state alone\nthis year it is giving five hundred sets of six historical engravings and\nmore flags to school districts which will demonstrate that they are doing\nall they can in this direction.\nIn my own state, too, a philanthropist (Mr. William A. Wadsworth, of\nGeneseo) has for several years offered annually two prizes — one of one\nhundred dollars for the best-kept school grounds in the state, and one of\nfifty dollars for the second best.\nFrom 1889 to 1902 the school children of New York state planted\n265,637 trees — enough to set a forest of 8,000 acres. Last year alone\nthey planted 19,320 trees, which, if set forty feet apart, would reach from\nBoston to New Haven. In New York state this year there has been\noffered a prize of one hundred dollars to the school commissioner in\nwhose district there is the largest number of school sites of not less than\none-fourth acre, entirely surrounded by ^ tasty and substantial fence, built\nsince January i last.\nIf we educate our children amid wretched surroundings, will not\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsuch education forever taint the knowledge they acquire? If we expect\nthem to love the beautiful and live the beautiful, we must surround\nthem with beautiful influences in home and school. From the beauty of\nnature they will learn to distinguish beauty in life and character. We\nmust have greater activity in this cause. Those who train teachers must\nimpress upon them the importance of this work. Local school authorities\nmust be reached. One of the best m^ans of doing this is thru the grange\nand farmers' institutes. We have had opportunity of doing something in\nthis line during the past year, and I assure you that when the farmers see\nthe value of this work they give it hearty indorsement. By all means\nenlist the interest of the women. Mothers' clubs can be made a powerful\nfactor in the work. The mothers' co-operation with the teacher will add\nmany fold to the efficiency of the school, and will help to bring the home\nand school into closer bonds of sympathy. Horace Mann, the great educational inspirer, whose memory we revere and whose service the world\nrecognizes, pointed the way to better schools. He inspired the people to\nknow the value of better school buildings, the uplifting influence of better school surroundings. He called upon the women of the nation to\nteach the youth.\nThey came, they taught, they conquered.\nIn this movement we must call upon the women of the country to\narouse public sentiment, to educate public opinion in the direction of\nbeauty in our school surroundings. In our educational work we have\nnever called upon the women in vain. They will come now ; they will\nperform this service ; they will help to bring about better conditions.\nLet them organize clubs in every community to visit the schools, inspect\nschoolhouses and grounds, and arouse sleeping patrons to the importance\nof taking action.\nOne great obstacle which confronts us is the long period of drought\nand neglect during the summer vacation. Trees and flowers have been\nplanted in May only to wither and die in the hot days of July and August.\nWhen school opens in September, the children behold what remains of\ntheir work of the spring — the withered plant and the broken tree,\nspecters of indifference and neglect. We could afford to lose the plant\nor tree, but not the lesson its life would teach. If we can educate a\nchild to love a flower, cultivate a plant, or care for a tree, we have helped\nto lay the foundation of character. Provision should be made for keeping\nup the interest during these summer months. In some districts this has\nbeen successfully accomplished by \"school-ground committees,\" consisting\nof both boys and girls, and chosen by the school. These take turns\nduring the summer in caring for the grounds. This is an important point,\nbecause if when school opens again in the fall the work of the spring has\nbeen wasted, the purpose of the work has largely failed; for we must keep\never in mind that it is human life rather than plant life which to us is of\nmost value.\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\n_\n\nSURROUNDINGS\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n95\n\nThis matter of improvement of school grounds is not the work for a\nday. It must become an integral part of our school system. Our hopes\nare in our children. Let us remember that, while attractive grounds will\nhave a beneficent influence upon the community, their great value is in the\nethical culture of the child. It must not be forgotten that this is the\nchildren's work, and that it is thru the hand that the head and the heart\nare reached.\nI am reminded of a story:\nIt was a little old schoolhouse in a newly cleared section. The children of this\nschool knew little of the joys or comforts of culture and means, but they had a teacher\nwho could make the most of what there was. The little girls had gone out among the\nmosses, in the shade of the birches and hemlocks, and gathered spring flowers. They\nhad brought loam, too, and on the shady side of the schoolhouse had planted these\nflowers.\nThey pointed them out to me with an air of honest pride, and I asked them : \"Why\ndo you plant these common flowers ? \"\nOne little girl replied : \" You see, we don't know how to take care of store posies^ but\nwe can go right out here and see how these want to grow.\"\n\"But,\" I said, \"don't you get tired of taking care of such common flowers ? There\nare so many of them here, all around in the brush.\"\nQuickly, one replied : \" Oh, no. Out there in the brush God makes them grow all\nalone ; but here we help him.\"\n\nLet me read to you from a teacher's recent letter, telling how a small\nrural school laid out its work :\nWe, as a school, wish to tell you what we have done toward beautifying our school\ngrounds since last March. Our school ground is i8i feet by 115 feet, inclosed by a fence\nand nearly surrounded by shade trees. On the first day of school we began to clean the\ngrounds, and have kept very busy doing something each day to improve the appearance\nof the grounds. First we cleaned the terrace on the outside of the fence, raking together\nall the old leaves and debris which lay about. After this was done (which took our\nrecesses for several days) we made a bonfire. Then we succeeded in getting the fence\npainted. Then we began inside the fence and went through the same process as we had\non the outside, and pulled up one old dead tree which we deposited on the bonfire. On\nArbor Day we all went to the woods and brought two maple trees and planted them in\nour school yard. We water them every day and mean to have them grow. Besides this,\nwe made two large flower beds, with a little stone wall around each one. In these beds\nwe have planted some shrubs and sowed some seeds. All this extra work we did during\nour recess time and before and after school hours.\n\nFrom many states of the Union, especially from the South, come\nsimilar letters, showing an aroused public spirit concerning school surroundings. One teacher significantly writes : \" I had no idea that making\nthe schoolhouse and grounds more attractive would have so marked an\ninfluence on the behavior of the pupils.\nTeaching has become a delight.\"\nPresident Roosevelt said, at the dedication of the Central High School\nat Philadelphia last October : *' It is a poor type of school nowadays that\nhas not a good playground attached.\"\nIt is in helping nature that the child feels this influence which makes\nfor his greatest good.\nAnd this influence is not temporary.\nIn later life\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhis ideals of the true and the beautiful are measured by these early impressions. He is to be a home-maker ; he is to be a citizen ; and it is within\nthe power of the school to make him feel and appreciate something of the\ninfluence of beautiful surroundings, so that he will use that influence for\nhis own benefit and that of others.\nShall we not catch from this great meeting something of the spirit of\nNew England culture, and let it work out in our own homes a clearer conception of courtesy, cleanliness, order, and beauty?\n\nSCHOOL\nW.\n\nW.\n\nSTETSON,\n\nSTATE\n\nSURROUNDINGS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n[stenographic\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN\n\nMAINE\n\nreport]\n\nThe homes of America are to be domestic universities. The schools\nof this country should be the social, literary, and art centers of the communities in which they are located. When that day has come, the safety of the\nnation will not be in the hands of its rulers, but in the lives of its common people. We shall then have learned that the world's best servant is\nhe who knows the past, lives in the present, foresees the future, and is\nready for the next thing. To bring about this quartet of consummations\nI believe we need better physical surroundings, best books for all, and\nart in the schoolroom.\nIt is time for us to realize that the home and the school hold the hope\nof the future. He who runs may know that the people are reading and\nstudying and thinking on what we are pleased to call our problem.\nWe should rejoice to find that the world has finally stumbled thru the\ntwilight of things on to the vantage-ground it holds today. If we had\nreached our altitude sooner, we should not be as strong as we are. It will\nnot be wise or best to try to reform the world the first week of next September. It will be well for us to stop for a moment, stand still for a\nwhile and settle upon a few things to do, and then do them. We have had\naltogether too much direction and instruction by people who have not\nbeen willing to spend a little time in studying conditions and are content\nto devote all their energies to formulating their fulminations.\nWould it not be worth while for us to know something about the\ncountry home and the rural school and the children therein, and the parents and teachers having charge of them, before we assume to say what\nthese conditions are or what means are needed to improve them ? These\npeople, living in isolated places, are not asleep, and they are not wanting\nin a comprehension of the day in which they live and the demands the\nworld is making on them. If changes are to come, they will come\nbecause the people have intelligence enough to go forward from the point\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSURROUNDINGS\n\n97\n\nwhere they stand, with a full knowledge of what is behind them, about\nthem, and before them.\nOne of these days we are to be large enough so that we shall\nbe willing to put our shoulders to the wheel without asking to have our\nnames in the newspapers. We will join our forces to those found in the\nlocal communities, and, joining with them, bring about the results we are\nall seeking. These changes will be late and long in coming, unless they\ncome largely thru the planning, effort, and sacrifices of the people who\nneed them. I have scant faith in things which come to us without effort\non our part. It would not be a blessing to Maine to have all of our unfit\nschool buildings replaced by suitable ones thru the gift of some millionaire. If the people in these communities can be led to see what is needed,\nand stimulated *to make these improvements slowly, patiently, then the\nlargest gains will not be found in more extensive grounds, more beautiful\nfurnishings, more attractive buildings, but will be manifest in a wiser public spirit, truer sense of responsibility, and finer fitness for citizenship.\nIt is not necessary for me to speak of the thousands of dollars that\nhave been put into our school buildings in the past few years, the number\nof school grounds that have been enlarged and beautified, the buildings\nthat have been furnished with a thousand and one appliances. We rejoice\nin all these evidences of better days, but our rejoicing is due to the change\nin the point of view — to that strength which comes to the doer, rather\nthan to the physical changes that have been wrought.\nIn one community in our state all the buildings have been rebuilt, the\nrooms refurnished, the grounds enlarged and improved. One of the mothers told how these changes had brought into her home light and life.\nHer children now have a larger outlook, and the future is more hopeful\nbecause of the effort made by that community to do for themselves the\nthings they had come to realize needed doing.\nWe are living in a fast age. We are working under testing conditions.\nWe are passing thru great changes. We need to understand that life is\nsomething more than surroundings, and that work is something more than\ngetting things done. We must understand that the home, the school, and\nthe church have one great mission, and that is to fit boys and girls to\nbecome men and women; to live worthily in a larger day than the one in\nwhich we work.\nIf the home is true to its mission, if the school is faithful to its duty,\nif the community realizes its responsibility, then we shall have fitness to\nlive and ability to serve.\nThe last suggestion I have to offer is somewhat in contradiction to those\nI have presented, and it is this : There come times in the administration of\nthe school, in the working out of those problems given us to solve, when it\nis necessary for us to follow the advice given us by a distinguished\nEnglish clergyman when he said : \"Never explain, never apologize, never\nretract ; get the thing done and let them howl.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTEACHING\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF CIVICS AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nR. W. G. WELLING,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\n[General\n\nIN\n\nCITY\n\nIt may be presumptuous for one who is not a teacher to prescribe for\nteachers the proper method of instruction in a subject so important as\ncivics and good citizenship ; but we who take part in political campaigns\nhave a long-standing quarrel with you, the instructors of youth, because\nin this great department your work is not better done.\nThruout the country today, in the great majority of instances, you are\nmerely teaching the rules that govern the organization or form of government, and this, as you must realize, is scarcely more than the very beginning\nof civics. Children may be able to state glibly the functions of the various\nofficers of government, while yet having formed in their minds no picture\neven remotely resembling the real activity of these officers, and being therefore quite unable to recognize them and reason about them in real life.\nWhen you have taught the rules of grammar and arithmetic, you do not for\none moment delude yourself into thinking the child knows his grammar and\narithmetic until he has had practice in applying these rules. Also what\ninterest has a child in the mere machinery of government ? Can one readily\ncall to mind a drier topic for children ? How can it be made interesting\nwithout in some way bringing them in contact with its working ? And\nhow can they be inspired with the responsibilities as well as the privileges\nof citizenship ?\nThere is a noble effort making in the \"school city\" — a sort of George\nJunior Republic for public schools, designed to bring about that verycontact by converting the school itself into a municipality, with mayor,\ncommon council, judges, police and other departments, and so to bring\nthe children into such actual relation with those offices that ignorance of\ntheir functions will be no longer possible.\nThe \"school city,\" in some form or other, appears to be not unlike\nthe practical example in arithmetic, or the law clubs for the trial of cases\nin a law school, to which we were recommended in my day to give about\nhalf our working time. I accept it at once as an excellent foundation\non which to build further. Unquestionably, in matters relating to discipline and order, it is a step far in advance of the authority of a single\nteacher. It inculcates habits of self-control, and each student is made to\nfeel his share in the maintenance of order. Fear as an inducement to\ngood conduct has been almost wholly eliminated. The development of\nthe instinct of citizenship and the acquaintance with the machinery of\ngovernment are acquired in the course of actually performing some of the\nfunctions of government.\nThe first of these cities was put in operation in 1897.\nThe plan has\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nCIVICS\n\nAND\n\nGOOD\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n99\n\nbeen widely advertised, and yet I doubt if there are more than a very few\nat present in the country. In the hands of a zealous teacher its possibilities are many. It contemplates ultimately a school state government and\na school national government. In one instance,^ I note that a petition\nwas handed in from the common council of the school to the faculty \"to\nbring before the student body such information regarding village and\nschool improvement as will serve to help make us more intelligent and\nuseful citizens, not only in New Paltz, but also when we go elsewhere to\nlive.\"\nHere we have a suggestion that the \"school city\" branch out and take\npart in the affairs of the community in which the school is located. It\nmay be cleaner streets, or new parks, or smoother pavements, but there\nmust always be some activity largely removed from politics and open to\nthe children to share, under the guidance of their teachers. They become\nreadily interested in the object to be attained. Their own department or\ncommissioner of public buildings or public works has, perhaps, made\nchanges in their own playgrounds, thru their own initiative. Their teacher\nnow instructs them in the difference between the school city commissioner\nof public parks and the actual commissioner of the town in which they\nlived. It is rarely that any reform or innovation of the kind I have in\nmind affects but one department of the city. If at all momentous in\ncharacter, several departments and several years are needed for its\naccomplishment. Some insight will thus be given them into the machinery\nof nominations and the considerations that should influence appointments\nto office; and thus also a feeling of responsibility is aroused.\nThis is no theory, but has actually been done, tho outside of the public\nschools. It can and should be done in the schools. In New York city,\nin some of our East Side settlements, boys of fourteen and upward have\nbeen organized to agitate for cleaner streets, new small parks, and better\nhousing in the crowded districts. They were foreigners and the sons of\nforeigners, and yet such a familiarity have they acquired with the working\nof city, state, and national government, and such a splendid zeal has inspired\ntheir actions, that one must conclude that the way to acquire civics and\ngood citizenship is to engage in those activities that in themselves constitute\ngood citizenship. RecenUy I was struck, in attending a debate among\nthem, to hear a youngster of sixteen, born in Russia, without affectation\nand with a fervor that was unmistakable, in quoting from the United States\nconstitution, repeatedly say : \" Our forefathers in their wisdom provided.\"\nAnd yet in some quarters not long since there was the deepest distrust\nlest the type represented by this youth was altogether unfit for American\ncitizenship. The country is safe indeed if we can only have enough young\nmen like this lad of sixteen, only ten years in the country, and yet so\nimbued with the true spirit.\nI Gill System at the State Normal School at New Paltz, New York, p. 118.\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "TOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nAs soon as a child has learned to think, it should be made to understand the politics of the country, and current events, branching out\ngradually from the minor interests and activities of the \"school city.\"\nWe have a striking illustration of what can be accomplished in this\ndirection in the school conducted by Mr. McAndrews in New York city.\nAfter a few months of instruction and practice, girls are so trained that\nfifteen minutes' perusal of the daily paper enables them to give a thoroly\nintelligent account of the subject assigned to them, whether relating to\nforeign, national, state, or municipal affairs. And this leads me to say\nthat girls as well as boys must be instructed in civics and good citizenship. The state may deny them a vote — I do not propose to discuss that\nquestion — but their influence is needed ; and in New York on more than\none occasion have I seen the opponents of woman suffrage glad enough\nto accept all the help that could be had from intelligent and publicspirited women.\nAnother plan is that of Mr. Waldo H. Sherman, of the Young Men's\nChristian Association, New York city. He has had in operation for\nalmost eight years a system differing somewhat in scope from Mr. Gill's\n\"school city.\" It is intended for young men beyond the school age,\nof sixteen and over. He organizes a class into a community that performs not only the functions of government, but those of business and\nbanking as well. With many charts to give picturesqueness to the work,\nhe introduces the students as emigrants who settle as farmers on the land,\nsociety being organized according to the historical development of our\ngovernment. Instead of finding a city built to hand, he begins with\nfarmers living in the township and county, the student himself choosing\nhis quarter section of land, i6o acres. Gradually a village is formed, and\nthis, growing into a city, has relations later on with state and nation.\nThe varied relations of men and property are shown by actual transactions.\nThe New England township is taken as an example, officers being\nelected at the town- meeting. The schoolhouse is then built, highways\nand public works are taken up, and the treatment of the poor and the\ninsane, and the question of high license or prohibition. At a certain\nstage in the town's development the pupils inherit a considerable sum of\nmoney, and become depositors and stockholders in a bank. Corporations\nare formed, and finally plans are made for a railroad. This is, of course,\na great event in the life of the community; and from this point dates the\nlife of the village, known as CoUegeville Center, with a population of\n5,000. A post-office, bank, hotel, and other buildings are erected, and the\npopulation finally reaches the figure of a city with an area of nine square\nmiles, divided into wards, assembly districts, senatorial and congressional\ndistricts.\nA vigorous campaign is carried on before election day, and meetings\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF CIVICS AND\n\nGOOD\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nloi\n\nare held at which candidates are called on to express themselves on all\nlocal, state, and national issues. All details of primaries, conventions, and\nfinally the Australian ballot system are faithfully carried out.\nAt least twenty-five lessons, of one hour and a half each, are required\nto cover the course, and at least twenty-five students to compose a class.\nI am glad to say that we may expect a book from Mr. Sherman giving in\ndetail this method.\nCollegeville, however, is a fictitious institution gotten up only for the\npurpose of more conveniently teaching the workings of the government\nof an industrial community, while the \" school city,\" whether confined to\nschool affairs or branching out, as above indicated, in some form of civic\nor neighborhood campaign work, is an actual institution in which it is\nattempted to make the children play a real part, and in which their\ninterests are vitally affected. In one case it is government by illustration ;\nin the other, it is actual government.\n'Therein lies the essential difference.\nIn both, however, the child is taught by being required to exercise\nsome of the functions of civil government ; in other words, it is the\nteaching of applied civics; and in both the child finds pleasure in the\nwork. Also the appreciation of privileges and responsibilities, which\nconstitutes good citizenship, is best acquired by taking part in some form\nof civic government.\nYour work avails nothing, however, if you omit the invaluable inspiration arising from the reading of history, poetry, and stories in which work\nfor the good of the state is made the measure of heroism. I knew a lad\nwho was kept reading and re-reading Roman history until the deeds of\nprowess and valor, all for the glory of Rome, were stamped into his very\ncharacter. While others read of the courage and daring of pirates and\nrobbers and mere adventurers who incurred dangers and suffered wounds\nwholly for their personal glory, this student of Roman history came to\nappreciate the greatness of enduring all these things for his country's\nsake. The repeated admonition to a child to be unselfish, to show a selfsacrificing spirit for the good of the state, not only fails to stir in him the\nproper spirit, but may even poison his mind or set his heart against the\nvery qualities that wear these virtuous labels. His imagination must be\nstirred and his capacity to idealize must be developed by the reading of\npoetry, biographies, and great novels.\nThe American people are at present preoccupied with their own great\nindustrial growth. The politicians plow and sow and harrow and fertilize\nand look after the crops thruout the year, and on election day the citizen\nvoter bears a hand with the reaper, and assists at the gathering of such\ncrop as the politician has left to be gathered. This, of course, is the crux\nof the whole situation.\n^\nThe new generation must be imbued with a new spirit of civic patriotism ; and the situation is one that you, above all others, are bound to meet.\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nHow can this be accomplished ? First of all you must teach the machinery\nof government by means of some form of applied civics ; and altho it may\nentail great trouble and pains, especially if it includes, as it should, a class\nin current events, and taking some part in civic affairs, yet it is not easy to\nthink of work that will bear more valued results. Then you must impart\na knowledge of the country's history and the great principle of democracy,\ntogether with the tremendous responsibilities it entails upon individuals\n— our own peculiar message to the world. In addition to this you must\ninspire some of the idealism that comes from the study of the lives of\ngreat men, and the reading of great books, some of the spirit that once\nbelonged to the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans, to whom patriotism\nwas religion.\n\nJUSTIFICATION OF CITY EXPENDITURE\nPARKWAYS— MATERIAL FOR PUBLIC\nHON,\n\nNATHAN\n\nMATTHEWS,\n\nJR.,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nON PARKS AND\nEDUCATION'\nMASS.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen :\nI have been asked to prepare*a paper for the Association upon the relation of public parks to public education, and to describe for your benefit,\nas strangers to Boston, what is being done in this community for the creation, maintenance, and utilization of municipal parks.\nThe public park, as we understand it, is a modern institution. The\ngardens of the ancient world were private estates created and maintained\nfor individual pleasure. The parks and forests of the Middle Ages were\nthe hunting-grounds of kings and feudal lords. It was not until comparatively recent days that the royal domains on the outskirts of the chief\ncities of Europe were opened to the general public and made the nucleus\nof those great systems of suburban parks which go so far to bring happiness\nand contentment to the urban dwellers in the Old World ; and it was only\nin the past century that the people of central Europe began to appreciate\nthe full value of their municipal forests.\nOur New England ancestors devoted themselves during eight or ten\ngenerations to a struggle for material and intellectual development which\nleft little room for pleasure or aesthetics, and which took no thought of\nwhat succeeding generations might require in this regard. The land,\nwhich cost them nothing, was given away for nothing, and given in its\nentirety. Even the common lands, which the towns retained in great part\nthroughout the seventeenth century, were in the next century parceled out\nto bodies of commoners and^by them transferred to individual ownership ;\nso that when the great awakening came, some fifty years ago, and the\n1 By request of the author the amended spellings adopted by the Board of Directors do not appear in\nthis address.\n(See resolution of the Board of Directors adopted at Los Angeles, July 13, 1899.)\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCITY\n\nEXPENDITURE\n\nON\n\nPARKS\n\nAND\n\nPARKWAYS\n\n103\n\npeople looked about them for the forest areas which might so easily have\nbeen preserved, they found that the land was gone. And the forests also.\nThe struggle of the Puritans with nature was untempered by any love of\nbeauty, and was prosecuted with regard only for the present. To them the\nforest was an enemy, to be got rid of as soon and as completely as possible. The result we see in the treeless wastes, the shrunken streams, the\ndenuded rocks, the wornout soil, and the general disregard for the beautiful and permanently useful which has helped to drive the descendants\nof the Puritans away from the old homes, and has tended to prevent\nthe newer immigrants from taking their places. These immigrants, at\nleast those from the continent of Europe, were familiar with conditions of\ninfertility not unlike our own, and had learned to keep the forest at the\nvillage gates. They were also accustomed to public parks as an important feature of city life ; and it is largely to their increasing numbers that\nwe owe the success of the first attempt to create an American park — in\nNew York city just before the Civil War. The conditions of the problem\nin that and other cities were not favorable. There were no inherited public lands ; and the only private estates available for suburban parks had\nfirst to be purchased at great expense, and then, at still greater cost, to be\nrestored to a condition approximating nature and otherwise worked over\nto fit them for the intended use. The difficulties which confronted our\nAmerican cities half a century ago were great ; but they did not deter our\npeople, when once convinced of the necessity of public parks, from\nattempting to re-create at large cost those conditions which a little forethought a few generations back would have preserved to us without\n■expense. The situation was distinctly American in its origin, and the\nremedy was characteristically American. Beginning with Central Park in\nNew York, the municipal authorities of this country have devoted a large\npart of the taxes of the past half-century to correcting the errors of their\npredecessors, and to supplying, before it was too late, ample areas for\nurban and suburban pleasure grounds. Then, public parks in the common sense of the word having been provided, attention was directed to\nthe desirability of securing still larger and more distant areas for municipal forests, such as prove a great source of pleasure and profit to so many\nof the cities of northern Europe. Two at least of our American cities,\nNew York and Boston, as well as Essex county in New Jersey, have\nattacked this problem also, and have secured great tracts of rural land\ncomparable today in size, and a few generations hence in beauty, with the\nmunicipal forests of Germany and France.\nPublic parks have now become an important branch of American\nmunicipal administration ; and the question is whether the enormous cost\nfor construction and maintenance is o^can be justified by the results.\nBefore discussing this question let me briefly describe to you, as\nstrangers to this city, what you will find today in the parks of Greater\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBoston, and what the system will consist of when completed. Our many\ninstitutions which by common understanding are educational in scope are\nof course known to you by repute, and probably by inspection. You have\ndoubtless already visited the schools, hospitals, museums, libraries, and\nuniversities by means of which we have tried to make of Boston the foremost center of learning in the country. What, however, you probably do\nnot know — for most of our own citizens do not know it — is the extent,\nvariety, beauty, and educational value of our public parks. Whatever place\nBoston may occupy, now or hereafter, in the friendly rivalry with other\ncities for commercial, industrial, or intellectual advancement, she stands,\nin my opinion, pre-eminent among all the cities of the world for what she\nhas done in the way of municipal parks.\nIn describing the Boston parks I shall exclude the several hundred\nsmaller grounds and open spaces which, though invaluable to a crowded\ncity, are not within the scope of this paper, but shall include the parks\nestablished by the state, at the instance of Boston, for the benefit of the\ncity and surrounding towns, and also certain large areas belonging to\nCambridge, Newton, and Lynn, contiguous to or to be connected with\nthe Boston or metropolitan park systems.\nFirst a word as to their origin and history. Entering upon the work\nsome twenty-eight years ago only after mature deliberation, lasting six\nyears and involving two popular elections, the city authorities determined\nto lay out, under the best professional advice that could be had, a permanent,\ncomplete, and comprehensive plan for a system of urban and suburban\nparks, which should be constructed from time to time as the people were\nwilling to vote the money in accordance with this predetermined plan.\nFortunate in procuring the services as landscape engineer of Mr. Frederick\nLaw Olmstead, who found here his greatest opportunity and did his\ngreatest work, the city has been equally fortunate in having been able to\nsecure an unbroken series of upright and intelligent men as park commis ionersthe\n;\nresult being that, however great the cost, there has been\nlittle or no money wasted or misused, and the original plan has been\nadhered to with almost literal fidelity. Authorized by the people in 1875,\nthe work was begun in 1877, and was substantially completed in about\ntwenty years.\nIn the m'eantime Harvard .University had been enabled through\nprivate generosity to found an arboretum within the city limits, and by an\narrangement between the university and the city this undertaking, which\nhas already achieved a world-wide influence and renown, has for twenty\nyears been a part of our park system.\nThen, about ten years ago, the establishment of forest reservations on\nthe sparsely wooded hills in the vicinity of Boston was pressed upon the\nlegislature by the city authorities and other persons interested in the\nsubject, and the result was the creation of a metropolitan park system.\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCITY\n\nEXPENDITURE\n\nON\n\nPARKS\n\nAND\n\nPARKWAYS\n\n'\n\n105\n\nHere again the community was fortunate in having the advice of Mr.\nOhnstead, supplemented by the services of the late Charles Eliot, whose\nwork was as valuable to greater Boston as Mr. Olmstead's has been to the\ncity proper.\nSince the acquisition of these large tracts several public beaches and\nsome smaller parks have been added to the metropolitan system ; some\nconnecting parkways have been provided and others authorized by the\nlegislature ; and the improvement of the lower reaches of the Charles\nRiver, begun in 1880 by the city of Boston, is to be completed upon a\nplan, authorized by the legislature of 1903, which contemplates the construction of a dam between Charlestown and the city proper, and the\nconversion of the present tidal estuary into a fresh-water park.\nLarge areas of land along the Charles river in Dedham and Newton\nare held for public water-supply purposes, and can at any time be incorporated in the Metropolitan Park System, as was done in 1894 with similar\nlands in the Middlesex Fells. Near the latter is a large tract of woods\nowned by the city of Lynn, partly procured about fifteen years ago for\nwater-supply purposes and partly acquired from private gifts.\nThe history of the Boston parks, both local and metropolitan, discloses\na systematic, orderly, and consistent development along plans conceived\nin the rough by municipal officers and individual citizens, pressed by\nthem upon the public, adopted in principle by the people or their\nrepresentatives, worked out in detail by the foremost specialists in the\ncountry, and executed by successive boards of unpaid commissioners\nwith absolute honesty, with a minimum of waste, and in strict conformity\nto the original plans. Taking into account their originality, magnitude,\nand results, we may fairly point to the Boston parks as an achievement in\nmunicipal government of which we have a right to be proud and as an\nillustration of what American democracy can accomplish at its best.\nPassing now to a description of our parks in their physical details, let\nus first reflect upon the possibilities of the situation. What other great\ncity in the world has the advantage of fresh-water streams, diversified\nrural scenery, and the ocean all within its limits ? Marseilles, Naples,\nVenice, Constantinople, and San Francisco border on the sea, but have\nno large bodies of fresh water within their bounds. London, Paris, Hamburg, Washington, Philadelphia, and St. Louis have their rivers or freshwater basins, but miss the ocean. New York has no fresh-water river, and,\nalthough situated on tide water, is too remote from the sea. Chicago has\nthe lake, but interior streams, attractive scenery, and salt water are absent.\nBoston — Greater Boston, as we call it — is the only large city in the\nworld which comprises within its territorial limits the hills, the rivers, and'\nthe ocean. It is pleasant to be a^e to state that all these natural\nadvantages have been utilized for recreation purposes and that some of\nthem have been bodily incorporated in our parks.\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBeginning with the ocean, we have six public beaches, one on the\nharbor and five on the open bay, aggregating eight miles in length, which\nare under the management of the Metropolitan Park Commission ; and\nthe city of Boston has seven parks on the harbor front, aggregating onehundred and forty acres in extent, arid will shortly have about two miles\nof parkway skirting the harbor.\nGoing up the Charles we shall, as soon as the improvement recently\nauthorized is completed, enter a lock in a dam between the city proper\nand Charlestown, and thence pass into a fresh-water basin bordered by\nembankments and parks stretching up into the country a distance of nearly\nten miles and comprising with its embankments an area of over a thousand\nacres. Above this basin the river is already emparked for the greater\npart of the way to Dedham. The shores of the Neponset have been\nacquired for a distance of about nine miles ; and two parks, comprising\nover nine hundred acres, have also been secured along its banks. The\nbanks of the Mystic are public nearly all the way from its mouth to the\nlakes, as is also one shore of the upper lake. Besides these lakes there\nare some ten large ponds within the park limits, some of natural origin,\nand some artificially created for water-supply purposes. The aggregate\nwater surface of the fresh-water ponds is about fourteen hundred acres.\nWe then have a series of urban and rural parks extending from the\nCharles river to Jamaica Pond, and thence through the Arboretum to\nFranklin Park and Mount Bellevue, all connected (except the last named)\nby parkways which include driveways, bridle paths, etc. These parks\n— the Boston system proper — comprise about thirteen hundred acres.\nCambridge, Newton, and Brookline have parks and reservations of their\nown, aggregating more than a thousand acres in extent.\nFinally, there are the three forest reservations of the Metropolitan Park\nCommission, comprising over seven thousand acres of woodland, which in\ntime will be connected with each other and with the intervening Boston\nparks by parkways; and in Lynn we find an additional two thousand acres\nof woods surrounding the ponds from which the city gets its water supply.\nIn all there are, or will be, about ten thousand acres of forest lands,\nfour thousand acres of urban and suburban parks, two thousand acres of\nfresh-water ponds, thirty miles of river, ten miles of sea beach, and forty\nmiles of connecting parkways.\nIt is to be hoped that the members of the Association will take the\ntime to inspect the one thing to be seen in Boston that is distinctly\nsuperior, we think, to anything of the same sort to be found elsewhere in\nthe world, and will visit the principal points in our park system — say\nMarine Park, the parks stretching from the Charles river to Blue Hill\navenue, the Arboretum, and the Blue Hill or Middlesex Fells reservations.\nIn them you will find facilities for every sort of rational open-air sport\nand recreation — riding, driving, bicycling, picnicking, rowing, sailing.\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nCITY\n\nEXPENDITURE\n\nON\n\nPARKS\n\nAND\n\nPARKWAYS\n\n107\n\nswimming, bathing, gymnastics, golf, tennis ; but the feature to which I\nwould direct your special attention is the success which has attended the\neffort to convert suburban farms, wood lots, and pastures into the most\nbeautiful and typical New England scenery. You will also note the\nabsence, even in the urban parks, of artificial structures and incongruous\neffects, the simplicity of the planting, and the obviously light cost of\nmaintenance.\nNow, what is the justification for all this work, for the forty millions of\npublic money it will have cost for construction, and the half million a year\nfor maintenance? It certainly cannot be the mere pleasure of those who\ncan afford fast horses and automobiles, or the mere amusement of the\nmasses in boating, sailing, etc. . Expenditures for public parks are not to\nbe likened to the Roman largess, to be incurred for any purpose that\npromises temporary enjoyment to the people. The justification for park\nexpenditure must be found in the conditions of modern city life; and in\nthe necessity, in the interest of the public health, morality, and happiness,\nof providing means by which the depressing influence of these conditions\nmay be minimized. The human race was not created to live in the\nartificial and unwholesome atmosphere of the city ; but the modern tendency to concentration is nowhere so apparent as in the increase in the\nurban over the rural element in our population. However much we may\nregret it, the present destiny of the greater part of our race seems to be to\nreside in cities of ever-increasing size and of more and more forbidding\naspect. Many of the problems which this domination of the city has\ncreated have been reasonably well- handled ; in the matters of drainage,\nwater supply, lighting, transportation, and other necessities, the modern\ncity is so well provided that it can welcome many times the number of\nresidents that could safely congregate in one community in former times ;\nbut until recent years comparatively little had been done to make our\ncities agreeable and happy places to reside in.\nCity life is unwholesome, both physically and morally, for all ages,\nsexes, and conditions ; and in particular for the young. The city schools\nand the daily press are poor substitutes for the education of the farm ;\nand the opportunities for wholesome and rational enjoyment are deficient\nor altogether lacking. Young people in the city learn little except from\nbooks, and they grow up and go through life without learning to extract\nfrom it that measure of happiness and contentment which they ought in\ntheir own and others' interest to enjoy.\nIt is in supplying this great deficiency of urban life that we find the\nfunction and justification of a well-planned and properly managed system of public parks. The remedy for the demoralizing effects of city\nlife is to be found in the companionship of nature, and in the natural\nbeauty of the land, which, in the words of Bacon, are \" the greatest\nrefreshment to the spirit of man.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe function of the public park is partly to furnish convenient places\nfor wholesome sport and recreation for the young, partly to supply\nattractive resting-places for their elders, and above all to inculcate in all\nages and classes that fondness for nature and the country which, when\nonce acquired, becomes a never-failing source of health, contentment, and\nhappiness. An hour or so a day, a half day or a whole day once a week,\nspent in the beautiful and secluded scenes of a well-planned park not only\nbrings rest and a sense of contentment to the overworked toilers in the\ncity, but should result in stimulating or creating that love of nature which,\nwhen the opportunity exists to satisfy it, is the surest means of securing\nhealth and happiness. There is in every human breast an inborn love of\nnature, which needs only to be quickened- into consciousness to exert a\nbenign and happy influence throughout a man's whole life. The city\nboy who has spent a summer in the woods spends the rest of his life in\ntrying to get back there. The demoralizing atmosphere of the modern\ncity can suppress, but not wholly eradicate, this longing for the beautiful in\nnature ; it can be revived ; and the means of gratifying it and of utilizing it\nfor the amelioration of conditions and the advancement of the race are\nto be found in the establishment of public parks.\nIt is here that we see the connection between parks and education ;\nfor unfortunately it is the fact that those who live in cities, particularly\nthose who are born there, must be made familiar by personal experience\nand contact with the enjoyment to be obtained from nature before they\nrealize the opportunities for rational pleasure to be found in the parks;\nand they should be encouraged to acquire that fondness for country\nscenes and open-air recreation which, when once acquired, is never forgotten, and which will furnish the means of wholesome and inexpensive\nenjoyment throughout the rest of their lives..\nSpeaking more especially of this particular community, it is evident\nthat the people must be educated to appreciate the beauties of our parks\nand the use that can be made of them. At the present time not over a\nsmall fraction of the people seem to understand what our parks consist of\nor what they were acquired for. The facilities for boating, skating,\nbathing, gymnastic work, and the playing of games are known and appreciated, although not so much as they might be; the drives are fairly well\npatronized in spring and autumn ; the beaches are crowded on hot summer days ; and on Sundays and holidays in pleasant weather a certain\nnumber of picnic parties may be found here and there scattered throughout\nthe parks. A few stray lovers of nature may also occasionally be found\nin the woods and wilder reservations. Generally speaking, however, it\nmay be said that the woods, meadows, hills, and rivers which comprise\nnine-tenths of our parks and which constitute in extent, beauty, and accessibility apark system which has no rival in the world, are unknown to\nthe public except by name, and are not fulfilling the purpose for which\nthey.Were established.\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE NaturM-STUDV\n\nmovement\n\nlog\n\nIt is clear that information, instruction, education are necessary in\norder that the people may understand and profit by the endless opportunities for recreation and improvement which our parks afford. It seems\nevident also that the best place for this education to begin is in the schools.\nSome steps in this direction have already been taken in the school gardens which have been established in this and other cities, and in the\ngreater attention devoted to horticulture, to botany, and to what has been\ntermed \" nature study.\" The things which cannot be taught by books, the\nordinary things of life, are equally important with the learning of the\nschoolroom, and can be learned only out of doors. Our parks afford an\nendless field for instruction of this sort, which, as well as information\nin gardening, arboriculture, and forestry, might be given, it would seem,\nby means of regular inspection trips conducted by persons competent to\nteach the children to look about them and to take an interest in what\nthey see. The parks themselves should be a school, not only for education in the arts connected with plant life, but in the appreciation of the\nbeauties of nature and in that greatest of all arts, the art of enjoying life.\nAmerican political methods have furnished American educators with\nunequaled opportunities for inculcating in the young that love for the\nbeauties of nature which, when acquired, will greatly enlarge their capacity for wholesome enjoyment, and thus ameliorate the conditions of modern city life. Our city governments would seem to have done their duty\nin the premises; public parks have been furnished by our democratic\ncommunities upon a scale of liberality unknown elsewhere in the world.\nIt remains for those specially interested in the cause of education to\ndevise the means by which these splendid facilities for improving the\nhealth, morals, and happiness of the people may be utilized as intended\nby those who are responsible for their establishment.\n\nTUB\nL. H. BAILEY, DIRECTOR\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nOF COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,\nITHACA, N. Y.\n\nCORNELL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe nature-study movement is the outgrowth of an effort to put the child\ninto contact and sympathy with its own life.\nIt is strange that such a movement is necessary. It would seem to be\nthe natural, and almost the inevitable, thing that the education of the child\nshould be such as to place it in intimate relation with the objects and\nevents with which it lives. It is a fact, however, that our teaching has\nbeen largely exotic to the child ; that it has begun by taking the child\naway from its natural environment ;<that it has concerned itself with the\nsubject-matter rather than with the child. This is the marvel of marvels\nin education.\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[General\n\nLet me illustrate by a reference to the country school. If any man\nwere to find himself in a country wholly devoid of schools, and were to be\nset the task of originating and organizing a school system, he would almost\nunconsciously introduce some subjects that would be related to the habits\nof the people and to the welfare of the community. Being freed from\ntraditions, he would teach something of the plants and animals and fields\nand people. Yet, as a matter of fact, what do our rural schools teach ?\nThey usually teach the things that the academies and the colleges and the\nuniversities have taught — that old line of subjects that is supposed, in its\nhigher phases, to lead to \"learning.\" The teaching in the elementary\nschool is a reflection of old academic methods. We really begin our\nsystem at the wrong end — with a popularizing and simplifying of methods\nand subjects that are the product of the so-called higher education. We\nshould begin with the child. \"The greatest achievement of modern\neducation,\" writes Professor Payne, \"is the gradation and correlation of\nschools, whereby the ladder of learning is let down from the university to\nsecondary schools, and from these to the schools of the people.\" It is\nhistorically true that the common schools are the products of the higher\nor special schools, and this explains why it is that so much of the commonschool work is unadapted to the child. The kindergarten, and some of the\nmanual-training, are successful revolts against all this. It seems a pity\nthat it were ever necessary that the ladder of learning be \"let down;\" it\nshould be stood on the ground.\nThe crux of the whole subject lies in the conception of what education\nis. We all define it in theory to be a drawing out and developing of the\npowers of the mind; but in practice we define it in the terms of the means\nthat we employ. We have come to associate education with certain definite\nsubjects, as if no other sets of subjects could be made the means of educating\na mind. One by one new subjects have forced themselves in as being\nproper means for educating. All the professions, natural science, mechanic\narts, politics, and last of all agriculture, have contended for a place in\neducational systems and have established themselves under protest. Now,\nany subject, when put into pedagogic form, is capable of being the means\nof educating a man. The study of Greek is no more a proper means of\neducation than the study of Indian corn is. The mind may be developed\nby means of either one. Classics and calculus are no more divine than\nmachines and potatoes are. We are much in the habit of speaking of\ncertain subjects as leading to \"culture;\" but this is really all factitious, for\n\"culture\" is the product only of efficient teaching, whatever the subjectmatter may be. So insistent have we been on the employing of \"culture\nstudies\" that we seem to have taken the means of education for the object\nor result of education. What a man is, is more important than what he\nknows. Anything that appeals to a man's mind is capable of drawing out\nand training a man's mind ; and is there any subject that does not appeal\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNA TURE-STUD\n\nY MO VEMENT\n\n111\n\nto some man's mind ? The subject may be Sanskrit literature, hydraulics,\nphysics, electricity, or agriculture — all may be made the means whereby\nmen and women are educated, all may lead to what we ought to know as\nculture. The particular subject with which the person deals is incidental,\nfor \"A man's a man for a' that and a' that.\"\nIs there, then, to be no choice of subjects ? There certainly is. It is\nthe end of education to prepare the man or woman better to live. The\nperson must live with his surroundings. He must live with common\nthings. The most important means with which to begin the educational\nprocess, therefore, are those subjects that are nearest the man. Educating\nby means of these subjects puts the child into first-hand relation with his\nown life. It expands the child's spontaneous interest in his environment\ninto a permanent and abiding sympathy and philosophy of life. I never\nknew an exclusive student of classics or philosophy who did not deplore\nhis lack of touch with his own world. These common subjects are the\nnatural, primary, fundamental, necessary subjects. Only as. the child-mind\ndevelops should it be taken on long flights to extrinsic subjects, distant\nlands, to things far beyond its own realm ; and yet, does not our geography\nteaching often still begin with the universe or with the solar system ?\nIn the good time coming, geography will not begin with a book at all,\nas, in fact, it does not now with many teachers. It may end with one.\nIt will begin with physical features in the very neighborhood in which the\nchild lives — with brooks and lakes and hills and fields. Education always\nshould begin with objects and phenomena. We are living in a text-book\nand museum age. First of all, we put our children into books, sometimes\neven into books that tell about the very things at the child's door, as if a\nbook about a thing were better than the thing itself. So accustomed are\nwe to the book- route that we regard any other route as unsystematic,\nunmethodical, disconnected. Books are only secondary means of education. We have made the mistake of making them primary. This mistake\nwe are rapidly correcting. As the book is relegated to its proper sphere,\nwe shall find ourselves free to begin with the familiar end of familiar things.\nNot only are we to begin with common objects and events, but with\nthe child's natural point of contact with them. Start with the child's\nsympathies; lead him on and out. We are to develop the child, not the\nsubject. The specialists may be trusted to develop the subject-matter\nand to give us new truth. The child is first interested in the whole plant,\nthe whole bug, the whole bird, as a living, growing object. It is a most\nsignificant fact that most young children like plants, but that most youths\ndislike botany. The fault lies neither in the plants nor in the youths. A\nyouth may study cells until he hates the plant that bears the cells. He\nmay acquire a technical training in cells, but he may be divorced from\nobjects with which he must live, and his life becomes poorer rather than\nricher.\nI have no objection to minute dissection and analysis, but we\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nED\n\nUCA\n\nTIONA\n\nL ASSOC\n\nI A TION\n\n[General\n\nmust be very careful not to begin it too early nor to push it too far, for\nwe are not training specialists, but are developing the power that will\nenable the pupil to get the most from his own life. As soon as the pupil\nbegins to lose interest in the plant or the animal itself, stop!\nThere is still another reason for the study of the common things in\nvariety : it develops the power to grasp the problems of the day and to\nmake the man resourceful. A young man who has spent all his time in the\nschoolroom is usually hopelessly helpless when he runs against a real circumstance. Isee this remarkably illustrated in my own teaching, for I\nhave young men from the city and from farms. The farm boy will turn\nhis hand to twenty things where the city boy will turn his to one. The\nfarm boy has had to meet problems and to solve them for himself: this is\nsometimes worth more than his entire school training. Why does the\nfarm boy make his way when he goes to the city?\nIt is no mere incident to one's life that he be able to think in the\nthought of his own time. Even tho one expect to devote himself wholly\nto a dead language, he should study enough natural science and enough\ntechnology to enable him to grasp living problems. I fear that some of\nour institutions are still turning out men with mediaeval types of mind.\nNow, therefore, I come again to my thesis — to the statement that the\nend and purpose of nature study is to educate the young mind by means\nof the subjects within its own sphere, by appealing to its own sympathetic\ninterest in them, in order that the person's life may be sweeter, deeper, and\nmore resourceful. Nature study would not necessarily drive any subject\nfrom the curriculum; least of all would it depreciate the value of the\n\" humanities; \" but it would restore to their natural and proper place the\nsubjects that are related to the man. It would begin with things within\nthe person's realm. If we are to interest children — or grown-ups, either,\nfor that matter — we must begin by teaching the things that touch their\nlives. Where there is one person that is interested in philology, there are\nhundreds that are interested in engines and in wheat. From the educational point of view, neither the engine nor the wheat is of much\nconsequence, but the men who like the engines and who grow the wheat\nare immeasurably important and must be reached. There are five millions\nof farms in the United States on which chickens are raised, and millions\nof city and village lots also where they are grown. I would teach chickens.\nI would reach Men by means of the Old Hen.\nHow unrelated much of our teaching is to the daily life is well shown\nby inquiries recently made of the children of New Jersey by Professor Earl\nBarnes. Inquiries were made of the country school children in two\nagricultural counties of the state as to what vocation they hoped to follow. As I recall the figures, of the children at seven years of age 26 per\ncent, desired to follow some occupation connected with country life. Of\nth.oSe at fourteen years, only 2 per cent, desired such occupation.\nThis\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions\n\nTHE\n\nNA TURE-S\n\nTUB\n\nV MO VEMENT\n\nremarkable falling off Professor Barnes ascribes in part to the influence of\nthe teacher in the country schools, who is usually a town or city girl. The\nteacher measures everything in terms of the city. She talks of the city.\nShe returns to the city at the end of the week. In the meantime, all the\nbeauty and attractiveness and opportunity of the country may be unsuggested. Unconsciously both to teacher and pupil, the minds of the\nchildren are turned toward the city. There results a constant migration\nto the city, bringing about serious social and economic problems ; but the\nserious part of it from the educational point of view is the fact that the\nschool training unfits the child to live in its normal and natural environment. It is often said that the agricultural college trains the youth away\nfrom the farm ; the fact is that the mischief is done long before the youth\nenters college.\nLet me give another illustration of the fact that dislike of country life\nis bred very early in the life of the child. In a certain rural school in\nNew York state, of say forty-five pupils, I asked all those children that\nlived on farms to raise their hands ; all hands but one went up. I then\nasked all those who wanted to live on the farm to raise their hands; only\nthat one hand went up. Now, these children were too young to feel the\nappeal of more bushels of potatoes or more pounds of wool, yet they had\nthis early formed their dislike of the farm. Some of this dislike is\nprobably only an ill-defined desire for a mere change, such as one finds in\nall occupations, but I am convinced that the larger part of it was a\ngenuine dissatisfaction with farm life. These children felt that their lot\nwas less attractive than that of other children ; I concluded that a flower\ngarden and a pleasant yard would do more to content them with living on\nthe farm than ten more bushels of wheat to the acre. Of course, it is the\ngreater and better yield that will enable the farmer to supply these\namenities ; but at the same time it must be remembered that the increased\nyield itself does not awaken a desire for them. I should make farm life\ninteresting before I make it profitable.\nOf course, nature study is not proposed merely as a means of keeping\nyouth in the country; I have given these examples only to illustrate the\nfact that much of our education is unrelated to the circumstances in which\nthe child lives — and this is particularly true of teaching in the rural\nschools. Nature study applies to city and country conditions alike,\nacquiring additional emphasis in the country from the fact that what we\ncall \" nature \" forms the greater part of the environment there. But the\nneed to connect the child with itself is fundamental to all efficient teaching. To the city child the problems associated with the city are allimportant ; but even then I should give much attention to the so-called\n\"nature subjects;\" for these are clean, inspiring, universal. \"Back to\nnature\" is an all-pervading tendency of the time.\nWe must distinguish sharply between the purposes of nature study and\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[General\n\nits methods. Its purposes are best expressed in the one word \"sympathy.\" By this I do not mean sentimentalism or superficiality or desultoriness. The acquiring of sympathy with the things and events with which\none lives is the result of a real educational process — a process as vital and\nlogical and efficient as that concerned in educating the older pupil in\nterms of fact and \"science.\" Nature study is not \"natural history,\" nor\n\"biology,\" nor even elementary science. It is an attitude, a point of\nview, a means of contact.\nNature study is not merely the adding of one more thing to a curriculum. It is not co-ordinate with geography or reading or arithmetic.\nNeither is it a mere accessory, or a sentiment, or an entertainment, or a\ntickler of the senses. It is not a \"study.\" It is not the addition of more\n\"work.\" It has to do with the whole point of view of elementary education, and therefore is fundamental. It is the full expression of personality. It is the practical working out of the extension idea that has\nbecome so much a part of our time. More than any other recent movement, itwill reach the masses and revive them. In time it will transform\nour ideals and then transform our methods.\nThe result of all this changing point of view I like to speak of as\na new thing. Of course, there is no education that is wholly new in kind ;\nand it is equally true that education is always new, else it is dead and\nmeaningless. But this determination to cast off academic methods, to put\nourselves at the child's point of view, to begin with the objects and\nphenomena that are near and dear to the child, is so marked just now,\nand is sure to be so far-reaching in its effects, that I cannot resist the\ntemptation to collect these various movements, for emphasis, under the\ntitle, the \"new education.\"\n\"Nature study\" is another name for this new education. It is a\nrevolt from the too exclusive science-teaching point of view for the\nyoung, a protest against taking the child first of all out of its own environment. Itis a product of the teaching of children in the elementary\nschools. The means and methods in nature study are as various as\nthe persons who teach it. Most of the criticism of the movement —\neven among nature-study folk themselves — has to do with means and\nmethods rather than with real ideals. We are now in the epoch when\nwe should overlook minor differences and all work together for the good\nof a common cause. There is no one subject and no one method that is\nbest.\nWhile it is not my purpose to enter into any discussion of the methods of teaching nature study, I cannot refrain from calling attention to\nwhat I believe to be some of the most important dangers, (i) I would\nfirst mention the danger of giving relatively too much attention to mere\nsubject-matter or fact. Nowhere should the acquiring of mere information be the end of an educational process, and least of all in nature study,\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNATURE-STUDY\n\nMOVEMENT\n\n115\n\nfor the very essence of nature study is spirit, sympathy, enthusiasm, attitude toward life. It is these results that the youth gets naturally when\nhe associates in a perfectly free and natural way with objects in the wild.\nScience-teaching has fallen short of its goal in the elementary schools —\nand even in ^the colleges and universities — by insisting so much on the\nsubject-matter as to forget the pupil. In standing so rigidly for the\nletter, we have missed the spirit. President Eliot has recently called attention to this danger : \" College professors heretofore have been apt to think\nthat knowledge of the subject to be taught was the sufficient qualification\nof a teacher; but all colleges have suffered immeasurable losses as a result\nof this delusion.\" (2) A second danger is the tendency to make the\ninstruction too long and too laborious. A child's mind cannot be held to\na subject profitably for more than a very few minutes. As soon as the\nchild becomes weary of giving attention, the danger-point is reached ; for\nthereafter there is loss in the spirit and enthusiasm, however much may be\ngained in dry subject-matter. I believe that even in high schools and colleges we make mistakes in demanding too long continued application to\none subject. Short, sharp, enthusiastic exercises, with pith and point, of\nfive to ten minutes' duration, are efficient and sufficient for most purposes,\nparticularly with beginners. (3) A third danger is the practice of merely\ntelling or explaining. Set the child to work, and let the work be within\nits own realm. Pollen, lichens, capsules, lymphatics, integuments — these\nare not within the child's range; they smack of the museum and the\ntext-book. Yet it appears to be the commonest thing to put mere children at the subject of cross-fertilization ; they should first be put, perhaps,\nat flowers and insects. I wish that in every schoolroom might be hung\nthe motto, \"Teaching, not telling.\" (4) A fourth point I ought to mention is the danger of adhering too closely to the book habit ; this I have\nalready touched on. We are gradually growing out of the book slavery,\neven in arithmetic and grammar and history. This means a distinct rise\nin the abilities of the teacher. Of all subjects that should not be taught\nby the book, nature study is chief. Its very essence is freedom from tradition and \"method.\" I wish that there were more nature-study books,\nbut they are most useful as sources of fact and inspiration, not as class\ntexts. The good teacher of nature study must greatly modify the old idea\nof \"recitations.\" I wish to quote again from President Eliot: \"Arithmetic is a very cheap subject to teach ; so are spelling and the oldfashioned geography. As to teaching history in the old-fashioned way,\nanybody could do that who could hear a lesson recited. To teach nature\nstudies, geometry, literature, physiography, and the modern sort of history requires well-informed and skillful teachers, and these cost more than\nthe lesson-hearers did.\" (5) Finally, we must come into contact with the\nactual things, not with museums and collections. Museums are little\nbetter than books unless they are made to be very secondary means. The\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "Il6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nmuseum has now become a laboratory. The living museum\n\n[General\n\nmust come\n\nmore and more into vogue — living birds, living plants, living insects.\nThe ideal laboratory is the out-of-doors itself ; but for practical school\npurposes this must be supplemented. The most workable living laboratory of any dimensions is. the school garden. The true school garden is\na laboratory plat; time is coming when such a laboratory will be as much\na part of a good school equipment as blackboards and charts and books\nnow are. It will be like an additional room to the school building. Aside\nfrom the real school garden, every school premises should be embellished\nand improved as a matter of neighborhood and civic pride ; for one cannot expect the child to rise above the conditions in which it is placed. All\nthese dangers cannot be overcome by any \"system\" or \"method;\" they\nmust be solved one by one, place by place, each teacher for himself.\nWhenever nature study comes to be rigidly graded and dressed and\nordered, the breath of life will be crushed from it. It is significant that\neverywhere mere \"method\" is giving way to individualism.\nIn time, the methods of teaching nature study will crystallize and consolidate about a few central points. The movement itself is well under\nway. It will persist because it is vital and fundamental. It will add new\nvalue and significance to all the accustomed work of the schools; for it is\nnot revolutionary, but evolutionary. It stands for naturalness, resourcefulness, and quickened interest in the common and essential things of\nlife. We talk much about the ideals of education ; but the true philosophy of life is to idealize everything with which we have to do.\n\nTHE\nWALLACE\n\nBEGINNING AND AIMS OF THE\nED UCA TION BOARD\n\nBUTTRICK,\n\nGENERAL\n\nSECRETARY AND EXECUTIVE OFFICER\nEDUCATION BOARD, NEW YORK CITY\n\nOF THE\n\nGENERAL\n\nThe General Education Board is an outgrowth of the Conference for\nEducation in the South, an organization which had its beginning at Capon\nSprings, Va., in 1898. At the fourth annual meeting of that conference,\nheld at Winston-Salem, N. C, the president, Mr. Robert C. Ogden, was\nauthorized to appoint seven men who with himself should be a permanent and self-perpetuating executive board. The original members of the\nboard thus appointed were : Robert C. Ogden, Jabez L. M. Curry, Charles\nW. Dabney, Edwin A. Alderman, Charles D. Mclver, Hollis B. Frissell,\nGeorge Foster Peabody, and Wallace Buttrick. Since the organization of\nthe board the following additional members have been elected : William\nH. Baldwin, Jr., Walter H. Page, Albert Shaw, Hugh H. Hanna, and\nUpon its organization in November, 1901, the\nEdgar Gardner Murphy.\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nGENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBOARD\n\n1 17\n\nboard took the name \" Southern Education Board\" and elected the following officers :\nPresident — Robert C. Ogden.\nTreasurer — George Foster Peabody.\nSecretary — Charles D. Mclver.\nExecutive Secretary — Edgar Gardner Murphy.\nSupervising Director — Jabez L. M. Curry.\nDistrict Directors — Edwin A. Alderman, Hollis B. Frissell, Charles D. Mclver.\nDirector Bureau of Investigation and Publication — Charles W. Dabney.\nGeneral Field Agents — Booker T. Washington, G. S. Dickerman.\n\nThe following quotation from a brief published statement shows the\nscope of the Southern Board's work :\nUnder the instructions of the preamble and resolutions, the board has decided that no\nportion of the fixed sum of money it hopes to secure for current expenses shall be applied\nto the assistance of any institution or school, but that it shall be expended exclusively\nfor the purpose of stimulating public sentiment in favor of more liberal provision for universal education in the public schools.\nThe practical vyork of the board is in the form of a popular propaganda, through\nits own printed issues, the public press, and more especially public speech — th€ living\nepistle.\n\nIn the course of time the northern members of the board became convinced that something more than an educational propaganda was needed.\nThey came to appreciate the heroic earnestness of the South in its effort\nto promote universal education. They saw also the peculiar difficulties\nwhich hinder and limit the development and support of free schools for\nall the people in the southern states.\nLet us for a few minutes consider some of these conditions and hindrances peculiar to the south central and south Atlantic states.\nI. The serious results of the war between the states. — It is not easy for\nus to realize the condition of the southern people after the surrender at\nAppomattox. Some of us recall the rejoining at the North as our boys\ncame marching home, singing the songs of victory. We recall the tremendous wave of business prosperity that set in at the North even before\nwar had ceased. Not so was it at the South. I have sat in the homes\nof these southern heroes and listened to their stories of the desolation and\nalmost despair of the people as the returning soldiers began anew the\nworks of peace. One-tenth of the white male population had been lost\non the field of battle ; the entire accumulated capital of the South had been\nswept away ; in many places their houses had been burned and their\nfields were wasted ; the very institutions of their civilization had been\nuprooted and destroyed. Then followed the period of reconstruction, when\ngood men made mistakes and bad men ran riot. During this unhappy\nperiod the already impoverished states were loaded with added burdens of\nbonded debts, amounting in some cases to practical confiscation. And,\nwhat was even worse, prejudices were formed and animosities aroused that\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 18\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[ General\n\nhave lasted to the present day, and still stand in the way of progress. The\nwar, with the awful aftermath of reconstruction, involved the building\nanew of an entire civilization.\n2. Eighty -five per cent, of the population of the South is rural. — The\nnorth Atlantic states average one hundred and thirty people to the square\nmile ; the south central and south Atlantic states average but thirty- onato\nthe square mile. The former Confederate states have but twenty-six cities\nwith a population of 25,000 or over; the single state of Massachsetts has\ntwenty-three such cities. The sparse population of the South necessitates\nsmall schools, widely separated and with inadequate support. This\ndifficulty is seriously aggravated by the poor roads which are always found\nin sparsely settled regions.\nThe cities and larger towns of the South have excellent school systems,\nin the development of which the trustees of the Peabody Education Fund\nhave borne a large and honorable part. But the average term of the rural\nschools is less than eighty days, and the entire school life of the average\nchild but three of these short terms, or 240 days in all.\n3. The necessity of supporting two systems of schools. — The South, with\nits limited wealth, its inheritance of debt, and its sparse population, has\nthe added burden of supporting two distinct systems of schools — one for\nthe white and another for the colored children. The decision of the people of the South regarding this matter of separate schools is final, and\nadmits of no challenge. Experience shows that it works to the advantage of\nthe colored race as well as of the white. Without separate schools the negro\nwould have little, if indeed any, opportunity for the development of that\nrace leadership which is the great necessity of race progress. It is the\nsphere of the teacher that has furnished the negro his largest opportunity\nfor demonstrating his power of leadership. This necessity for a dual\nsystem of schools involves an expense nearly twice as large as would be\nnecessary for the education of one race.\n4. Other hindrances less general. — a) Traditional sentiment regarding\npublic education. Before the Civil War the people of the South regarded\nthe obligation to educate as belonging to the parent, and not to the\nstate ; education, therefore, was looked upon as the privilege of a favored\nfew rather than as the right of all. Private schools educated the sons\nand daughters of a select class, while the great mass of the people had\nlittle schooling, and many of them none at all. A great change in sentiment and conviction has taken place in recent years, until **free schools\nfor all the people\" has become a political shibboleth in several states;\nbut a careful observer of conditions and sentiment in the South sees\nthat the old aristocratic ideal of society still hinders the progress of\nuniversal education at public expense.\nI?) Indifference to education in many rural regions, due to the present\ninefficiency of the schools, the ignorance of parents, the supposed need of\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nGENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBOARD\n\nI19\n\nchild-labor at home and on the farms, and a conservatism that fights\nagainst change. The awakening of these regions progresses rapidly, but\nonly as the result of the most earnest effort and much patience on the part\nof educational leaders.\nc) An exaggerated individualism which looks with disfavor on central\nboards of direction and control. For this reason both state and county\nsuperintendents have to meet considerable opposition before they can\nattain to any position of recognized authority.\nd) A dislike and dread of taxation. The present sentiment in this\nrespect is due in large part to the unhappy experiences of the reconstruction\nperiod, but, as regards support of schools by local taxation, it is also due\nto the fact that from the beginning of the public-school system schools\nhave been supported by the funds of the states at large rather than by\nfunds raised locally. Initiative at the North has been on the part of the\nlocal community, while at the South it has been by the state. As a result\nthe school term is only as long as the state apportionment will maintain.\nFurthermore, this dependence for the support of the schools on a remote\nsource of revenue has deadened the sense of local responsibility. One of\nthe great problems of the South, therefore, is that of the education of a\npublic sentiment favorable to local taxation for school purposes.\nThese are some of the hindrances that have come under my personal\nobservation, as I have met the state and county superintendents of nine\nof the southern states during the past year. For the most part they are\npeculiar to the South, and, taken together, they constitute a peculiar\nproblem inviting interest, sympathy, and help.\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\nHAS\n\nDONE\n\nLet us now see and consider what the South has done in the face of\nthese difficulties.\nSoon after the war the different state legislatures undertook the\ndevelopment of free public schools, in the belief that the education of all\nthe people would be the greatest means of reconstructing their shattered\nfortunes and of rehabilitating their broken civilization. The aristocratic\nview of education is slowly yet surely yielding to the democratic, until\nnow every state has a well-defined system of public free schools, and a\nsentiment favoring \" free schools for all the people\" pervades the social\nand political life of the South.\nThis change in public sentiment is traceable to several causes :\nI. The influence of denominational schools, i. e., schools founded and\nmaintained by the several Christian denominations. Dr. Walter H. Page,\nin his Rebuilding of Old Commonweallhs, has traced the influence of the\ndenominational school as an intermediate step between the aristocratic\nprivate school and the democratic public school, emphasizing the change\nthat has taken place in favor of the latter.\nThe past, present, and future\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nvalue of the denominational schools must not be underestimated. Established for public rather than for sectarian ends, supported by personal and\nfinancial sacrifices, they have been one of the great forces in the educational\nadvancement of the South, supplying teachers of the free schools and\nleaders of public thought.\nOn the other hand, and along with these favorable influences, both the\nprivate and the denominational schools have retarded somewhat the\ngrowth of public education by meeting the needs of their respective\ncommunities with such satisfaction that the larger needs of free, democratic, all-embracing schools were overlooked.\n2. The work of the Peabody and Slater Education Funds, the former\nin promoting school systems in cities and towns, and schools for the training of teachers, the latter in promoting schools for negroes. The\ninfluence of these two funds has been far-reaching — a patriotic philanthropy of the most practical and enduring character.\n3. Appreciative mention should also be made of the wide influence on\npublic education of such great schools as Hampton and Tuskegee, and\nlikewise of many schools for negroes that have been founded and maintained byNorthern philanthrophy. These schools — no longer ''forts in\nan enemy's country,\" to quote the felicitous phrase of Dr, Alderman —\nhave gained the respect and won the co-operation of the school authorities\nof the South, and have made much public sentiment favorable to universal\neducation.\n4. The enthusiastic leadership of a company\n\nof young men, who,\n\noften at personal sacrifice and always with genuine heroism, have campaigned the South, their war-cry being, '' Free schools for all the people.\"\nYou know many of them. A few are here participating in your counsels;\nothers are conducting and teaching summer schools for teachers in several\nsouthern states, where at this moment over ten thousand earnest men\nand women are spending their vacations in seeking to improve the character of their work as teachers in the public schools. I wish you could\nappreciate the amount of devoted heroism and personal self-sacrifice implied in those ten thousand teachers thus hard at work during their\nvacations. They are giving their time, and in many cases their entire\nsavings.\n\nI believe that the public-school teacher is the hope of the South.\nA BRIEF\n\nSUMMARY\n\nOF\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nRESULTS\n\nSince 1870, $690,000,000 have been raised by taxation for public\nschools, of which amount $130,000,000 have been devoted to the education\nof the negroes. The public expenditure for both races is now nearing\n$40,000,000 a year.\nEnthusiasm for common schools is seen in public, private, and denominational conferences called for the discussion of problems connected\nThis enthusiasm is also seen in\nwith the promotion of public education.\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nGENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBOARD\n\n121\n\nthe speeches and messages of governors ; the emphasis of the press, the\nplatform, and the legislatures; the rapid spread of local taxation and\nconsolidation of schools; the general advocacy of manual and industrial\ntraining ; the increase of high-school studies in the public schools (heretofore secondary education has been almost exclusively under private or\ndenominational auspices); the development of agricultural and mechanical\ncolleges; the growth of public and private normal schools, teachers'\ntraining classes, summer institutes, and summer schools for teachers.\nIn a word, the paramount question in the southern states is that of the\npromotion of public education. It is the chief plank in all political platforms, the shibboleth of men and women of light and leading.\nTHE\n\nGENERAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBOARD\n\nThe knowledge of such facts as these led to the formation of the\nGeneral Education Board.\nIn a nation such as ours, where all initiative is with the people, no\nproblem is ever strictly local. No locality in our country ever \"liveth\nunto itself.\" \" When one member suffers, then all members suffer,\" is\ninvolved in the very idea of our peculiar national life.\nThe General Education Board was organized in February, 1902, and\nissued the following\nBRIEF\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nOF\n\nPOLICY\n\nThe underlying principle of the association is the recognition of the fact that the\npeople of the southern states are earnestly engaged in the promotion of public education,\nand that in this effort they should receive generous aid ; and to this end, and in pursuance of the following named and kindred objects, the association will seek gifts, large and\nsmall, from those in sympathy with its plans.\n- It is the purpose of the board :\n1. To promote education within the United States of America without distinction of\nrace, sex, or creed.\n2. To co-operate with other organizations interested in educational work, and to\nsimplify and make effective the general work of education, avoiding unnecessary\nduplication.\n3. To develop the public-school system, especially in rural districts.\n4. To aid in the maintenance and improvement of educational institutions already\nestablished.\n5. To further the establishment of training schools for teachers, especially those designed to educate teachers of industrial and manual training.\n6. To develop the principle of self-help by urging increased local taxation, local contributions, orby other means.\n7. To collect full information and statistics in respect to educational matters in the\ndistricts covered by the operations of the board, which shall be kept at a general office.\n8. To furnish the public with information, suggestions, and counsel, and for this purpose to act somewhat as a clearing house for educational statistics and data to be collated\nby the board.\n9. To educate public opinion in all matters pertaining to the general cause of education by publication of reports through the daily press and by other means.\n10. To promote by all suitable means every form of valuable educational work.\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFor nearly a year the board worked under articles of association, until,\nin January, 1903, it organized under a charter granted by the Congress of\nthe United States.\nThe board now consists of the following-named men : William H.\nBaldwin, Jr., chairman; George Foster Peabody, treasurer; Wallace\nButtrick, secretary and executive ofificer; and Frederick T. Gates, Daniel\nC. Gilman, Morris K. Jesup, Robert C. Ogden, Walter H. Page, John D.\nRockefeller, Jr., and Albert Shaw.\n. The late Hon. Jabez L. M. Curry was a member of the board from its\norganization to the time of his death.\nThe offices of the board are at 54 William street, New York city.\nAt the time of its organization the board was underwritten in a moderate\namount by a friend of the work. This sum, about one hundred thousand\ndollars a year for ten years, will enable the board to proceed with its\ninvestigations, and also to render aid in small amounts. As implied in its\nstatement of policy, however, the board will seek other funds from various\nsources as its plans are developed.\nDuring the fifteen months of its existence the board has made a few\nconditional gifts to such objects as the consolidation of rural schools, the\nequipment of schools for the training of teachers, the support of selected\nschools for negroes, the maintenance of summer schools for teachers for\nboth races, the holding of conferences with county and city school\nsuperintendents, etc.\nThe main work of the board thus far, however, has been that of a\ncareful and comprehensive study of educational conditions and needs in\neach of the southern states, including such subjects as public and private\nschools of every grade and class ; school population and average attendance; amount of public and private funds devoted to education; length\nof school terms and means taken to lengthen the same; the supply of\nteachers, their training, time of service, and pay; public-school administration, supervision, etc.; and in general all facts bearing on the educational\nconditions and needs of the south central and south Atlantic states.\nAt the offices of the board a carefully selected library of educational\nreference has been collected, including a few general reference works,\nreports of school boards and school superintendents, reports of the\nNational Educational Association and other educational societies, the\nvarious state school laws, catalogs and circulars of nearly all of the southern\ninstitutions, and, by the courtesy of Commissioner Harris, ^ full set of\nreports of the United States Bureau of Education. These publications\nhave been carefully classified and cataloged, and are at the service of the\ngeneral public.\nIn gathering information the board has availed itself of this published\nmaterial, and in addition has sought first-hand information thru its own\nagencies.\nThe secretary and school visitors of the board have visited and\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF THE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nNEGRO\n\n123\n\ncarefully inspected some three hundred individual schools, attended\nsummer schools and other gatherings of teachers, arranged and attended\nspecial conferences of state, county, and city superintendents of schools in\neight of the southern states, and in general have sought the acquaintance\nand counsel of leading educators thruout the country, especially in the\nSouth.\nQuestions covering educational facts have been prepared and sent to\ncounty school superintendents and to individual schools of all grades.\nSome thousands of these blanks have been filled out and are now on file,\ntogether with stenographic reports of the proceedings and discussions of\nthe conferences above referred to. The board has also secured on its own\nblanks detailed information regarding the existing supply of teachers,\ncovering such questions as their professional training, grade of license,\ntime of service, etc. The information secured in these various ways is\ncarefully verified by comparison with published reports and then edited,\nclassified, and indexed, so as to be readily accessible at the offices of the\nboard; and maps are being prepared which show at a glance the educational equipment of each state, including elementary, secondary, normal,\nprofessional, technical, and university instruction.\nOn the basis of such accurate knowledge the board hopes to develop\na constructive program that will appeal strongly to people of wealth who\nshare this sense of responsibility for the education of all the .people of our\ncountry.\nIn a word, thru funds that may be placed at its disposal, and by\nfurnishing the public with information, suggestion, and counsel, the\nGeneral Education Board will seek \"to promote education within the\nUnited States of America, without distinction of race, sex, or creed.\"\n\nTHE\nREV.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nCHARLES\n\nT.\n\nWALKER,\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF THE\n\nPASTOR\nOF\nNEW\nYORK\n\nMOUNT\nCITY\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nNEGRO\n\nOLIVET\n\nCHURCH,\n\nBAPTIST\n\nMr. Presidenty Members of the National Educational Association, Ladies\nand Gentlemen:\nI am gratefully sensible of the honor you have done me, in permitting\nme to represent the educational interests of my race before this intelligent audience.\nI am to speak for and in behalf of a race peculiarly situated ; a race\nborn amidst persecution, disciplined in the school of slavery nearly two\nhundred and fifty years, emancipated ferty years ago without education,\nexperience, money, competent leaders, and in some instances without\nnames.\nI represent a race that has been true and loyal to America\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n\\ General\n\nfrom the revolutionary struggle to this period of the twentieth century. My\nrace has not only stood by the American flag, but has been true to America's\ninterest. The American people, in order to do effective work in the elevation of my race, must believe in the manhood of the negro, and have faith\nin his moral, spiritual, and intellectual possibilities.\nThe negro has made wonderful progress since his emancipation in\nthe development of knowledge, character, and the acquisition of property.\nThe South has done well in her appropriations by the various legislatures for education, when are remembered the poverty, devastation, and\nbad feeling which came with that period of /^/^construction called reconstruction.\nThe leaders of my race recognize the responsibility devolving upon\nthem to lead into the possession of intelligent, honorable citizenship.\nThey have commenced the serious and difficult task, and with divine\nguidance, and the assistance and encouragement of the friends of\npopular education, success is absolutely certain. Judging the future\nby the past and present, negro illiteracy will be reduced to a greater\nextent in the next twenty years than it has been in the entire forty years\nof freedom. The past has been foundation work, and much foundation\nwork remains to be done. We are indebted to northern philanthropists\nfor the foundation of negro education; foundation work is not always\nconspicuous; to be permanent and durable much of it is out of sight;\nbut that work is appreciated as the building in process of erection assumes\nproportions and gradually arises toward completion. The negro has\nreduced his illiteracy 50 per cent.; we have 2,500,000 negro children in\nthe public schools, 35,000 negro teachers, 45,000 students in higher\ninstitutions, 30,000 students learning trades, and 3,000 students pursuing\nclassical and scientific courses. Negroes have given out of their poverty\nfor education ^13,065,000. They have expended for school property\n$15,000,000. Negro students have taken high rank at Harvard, Yale,\nBrown, Oberlin, and other representative institutions. The negro's progress is remarkable when you remember the short time in which this\nprogress has been made and the adverse circumstances under which the\nrace has had to labor.\nThe negro is behind; not because he is incapable of intellectual\ngrowth and development; not because he differs essentially from other\nraces. He is simply a man like other men. The negro race has the\nvices and virtues, abilities and disabilities, of other men. He loves freedom;he hates oppression. He is an ardent admirer of justice; he has\nno. love for injustice, having known it intimately for two hundred and\nfifty years. The negro is patient under the most exasperating and trying\ncircumstances. He has been loyal to every trust committed to him both\nin war and in peace. He stood guard over southerh homes during the\nCivil War, supporting and defending helpless children and defenseless\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nNEGRO\n\n125\n\nwomen. He wept over the grave of his master as sincerely as Jacob\nmourned for Joseph. At the close of the war he returned to the white\nmen their wives and children untouched, unharmed, and unblemished.\nThere is no record of a single negro betraying the trust committed to him\nduring the four long years of bloody conflict.\nThere is no essential difference between the negro and any other race.\nWhile he is charged with being imitative, there are some things in which\nhe does not care to imitate his white brother. He does not believe in committing suicide. He rarely ever makes assignments. He does not\nbelieve in bankruptcy, or in emigration. It is often claimed that the\nnegro should return to Africa, just as the JeWs returned to Canaan after\ntheir liberation. In the case of the Jews, God ordered the march, furnished leaders, gave supplies, and cut a path across the sea; but up to\nthis time, so far as regards my race, no arrangement has been made for\nour transportation. The negro is behind other races because of lack of\ntime and opportunity. Some few have done admirably ; many have done\nwell.\nThe educational needs of the negroes of the South can be summed\nbriefly as follows:\n\nup\n\n1. A better system of public schools — which means longer terms\nand better teachers. I mean thoroly educated, professionally trained\nteachers, who will follow teaching as a profession, and not as a steppingstone to something else. We need a well-regulated system of public\nschools for the rural districts. Professor Kelly Miller says in his\nreport: \"In the rural districts of the South the school fund is woefully\ninadequate to support a satisfactory system. The object of the public\nschool is to benefit the masses; their plan and scope should be adapted\nto the capacity and condition of those for whose welfare they are\nintended.\" Connected with our public-school system there should be\nthe kindergarten institute.\n2. We need trade and technical schools for the masses. The question,\n\"What sort of education does the negro need?\" finds its answer in the\neconomic law of supply and demand, and not in his ethnological characteristics, inherent ability, and political status. Broadly speaking, the\nnegro needs every sort of education necessary to the conduct of every\nphase of civilized life; but the ratio of lawyers, doctors, skilled artisans,\netc., needed for the entire race is, owing to conditions peculiar to the\npresent time, not proportional to that of the white people either north\nor south. The reason for this disparity is that the negroes' greatest and\nmost imperative need is the ownership of good homes and the accumulation of wealth, moral and intellectual training, and skilled ability in the\nproduction of staple raw material for the world's commerce. Reckoning\non the basis of a negro population of nine millions in this country\n(adult 3,500,000 or 4,000,000), an approximate estimate shows that there\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nare needed 10,000 or 12,000 educated negro preachers, about 10,000\nphysicians, 5,000 lawyers, 135,000 teachers, and 1,000,000 skilled artisans,\nmerchants, etc. Eliminating about 5,000,000 children, and subtracting the\n1,160,000 accounted for in the estimate just given, there remain 2,840,000.\nThese should engage in agriculture and other productive work. They\nlepresent the greatest educational demand of the race, and therefore\nthis demand should be more largely supplied than that of any other\nclass. That is, industrial training, preferentially agricultural, should be\ngiven to three out of every four persons in the race. It goes without\nsaying that the industrially trained should also have a good commonschool education as a prerequisite to their special training in the industries and to intelligent citizenship. And when I refer to industrial and\nagricultural schools, I mean real schools; not shams and fakes. The\nskilled mechanic and the scientific farmer can find remunerative employment in the South as he cannot find it anywhere else. The South has as\nyet set up no barrier to prevent a man from making an honest living on\naccount of the color of his skin. We need several more institutions in\nthe South like Hampton and Tuskegee. The governor of Georgia\nbelieves that $3,000 should be appropriated by the legislature of that\nstate for an agricultural and mechanical college for young white men in\neach of its eleven congressional districts. The distribution of these schools\nwould give a greater impetus to agriculture in the state, and would reach\na larger class of young white men.\nEvery southern state needs a number of industrial and agricultural\nschools for the colored young men and women. I do not think there\nneed be any fear for an overproduction of industrially or mechanically\ntrained colored people. I am quite sure there is an imperative need for\nscientific farmers thruout the South. Professor Miller has wisely said:\n\"The greatest need of the negro is to bring the wild energy of his muscle\nunder the guiding intelligence of his mind.\"\n3. In the third place we need high-grade normal schools and colleges\nfor the training of teachers, leaders, and professional men. We need\nindustrial training for the masses — practical education. But in order to\nhave competent leaders, cultured and intelligent educators, professional\nmen of skill and ability, I plead not only for the higher education of\nthe negro, but for the highest. I believe it to be the order of divine\nProvidence that the negro shall maintain and preserve his racial identity.\nThe race must produce intelligent leaders ; no race can succeed by allowing another race to do its thinking. We are going to advocate industrial\neducation for the masses; and the best people of my race believe in the\ngreat work that Booker T. Washington is doing at Tuskegee. He is the\ngreat apostle of industrial education ; and I for one wish we had one\nthousand Tuskegees, and ten thousand Booker Washingtons. But, while\nwe love Hampton and Tuskegee, we also honor those institutions that\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nNEGRO\n\n127\n\nStand for the higher education of the race. We shall, still send the ambitious, aspiring students to the best northern universities, where they have\nproven themselves susceptible of the highest intellectual development.\nNe^ro students from the South, sons of slaves, have entered Harvard,\nYale, and Brown, and crossed intellectual swords with the sons of America's\nmost cultured citizens; and those negro boys, with no centuries of civilization and culture behind them, no two hundred and fifty years of the white\nman's opportunity, have plucked laurels and won well-merited honors in\nthe greatest schools of America.\nThe negro race needs the most highly educated men and women to\ntrain and prepare the future leaders of the race; to give encouragement\nand inspiration to the aspiring young men and women who will make\nthese instructors their ideals ; because these teachers, members of the same\nrace, have come in possession of the moral and intellectual qualities\nwhich fit men and women for usefulness, and entitle them to the respect\nand confidence of mankind.\nThe black man in the South, with well-regulated public schools in the\nrural districts, with protection to life and property, will purchase and cultivate lands, and will, by the aid of industrial education, become an\nimportant factor in the development of the almost boundless resources of\nthe South. It is said that the colored laborer does four-fifths of the agricultural labor of the southern states, and all of the unskilled labor. It is\nestimated that his share in the cotton, corn, wheat, rice, oats, etc.,\namounts to ^610,786,182 — a sum equal to $8.14 for every inhabitant of\nthis country, or ^61 per capita for every individual of the race. If we\ndivide the total amount of these products made in the entire country by\nthe population, it will be found that the per capita production is only\n$27.80, whereas the colored man's part is $61 per capita; thus showing\nhis great activity as an agricultural laborer, and the splendid part he is\nplaying in the industrial development of the nation. This vast contribution to the wealth of the nation is made without disturbing the industrial\nand commercial tranquillity of the country by strikes or labor riots of any\nclass whatever. The colored man never strikes unless he is forced to\ndo so.\nAs the colored man is trained industrially, and learns the science of\nagriculture, his contribution to the national wealth will be much larger.\nThe leaders of my race recognize the present as the most critical period\nof our history as a race. It is the period of adjustment, and we know that\nour success will not depend upon conflict, but upon concord and\nco-operation with the best thought and sentiment of this American nation.\nThe southern negro is becoming serious; he is beginning to think; he\nis striving earnestly to better his conditiotf. These lines of Ella Wheeler\nWilcox, in \"The Black Man's Claim,\" express very pathetically the condition of my race :\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nOut of the wilderness, out of the night,\nHas the black man. crawled to the dawn of the light;\nBeaten by lashes, and bound by chains,\nA beast of burden with soul and brains.\nHe has come through sorrows and need and woe,\nAnd the cry of his heart is to know, to know.\nOut of the wilderness, out of the night.\nHas the black man crawled to the dawn of light;\nHe has come through the valley of great despair;\nHe has borne what no white man ever can bear;\nHe has come through sorrow and pain and woe.\nAnd the cry of his heart is to know, to know.\n\nFinally, I believe in the possibilities of my race because I have faith\nin God. The negro is in America by the providence of God ; he has a\nmission to perform.\nI am hopeful of my race because I have faith in the American people.\nThe trend of public sentiment in this country, as expressed by its best citizenship, moves in the right direction. God will keep on hand a sufficient\nnumber of humanitarians — statesmen, educators, and philanthropists — as\nthe salt of the earth to season the masses, and America will become more\nand more an ideal nation. The organization of the General Education\nBoard and the Southern Educational Board, with such distinguished\nmen in charge, means much toward the blotting out of ignorance, and\nwill do much toward the elevation and enlightenment of the masses.\nI am hopeful of the negro's future because I have faith in my race.\nWe made a record as slaves for a loyalty and a devotion to every trust\ncommitted to us that is without a parallel in history. The old plantation melodies revealed the inward condition of the race; they breathed\nthe spirit of peace and good-will, and expressed as best they can the sentiment of the angelic anthem that was sung on Bethlehem's plain, that\nwas to be the prophetic music of the ages. A race that can carry the\nheaviest burdens without murmuring and complaining must ultimately\nsucceed. A people that can see the star of promise on every storm cloud\ndeserves encouragement. The race asks for time, help, opportunity, and\nsimple justice. Do not expect us, in less than forty years, with very limited opportunities, to measure up with the white race with two hundred\nand fifty years of unlimited opportunities. Give the negro the same\nopportunity you give to other races, and we promise you a negro citizenship of which the world will be proud.\nWe believe in the theory of the unity of the human family, and that\nit is the order of divine Providence that the three brothers who separated\nin the plain of Shinar are to meet again and hold a family reunion. When\nthey separated, Shem went into Asia and became the high-priest of\nhumanity. Japheth went into Asia Minor, and thence into Europe, and\nwas the genius of war, commerce, and government; his children are still\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\n1 29\n\ninvincible and unconquerable. Ham went into Africa, and inaugurated a\nsystem of industrial and mechanical education; he reared the pyramids,\nand built Thebes and Karnak. At the reunion Shem will be represented\nby the despised Chinamen and the crafty Japanese; Japheth will be\npresent in the person of the proud and cultured Caucasian ; and Ham\nwill be represented by the hated, rejected, and despised negro; we\npromise you a creditable showing on the part of the representatives of\nHam, when the grand reunion takes place.\n\nTHE\nEDGAR\n\nGARDNER\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMURPHY,\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nEXECUTIVE\nSECRETARY\nBOARD,\nMONTGOMERY,\n\nOF\nALA.\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nAny description of the conditions of public education at the South\nmust involve certain confessions of inadequacy and certain hearty celebrations ofsubstantial progress.\nWhile our public-school system at the South has been necessary as an\nattempt — an attempt which has had the consecrated intelligence and the\nheroic industry of our noblest souls — we cannot say that it has yet been\nwholly an achievement. Its aspiration, however, is one of the great\nunifying and constructive forces in the life of the South today, an aspiration which, already expressed in the deliberate and ofhcial policy of\nevery southern state, would include within the opportunities of a free\nschool at the public charge all the children Of its citizenship, rich and\npoor, white and black. And that aspiration, in its generosity and its justice, is itself, I submit to you, an achievement of ennobling and splendid\naugury.\nFor this policy of public education at the South has called us to no\nholiday emprise. The way is thronged with difficulties. The task has\nfirst involved a problem of population. Ours is a double population, a\npopulation divided by the felt and instinctive diversities of race. The land\nis occupied by two families of men between whom the difference in color\nis perhaps the least of the distinctions which divide them. The differences in racial character are accentuated by the differences of social heritage— one is the population of the freeborn, one has been the population\nof the slaveborn.\nThe doctrine of race integrity, the rejection of the policy of racial\nfusion, is, perhaps, the fundamental dogma of southern life. It is true\nthat the animalism of both races has at times attacked it. The formative\ndogmas of a civilization are reflected, however, not in the vices of the few,\nbut in the instincts, the laws, the institutions, the habits of the many.\nThis dogma of the social segregation of these races, challenged sometimes\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "I30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nby fault of the black man, challenged sometimes by fault of the white\nman, is accepted and approved and sustained by the great masses of our\npeople, white and black, as the elementary working hypothesis of civilization in our southern states.\nThe great masses of our colored people have themselves desired it. It\nhas made our public-school system, however, a double system. It is\ninevitable that it should often have made the negro schools inferior to the\nwhite schools. But the social and educational separation of these races\nhas created the opportunity and the vocation of the negro teacher, the\nnegro physician, the negro lawyer, the negro leader of whatever sort. It\nhas not only preserved the colored leader to the negro masses by preventing the absorption of the best negro life into the life of the stronger race;\nit has actually created, within thirty years, a representation of negro leadership in commerce, in the professions, in church and school ^d state,\nwhich is worthy of signal honor and of sincere and generous applause.\nThe segregation of the race has thrown its members upon their own\npowers and has developed the qualities of resourcefulness. The discriminations which they have borne in a measure by reason of their slavery, and\nwhich have established the apartness of their group-life, are the discriminations which are curing the curse of slavery — an undeveloped initiative— and are creating the noblest of the gifts of freedom, the power of\npersonal and social self-dependence. The very process which may have\nseemed to some like a policy of oppression has in fact resulted in a process of development.\nOur problem of population has thus involved a double system of public education. If the duality of the system has been of advantage to the\nweaker race, it has been more than an advantage to the children of the\nstronger. It has been indispensable and imperative. In social as in\npersonal achievement the necessities must precede the charities. The primary necessity of life in its every stratum of development is the preservation of its own genius and its own gains. The matured manhood of a\nmore developed race may have something to give, should have something\nto give, thru helpful contact, to the life of the undeveloped. But the more\nhighly developed race must not make this contact thru its children. In\nthe interest of our own further development and of our own larger\nachievement, in the interest of all that our achievement and development may mean in a nobler, juster, and more generous guidance of a lowlier people, the point of helpful contact must not be placed among the\nmasses of the young, and the leverage of interracial co-operation must\nnot seek its fulcrum upon the tender receptivities and the unguarded\nimmaturities of childhood.\nIt is not merely that the marked differences of race suggest marked\ndifferences of method. We at the South are dealing with the negro, not\nas an individual, but as a multitude.\n\nIn hundreds of our southern coun-\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\n131\n\nties the negro population is greater than the white. In my own home\ncounty, the county of the capital of the state of Alabama, our colored\npeople outnumber our white people almost three to one. In an adjoining county the proportion of the colored population to the white population is six to one. Under such conditions the abandonment of the dual\nsystem of public education and the enforcement of a scheme of coeducation for the races would involve, not the occasional sending of a few\nnegro children to a white school — as is your custom here — but the sending of a few white children to the negro school. It would not mean — as\nsome would mistakenly advise — the training of the children of the\nweaker race in the atmosphere and under the associations of the stronger,\nbut the attempted training of the children of the stronger race in the\natmosphere and under the associations of the weaker. Such a policy\nwould give neither promise nor advantage to the stronger race, to the\nweaker race, nor to any far-reaching and constructive interest of civilization. A double system of public education is, with all its burdens and its\nvaried difficulties, an inevitable and unchangeable issue of our problem\nof population at the South.\nBut our problem of population — turning now with more especial\nconsideration to the white population of the South — includes a formidable\nproblem of distribution. It is not only predominantly rural ; it is relatively\nmore meager in its numbers than many have yet attempted to realize.\nThere are almost as many cities of 25,000 people in the one small\nstate of Massachusetts as in all the states of the secession put together.\nTaking our figures — as thruout this address — from the twelfth and latest\ncensus of the United States, we find in the single state of Massachusetts\ntwenty cities having a white population of mo're than 25,000 — almost half\nagain as many as the total number of such cities in all the states of the\nlate Confederacy. There are, including the state of Texas, in all our states\nof the secession only twelve cities having a white population of over 25,000.\nThe one state of Massachusetts alone has forty-seven cities with a\nwhite population of over 10,000. All the states of the late Confederacy,\ntaken together, have but thirty-eight such cities.\nThe total aggregate white population of the states of Alabama and\nSouth Carolina does not equal the white population of the city of Chicago;\nand the white population of the present city of New York exceeds the\naggregate white population of the states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana,\nMississippi, and South Carolina.\nI have dwelt thus upon the relative meagerness of the white population of the South because it is inevitable that that population will have\nto bear for many years the larger share of the burdens of education\nand of government. Of direct taxation the negro contributes little.\nOf indirect taxation he contributes an honorable and increasing share.\nThe rents pay the taxes, and the negro tenant helps to pay the rents.\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn a press telegram of the current week I am therefore glad to find\na characteristic illustration of the temper of the South in reference to\nthe common schools of our colored people. It is the recorded refusal of\nthe legislature of Georgia to divide the educational appropriations\nbetween the races on the basis of the taxes paid by each. This would\nprobably have involved the destruction of the state-supported negro\nschool. Georgia's action is not unique. The vote of her legislature\nreflects the settj_ed and established policy of every southern state.\nReturning to the fact that the white population of New York city\nexceeds the aggregate white population of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana,\nMississippi, and South Carolina, you will observe that our problem of\npopulation has thus brought clearly into view some of the phenomena and\nsome of the difficulties of isolation. Ours is not only a rural population ;\nin many sections it is a population so small in numbers as to be but thinly\ndistributed over large areas ; with poor roads ; with inadequate recourse,\ntherefore, to strong centers of social organization, and without that\nconsequent social efficiency which easily secures the creation and the\nadministration of the efficient school.\nIn the United States at large 20 percent, of the school population live\nin cities of 25,000 population or over; in the South our cities of 25,000\ncontain but 6 per cent, of the children of our public schools.\nThe East has suffered, perhaps, from an over-municipalizalion of life,\nfrom the tendency of population cityward. The South has suffered from\nthe under-municipalization of life, from that too general dependence upon\nagriculture which has kept almost 85 per cent, of our population in the\ncountry, and has given us cities few and small. The building of good\nroads, the development of manufactures, the policy of school consolidation, the increasing tendency to apply the educational qualifications of\nthe suffrage to white men as well as black, the policy of our legislatures\nreinforced by the educational patriotism of all our people, will at length\ngive us southern schools adapted to southern needs.\nThose needs will slowly but surely have more adequate response. Our\npeople are resolved to have their schools, despite the difficulties presented\nby our problems of population — a population which is, as we have seen,\nbi-racial in character, comparatively small in number, comparatively rural\nin its distribution — and despite the fact that our task of public education\ninvolves, not only these grave problems of population, but as grave a\nproblem of resources.\nAt the close of the war period, such had been the shrinkage in values\nin the South, such had been the relative increase of values in New\nEngland, that the one small state of Massachusetts had more than onehalf as much of taxable property as the combined wealth of all our\nsouthern states.\nThe very theory of emancipation was that the fate of the black man\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\n1 33\n\nwas the responsibility of the nation ; yet the issue of war left the negro in\nhis helplessness at the threshold of the South ; and the South, with the\ngravest problems of our civilization challenging her existence and her\npeace, was expected to assume the task of the education of two populations out of the poverty of one. I confess that I think the conscience of\nthe South has something to say to the conscience and the opulence of the\nnation when, with millions for battleships, tens of millions for armaments,\nmillions for public buildings, and tens of millions for rivers and harbors,\nthe nation allows the academic fabric of paper theories to stand between\nthe vast resources of its wealth and the human appeal, north or south or\neast or west, of the children of its citizenship.\nA democracy which imposes an equal distribution of political obligation must find some way to afford a more equal distribution of educational\nopportunity. To a national philanthropy or to our national legislation\nthere should be an appealing significance in the fact that the annual\nexpenditure for public education in the United States at large is, per capita\nof the enrollment, $21.14, that in the great states of the West the average\nexpenditure is $31.46, while for such states as Alabama and the Carolinas\nthis expenditure is approximately but $4.50. In Alaska, where almost 60\nper cent, of the children are the children_of the Eskimo, where citizenship,\ndoes not yet mean the suffrage, the annual expenditure per capita of the\nenrollment is $17.45; and it is no more than a democracy should spend\nupon its wards. In Alabama, where every child is today the heir of a\nnational citizenship, voting upon the issues of national life and determining\nthe fate of the national character, the annual expenditure on public education, per capita of the enrollment, is but $4.42 ; and it is less, I submit,\nthan a democracy should spend upon its own. Let us not, in contrasting\nthese figures, forget the educational heroism of the South. Unquestionably\nthe South must call more freely and more generally into play the policy\nof local taxation by the county, but of the state revenues for general\npurposes 50 per cent, in Alabama and the Carolinas is appropriated to the\nsupport of public education.\nIt is inevitable, however, that our problems of population, our problem\nof an isolated rural life, and our problem of resources should have resulted\nin the illiteracy of the present. If I dwell for a few minutes upon the\nfigures as to the illiterate, I do so with the reminder that there are worse\nthings in a democracy than illiteracy, and with the passing assurance that\nI shall soon be able to turn to the brighter side. But remedies and congratulations will not avail us save as we frankly and resolutely face the\nfacts.\nThere are in our southern states more than 3,500,000 souls, ten years\nof age and over, who cannot read and wflte ; more than 50 per cent, of the\ncolored population, and nearly 16^ per cent, of the white. Of the native\nwhite population of our whole country, ten years of age and over, the\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nSouth has 24 per cent., but of the native white illiteracy of our country\nthe South has 64 per cent.\nThere are in the United States 217 counties in which more than 20 per\ncent, of the white men of voting age cannot read and write. Of these 217\ncounties, 212 are in our southern states.\nIt is not as a prophet of calamity that I have dwelt upon some of the\nfacts as to our illiteracy. The problem is formidable, but no problem\nneed be the occasion of discouragement so long as that problem is\napparently yielding to the forces of its reduction. Relatively and actually,\nilliteracy is not gaining upon the schools. The schools, in spite of all\nour difficulties, are gaining upon our illiteracy. Taking our population\nof prospective or possible voters, the male population, white and black,\nten years of age and over, we find that there is not a state in the South\nwhich has not largely reduced its illiteracy within the twenty years from\n1880 to 1900.\nUpon the other hand, as I take some kindly satisfaction in reminding\nyou, there is but one state in New England — Rhode Island — which has\nnot added both to the aggregate and to the percentage of its male illiteracy\nsince 1880. Your percentages of general male illiteracy are very much\nlower than our own, but they are a little greater today than they were\ntwenty years ago. If your figures must include the foreigner, ours include\nthe negro. New York had over 47,000 more male illiterates in 1900\nthan in 1800; Pennsylvania had in 1900 over 62,000 more such illiterates\nthan in 1880; Massachusetts over 23,000 more than in 1880; and the\npercentages have grown with the aggregates. Totals have grown a little\nin some of the states of the South, but, including even the colored population, the percentage of male illiterates has been reduced in Alabama from\n49 to 32 per cent.; in Tennessee, from 36 to 20 per cent.; in Georgia,\nfrom 48 to 29 per cent.; in North Carolina, from 46 to 27 per cent; in\nArkansas, from 35 to 19 per cent. In our southern states our public\nschools, with all their embarrassments, are overtaking our illiteracy ; in\nsome of our eastern states the illiteracy of future voters has gained just a\nlittle upon the range and contact of the public schools. Illiteracy is, in\nfact, not a sectional, but a national, problem ; and I think that we must\neverywhere declare that a democracy which still comprises more than\n6,000,000 of people who cannot even read and write has not yet adequately'\nsolved the problem of popular education.\nI find, however, no hopelessness in the illiteracy of the South, because,\nas I have suggested, we are now making decisive reductions in its volume.\nI find no hopelessness in it, because it is the illiteracy, not of the degenerate,\nbut simply of the unstarted. Our unlettered white people are native\nAmerican in stock, virile in faculty and capacity, free in spirit, unbroken,\nuncorrupted, fitted to learn, and worthy of the best that their country and\ntheir century may bring them.\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\n135\n\nTo speak hopefully of the taught is to speak even more hopefully,\neven more confidently, of the teacher. The relative poverty of the South\nhas its compensations. It places at the command of the public-school\nsystem of the southern states a teaching force of broad ambitions, of real\nculture, and of true and generous refinement. The high social standing of our teaching personnel is our assurance that the training of the\nchildren of the South is in the hands of worthy representatives of' its\nthought and feeling. We know that in its public-school system the\nSouth of today is touching thru its best the life and the institutions of\ntomorrow.\nThe crowning argument of our hopefulness lies, however, in the educational enthusiasm of all our people. Alabama, within five years, has\ndoubled her general appropriations for public education. The masses of\na sincere people are taught the great realities of order, liberty, and culture,\nnot merely by what they have, but by what they long to have. The things\nthat a whole people, in the passions of their sacrifice, have resolved to do,\nare of more significance and of more importance in the history of a\ndemocracy than anything that they may have failed to do.\nBut the nation must be considerate of the South, and the South must\nbe patient with herself. The burden of responsibility among us must\nlong fall heavily upon the few. We have seen that there are in our southern states 2 12 counties in which more than 20 per cent, of the white men\nof voting age cannot read and write. Place to one side the great unlettered masses of our colored population, add to these the unlettered\nnumbers of our white population, and you will at once see that the number\nwhich remains has a part to play which is so serious in its responsibilities,\nand so far-reaching in its moral and civic significance, that the South may\nwell receive the large-tempered understanding of all the lovers of mankind and of all the wise befrienders of the state.\nA final and happy element of hopefulness lies in the thought that if our\nsystem of public education is largely uncompleted, we can build, in completing it,by the light of the gains and the errors of older commonwealths.\nTardiness should save from false starts and should protect us from traditional mistakes. I trust that we shall build in such a manner as more\nlargely to practicalize and moralize the general system of public education.\nI trust that our consciousness of the problem of illiteracy will not lead us\nto the mistaken conclusion that the supreme task of any system of schools\nis the mere removal of illiteracy. The school must stand rather for a\nlarger and larger measure of trained intelligence, of controlled and sobered\nwill, of sound, resourceful, and efficient life.\nI trust that we shall realize, moreover, that the fullest duty of the modern school, of the public school in a%democracy, is a duty, not only to\nculture, but to citizenship. The state-supported school must give the\nstate support — support as it teaches with a healing wisdom\nand an\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nimpartial patriotism the history of the past; support as it looks out into the\ntrack of an over-freighted destiny and clears and steadies the vision of\nthe future ; but, first of all, support to the nation in this day, because\nthis day is not supremely our fathers' or our children's, but uniquely and\nsupremely ours.\nThe schools of a people, the schools of a real people, must be, primarily, not the moral gymnasia of reminiscence or the transcendent platforms\nof future outlook. They must touch this day's earth and this day's men\nthru the truths and the perils of today. They must be instructors of the\ncontemporary civic conscience. And in this hour, I take it, they must\nhelp the state to bring to men a profounder and therefore a simpler reverence for the institutions and the processes of public order. For a long\ntime we have heard that democracy is an institution of liberty; but, if\ndemocracy be not also an institution of public order, liberty will not long\nbe an institution of democracy. Where minorities, mob minorities —\nnorth or south or east or west — presume to administer the laws of the\nmajority, the elementary compact of democracy is dissolved. The mob\nwhich abandons the processes of social self-control weakens the personal\nself-control which stays and conquers crime, and increases by its ferocities\nthe very animalism it has attempted to destroy. Its instructions in horror\ntouch the minds of tens of thousands, its barbarities burn today the guilty,\nand set aflame the hates and humors which tomorrow burn the innocent.\nSuch spectacles are national phenomena, challenging everywhere the\nnational forces of American good sense, and demanding of us whether the\nmere gravity of the crime or the mere weakness of the constabulary is\nenough to excuse any American community in abandoning the safeguards\nof justice and the solemn processes of trial for the processes of a social\nhysteria which divides its noisome interest between the details of the\ncrime and the souvenirs of the execution. Are these the august and reverend trappings of Justice in a democracy?\nOur schools must teach our children what their country is. Our\nschools, north and south, must help men to see that liberty of government means that there is no liberty except thru being governed ; that being\ngoverned and being governable are largely the measure of our distance\nfrom the jungle; that a governed and governable people, when challenged\nby the sickening atrocities of crime, by the torturing spectacles of lust and\nhate, first have a sober recourse to the thought, not of what is due the\ncriminal, but of what is due to their civilization, their country, and their\nchildren.\nFor we may be well assured that, whether we teach thru the school or\nnot, the teaching is being done; for society itself is the final educational\ninstitution of our human life. Not only thru school and home and church,\nbut thru books, thru each day's press, thru our billposters on the streets,\nthe music in our parks, our amusements and our recreations ; above all.\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\n137\n\nthru that great enfolding, effectual instrument of our social self-projection,\nthe public opinion of our day — are our children being put to school.\nI pray that within these varied orbits the people's schools may do\ntheir schooling well, not as detached or isolated shops of truths and notions,\nbut as deliberate and conscious factors of a sounder social equilibrium.\nI pray that they, north and south and east and west, may take their places\nas the organs of that force of social gravity, that moral dynamic, which in\nthe university of the world keeps the poise of factions and classes, upholds\nthe authority of institutions, the majesty and the happiness of government, the worth of laws, the high securities of freedom — that moral\ndynamic which wise men have called the fear of God, a force of affection\nand sobriety which holds life to reverence and reverence to reason.\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nCINCINNATI\n\nMEETING,\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\nMORNING\n\n1903\n\nMINUTES\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, February\n\n24, 1903\n\nThe department was called to order in the auditorium of the St. Paul M. E. Church,\nCincinnati, O., at 9 : 30 A. M., President Charles M. Jordan, superintendent of schools,\nMinneapolis, Minn., in the chair. The audience sang \"America.\" Prayer was offered\nby Rev. C. W. Blodgett.\nSuperintendent L. E. Wolfe, of San Antonio, Tex., read a paper on \"The Human\nSide of Geography.\" The subject was discussed by Superintendent William H. Hatch,\nOak Park, 111., and Jacques W. Red way. Mount Vernon, N. Y.\nPresident Lewis H. Jones of the State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich., spoke on\nthe topic \" The Best Methods of Electing School Boards ; \" and Superintendent John\nW. Carr, Anderson, Ind.; Superintendent W. W. Chalmers, Toledo, O.; Superintendent\nC. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb.; and Superintendent F. Louis Soidan, St. Louis, Mo., discussed the subject,\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nCharles B. Gilbert, Rochester, N. Y., read a paper on \" The Freedom of the Teacher.\"\nIt was discussed by Superintendent James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md., and Superintendent John Richeson, East St. Louis, Mo.\nThe chair announced the following committees :\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nLivingston C. Lord, of Illinois. Warren Easton, of Louisiana.\nL. D. Bonebrake, of Ohio.\nW. H. Elson, of Michigan.\nE. L. Stevens, of New York.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nA. K. Whitcomb, of Massachusetts.\nF. Louis Soidan, of Missouri.\nC. G. Pearse, of Nebraska.\nW. W. Chalmers, of Ohio.\nL. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin.\n\nPrincipal E. W. Coy, of Hughes High School, Cincinnati, read a paper on \"A\nReadjustment of the High-School Curriculum.\" The subject was discussed by Superintendent Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111.; Superintendent F. Louis Soidan, St. Louis, Mo.;\nand Dr. Charles DeGarmo, of Cornell University.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n139\n\nRichard G. Moulton, professor of English literature, University of Chicago, delivered\na lecture on \"The Revelation of St. John from a Literary Point of View.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "140\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrcincinnati\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION,— Wednesday,\n\nFebruary\n\n25\n\nVice-President Clarence F. Carroll, Worcester, Mass., presided at the opening of the\nsession. State Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois, read a paper on \"Industrial\nEducation in Rural Schools.\" L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, and W. W. Stetson,\nsuperintendent of public instruction, Maine, discussed the subject.\nPresident Jordan took the chair at this time, and announced that he would ask consent to the reading of the paper of Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, assistant in the department of\npedagogy. University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, she being necessarily absent.\nMiss Mary E. Nicholson, of the Indianapolis city schools, read Mrs. Cooley's paper on\n\" Literature in the Grades and How to Use It.\" The subject was discussed by Mrs.\nJosephine Heermans, principal of Whittier School, Kansas City, Mo., and Miss Florence\nHolbrook, principal of Forestville School, Chicago, 111.\nThe following communication was read :\nC. M. Jordan, President^ Department\n\nof Superintendence,\n\nNational Educational\n\nAssociation:\n\nDear\n\nMk. Jordan:\nIn behalf of our respective state educational associations, we wish through you to ask the attention of\nthe department to the inclosed resolutions, particularly to the sixth, inviting consideration of the question how\nit can best co-operate with our associations in promoting the cause of simplified spelling. Will you kindly\nsend us notice of what action is taken in regard to this matter, so that weVery\nmay truly,\nreport it to our associations?\nDavid Felmlev, Normal, 111.\nR. H. Halsev. Oshkosh, Wis.\n\nThe following is resolution No. 6 referred to :\nThat we respectfully suggest to other educational, literary, scientific, or philanthropic organizations the\nadvisability of taking this subject under consideration and of actively co-operating with us in the promotion\nof simplified spelling.\n\nMoved by President L. H. Jones, State Normal School, Vpsilanti, Mich.:\n\" That the communication, and the question it raises as to what steps this department may wisely take in co-operation with the state associations of Illinois and Wisconsin to promote the cause of simplifying our spelling, be referred to a committee of five, to\nreport next year.\"\nThe following committee was subsequently appointed by the president :\nSuperintendent W. H. Elson, Grand Rapids, Mich., Chairman,\nSuperintendent E. B. Cox, Xenia, O.\nSuperintendent F. T. Oldt, Dubuque, la.\nSuperintendent C. N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind.\nState Graded- School Inspector A. W. Rankin,\nMinneapolis, Minn.\n\nFrank A. Hill, chairman of the committee of nine appointed a year ago to formulate\ncontemporary educational doctrine, asked, in the name and by the order of the committee, that Dr. Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard University, and United States Commissioner\nof Education W. T. Harris be added, making a committee of eleven. The request\nwas granted by vote. Mr. Hill further explained that the work of this committee\nwill necessitate money for expenses, and the department voted to request the Board of\nDirectors, of the Association to grant an appropriation for this purpose not exceeding\ntwenty-five hundred ($2,500) dollars.\nE. O. Vaile offered the following resolutions :\nResolved: (i) That a committee of five be appointed by the chair to invite, in the name of this\ndepartment, like committees of conference from the Modern Language Association and the American Philological Association to consider the need and possibility of a universal system of key notation for indicating\npronunciation, and to recommend for the indorsement of the societies such a system, or at least a simple,\npractical phonetic alphabet as the universal basis of such a system.\n(2) That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association and the proper committee of\nthe Council of Education be requested to authorize and appropriate $ioo for the use of this committee in\npreparing the report.\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nY' S MINUTES\n\nSEC RE TAR\n\n14 1\n\nThe resolutions were adopted as read, and the following committee subsequently\nappointed by the president :\nE. O. Vaile, Oak Park, 111., Chairman.\nPresident William R. Harper, Chicago, 111. Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.\nSuperintendent Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo. Superintendent T. M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nYox President — Yi.^nr^'?. Emerson, Buffalo, N. Y.\nFor First Vice-President — Y.A\\i\\n B. Cox, Xenia, O.\nFor Second Vice-President — John W. Abercrombie, University, Ala.\nFor Secretary — John H. Hinemon, Little Rock, Ark.\n\nThe officers as nominated were elected by acclamation.\nThe chair announced that the selection of a place for the next meeting would be\nthe next business.\nKansas City, Mo., San Antonio, Tex., Atlanta, Ga., and Chicago were proposed.\nThe department decided by vote to limit the choice to Atlanta and Chicago. Atlanta\nwas selected by formal vote.\nThe proposed constitution for the department, upon which action was deferred from\nthe meeting of last year, was then taken up. By vote of the department, consideration\nof the report was indefinitely postponed and the committee discharged.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe afternoon session was devoted to round-table meetings as follows :\nA.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 P. M. by the leader, Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell,\nstate superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo.\nThe subject, \"To What Extent and in What Form Should the Manual-Training Idea\nBe Embodied in Public-School Work ?\" was presented by William O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University, Columbus, O. In the absence of State Superintendent\nSchaeffer, of Pennsylvania, who was to have opened the discussion, the subject was at\nonce thrown open for general discussion, and Principal E. W. Wilkinson, Cincinnati, O ;\nState Superintendent Charles J. Baxter, of New Jersey; Supervisor George H. Martin,\nBoston, Mass.; and State Superintendent Delos Fall, of Michigan, participated.\nThe topics for general discussion announced on the program were used as suggestions to guide the informal meeting which followed.\nB.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nCITY\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 p. m.\nIn the absence of the leader, Homer H.\nSeerley, Cedar Falls, la., President Livingston C. Lord of the State Normal School at\nCharleston, 111., presided.\nWilbur H. Bender, supervisor of the advanced training department, State Normal\nSchool, Cedar Falls, la., read a paper on the \"Organization and Function of Training\nDepartments in State Normal Schools.\" A general discussion followed, after which the\nRound Table adjourned.\nC,\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nLeader, Calvin N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nAn address by A. B. Blodgett, superintendent of schools, Syracuse, N. Y., on \"The\nMost Effective Use of the Superintendent's Time.\" was presented and was discussed by\nZ. H. Brown, superintendent of schools, Nashville, Tenn., and Charles S. Foos, superintendent of schools, Reading, Pa.\n»\nAn address by J. K. Stableton, superintendent of schools, Bloomington, 111., on\n\"Public Opinion and Good Schools,\" was discussed by W. S. Rowe, superintendent of\nschools, Connorsville, Ind.; W. W. Chalmers, superintendent of schools, Toledo, O.; R.\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nA. Ogg, superintendent of schools, Kokomo, Ind.; and H. V. Hotchkiss, superintendent\nof scliools, Akron, O.\nThe address of Clarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Worcester, Mass., on\n\"What Should Be the Features of a Modern Elementary-School Building?\" was followed\nby the adoption of the following resolution, presented by Superintendent James K. Beck,\nBloomington, Ind.:\nResolved^ That \" It is recommended to the business management of the National Educational Association, by the Round Table of City Superintendents, that a commission of three or five members be appointed\nfor the practical consideration of school architecture. This commission shall investigate, and report in detail,\non the best means of planning, building, and equipping school buildings. Since school architecture is very\nimportant, and school boards and superintendents need helpful and practical information in the minutest\ndetail, this commission should investigate and put forth the best sources and means of getting this information.\"\n\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nAn address was given by Charles W. Eliot, President of the National Educational\nAssociation, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., on \"The Full Utilization of a PublicSchool Plant.\"\"\n\nTHIRD\n\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, February\n\n26\n\nOn motion of Superintendent R. A. Ogg, the department directed its president to\nsend the following telegram :\nHon, O. T. Corson, Columbus, O. :\nThe Department of Superintendence sends sympathy to you as a brother beloved and hopes for your\nspeedy recovery.\n\nJames M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo., read a paper on\nthe subject, \"Reduction of Time in the Elementary Schools.\" It was discussed by\nRichard G. Boone, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O.; Dr. Frank M. McMurry,\nTeachers College, Columbia University, New York city ; Clarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Worcester, Mass.; J. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson,\nInd.; and E. W. Coy, principal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O.\nDr. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the United States, Washington,\nD. C, read a paper on \"The University of Oxford and the Rhodes Scholarships.\"\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\nThe department convened at 2 o'clock; President Jordan in the chair.\n\"Some Practical Problems in Manual Training\" was the subject of a paper by C.\nR. Richards, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city. The subject was\ndiscussed by Gustav Larsson, Sloyd School, Boston, Mass.\n\"Coeducation in High Schools and Universities,\" as announced in the program,\nwas modified as the subject of a paper presented by Albion W. Small, of the University\nof Chicago.\nAfter discussion by Aaron Gove, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo., the subject\nwas further discussed by Superintendent Edwin P. Seaver, Boston ; Superintendent E. A.\nGastman, Decatur, III.; Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo.; Superintendent L.\nE. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.; and Dr. John T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nThe department unanimously adopted the report of the Committee on Resolutions\nas follows :\nResolved^ That the Department of Superintendence expresses its deep sorrow at the sad loss it has\nsustained thru the death, during the past year, of many of its most esteemed members. W. M. Beardshear,\nEmerson E. White, Edward R. Shaw, Francis W. Parker, are no longer in our midst. Their memory, however, as cherished associates and devoted friends of the cause of education, will abide with us.\nResolved^ That the Department of Superintendence has listened with deep interest to the reports presented during the present session on the great success of the reforms in the school administration of several of\nthe large cities, and the great gain to the cause of education which has resulted therefrom.\nThe various plans\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n143\n\nwhich have been put into practice have several features in common. They vest the management of schools in\nrelatively small boards of education, elected by the people on a ticket at large, nominated in such ways as to\navoid the contentions of party politics. Under each of the reform plans, the executive duties of school administration are carried on, subject to the legislative and supervisory control of the board of education, by salaried\nofficers who are vested with sufficient powers by law so that they may be held responsible for the proper conduct of school affairs.\nResolved, That this department reaffirms the resolution passed by it a year ago to the effect that all\nspeakers discussing a paper shall speak without manuscript.\nResolved, That the Department of Superintendence extends sincere thanks to the citizens of Cincinnati,\nto her clubs and business organizations, to school officers, teachers, and local committees, for the courteous\nand most hospitable reception accorded to this meeting.\nResolved, That this department acknowledges gratefully the painstaking administration of its affairs by\nthe officers of the past year, and expresses its special appreciation of the interesting and important program\nprepared for this meeting.\nF. Louis Sold AN,\nC. G. Pearse,\nL. D. Harvey,\nCommittee,\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nLLOYD\n\nHUMAN\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Secretary.\n\nAND\nSIDE\n\nE. WOLFE, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY^\n\nOF SCHOOLS, SAN ANTONIO,\n\nTEX.\n\nIn this paper an attempt will be made to maintain the thesis that\ngeography in the grades should include those industrial steps, or processes, in manufacture and transportation in which capital and labor are\napplied to commodities 'for the purpose of adding utility. The term\n\"commodity\" is used in order to exclude those industrial steps in manufacture, transportation, mining, and agriculture in which capital and\nlabor are applied, not to commodities, but to natural resources. The best\nauthorities on geography already recognize that geography includes those\ninitial industrial steps which deal with natural resources — with what the\npolitical economists call \"natural agents.\" But there is no recognition,\neither in theory or practice, that geography includes those subsequent\nindustrial steps that add value to commodities thru the application of\nlabor and capital. It is true that- many of the recent text-books on\ngeography give more space to the naming and locating of industries than\nwas formerly given; but no adequate emphasis is given to the great\nmotive for these industrial steps, namely, the adding of utility to a commodity that it may more perfectly minister to human well-being in the\nform of a finished product. It is this motive that gives life and interest to\nindustrial and commercial processes. Under the inspiration of this motive,\nthe race has conquered its physical environment to its well-being. In other\nwords, as a rule, text-books on geography locate and incidentally describe\nindustries and industrial products, rather than explain or interpret them.\n» A review of a paper read by Professor W. M. Davis at the Minneapolis meeting of the Society for the\nScientific Study of Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nProfessor W. M. Davis, in his paper on \"The Progress of Geography\nin the Schools,\" read before the National Society for the Scientific Study\nof Education at the Minneapolis convention in July last, on p. 17 thus\ndefines the subject : \" Geography involves the knowledge of two great\nclasses of facts : first, all those facts of inorganic environment which enter\ninto relationship with the earth's inhabitants ; second, all those responses\nby which the inhabitants, from the lowest to the highest, have adjusted\nthemselves to their environment.\" The use of the expression \" inorganic\nenvironment\" shows the author's intention to exclude from geography\nthose subsequent industrial processes which transform commodities into\nfinished products. According to this definition, geography would include\nthe raising of wheat, but not the harvesting, threshing, grinding, or making of the flour into bread, because in each of these subsequent industrial\nprocesses labor and capital are applied, not to inorganic environment,\nbut to organic commodities. In like manner, the culture of cotton, which\ndeals with an inorganic fact, or natural agent, would be geography, while\nginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, and making into garments would not\nbe geography. This definition, strictly construed, would include in\ngeography transportation by water so far as it employs the inorganic\nenvironment of river, lake, or ocean; but would exclude from geography\ntransportation by railroad or artificial waterway; and, even on natural\nwaterways, the mechanism of the vessel would be excluded. It is true\nthat Professor Davis, on p. 18, incidentally enlarges his definition by the\nuse of the following sentence: ''It is not only ta the inorganic parts of.\nthe earth that man is related, but to the organic parts as well.\" But the\nexamples that immediately follow this statement show clearly that the\nauthor did not intend to extend his definition beyond the inclusion of\norganic natural resources, such as forests and insect and other animal life\nthat are injurious or beneficial to man. It is true that on the same page\nhe employs the following sentence: \"The relation of population and\nindustries to the cotton, corn, and wheat crop of the United States is a\nstandard geographical problem.\" But there is nothing in his paper to\nindicate his intention to include the industrial processes that bring cotton, corn, and wheat into finished products. As cotton, corn, and wheat\nrest upon physical environment, this sentence seems but little more than\nillustrative of his definition.\nSo much for Professor Davis' position on this subject, and for the\ntheory and practice of the makers of text-books on geography. What of\nthe definition of geography? By general consent, geography is the\nscience which deals with the earth as the home of man. Finished products that minister to human well-being in the form of food, clothing,\nshelter, and fuel are the things that make a home for man. But we have\nfound that these finished products are a result of the application of labor\nand capital to commodities.\nTo define geography as the science which\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n145\n\ndeals with the earth as the home of man, and then to exclude from its\nsubject-matter all those industrial processes that deal with commodities,\nis but little less than a travesty upon the expression \" as the home of man.\"\nTo confine the subject-matter of geography to the initial industrial\nprocess which has to do with a natural agent would leave the intractable\nore unsmelted at the mouth of the mine and the wheat, cane, and cotton\nstanding in the field. Shall we give stones for bread? The human race\nhas been out on a long journey, during which it has risen from primitive\nignorance, penury, and weakness to culture, wealth, and power. During\nits long and triumphant march there has been no period when \"the\nmakina: of the earth a home for man\" has not been its master-motive, its\n\"pillar of cloud by day, and pillar of fire by night.\" At every step of\nhuman progress the race has conceived for an ideal some form of wellbeing, and has gone about devising means to realize this ideal. With the\ntransportation of passengers and freight by water as an ideal, there have\nfollowed in succession the swimmer, the oarsman, the sail, the steam\nengine. Under the inspiration of the clothing of man with vegetable and\nanimal fibers as an ideal, there have followed, as a realization, ginning,\nspinning, weaving, sewing, dyeing. The utilization of ores for weapons\nand utensils as an ideal has created mining, smelting, casting, and forging. James Watt creates the ideal that steam shall lift the burden from\nthe muscle of man and beast, and we have the steam engine. George\nStevenson conceives the idea of hitching Watt's power to transportation\nby land, and Fulton's to transportation by water, and we have the locomotive, the train of cars, and the steamboat.\nAgain, these secondary industrial processes appeal strongly to the\nself-activity of the child, because they concerji so vitally his well-being.\nThe fact that human well-being has been the master-motive of the race in\ninventing these industrial processes is a guarantee that the same motive\nand processes would appeal strongly to the interest and self-activity of\nthe child. In fact, the child is doing every day just what the race has\ndone — forming ideals of human well-being and devising means for the\nrealization of these ideals.\nIt has been previously stated that these industrial processes that deal\nwith commodities should be taught in the grades. I wish now to state\nthat they should not only be taught in the grades, but should begin in\nthe lowest grades, with the elementary interpretation of the industrial\nactivities that form the child's immediate environment. In this way his\ninterest and self-activity will be assured.\nLet us how consider a little more in detail the character of the course\nof study that would result from a compliance with the foregoing principles and discussion — with human well4)eing as the center. It is easy to\nawaken the six-year-old child's interest in regard to the different kinds of\nmeat used in the home, the methods of cooking and serving these meats,\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nand their source in the animals from which they are obtained ; also in a\ncomparison of the different meats and domestic animals as to use. The\nchild, having traced the meats back one step — to the animals from which\nthey come — is curious to go back another step, to the foods upon which\nthe animals depend — the grains and grasses. Back of these grains and\ngrasses are the soil and climate.\nSo much for meats. In a similar manner the child is led to trace\nbread back thru the industrial steps of baking, grinding, threshing, harvesting, cultivating, and seeding. Again we are back to the soil and\nclimate. Fruits, vegetables, nuts, and dairy products lend themselves to\na similar treatment. The self-activity of the pupil can be readily called\nforth in the study of the kitchen and dining-room utensils used in cooking and serving the above foods.\nBut little less close to a pupil than his food is his shelter — the materials of a house and the parts of obvious utility. His mind is self-active\nas he traces the lumber of a house back to the log at the sawmill, and the\nlog back to the tree in the forest; as he sees the clay back of the brick.\nHis interest can be readily awakened in the parts of a house — in the\nwalls, floors, and roof that shut out the weather and secure privacy ; in\nthe doors, hinges, locks, windows, window-shades, shutters, and curtains ;\nin the stairways, wardrobes, and different rooms of the house.\nAs in the case of food and shelter, so in that of clothing, the pupil is\nled back to the source in the soil and climate. Back of shoes is leather;\nback of leather, hides ; back of hides, the animal subsisting on the products of the soil. All textile fabrics are traced back, thru sewing, weaving,\nspinning, dyeing, ginning (in case of cotton), to the two animal and three\nvegetable fibers — all restin^g ultimately upon soil and climate. Fuel lends\nitself to a like treatment.\nOn every hand the pupil comes in contact with metals — in the utensils of the kitchen and dining-room, in cutlery, in coin, and in the streetcar and railroad tracks. He is pleased to recognize their superiority, in\nstrength and durability, over wood and many other materials.\nBut back of these forms of metal, so variously and ingeniously fashioned to serve man, are the two fundamental processes of shaping metals\n— casting and forging. Back of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, that\nare shaped by forging and casting, is pig iron as it comes from the blast\nfurnace. Back of pig iron is the ore that was fed to the furnace. Again\nwe are back to a natural resource — the ore. The quarrying, cutting, and\npolishing of building-stone present an interesting and instructive industrial line.\nUnder proper direction the pupil soon learns to appreciate the terrace\nthat lifts the home from the dust of the street and to a broader view; the\ntrees, grass, flowers, vines, and pictures that add comfort and beauty to\nthe home, the school, and the community ; the parks and other pleasure\nresorts of the city.\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHVMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n141\n\nThe self-activity of the pupil asserts itself, not only in tracing the\nforms that minister to human well-being — food, clothing, shelter, fuel —\nback to their origins in the raw material and the physical resources, but\nin hunting them back to the places from which they come ; first to the\nstore, then back of the store to the factory, the farm, and the mine.\nWith interest in the whence of the products that minister to human wellbeing comes an interest in the agencies that carry away the surpluses of\none community and bring in those of another; namely, transportation.\nHere his interest naturally begins with local transportation — with\nthe wagons that deliver coal, wood, meat, groceries, dry-goods; that haul\nrock, brick, lumber, grain, hay; with local vehicles for persons; and gradually extends to the hucksters' wagons and the farmers' wagons bringing in\nthe surpluses of the immediate country vicinity, and carrying away, in\nexchange, what the stores of the city and town have to offer. As the pupil\nadvances in maturity his circle of the whence^ with its corresponding circle of transportation, enlarges till it covers the earth, thus introducing\nhim to every kind of transportation by land and water.\nAs a means to transportation are sidewalks, streets, pavements, highways, railroads, waterways. The pupil sees how man facilitates transportation bymaking streets and sidewalks and paving streets ; by cutting a\nhighway thru the forest, grading it, or macadamizing it ; by constructing\nan iron roadbed or canal.\nWith ideas of the whence and its accompanying idea of transportation\ncome ideas of exchange, thru which man commands the commodities of\nthe globe. With ideas of the whence necessarily go ideas of the whither.\nMan naturally desires to know whence come the articles that contribute\nto his physical well-being, and whither those go that he gives in exchange.\nClosely allied to the exchange and transportation of commodities is the\ncommunication of intelligence by mail, by telegraphy, by telephone.\nThe above discussion has been one of interpretation, from the finished\nproduct which ministers to the child's well-being back thru the essential\nindustrial steps to the raw material and the natural resource in soil, ore,\nand climate. More logical, and perhaps but little less pedagogic, is the\nmethod that passes from the natural resource and raw material to the finished product. Here we notice that each industrial step adds utility to the\npreceding raw material, makes this material answer man's needs more\nand more perfectly. The iron ore, incapable of being shaped by either\ncasting or forging, thru smelting and other processes becomes man's willing servant. Every step in transportation adds a like utility as the surplus product is carried away from where it is wanted least to where it is\nwanted most. This rising of raw material of low utility step by step to\nthe finished product of high utility appeals strongly to the pupil's selfactivity, because it vitally concerns his means of subsistence — his very\nexistence.\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nOf no less educational value than the tracing of the raw material to\nthe finished product is the tracing, chronologically, of the history of\nimportant industrial processes, such as spinning, weaving, smelting, reaping, grinding, from their primitive and simple beginnings. Nothing\nappeals more strongly to the child than man's crude and simple beginnings\nto conquer his physical environment to his well-being. These beginnings\nare the arts of the childhood of the race, and therefore appeal strongly to\nchild-nature. How delightfully interesting and simple these primitive arts!\nLaying the foundation of the great art of pottery by shaping clay with\nthe unaided hands, to be followed later by the potter's wheel ; anticipating\nthe spinning-wheel, the spinning-jenny, and the mule-spinner by making\nthreads with the fingers ; paving the way for the hand-loom and the\npower-loom by stretching the warp threads between two parallel sticks ;\ninaugurating the age of iron by separating a handful of the metal from\nthe ore; securing the co-operation of the forces of nature by constructing\na rude Vaterwheel or sail; beginning his dominion over the soil by stirring it with a stick and planting seeds of species not yet domesticated.\nAs the pupil passes in thought from the crude tools and primitive methods\nto the most improved, the great motive that has inspired the race in the\nconquest of its physical environment lays hold of him.\nThere is great danger that the study of industrial and commercial\ngeography, in unskillful hands, will become as mechanical as place\ngeography. To prevent this, the teacher must firmly grasp the master\nmotive that has controlled the race in its material progress; namely, a\ndesire for human well-being. He must be able to see clearly the essential\nends of an industrial process and the application of means to these ends.\nFor instance, the essential ends of spinning are (i) drawing out the fiber,\n(2) twisting it. This Arkwright and Hargreaves did when they invented\nsets of parallel rollers revolving at unequal rates, to draw out the fiber,\nand turning-spindles to twist it. The ideal or purpose in smelting iron\nore is to separate the metal from the valueless rock contained in the ore.\nIt was found that limestone would form a flux with this worthless rock,\nwhich could be drawn off as it floated on the heavier molten metal. The\nessential ends in brick-making and pottery are (i) shaping, (2) hardening\nby drying or burning. Where the construction and operation of a\nmachine are too difficult for explanation to the pupil, the teacher must be\ncontent to let him see that the general industrial purpose has been\naccomplished by means of the machine.\nIn the preceding discussion we have seen that each series of industrial\nsteps takes its rise in natural forces and resources — in inorganic environment ;in the soil, the ore, the clay, the stream, the wind, the stone in the\nquarry. How, then, shall these inorganic facts be taught so as to appeal\nmost strongly to the self-activity of the pupil? Evidently from the\neconomic, industrial, and commercial standpoint — from the human center.\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n149\n\nThe order of interest is as follows : (i) in the finished products that minister to human well-being ; (2) in the industrial steps that have created\nthese finished products out of raw material ; (3) in the initial industrial\nsteps in mining, agriculture, and lumbering that have transformed natural\nresources into raw material ; (4) and, lastly, in the origin of the natural\nresources.\nTo illustrate : agriculture rests upon soil, heat, and moisture ; but\nwhence this earth envelope of soil which is the chief support of agriculture? It awakens the self-activity of the pupil to learn that it, too, has\nbeen made as well as the bread, the knife, the dish, the textile fabric ;\nthat it is earth waste — the result of erosion, transportation, and deposition ;that these forces which have covered the globe with soil are everywhere still actively at work.\nBut agriculture rests, not upon soil alone, but upon heat and moisture.\nBack of the rains are the vapor of water and the mountain chains that\nhave condensed the moisture and have made the precipitation possible.\nBack of the vapor of water are the winds that have drunk their fill from\nthe distant seas and have borne their burden into the continent. From\nan interest in heat as a fundamental condition of agriculture, the pupil\npasses naturally to heat zones, and consequently to latitude, altitude,\nwinds, and ocean currents in their bearing upon heat zones ; later, to the\nobliquity of the sun's rays upon the earth's surface; and finally to the\nrevolution of the earth in its orbit and the inclination of its axis in their\nrelation to the obliquity of the sun's rays, the heat zones, and the seasons.\nThe pupil also learns that building-stone has been slowly made as it\nis being made today, and that the same is true of ores; that mountain\nfolds and erosion have their human side in exposing valuable ores. The\npupil's interest in transportation leads to 'an interest in the physiographic\nenvironment which facilitates or retards transportation. Who shall estimate how much mountain, plateau, and desert barriers militate against\ncommercial intercourse between communities and nations? How much\nthis same intercourse is furthered by valleys, mountain passes, and gaps ?\nWhat it means commercially for a river, on the one hand, to have its\nmouth in the frozen north or its channel choked with silt, or on the\nother hand to have its mouth in the tropics or its channel deep and\nrock-lined? The oceans, once the barriers to commerce, are now its\nhighways, and the inorganic wind and water currents lay hold upon the\nvessel and hie it into the port of destination. But back of mountain,\nplateau, valley, mountain pass, river channel, wind and water currents\nare the physiographic processes that brought them into being.\nBack of the port giving life to ocean commerce is the harbor — a\nphysiographic fact. Back of the harber is the sinking of the coast and\nthe consequent drowning of the river valley. Back of the river valley are\nthe erosive forces and processes that created it. Back of water power are\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "tSO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nrapids and falls; back of these rapids and falls is the meeting, on the\n\"fall line,\" of two geological formations of different hardness. An\ninterest in lakes from a commercial and scenic standpoint leads to an\ninterest in the process by which the glaciers carved them out. The\npupil's interest in coal as a great factor in our industrial and social life\nleads to an interest in its formation in the swamps, marshes, and bogs\nof bygone ages.\nThe contraction of the globe envelope that has lifted its surface into\nmountain and plateau fold, thus diversifying it, and the running, freezing, and thawing waters that have sculptured down relief forms, carved\nout valleys, and built up plains have a further human\n\nwell-being side in\n\nministering toman's sense o-f the beautiful; likewise have the oceans,\nbays, rivers, and clouds.\nMy conclusions, therefore, are that, in order to appeal most strongly\nto the self-activity of the pupil, the human side of geography should be\nattacked first, because it is of deepest interest and is simplest ; that, in\nthe main, physiographic facts should be approached from their human\nside ; that when the teacher does come to investigate, with the pupil, a\nphysiographic fact — a mountain, a river, a plain — from a physical standpoint, itshould not be treated as a dead form, but as something that has\nbeen made and is now making. Just as in human geography man is the\nunifying center, so in physical geography the genesis and growth of the\nphysiographic fact are the unifying force. In the light of modern geography every physiographic fact has its life-history. Mountains, rivers,\nvalleys', and plains have an infancy, a youth, a maturity, and an old age.\nThe life-story of even an inorganic existence lays strong hold upon the\npupil's self-activity. The burden of Professor Davis' scholarly paper is a\nplea for such mature study of geography by the teaching force as will lead to\nthe teaching, in our elementary and secondary schools, of the classes, or\ncategories, of relationships that exist between the earth and its inhabitants. I am pleading in this paper for the same emphasis upon the\nsecondary industrial processes that he puts upon the initial processes and\nupon the explanation of physical phenomena. The last few decades have\nwitnessed a great improvement in text-books of geography in the explanation, or interpretation, of physiographic facts, especially of land forms.\nProfessor Davis has been a leader in this reform.\nSuch is geography from the human side. But the practice in the\nmaking of geographies and in the teaching of the subject is to put the\nemphasis on place geography — in the locating of cities, rivers, mountains,\nvalleys, capes, boundaries, and land and water forms in general. In\nmany cases, however, when an attempt is made to teach industrial and\ncommercial geography, the economic content is overshadowed by place\ngeography. Recently some very high authorities, on the ground of the\nmore vital connection of railroads than rivers with commerce, have recom-\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nTHE\n\nHUMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n15^\n\nmended that the former be taught ; but the instruction suggested consisted in locating some great trunk lines. Railroads are vital to commercial geography in that they are the culminating term in a long series\nof human means to annihilate space, whose first term was the rudest of\nwooden-wheeled conveyances drawn upon improvised dirt roads. The\nstarting-point in the study of railroads is the surplus commodities at the\nrespective termini that seek exchange at minimum cost in the shortest\ntime. What appeals to the self-activity of the pupil is how railroads,\ndecade by decade, have hauled larger loads, with greater speed, by means\nof straighter tracks, better grades, steel rails of heavier weight, more\npowerful locomotives, and larger, stronger cars. The chief point of\ninterest in the Great Lakes is not where they are, but that they constitute\nthe greatest inland waterway in the world. The pupil is stirred to creative power when he grasps the fact that a half-century of canal construction, dredging, and blasting has given twenty feet of water around the\nSt. Mary's Rapids, on the St. Clair Flats, and at the Lime Kiln crossing,\nthus enabling a freighter drawing twenty feet of water to transport iron\nore, wheat, and lumber thru this wonderful waterway at marvelously low\nrates.\nThe theory of the old geography is that the eight years below the\nhigh school should be devoted largely to laying a broad foundation in\nplace geography for future economic geography. This future comes to\nbut few pupils. The doctrine of this article is that place geography\nshould follow largely as an incident to industrial and commercial geography. Thus it is with the child when he begins to explore his environment ;thus it has been with the race. The places the child learns are\nthose that serve his self-active interest — his well-being. The tourist\nstudies his map in obedience to the same motive. The study of place\ngeography much in advance, and in excess, of human interest tends'\nstrongly to crush out self-activity. We would realize the full force of the\nabove sentence were we called upon to memorize the streets and wards\nof a city in which we had no interest.\nI anticipate the objection that the adoption of the doctrine of this\narticle would overload geography. This would undoubtedly be true if\nland and water forms, cities, products, etc., were taught as dead facts ;\nthat is, separate from the physical and human processes and forces that\ngive them being. A simple fact of location is more easily taught with its\nhuman or physical setting than alone. The location of Minneapolis can\nbe more readily and firmly fixed in the mind in connection with the\nFalls of St. Anthony, the milling industry, and the proximity of the\nwheat fields of Minnesota and the Dakotas than as an isolated fact. The\nobjection to the overburdening of the course of study would be further\nremoved by the\" adoption of Professor Davis' recommendation to use the\nitems, or details, of geography to illustrate fundamental relations or\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "tS2\n\nJVAT/ONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ncategories ; also, by the use of the carefully selected list of rich typestudies contained in the course of study on geography prepared by Dr.\nCharles A. McMurry.\nI anticipate the further objection that this treatment of geography\ndeals with causal relations that should be postponed to the high school.\nBut let it be borne in mind that these relations all focus, directly or indirectly, in human well-being — the mainspring of human interest and\nhuman action. Force, movement, motive, making, doing, appeal strongly\nto the child. Lifeless form and dead products do not. A fact is\nexplained, or interpreted, when its causal relations are traced. It is but\nrecently that geographies for the grades did much in the way of explaining the physiographic facts. This was reserved for the physical geography\nin the high school, and even the physical geography did not give much\ninterpretation to land forms. All this is changing as to physiographic\nfacts in the new geographies for the grades. While these recent geographies are giving an increasing amount of space to facts of human\ngeography — to industries and products — these facts, as a rule, do not\nreceive adequate interpretation. It is hoped and believed that the geographies of the near future will give as rich interpretation to the human\nside of geography as to the physiographic side. In a word, the chief\ncriticism to be brought against the geography of the past, especially in the\ngrades, is that the children have been too much confined to dead facts,\nthus rendering the instruction formal, uninteresting, and of low educational value. Land forms, rivers, lakes, and products have been located\nas fixed facts, instead of hunting down the force that gave them being\nand is still shaping them. That such lifeless instruction is of low educational value is not difficult to see. The race, during all its past, has been\nconquering its environment to its well-being. Education, therefore, should\nnot be content with introducing the child to the dead products of this\nconquest, but should bring it in touch with the ideals as ends and the\nefforts as means that have created these products out of environment ;\notherwise the child cannot become an active heir in the race-heritage,\nmuch less add to that heritage. As the child catches the swing of the\ncenturies toward an ever larger and larger measure of human well-being,\nthe probabilities are greatly increased that he will co-operate efficiently\nin utilizing the race-heritage and will add to this heritage. The learner\ncannot, in any true sense, be said to have been led into the civilization\nof the race, at least self-actively led, unless he has caught the spirit of\nhuman progress, thru insight into motive, means, and resulting commodity.\nThe comprehension of the relations necessitated by the proper interpretation of facts in human and physical geography would be greatly\nfacilitated by the careful selection of pictures for text-boc^s and for projection apparatus. The movement in this direction is already very grati-\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n153\n\nfying; but still there is much to be done, especially in the line of the\nselection of a series of pictures illustrating the growth of an industrial\nstep from its primitive beginning, the bringing of a natural resource into\na finished product, or the transportation of a commodity. Following are\nexamples of such series : mining of Lake Superior ore, transportation of\nthis ore in cars to the lake ports, loading of lake steamers at the great ore\ndocks, locking the steamers thru the \"Soo\" canal, unloading the ore at\nthe lake ports of destination ; a lumber camp, floating the logs down the\nstreams to the falls, sawing the logs into lumber by water power at the\nfalls, loading this lumber on steamers at tide water ; charging a blast\nfurnace, drawing off the pig iron, iron-casting, forging ; a series of pictures illustrative of the growth of spinning. In many cases, in order to\nbring the pictures within the ready comprehension of pupils in the grades,\nit would be necessary to simplify industrial steps by conventionalizing\nthem, and to show sections of machinery, such as blast furnaces, molds\nfor casting, cotton gin, etc. This paper is but a part of a larger question, namely, a plea for enriching instruction in the grades by bringing the pupils into contact with forces, relations, processes, life. They\nhave been fed upon dry husks long enough. Here in the grades the\ngreat body of our future citizens is to be instructed. Let us give them\nsomething that is worth while • something that will give them an inspiration to do and be in the life-battle that is before them.\nI anticipate the criticism that this paper is utilitarian. Is it, in the\nsense that it is out of harmony with the highest categories of philosophy?\nThere is no higher or sounder category of philosophy than that of Infinite\nSpirit unfolding itself creatively in a material universe; that is, giving\nform and organization to what was without form and organization. The\nonly approach to this infinite creative act is finite spirit creatively, as it\nwere, conquering its physical and social environment to its material,\nintellectual, and spiritual well-being. So far from being objectionably\nutilitarian, the interpretation here advocated goes step by step from the\nfinished product back thru human processes and purposes to finite\nspirit, or forward, from spirit manifesting itself as the purpose of the individual or race, to finished products whose ultimate end is to minister to\nspirit thru the sustenance of the body.\n\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam H. Hatch, superintendent of schools, Oak Park, 111. — Mr. Davis' paper\ntreats the subject of geography from the standpoint of the mature student. This treatment is important to the teacher in considering his preparation for the work of teaching\nthe subject, since he should secure as complete knowledge as possible of any subject that\nis to be taught. There is, however, another phase of the question of vital importance,\nand worthy of the consideration of this body of superintendents, under wliose direction this subject is to be taught in the public schools; and with that I wish to occupy the\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nfew minutes at my disposal. \"What shall be the method of approach in the presentation\nof the subject in the elementary schools?\nIn the study of a science the mature mind may approach it thru the fundamental elements and work from what may be called the simple to the concrete. With the child the\nlogical approach is thru the concrete that lies at his hand and is already within his\nexperience. The mature scholar accumulates a body of material that can never come\ninto his work with the child. It may be of the greatest value in preparing him for the\nwork of teaching the subject, but may never be given to the child.\nThe early study of our subject was confined to what Dr. Harris has well denominated\n\" sailor geography ; \" that is, the naming of capes, bays, etc., enlivened with pictures and\naccounts of such curiosities and oddities as would naturally be the subject of sailor yarns.\nTo this was added the boundaries of states and the location of capitals, still considered\nof so much importance. The study of mountains, watersheds, valleys, and commercial\nroutes followed. Map-drawing became a part of the work.. All of this was almost\nentirely locative.\nThe study of the natural sciences revealed a large body of material that, from its\nclose relation to the subject-matter of geography, rightfully became a part of the study.\nAdded to this has been the increase of man's knowledge of the surface of the earth\ngained from exploration and discovery. He has spread over a large portion of the earth.\nHis history has largely augmented our subject. The changes that have taken place in\nour country within the memory of many in this audience are an illustration of the rapid\nincrease in the subject-matter of geography study. This has crowded into a subject a\ngreat body of material none too well classified and sometimes seeming a conglomerate\nmass.\nThe great influence of the laws of nature upon the location of the homes of man,\ntheir influence upon transportation, agriculture, and manufacture in all man's early history, and even to the present time, led the teacher to feel that, reasoning from cause to\neffect, the proper point of attack in the study of geography was thru nature or the\nphysiographic side. To the mature mind this seems at first sight the scientific and\nlogical method of approach.\nThe advance of civilization with the changes brought about by invention and discovery has placed man and the laws of nature in a different relation. He is no longer their\nslave, but their master. His artificial means of transportation, his unnatural harbors, his\nirrigated desert places, make it necessary to study his home and his works upon the surface of the earth from a different standpoint. The human side comes to have ever\nlarger consideration in the study of geography. The report of the Committee of Fifteen\nestimates that about one-fourth of the material in geography relates to geography proper,\none-fourth to the sciences of botany, zoology, etc., and one-half to the inhabitants, their\nmanners, customs, institutions, occupations, etc. Following are a few of the reasons why\ngeography should be approached from the side of human interest and activity :\n1. The child is a social being, and all material, whatever its character, must be made\nsocial by its relation to the child before it will appeal to him. He is not a lone item to be\nconsidered apart from others, but is of a social whole. The growing importance of the\npolitical and social sciences in the life of the individual must have consideration in the\nselection and arrangement of the matter in the course of instruction. The content of\ngeography approached from the human side contributes in a marked degree to this social\nmaterial. No other subject so well impresses the close relation of the various parts of the\nworld and the interdependence of nations and communities. It has much to do with\norganized society. The great questions are the social questions, and the study that brings\nthe child into touch with them, in a manner however simple, leads him early into the richest fields of thought.\n2. The motive with which a child approaches a subject is the valuable element in\ninfluencing character.\nHis first motive is interest. This is most active when dealing\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n155\n\nwith what man has done and what he is now doing. With man as the central figure, and\nthe problems to be solved dealing with his relations to his fellows and the forces of\nnature about him, geography touches the life of the child more vitally than any other\nsubject. During the last ten years a marked change has come over the results attained in\nthe teaching of reading during the first year of a child's life in school. The methods of\nhandling the form have not materially changed. There has, however, come a marked\nchange in the attitude of the child toward the work, in his motive. The skillful teacher\nleads him to the printed or written lesson in such way that he feels that there is something there that he must have. The character of the material used has been an important\nfactor in this change. The two elements suggested are the motive of the child and the\ncharacter of the matter. These two well cared for, good results are almost certain.\nGeography, skillfully handled as suggested, satisfies these conditions. If the subject\nleads the child to a purposeful search for something, and in the results obtained gives\nhim something that secures to him a better understanding of his relation to his fellows\nand the laws of nature acting about him, it surely will react upon character ; and the\nmeasure of value of any subject of study is the degree to which it affects character.\n3. Treated from the human side, geography shows what man has done in controlling the forces of nature, and leads the child to feel that he can do the same. Even more\nthan history, it has to do with the changes that touch the life of the individual. It gives\nhim confidence in his ability to bring things to pass. Youth is ever inspired by the\nachievements of man in dealing with nature's laws.\n4. As almost no other subject, it furnishes opportunity for constructive thinking.\nWhat we want in this subject, as well as all others, is fewer facts and more thinking.\nGeography as a science does not limit geography as a subject of study in our elementary schools. Nor does it determine the order of procedure in the selection of\nmaterial. The interest of the child and the material and the order of presentation that will\ngive the best results in his appreciation of his relation to his fellow-beings and all the\nworks of nature must determine the method of presentation. If any small part of the\ncontention set forth is true, the point of attack of our subject from the side of the work\nand life of man on the earth is pedagogically correct, and the subject is worthy the consideration ofthose who direct the teaching of geography in the schools of our country.\nJacques W. Redway, Mt. Vernon, N. Y. — The question of the nature of the study\nof geography is gradually settling itself into one that inquires into the proper basis and\nsec pe of the subject. During the past twenty years we have seen public opinion throw\naside the notion which summed up the concept of geography as a \" description of\nthe earth's surface,\" and substitute therefor a very broad idea, \" the study of the earth as\nthe home of man.\" The author of the paper just presented has given us one of the very\nbest definitions I have yet heard, namely, the earth in relation to the well-being of man.\nIf 1 felt myself called upon to add still further to the literature of definition, I should put\nit as \"the study of man and his environment,\" or perhaps \"life and its environment.\"\nA moment's reflection serves to show that no very great fundamental distinctions\nbetween these three definitions exist ; it is a question only whether we would make the\nman or the earth the central feature ; and this question settles itself when their mutual\nrelations are understood.\nLet us look for a moment at these relations.\nIn the first place, the most important function of physical life is nutrition. Nutrition\ninvolves a score or more of the substances known as chemical elements which are derived\neither directly or indirectly from the earth. When subjected to the action of light and\nwarmth, these are sooner or later transformed into living tissue. Thus we have two\ngeneral, but highly diverse, factors ; namely, eai^h substances and solar energies.\nBut before these earth substances are available for nutrition many things must have\nhappened: the sediments carried from the highlands must have been transported to the\nsea, folded into mountain ranges, and thrust above the level of the sea; the ranges and\nuplifts must have been cut, carved, and disintegrated ; the products of erosion and cor-\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nrasion must have been transported by running water and spread broadcast ; and the\nmaterial thus made, transported, and deposited must have been converted into soil.\nAfter all this has occurred, the other set of factors becomes active. Under the influence of solar energies, earth particles become endowed with that mysterious force called\nlife, and a thousand million forms are modulations of its rhythm.\nLet us look first at the earth factors which are concerned in the environment of life\n— more especially that of man. We have been counseled to regard physical geography\nas the proper basis for the study of man iii his relations to the earth, and indeed the\nbasis thus chosen has much to commend it ; especially is this the case when we emphasize\nthe physiographic aspect of the study. Until within a few years we studied practically a\nfixed earth — an earth both unchanging and unchangeable. The interpolation of physiographic geography, and its sister-science meteorology, was a great step in advance, for\nit carried us beyond the very dead ideas about a very dead earth ; it brought us many\nsteps nearer to the now central thought of life and its relations to environment.\nBut in the study of physiographic geography we are constantly looking for anterior\ncauses and for the greater exhibitions of earth-movements upon which physiographic processes depend. For these we must give precedence to dynamic geology on the one\nhand and to astronomy on the other. In other words, if geography — if the study of\nthe environment of life — has any earth-science for its ultimate basis, that science is\ngeology pure and simple. Physiography and meteorology have each a place, but the\nplace of each is secondary.\nLet us now glance at the astronomical basis of geography and see what it affords in\nthe solution of the problems of man's environment. Both heat and light are necessary to\nlife, and both come from the sun; both are distributed, moreover, under conditions that\nare essentially the same. To these conditions life and its activities are extremely sensitive. Even a very slight change in the length of the period of the earth's rotation would\nbe fatal to some species, while it would disturb the habitats of many others ; all species,\nmoreover, would of necessity be compelled to adapt themselves to the changed conditions, or else perish. Even the curvature of the earth's surface becomes a factor of\nenormous importance, and because of\" it a very large part of the earth will always be\nuninhabitable at any one time.\nThe self-parallelism of the earth's axis and its angle of inclination give rise to the\nexistence of zones, each pair of which is marked by characteristics very broadly distinct\nfrom those which distinguish the others. It also nearly doubles the belt of maximum\nwarmth, setting its limits into latitudes that otherwise would be unhabitable because of\nintense cold. It puts the northern limit of wheat into the region that otherwise would be\narctic. It tempers the heat of a tropical zone, keeps a tropical rain belt in oscillation,\nsets the limits of a forest belt, and creates a \"corn belt.\" In other words, the astronomical basis of geography is the main factor in making climatic conditions, for it determines\nthe distribution of heat and moisture upon the earth.\nNow a brief study of the distribution of life will show that climate has a far greater\ninfluence in the habitability of a region than is exerted by conditions of topography; and\nif this be true, then the astronomical basis of geography should take a rank in importance\nat least equal to that of physiographic geography.\nIn the preceding paragraphs man has been considered as a passive factor — as a\ncreature controlled by his environment. To a certain extent this is true ; there are certain\nlimits of temperature and moisture — limits of environment — beyond which he cannot\nlong survive; indeed, all life is more or less controlled by conditions of environment. A\ncamel is a camel because of the desert. There would be no fish were there no water; and\nif there were no impounded waters, ducks would not be ducks — at least they would not\nbe swimmers. So, to, were the grass within a given region to die, the cattle also would\ndie ; they are without the kind of knowledge that enables them to move to the region in\nwhich grass is to be found.\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHUMAN\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n157\n\nBut man is not merely a passive entity; he is a most active factor in geography.\nOther animals, other life-forms, are slaves to their environment ; man may, and does, rise\nsuperior to his. Controlled wholly by the conditions of his environment, he is a savage;\nhavmg mastered those conditions up to the limit of his mental powers, he is civilized ;\nmoreover, he is civilized because of it, and not in spite of it. A region may be naturally\ntoo dry to produce foodstuffs; it may be lifeless. Man brings water there and forces it to\nbecome productive. The herd of cattle cannot cross the snow-covered highland, because\nthey cannot carry their food supply, but the man will build a railway and carry them\nacross. They cannot swim across the sea, but the man will build steamships and transport them. The camel alone, of all dumb animals, can cross the desert, because he is\nbuilt that way; but the man will surmount it unaided, because he knows how.\nThe whole story of the evolution of mankind, from a savage to a highly enlightened\ncondition, is a story of his struggles to overcome the conditions of his environment. The\nrecords of unwritten history tell us that primitive man in western Europe needed a cutting\ntool; and so he made knives and spearheads out of chips of volcanic rock. The chips of\nbasalt were too brittle, and he substituted flint for lava. But jade took a better edge than\nflint, and so he toqk jade instead. But jade must be brought from mines five thousand miles\naway, far beyond the Karakorum, over snowy ranges and burning deserts. The transportation ofjade a distance of so many thousand miles was a tremendous effort, but the\nresistance that was to be overcome was far greater. There was a d istinct gain ; in other words,\nit paid. The man was not only better equipped, but his active powers were increased\nand he knew more. Now, the tools that primitive man used were merely levers and wedges\nto enable him to overcome the obstacles which beset him; and in getting his jade knifeblades from beyond the Karakorum, he was creating commerce to help him in his\nstruggle. And commerce was to be his greatest helpmeet, because it brought to him\nknowledge — knowledge that the other man miles and miles away had gathered in his\nstruggle with his environment.\nThen the man learned that fire would separate the metal from the dross, and that not\neven jade was comparable to bronze or to steel as a material for the tool. And so, as\nman's desires became greater, the tools he employed gave him powers that were growing\nconstantly greater and greater. Each succeeding generation saw Him breaking down the\nobstacles that had defied his forefathers, and he therefore became the dominant force of\nthe earth, until there were but few earth-obstacles left that he could not overcome.\nNow, I put in a most positive protest against restricting the study of geography to\nmerely the study of man's environment, because to me the man himself — to say nothing\nof his commodities — is the active, the intelligent, and the more interesting factor of the\ntwo. I grant that the environment is an important feature, but the man himself is the\ngreater one. 1 can see how the dungeon walls that held Monte Cristo may possess interest, but 1 gain greater inspiration in the struggle by which he surmounted those dungeon\nwalls. And so the story of the man battering down the obstacles that beset him in the\nstruggle that has civilized him is ar far more interesting factor than a systematic dissertation about the bonds that environed him.\nThe Rocky mountains once prevented a trade between the United States and the people of the Orient. Each had a message for the other, and the delivery of those messages\nmeant knowledge and enlightenment to both. Year after year that great fastness lifted\nits snowy crests as if to say: \" Nay, nay; thus far shalt thou go, but no farther.\" But the\nman persisted, and little by little that tremendous barrier was overcome. The greatest of\nall trade routes has been opened and a tremendous stream of human thought and intellect\nis flowing between the Occident and the Orient. Each will be a great gainer. And\nwhich has conduced most to the happiness and enlightenment of mankind — the study of\nthe physiographic geography of that great earth-obstacle, or the story of man's efforts to\nlevel it and to bring the two halves of the world into touch with each other?\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "J58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\nLEWIS\n\nBEST\n\nH. JONES,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\nPRESIDENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF ELECTING\n\nOF STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nBOARDS\n\nYPSILANTI,\n\nMICH.\n\nWe do not, in this country, have any national system of education.\nSo far as we may be said to have any system, it is a state system. In fact,\nwhen we speak of a city system, we mean certain phases of the state system. The appeal for plans for local management must be made to the\nlegislature of the state. The discussion of what should be the best method\nof electing school boards must be the discussion of what should go into\nthe state law.\n1. Any good school law passed by the general assembly of a state\nshould limit the possible number of board members to five — no less, no\nmore — whether the locality covered by the board is large or small, because,\nif all are present, they can act in committee of the whole on every subject, and you can always have three out of the five for a quorum.\n2. Each should serve five years, necessitating the election of one member every year, and only one.\n3. This election should be by the voters of the city at large. For this\nthere are two reasons : first, it does away with the necessity of having\nany one portion or committee legislate for a part of the district, and\nplaces on all the responsibility for all the district; secondly, it induces\nbetter men to stand for election, and one hour per week of the service of\na good business man is worth more than all the time of a ward politician.\nThe work of the school board thus elected should be taken out of certain relations with politics. I have no sympathy with the thought that\nschools should be taken out of politics, but I may have with the thought\nthat the saying expresses. I wish to remove the nomination of school\nboards from the control of the national organizations. No one should\nbe eligible to the school board who has ever held office under the national\norganization of the great parties. Something should be done to get\nstrong men not connected with national politics to take service in school\nboards. We could secure these men by separating the election from\nnational politics. These men should be nominated thru petition. In\nlocalities with few electors, one hundred names should place a name on\nthe ticket ; in larger-communities, five hundred names.\" No citizen should\nbe allowed to sign more than one petition, and the first three names\nreceiving the number of signers required for the nomination should be\nput on the ticket. The election should be open to the legal voters of the\nentire municipality.\nLastly, the function of the school board should be limited strictly to\nlegislative work. The board should take action for the raising of revenue\nto support the schools, for the building of schoolhouses and their equipment, and for the fixing of the salaries of teachers.\nThey should have\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOP ELECTING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n159\n\nthe added function of the election of a superintendent of instruction,\nand the period of his tenure should be fixed by state law at six years.\nThis is better than the life tenure. It frees him from many of the charges\nthat can readily be made when it is understood that he is in a life position\nand cannot be removed. No man should fear appeal to his board once\nin six years, if he has done his work faithfully and well. His powers and\nduties should be specified in the law. He should have charge of the\nselection, promotion, and discharge of teachers. No appeal from his\ndecision in this matter should be allowed. There should be definite and\nfixed means allowing the community to displace a superintendent who\nshould commit malfeasance in office. This would simply involve the\nspecification of grounds on which impeachment might be based. A fair\ntrial should be all he would ask, and thus he would be freed in the\nadministration of the office from the annoyances that come to a man\nwho is talked of as a czar. We must give him temporarily all the privileges and duties of a czar. This is what will produce in him conservative\naction.\nThe state law should provide for one other officer in the election on\nthe general ticket at the same time as member of the school board. This\nshould be an executive officer, known as \"director,\" \"business manager,\"\nor something of that kind ; and his term should be three years.\nThese are really the essential elements belonging in any school law,\nand an early application for such a law should be made directly to the\nassembly of the state.\nThere is a local interest in Ohio, because the people of this state must\nseek from the general assembly a modified enactment of the system for\nthe government of the state. This law should include, not only the city\nsystem, but that of villages and rural communities. The supreme court\nhas decided that the present city charters are repugnant to the constitution of the state. This will involve the rural systems, if they are attacked.\nThis is liable to occur at any time. There should be an appeal to the\ngeneral assembly at its next session.\nI believe that, if the principles I* have pointed out were made applicable and adapted to the differences among communities, we should find\nthe best methods of electing school boards.\nI believe I have pointed out the direction in which all reform movements in the next few years must proceed.\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent John \"W. Carr, Anderson, Ind.: In discussing this subject it\nseems appropriate to ask two questions : (i) What ^^e tke characteristics of a good schoolboard member ? (2) What is the best method of election in order to secure the services\nof good men on school boards ?\nI doubt if two of us would agree on an answer to the first question.\nI sometimes\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "i6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Cincinnati\n\nthink, when listening to a discussion of this topic, that the summation of all school-board\nvirtues consists in the board electing a superintendent — a professional expert, if you\nplease; just such a fellow as I was when first elected superintendent; or am yet, for that\nmatter — and then saying to the newly elected: \"Here, Mr. Superintendent, are our\nschools : take them and run them after your own fashion ; nominate, elect, and retain\nteachers ; levy taxes, pass on questions financial and pedagogical ; and we will ratify\nwhatever you do. We will even anticipate your wishes, if you will only indicate them,\nand then take all the kicks and cuffs that come this way. We feel that we fulfilled our\nentire duty to the schools when we elected you ! \"\nBut 'this is travesty. None of us believe such things, and we only talk this when away\nfrom home. We are meek enough in the presence of our boards. We all know that no\nother part of the school system is more important than the school board. It is the school\nboard that has the power to collect and expend money. It is the board that decides who\nshall and who shall not superintend and teach in the schools. It is the board that determines the policy of the schools ; whether merit and efficiency, or politics, nepotism, and\nfavoritism shall be dominant. It is for the members of the board to decide for themselves\nwhether or not, with the advice and assistance of their own experts, they will control the\nschools, or surrender their rights and prerogatives to crafty and designing, but irresponsible, men, who seek power for plunder or the gratification of other selfish ambitions. The\nmembers of the school board are the trustees, the guardians, of the rights and privileges\nof little children, and their duties as such cannot be neglected or surrendered without\nbetraying a most sacred trust.\nIn order to make a good member of the school board, a man must be honest, fearless, discreet, firm, unselfish. He must have business ability, sound judgment, commonsense, and the good of the schools at heart. He must also be able to command the respect\nof the community. As a member of the board, he should know nothing but the interest\nof the children, and, so far as his official acts are concerned, their welfare should be paramount to party, family, church, or even self. He should be progressive, willing to build\nand equip schoolhouses, willing to buy necessary apparatus and school supplies, and especially willing to employ and retain competent teachers. He should have the courage of\nhis convictions — courage to support superintendents and teachers, courage to pay good\nsalaries, courage to withstand the importunities of friends and the threats of enemies, courage to tell the political boss to his teeth to keep hands off, courage to do what he knows\nto be right and for the best interest of the schools. It is not difficult to find men who\nknow enough to make good school trustees ; the chief difficulty is to find men courageous\nenough to do the right under pressure.\nThe second question is: What is the best method of election in order to secure the\nservices of such men on school boards, and to retain them when once elected ? This\nquestion has not and cannot be fully answered. No system can be devised that is so perfect as to insure the election of good men at all times ; neither is any system now in use\nso poor as to prevent good men from being elected occasionally; yet some methods of\nelection are superior to others. I agree with President Jones that the board should be\nsmall. He suggests five members. For all towns and small cities I think three preferable. The advantages arising from a small board are obvious. Responsibility is fixed;\neach member becomes acquainted with his associates, with the superintendent, and\nwith many of the teachers. Meetings can be held in an informal way, which is the best\nfor the transaction of business with care and dispatch. Each member becomes acquainted\nwith all departments of school administration, which is highly advantageous. The superintendent isable to consult with each member of the board without consuming too much\nof his time and energy. I also agree with Mr. Jones that each member should represent\nthe city, and not a ward or district. Each member would then feel responsible for the\nschools of the entire city, and not simply for those in the locality in which he resides.\nHis services would not be valued by the amount of improvements and the number of\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF ELECTING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\nl6i\n\nappontments he is able to secure for his district, but by the efficiency of his services to\nthe whole system.\nMany of the evils of the school-board administration are due to two causes — large\nboards and ward representation. Large boards means administration by committees.\nThis means rivalry, and in many instances jealousy and combinations. If a member gets a\nnew building for his district, each other member thinks he must have an equivalent for his\nown. It is impossible for a member to serve on all committees ; hence he knows but little\nabout some departments of board work, and as a consequence is often indifferent or hostile.\nBut I have serious doubts about the superiority of the mode of election advocated by\nMr. Jones. As far as my observations go, the plan does not have much to commend it.\nBut few cities have tried the experiment of choosing members at special election, nominations having been made by petition. When the experiment was tried in Indianapolis a\nfew years ago, it was found that the persons whose names appeared near the head of the\nticket ran far in advance of others who bad even better qualifications than they. This\nwas due to the fact that many voters did not know the candidates personally, so they voted\nfor the persons whose names were first on the ticket. To my mind this is sufficient to\ncondemn this mode of election.\nI am acquainted with no method of electing school boards superior to the Indiana\nplan. This plan, of course, is not perfect, but it has stood the test of time and is regarded\nas one of the best parts of the educational system of the state. The law provides that the\nschool board of each city, other than Indianapolis, shall consist of three members, elected\nby the common council. Each member represents the entire city, and is elected for three\nyears. The law further provides that one member shall be elected each year ; so, unless\nthere is a death or resignation, there are always two experienced members. The board\nhas the absolute power to levy taxes, not to exceed a certain per cent., and has great\nfreedom m expenditures for school purposes. P^ach member must give heavy bond, and\nno money can be expended without the consent of a majority of the board and the knowledge of all. An itemized report of all receipts, expenditures, and debts must be made to\nthe county auditors annually, which report is open to public inspection. While it is possible for the boards to be dominated by politics, and the individual members to be influenced by unworthy motives, yet, so far as I am aware, there are fewer scandals, less\njobbery and corruption, and more efficiency than in boards appointed or elected in any\nother way. I do not claim that the Indiana system is perfect ; yet it has much to commend it.\nBut neither this nor any other method of election or appointment will always insure\nthe election of honest, capable men. If councils wish to elect competent members of\nschool boards, they usually have no difficulty in finding them. The same is true if the\npeople elect or the mayor appoints. So, in the last analysis, we find \\)[i2X public sentiment\nis the dominant factor in choosing good or bad members of school boards. If the most\ninfluential classes in a city really want good* members of school boards, they will find some\nway to get them. If they are indifferent or do not want such members, bad boards will be\nthe rule.\nIn molding public sentiment, many factors are to be considered. The public press\nis important. The pulpit is also a factor. Leading business and professional men exert\na powerful influence. The acts of the different members of the board itself are very\nimportant. Not only may a system of schools, but the sentiment of an entire community,\nbe changed by the aggressive acts of one honest, fearless school-board member — a man\nwho is broad enough and big enough to perform his whole duty toward the schools. And\nfinally, the efficiency of the superintendent and teachers is most powerful in molding public\nsentiment. Let the people once have a concrete example of good schools — schools\neconomically administered and free from politics and favoritism of every kind ; schools in\nwhich superiniendent, teachers, and janitors are really efficient — and public sentiment will\nas a rule demand good school boards.\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "102\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nSuperintendent W. W. Chalmers, Toledo, O.— I have the pleasure of representing acity organized on the general plan described by President Jones. I want to\ndiffer with the last speaker in his statement that good members of school boards are\nmore often secured by election by city councils or appointments by the mayor. Our city is\norganized on the general plan of just five members, each selected for five years by the city\nat large, and was so organized before Indianapolis adopted the plan. One of the best\nmen on our board of education today could not have had the position with the approval\nof the city machine representing both the political parties. He could not have been\nelected by the city council, nor would he have been appointed by the mayor ; yet, when\nnominated by petition, he received more votes than all of the other three candidates combined. believe\nI\nyou can always trust the people to select good school-board members,\nif you keep them informed what the schools are doing. I believe you can keep politics\nout of the schools better by nomination by petition than by election by the city council,\nappointment by the mayor, or election by wards. I have had many years of experience\nwith the old plan, and now I have had five years' experience in a city organized upon the\nplan outlined in Mr. Jones' paper, except that the business manager is elected by the\nboard of education instead of being elected by the people. This plan has been tried\nlong enough to be thoroly tested, and in practical operation it has given to Toledo a\nschool board whose personnel cannot be excelled by any school board in the country.\nSuperintendent C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb.— We have had, I think, a little broadening of the topic set down in the paper. We have touched upon what sort of men to put\non school boards, what they should do when elected, and what sort of superintendents they\nshould choose. I listened with much interest to what President Jones and Superintendent Chalmers said, but I do not think I can quite agree to all the superintendent said\nabout how to get good members on the board. His remarks might imply that superintendents sometimes have something to do with these selections, and we all know, of\ncourse, that superintendents never mix in anything of that sort. We must remember\nthat this is a representative government — a government by all the people, not by those\nwe think are the best people; and we cannot always have members all of the kind who\nmove in the highest circles of society. We find that legislatures always represent al\nclasses — good, bad, and indifferent; and school boards are likely to be the same. I am\nnot sure but that the residents of \" Hell's Half Acre \" are sometimes entitled to representation. All citizens should be directly interested in the schools, and one of the best\nways to have them interested is for them to have some voice in the selection of the men\nwho manage the schools. The educative influence in the community of a general election of school-board members, in which general school policies are discussed, is good.\nElected boards are more independent. Public bodies usually heed their masters.\nIf the school board is selected by the mayor, that board bows to him; if selected by the\ncity council, the board bows to the council; if the board is elected by the people, no one\nman or twenty men can command the board's obedience. The elected member can say:\n\"I serve the people.\"\nAnother important matter is the levy of taxes — the determination of how much\nmoney shall be raised in taxes to carry on the schools. The people are unwilling to give\nthe power to fix taxes to any body whose members are not elected by the people direct.\nI fear my friend from Indiana will find, if members of boards are not elected by direct\nvote of the people, that the next step proposed will be to take away from this appointed\nboard the power to fix the amount needed for school purposes and place that power in\nthe hands of some other elected body. This seldom fails to result disastrously for the\nschools.\nPresident Jones says after the superintendent is elected let him appoint, promote, and dismiss teachers. That sounds well, and is an easy way to fix it, but I hardly\nthink it is a wholesome power for a superintendent to have, absolutely. Sometimes we\nmake mistakes: it is an advantage for us to have some counsel in these things.\nYou as\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF ELECTING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n163\n\nsuperintendents do not want your boards to appoint or reward with promotion teachers\nwhom you feel you ought not to recommend; you can very well afford to refrain from\nappointing those your board is unwilling to approve. Wiiy not let this power remain\njoint — you to nominate, they to approve? Everi the president of the United States does\nnot have absolute power of appointment.\n«»\nA serious menace to good school administration is the bi-headed system proposed\nthis morning — the schools administered by two men, one a business manager, one a\nsuperintendent of instruction. With such an arrangement the two parts of the organization will soon be found, in most cases, to be working at cross-purposes — pulling apart\nlike two unwilling oxen under the same yoke. The school is first of all a business organization; the man who controls the business side is master; he should have charge also of\nthe instruction; he should be the superintendent of schools — all departments of the\nschools ; not a business manager merely or a superintendent of instruction merely. If\nyour business manager should be, by chance, a wise and sympathetic man, he might be\nin fact a superintendent of schools, and encourage and assist the department of instruction to do its work well. But if he proves like most, he will be anxious chiefly to manage the schools economically ; the superintendent anxious to make them as good as\npossible.\nTo do the best, school systems, like other business organizations, must have a single\nresponsible executive head. The board will be back of him, and he will manage the\nschools subject to its general direction and approval. To him will report the heads of\nthe various departments in all lines of the school administration. He will be in reality\nthe superintendent of schools.\nSuperintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. — I think it will be of interest\nto glance at a school system which differs from the types mentioned, both as to the number of members of the board and the manner of election. So far as I know, it cannot\nbe said of any other plan that it has been in operation for five years without any friction\nto hinder its success.\nThe typical features are in brief : Number of members, twelve, elected on a general\nticket. Election of a board on a ticket at large takes the schools out of ward politics.\nWard elections frequently result in giving representation, not so much to the good citizens of each locality, but to the ward politician. A board elected at large represents the\nwhole city, and is not likely to allow the impression to obtain that the parts of the city in\nwhich they happen to reside get more attention. In my city, if there is any discrimination\nat all, we give more attention to those parts of the city happening to have no local representatives on the board.\nIn administrative matters, it is the plan to have as many departments as there are\ndistinct functions. One officer has charge of the administration of the schools themselves, instruction, teachers, etc. ; another, of buildings, including janitors; another, of\nfinances ; another officer has charge of school supplies. If there is anything wrong, say\nin the janitor service, the responsibility does not lie with the board, in the first place,\nbut with one man who has charge of the appointment and dismissing of janitors. If\nthere is anything wrong with the instruction, if there are incompetent teachers, the\nresponsibility lies with the superintendent, who has power to correct the evil. The principle underlying this plan of having independent heads of departments is that of localizing and fixing responsibility.\nThe law gives the superintendent power to nominate, not to appoint, teachers;\nhe has not the power to adopt text-books, but he takes the initiative in recommending\nthem ; the same is true in the matter of school furniture.\nThe fears of my friend from Omaha are not realized. There is no tendency to make\none department domineer over the rest. I believe, judging from an experience of five\nyears, that this type deserves equal consideration with other plans described.\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 64\n\n-\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATTONAL\n\nFREEDOM\n\nCHARLES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE\n\nB. GILBERT,\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nTEACHER\n\nROCHESTER,\n\nN. Y.\n\nIn the organization of great school systems, which is the passion of\nthe hour, there is danger that the teacher shall become the submerged\nfraction.\nWe superintendents need a baptism of the spirit of true education. It\nis said, justly or unjustly, that this age is materialistic. Certain it is that\nwe are in danger of having our minds forced to dwell too continuously\nupon the material side of life. We schoolmen are no exception. There\nis grave danger that in the organization of systems, with the intrusive\ndemands of the architect, the doctor of medicine, and the statistician, we\nshall, like Martha, forget the higher things.\nDr. Arnold Tompl^ins, whose fine definition, \"The school is a\nspiritual union between teacher and pupils,\" is classic, has also said that\n\" the school in its last analysis consists of the self-educating pupil.\" I\ncannot but think that Dr. Tompkins, usually so astute and exact, has\nhere slipped. The self-educating pupil is not a school at all ; he is\nsimply a self-educating pupil. An aggregation of self-educating pupils\ndoes not constitute a school any more than do any other aggregations of\npeople. The one characteristic which distinguishes the school from\nother collections of people is the presence of the teacher. In more\nsenses than the popular one it is the teacher who makes the school.\nThe world is full of people who are educating themselves, consciously\nof unconsciously ; who are utilizing all the great agents and forces of life\nas means of spiritual growth; but only in a figurative sense is the world\nitself a school. The figure consists in the personification of these\nvarious agents and forces, and even of life itself, and treating them as\nteachers. There is no school without a living teacher entering to some\ndegree into the lives of the pupils, forming some sort of spiritual union\nwith them. It is as true in a practical sense as in a philosophical that\nthe teacher is the school.\nEvery school administrator knows that his one serious business is to\nsecure good teachers. Courses of study are important, and a good\nschool is more easily secured with a good course of study than with a\npoor one. Proper organization is important; good schoolhouses are\nimportant; good text-books are important — and all the appliances which\nmay be used to further education ; but none of these alone, nor all of\nthem together, constitute a school, nor can they make a good school ; but\nthe good teacher can make a good school, if any or all of these concomitants, these aids, are lacking. Hence it becomes the chief duty\nof the executive authorities of school systems everywhere first of all\nto secure the best possible teachers, and then to remove, in so far\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFREEDOM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n■ 165\n\nas possible, all obstructions from their paths, to give them free scope,\nand to aid them in their work in every conceivable way. All the\nmachinery of great school systems — local, state, and national — has for\nits aim, properly, this one thing: to make it easier for the teacher to\nteach well.\nIn the small private school, and in the rural school especially, the\nteacher is all in all. The teacher makes the school ; he is expected to\nmake the school. If the school is good, it is to his credit ; if bad, it\nis his fault. This is not merely theoretically, but practically, true. The\nbest type of school, depending wholly upon the teacher, is the rural\nschool. Here the interference with his work is very slight indeed ; he is\ncompelled to employ his own initiative, make his own plans, organize\nhis institution, and execute his plans. Young teachers, coming from\ntraining institutions, are frequently urged to teach a rural school for a\nwhile in order to develop the power of initiative, of independent action,\nthru their necessary exercise in the professional solitude of the country\nschoolhouse; and it is good advice.\nMany of the strongest and best teachers and educational leaders that\nthe country has ever known have received their first impulse, their versatility and breadth of view, and their ability to meet new difficulties, which\nhave made them great, in the small, unpainted schoolhouse in the\nremote country district where they began their discouraging work.\nHere they were required to study their pupils and give them work\nsuitable for them, to devise their own methods, to meet emergencies —\noften serious — quickly and firmly. In the country school that is good\nfor anything the teacher is \"it.\" Alas, that in any system of schools he\nshould ever cease to be \"it\" ! But there is, unfortunately, in the devel-.\nopment of large institutions a tendency to subordinate the individual and\nto destroy individuality. This is particularly true in great school systems.\nThe tendency seems almost inevitable. The demands of the organization itself are so great, it requires so much executive power to keep the\nmachine running, that the machine itself attracts undue attention and we\nare in danger of forgetting that the business of the school is to teach\nindividual children. This worship of machines is the most debasing kind\nof fetish-worship; it destroys the power to judge of values, and, like\nall worship of inferior gods, it subordinates the higher ends to the lower.\nFrequently, in our great city systems, teachers are judged by their\nability to run along smoothly in a well-oiled machine rather than by their\npower of inspiration, their ability to uplift, encourage, strengthen, and\nreally teach children. I have known teachers full of love of youth,\npossessed of extraordinary inspirational power and ability to make\nchildren think, work, and learn, driven from the school system because\nthey did not readily untie red tape. We too often forget that the school\nsystem is useful only in so far as it makes it easier for the teacher to teach ;\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 66 .\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CJnclnnau\n\nthat every unnecessary burden, every extraneous demand upon the\nteacher's energies, everything which distracts his mind or takes his time\naway from the one purpose of his work — that of teaching the children — is\na positive injury. When the machine grinds out the power of initiative\nfrom the teacher and makes him a mere tool, granted the privilege of\nimparting a little carefully prepared desiccated information, and freezes\nhis soul out of the work, then it is time to smash the machine; and there\nare countless machines all over this land that need to be smashed.\nThere is a constant tendency to organize school systems like factories,\nwith a boss, sub-bosses, and hands.\nI repeat: The only function of the school system is to help the\nteacher to teach ; not to do it for him, but to remove every unnecessary\nobstacle and to provide every possible aid, in order that he may exercise\nto the full his highest powers for the sole purpose of helping children.\nPerhaps the worst form of machine domination is that which places\nundue stress upon statistics and makes of the teacher a mere compiler of\nfigures. Great marking schemes have been devised by school boards,\nschool superintendents, and the devil to prevent teachers from teaching\nwith their whole souls — schemes for marking children upon all conceivable points, which require brain-racking study, burning of the\nmidnight oil, and, it must be confessed, even imagination, to an awful\nextent.\nAs such systems lead children to study for marks, to behave for marks,\nto cheat and lie for marks, as well as to be hateful and narrowly exacting,\nso they lead teachers to teach for marks, control for marks, to put the\nwhole stress of their work upon the getting of marks; and they, too, sometimes are led to cheat for marks and to lie for marks.\nThe evil of this thing is easy to see. Any method of organization or\nof work which distracts the attention from the real end and forces it upon\na secondary end is immoral. Many great evils in life result from placing undue stress upon secondary ends; upon the accumulation of wealth\ninstead of upon the proper expenditure of wealth; upon acquiring power\ninstead of upon the proper use of power; upon getting rather than giving.\nTo force teachers continually to drill along narrow lines in order that\nmarks may be secured is to take away their spiritual freedom and to\ndegrade them. The teacher who is forever harassed lest her pupils shall\nnot pass naturally is unable to give her whole attention to the needs of\nthe children and to supplying them. .\nThe rural school-teacher, if of the right sort, studies John and William\nand Susan, and decides that for John's good he should do this;\nWilliam, for his good, should do that; and Susan, for her good, should\ndo that ; but the machine-made, machine-driven teacher, in a system having no such freedom of action, treats John and William and Susan all\nalike (they must all take the same brimstone and treacle because it is\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFREEDOM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n167\n\ngood for somebody), and is not allowed to exercise his own natural judgment and his natural interest in their spiritual well-being. This is not\nonly bad for the children, but it is, if possible, worse for the teacher.\nThe children may recover, because their school days fortunately end\nsometime; the teacher's fate becomes fixed, as his school days never end.\nAnother evil which is finding its way into our larger cities is the formal and frequent marking of the teachers themselves after a brief and\nvalueless visitation. A superintendent and a body of supervisors or a\nbody of superintendents are employed, not to instruct, inspire, and help\nthe teachers, but to mark them. I know of cities in which supervisors\ngo about from schoolroom to schoolroom, notebook and pencil in hand,\nsitting for a while in each room like malignant sphinxes, eying the terrified teacher, who in her terror does everything wrong, and then marking\nher in that little doomsday book. I have known many teachers fairly\nto shrivel when the supervisor with his instrument of torture enters, and,\nbesides doing their very worst during his presence, to be thoroly unfit\nfor work during the remainder of the day, and to be sick for days afterward. Who will venture to say that such a system of torture, depriving\nchildren of the teachers' best work for at least a time and breaking the\nteachers' hearts for all time, is justifiable? Such supervisor's paths, like\nthose of reckless automobilists, are strewn with the dead bodies of hopes\nand ambitions and nerves. The reasons given are that some teachers\nwill do wrong, and hence a system of espionage and terrorism is\nextended, like the clouds of heaven, over all alike. This, of course,\ninstead of correcting the evil, extends it and creates new ones undreamed\nof before.\nThe most precious possession of a school system, rightly viewed, is the\nteacher's devotion to his work. Any plan of organization, any method\nof administration or supervision, which lessens that, which diverts the\nteacher's energy into any foreign channel, is an evil.\nThe teacher in the schoolroom should always feel that his first duty,\nand almost the sum of his duties, is to ascertain and to meet the needs\nof the individual children under his care. In the machine system the\ntendency is always to center the thought of the teacher upon, not the\nchildren, but the higher authorities, so that, instead of feeling responsible to them and being anxious to serve them, he becomes over-anxious\nto \" stand in with \" the administration, and to sacrifice his own obligation to the higher law, to the demands of his superior officers for uniformity. This shifting of conscience is not only encouraged, but is almost\nnecessitated, by some prevalent systems of administration.\nWhen a teacher ceases to feel that he is there primarily and wholly to\nserve the children, and begins to feel that he is there to serve somebody\nelse — school superintendent, school board, local politician — he ceases\nthen and there to be as good a teacher as he might be.\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "l68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrCincinnati\n\nIn the office of every superintendent and in the notebook of every\nsupervisor should be written: The teacher is the school; and the daily\ninquiry of every such officer should be: How can I stimulate in all the\nteachers under my. supervision love for their work, self-respect, a feeling\nof independence, and an ambition to do better teaching than ever before\nor than anybody else?\"\nI recall one superintendent whose favorite phrase was: \" I will put the\nscrews on.\" This phrase might have suggested the thought he was a\ncarpenter; but he was not; he was an inquisitor.\nThe school system is but an aggregation of schools, that is, of classes\nof children with their teachers so organized as to raise to the maximum\nthe efficiency of each teacher; that, at least, is the theory. The great\nessential to real efficiency is freedom. I do not mean by \" freedpm \"\nlicense, or even liberty, to do as one pleases, but the ability and the possibility to direct one's energies with intelligence and purpose to the\nhighest results possible for him. Such freedom is primarily internal\nrather than external, and for the teacher it begins far back of the organization, far back even of the act of teaching. The first steps in freedom\nmust be taken by the individual. The teacher must be free from ignorance, from prejudice, from undue pride, from the debasing pressure of\nfalse ambition, from unwillingness to learn or be guided; that is, the\nteacher must have a free soul in the Pauline sense. This internal freedom must be achieved by the teacher alone. It is the result of study;\nof hard work; of moral struggles and victories; and it results in broad\nintelligence and enlarged intellect and strengthened will. Now, suppose such a teacher has been selected to a position in a school system;\nthis internal freedom must be preserved, but added to it must be a\ncertain amount of external freedom — freedom to exercise native and\nacquired powers without undue restraint or perversion.\nThere is a higher freedom than that of the individual in solitude. It\nis the freedom that comes from association and co-operation. •\nThe evolution of freedom in all society necessarily goes thru three\nstages. The first is the state of isolation, which appears to be freedom,\nbut which is not. It is a mere pseudo-freedom. The individual alone\nfinds himself the slave of innumerable vast forces, which, except in rare\ncases, overwhelm him. The first stage of real freedom comes with co-operation; two are stronger than one; many are stronger than two; and,\nwhen properly combined, each contributing all his strength to the common good and all sharing the common good, true freedom is obtained.\nBut in the evolution of society there is an intermediate stage. With the\nbeginning of combination comes also tyranny. An individual or a few\nindividuals make use of the enlarged strength of the many in combination for their own good, and so each, while more free than in the state\nof isolation, finds himself dominated by forces outside of himself, and\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFREEDOM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n169\n\nso deprived of a part of his freedom. The final stage comes from the\noverthrow of all unnecessary external domination, the reassertion of\nindividual initiative, and the free combination of free souls for common\nends.\nAn individual who has become an intelligent and conscious member\nof society, contributing of his best freely to the common good, is free to\ndraw upon the community for a vast increment of power. He is enormously magnified, is a very much larger being than the same individual\nin solitude. The society becomes his larger self thru which he can do\ngreater things than when alone ; by its protection and help he has become\nfree from innumerable trammels and hindrances with which he was unable\nto cope alone. A true society is a great instrument of freedom thru\nwhich each one is able to render vastly greater service than when alone.\nIt ought to be possible in a school system for each teacher to do vastly\nbetter work than a rural teacher can do, because, while contributing his\npart to the general stock of knowledge and skill and inspiration, he can\ndraw without limit upon that accumulated stock himself. Each teacher\ncan learn from the other teachers ; for wisdom is communicable. If the\nheads of the system are wise and possessed of inspirational force, he can\nadd to his power from their wisdom and inspiration. A system properly\nconducted substitutes co-operation and common interests for isolation and\nindividual interests. The urban teacher ought to be a very much larger\nand wiser and better teacher than the rural teacher. In some instances\nthis is the case. Our greatest teachers are not country-school teachers,\nbut city-school teachers, because it is possible in an urban system to\nbecome greater; there are more aids, more stimuli, more nutriment available. But the teacher may avail himself of these only when the method\nand plans of organization and supervision make it possible; when the\nschool board and the school superintendent and supervisors consider it\ntheir part primarily to contribute the largest share of inspiration and wisdom to the common stock, and secondarily to act as distributors of this\ncommon stock to the teaching forces. And it is a sad sight to see such\nenormous possibilities for good sacrificed by the pettifogging, red-tape\nmethods prevalent in so many of our systems; to see machines exalted\nabove the free-souled teacher.\nHow may the school system reinforce the teacher and conserve hi«; freedom? Possibly I should first answer the negative question : How mav a\nsystem be so conducted as not to interfere with the work of the teacher?\nMy answer to the question is, first : By reducing the machinery to the\nminimum consistent with a reasonable degree of unity, eliminating all\nunnecessary red tape, and all demands upon the teacher, in addition to\nhis work of teaching, that it is possible tO get along without.\nA certain amount of detail is, of course, necessary; records must be\nkept and some statistics must be gathered, for statistics do not always lie\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 7©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nand sometimes are even useful. Information regarding the attendance of\nchildren and conditions prevailing in and about the schools, which throw\nlight upon the educational problem, is important, and must be secured thru\nthe teachers, if at all. But there are many kinds of information secured\nthru the compiling of figures which are of no value to anyone, or at least\nof not sufficient value to justify the sacrifice of time and effort required to\nsecure them.\nThe passion for statistics which dominates some school superintendents is a dangerous one, and easily runs into statistical dissipation and\nthat dread disease, statisticitis.\nMy second answer to the negative question is : Avoid every device of\nmethod or organization which tends to lessen the teacher's individuality\nand sense of personal responsibility to the children.\nBut there is a positive side to this question. A school system, properly\norganized and conducted, can directly and positively help the teaching\nand aid in conserving the teacher's freedom. In the first place, it can,\nby a proper process of selection, secure and retain the best teachers; and\nthis does not require formal, arbitrary, and elaborate systems of marking,\nbut merely the exercise of ordinary good judgment and the maintenance\nof a rigid backbone.\nOf course, in very large systems some plan of marking teachers is\nnecessary for the protection both of the teachers and of the supervising\nforce ; that is, there should be put down in black and white from time to\ntime some record of the teacher's qualifications, and of the efforts that\nhave been made for his improvement ; but such a record should be exceedingly simple and unostentatious, and the marking should be done by\nthose who know the teacher's work thoroly, not by the supervisor, whose\nvisits are infrequent, and whose markings would be under circumstances\nunfair to the teacher. The markings of the visiting supervisor are of very\nlittle value, and the making of them renders it impossible for the supervisor\nhimself to fulfill his true function ; that is, to help, stimulate, and inspire\nthe teachers ; and he becomes a dreaded visitor. I have seen such super-\"\nvisor?, and it always impresses me that they have fallen from their high\nest; ,e. No supervisor can do really good work as such if his visits are\ndreaded by the average teachers. Until his aim and purpose to be a\nhelpful friend and nothing more become so fixed in the mind of the\nteacher that his visit is welcome, he cannot do his best work.\nMost of the formal systems of marking teachers are cowardly; they\naj^ ^simply devices to make possible the shirking of responsibility. Given\na|fFea^qii,ably good process of selection, helped by proper civil-service\nryks,; w^rsi^all have a reasonably good corps of teachers in any system.\nNow, how can the system make this reasonably good corps better,\nk^^ptthq. teachers up to the highest standards possible, and secure from\nth^ii-thj^jg l^^t work?\nFirst, by making them feel that they are persons\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nFREEDOM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n1 71\n\nof consequence, whose judgments are worth considering, and who may\njustly be supposed to possess reasonably tender consciences, some professional ambition, and at least a fair degree of devotion to,their work. I\nhold that the first duty of school superintendents and other officials is to\nlead the teachers to respect themselves, to feel that they are trusted, and\nto impress upon them that the school officers, taking it for granted that\nthey want to do their best, are anxious to help them.\nThe supervising powers can help the teachers by supplying them with\na good course of study. A proper course of study properly administered\ndoes not diminish the freedom of the teacher, but increases it ; but that\nthis may be true the course must be broad, suggestive, and stimulating.\nIt should make it necessary for the teacher to study for self-improvement\nin order to teach successfully. It should aim, not at uniformity, but at\nunity. It should require teachers to arrive at certain results in their own\nway, and these results should be the growth of the children rather than\nthe accumulation of a few meager and prescribed facts. Too many\ncourses of study aim at uniformity of method and uniformity of output.\nUniformity of method kills teachers. Uniformity of output, if possible\n— which, thank the Lord 1 it is not — would produce corpses of children.\nThe course of study should be based upon sound philosophy, and\nshould encourage the teachers to master this philosophy. In its administration the supervising force should definitely instruct the teachers in the\nprinciples involved, and should inform them as to the best methods for\nachieving the desired results, which is a very different thing from forcing\nthese methods upon them. Such treatment would tend to make teachers\nfree in the true sense; that is, to produce inner freedom — freedom of\nspirit from ignorance, prejudice, and low ideals.\nIn administering schools, and especially in instructing teachers as to\nthe course of study, there are several possible means. The most common\narethe teacher's meeting, schoolroom visitation, and the private conference. The former is the most widely used, and perhaps the most badly\nused. Meetings for the instruction of teachers should have a definite\npurpose — should bring together teachers who are doing similar work,\nand should be held when the minds of the teachers are fresh and\nunwearied. Grade meetings are the best, but these meetings should be\nheld during the school hours, and should be a part of the teacher's regular\nwork. The after-school meetings to which the teachers come fagged,\nforcing themselves to keep awake and listen, are better than nothing, but\nthey are not the best.\nThe ordinary teachers' institute, as conducted in most of our states,\nwith its heterogeneous program, its la^e element of entertainment, its\nprofessional conductor with his stock of professional jokes, its hit-or-miss\nefforts to meet the teacher's needs, is almost a travesty.\nAfter many years of experimenting I have found the most effective\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nplan for treating teachers' meetings to be this : All the schools of a certain\ngrade are dismissed for a day, and the teachers are assembled in a central\nplace for defiBite instruction in the work of their particular grade. By\nhaving one such grade institute a week during the greater part of the\nyear, it is possible to have four or five days given to each grade ; and\nthey are days of hard work, in which the needs of the teachers are\ndefinitely and exactly met. But, whatever the plan, such meetings should\nbe held and should be devoted to specific instruction, for the most part,\nas to the course of study.\nSchoolroom visitation is another very good means of helping or\nhindering teachers. There is not time to discuss it in detail. I have\nreferred to it somewhat in another place. Suffice it to say that such\nvisitation should be for the sake of becoming acquainted with the teacher\nand his work, and helping him by suggestions and by giving model\nlessons.\nIt should not be for the sake of marking him.\nNaturally the most helpful feature of the school organization to this\nend is some degree of personal acquaintance between the officials and the\nteachers. While this is easier to secure in a small system than in a large\none, it is entirely possible in even the biggest system. Very large systems should be so organized as to distribute the supervising forces in\nsuch a way that some officers of consequence may come in contact with\nevery teacher. Condensing the entire supervising force into a great\nboard, who sit in common sessions and legislate and adjudicate, is\na waste of energy, even in the largest systems. Supervising officials\nshould be scattered where at least some of them may come in personal\ncontact with the teachers, and know their ambitions and aims and their\nmerits as well as their faults and weaknesses, and may give the sort of\ninspiration and strength which is given only in personal contact. Any\nsystem that is so organized as to fail to secure this personal contact\nbetween the teachers of the class-room and the officials who are to direct\nthem and pass upon them in so far fails to do its duty; and this applies\nequally to systems large and small. The personal, sympathetic intercourse of those who know more with those who know less, of the stronger\ndirecting minds with the directed minds who need help, is the si^e qua\nnon of good school administration. This secured, it is possible to take\ncognizance of the ideas which the teachers themselves have.\nThe assumption, even tho it be tacit, that the superintendent or the\nbody of supervisors and the principals know it all, is most pleasant to\nthose officials, but it is an assumption contrary to fact. In nine cases\nout of ten the good teachers know more about what ought to be done\nwith the children than all the supervisors together. I am sure that if we\nomniscient superintendents were to confess, we should admit that the\nbest things that we know in regard to teaching we have learned from good\nteachers in the class-rooms ; and one reason, why some superintendents\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "S.ipermtendencel\n\nTHE\n\nFREEDOM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n173\n\nholding high positions have not manifested any evidence of growth for\nyears is that they have ceased to think that the opinions of the teachers are\nworth anything, and have ceased to consult them. There is much wisdom\nallowed to go to waste because supervising officials are too proud to use it.\nI do not mean that the school officers should not, in the common\nphrase, \"run their schools; \" of course they should; but they should do\nit very modestly, remembering that the sum of the wisdom possessed by\nall the teachers is doubtless greater than that contained even in their\nenlarged craniums.\nA very fine teacher said to me recently, rather sadly, that she was not\naltogether happy in her school. On close inquiry I drew from her the\ninformation that the trouble was that she found no sympathy in the\nprincipal. She was ambitious and capable ; she wanted to do something\nrather more than the ordinary; her heart was in her work; but she felt\nthat her principal's heart was not there, but was rather in the machinery\nof the school. He would visit her occasionally, was never unkind, and\nshe had, after repeated efforts, secured a half-hour in which they might\nsit down together and talk over her ambitions and her schemes for work ;\nand the result was a chill and a disheartenment which, unless the inner\nfire burned very strongly, would in the end impair her efficiency. He\nwanted good work in his school and expected his teachers to teach well,\nbut he was so concerned with the mechanical side of administration that\nhe could not get into the heart of any of his schoolrooms. The teacher\nhad the freedom of isolation, not that of society.\nThe supervising officer is a distributing agent, receiving what teachers\ncan give and giving what is received to those who need it; and he must\nnot, if he would be worthy of his office, let any amount of detail work,\nany consideration for the mechanical part of the administration, stand in\nthe way of this personal co-operative work with the individual teachers.\nFor let us remember that the school is a society in which all share the\ngood or ill; and this is as true of the teachers as it is of the children.\nRecall that individual freedom is often impaired by the excessive\ndemands of the social whole and the obliterating of the individual, but\nthat true freedom is to be secured, not by a return to isolation, which is\nin reality extreme bondage, but rather by a proper use of society. The\nindividual teacher should be strengthened, \"not weakened, by belonging\nto a system. The strength and the wisdom of the whole are greater than\nthat of the individual, but only when each individual is encouraged to\nexercise his own strength and also to share with others. So that, for\nteachers as for children, a school system should be a co-operative society,\nhaving for its motto \"Each for all and all for each;\" and the administrative forces fulfill their function when th^ so distribute the common good\nthat each individual has all of his own and all that he can receive from\nthe others.\nAnd this is social freedom.\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md. — In spite of some\ncontradictory statements and some others that seem extreme, I am in sympathy with the\ngeneral trend of Mr. Gilbert's paper. It emphasizes the supreme importance of the\nteacher, and reduces to a secondary position machinery and organization. It recognizes\nfreedom as an inward growth, something not conferred upon the teacher, but arrived\nat thru the efforts of the teacher himself. Any domination that deprives the teacher\nof responsibility and initiative results in injury to the school system, because it deprives\nthe schools of the thought of many and limits them to the thought of one. A superintendent or principal who minutely prescribes what shall be done and how it shall be\ndone defeats the very purpose he has in view. Such prescription tends to make\nautomatons of teachers, instead of alert contributors to the enterprise in hand. The\nworst possible thing that can be done for a school system is to release the teacher from\nthe responsibility for originating something.\nBut, after all, the freedom of the child is at stake. He, too , must assume responsibility as a condition of liberty. Despotism at the top produces servility all the way\ndown, and it is the child who is chiefly oppressed. The educational principles which are\nto guide must be definitely set forth, and there must be enough of organization and direction to secure unity and harmony of effort ; but, in matters of device and detail, diversity\nis to be encouraged. A traveling companion said yesterday : \" Any device is good\nwhich shuts the mouth of the teacher and opens the mouth of the pupil.\" Carry this\nidea back to apply to the relations between superintendent and teacher, and it means\nthat the superintendent should provide favorable conditions for work, see that underlying\neducational principles are understood, and then insist that the teacher do his own thinking. The teacher who develops under such a system will, in turn, have the pupils do\ntheir own thinking. It is only in this way that the growth can take place which results\nin freedom.\nThe paper is constructive as well as destructive. Definite ways of improving the\nwork of teachers are pointed out. The grade-meeting plan is especially worthy of\nconsideration. By the plan suggested the superintendent can come into personal\nrelations with the teachers and explain his views in a more effective way than by\nmeans of printer's ink. In the large cities the problem of meeting the teachers so that\nthey may know the superintendent's views at first hand is not an easy one. His\nopinions upon vital questions are too often filtered thru several officials before they\nreach the schoolroom, and, when they finally reach the teacher, they exhibit a progressive\ndeparture from his exact meaning. The larger the school system, the greater the tendency to subordinate the individual to the organization. There should be but one set of\nmiddlemen. The principal is the key to the sitiration. He it is who is in daily communication with the teachers. The superintendent must have the co-operation of the\nprincipal, or he will plan in vain. The machine principal will make a machine school.\nMr. Gilbert says: \"Smash the machine.\" In this he does not seem to me consistent, as in\nanother part of his paper he develops very carefully the value of the machinery of\nschool organization. A better remedy is to reform the machine principal. Wherever\nyou find a liberal-minded principal, one who has himself arrived at freedom, you will\nfind free teachers and self-reliant children. Therefore it is absolutely necessary for\nthe superintendent to secure the harmonious co-operation of the principals. By principals' meetings and by private conference this must be brought about, not by written\norders. The course of study may be broad and liberal, the rules may allow the teacher\nlarge discretion, yet the purpose of both be nullified by a principal who insists upon\ntradition. If I did not know a few cases like the following, I should think Mr. Gilbert\nhad been guilty of exaggeration:\nA teacher of my acquaintance, fully capable of taking charge of the work of her\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nFREEDOM\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\n175\n\nroom so that no supervising officer need worry about the results, reports this experience\nupon being assigned to a building controlled by a principal of this petrified type:\nI was given notebooks of other teachers showing exactly how each part of each subject was taught, and\nwas obliged to copy these and fol'.ow them in every detail. Every Friday before leaving we were all obliged\nto make out a plan for the week, stating what we should teach each period of every day — eveiy word in\nspelling, every problem in arithmetic, and every sentence in language study. At the end of the month we\nwere to make out \" progress books,\" showing what had actually been taught.\nA composition was required of each pupil each week. I worked to get thoughts and felt that I had succeeded ina measure. As I had to deal with a fourth-grade class, I found it difficult to get free expression of\nthought and a perfect chirography. These compositions were rejected, and short, stilted ones of ten lines or\nso, beautifully written, were accepted.\nThe discipline was as rigid and unsympathetic as the instruction, and the monitor system was in full\nforce. A grade was to move as a unit, and individual work of all kinds was discouraged. All written work,\ncompositions, dictations, and the like, drawings, etc., were bound in sets, duly inscribed with lots of red-ink\nlinings and interlinings, and put on file. The \"plan book,\" \" progress book,\" \" notebooks,\" and the filing\naway of all the writing and drawing took a large part of my time, so that I got in a very little real teaching.\nI found that the only course open to me was to follow directions implicitly. The teachers would not change\ntheir methods unless compelled. They follow their notebooks year after year, merely adding the new things\nthat the changes in the course demand.\n\nWe have here in some detail a view of the narrowing process as actually carried on\nin some schools. The last sentence but one exhibits the logical result : \" The teachers\nwould not change their methods unless compelled.\" Monotonous routine inevitably ends\nin intellectual and pedagogical death. A superintendent who permits it is blind and\nculpable. One who prescribes it should be retired from the profession. His proper\nsphere is a factory. In the instance cited, the trouble, if one may judge by reading the\ncourse of study and the rules, lay with the principal of the school, not with the school\nsystem — \"the machine.\" Thus may the spirit of fairly liberal courses and printed directions be destroyed by a stickler for form for form's sake. If the superintendent happens\nalso to be a mere executive, the system is doomed till the time arrives when the \" cake of\ncustom,\" as Walter Bagehot calls it, is broken by a vigorous and thorogoing reform.\nI place a higher value upon the supervisors' estimates of the efficiency of teachers\nthan Mr. Gilbert does. He speaks of their \" brief and valueless \" visits. I cannot conceive it possible that a supervisor can come away from a schoolroom without a pretty\ndefinite opinion of the spirit of the work and its educational value. The impression will\nbe in some respects all the more reliable because the primary purpose of the visit is not\nto inspect, but to help. Mr. Gilbert evidently thinks the principal alone should mark the\nteacher. I should want to get all the side lights possible upon the work of a teacher, so\nas to avoid the one-sided estimate which such a principal as the one ^bove referred to\nwould be sure to give.\n>Mr. Gilbert rightly places a high estimate upon the use of talented teachers in\nexemplifying ideals ; in giving concrete examples of the correct application of approved\neducational principles as models for imitation. Ideas introduced unobtrusively in this\nway spread with remarkable rapidity. We can accomplish little by compulsion, much by\nsuggestion. The following from the late Rev. Maltbie D. Babcock applies as truly to\nschool problems as to other problems involving human nature :\nSuggestion is generally better than Definition. There is a seeming dogmatism about Definition that is\noften repellent, while Suggestion, on the contrary, disarms suspicion and summons to co-operation and\nexperiment. Definition provokes discussion; Suggestion provokes to love and good works. Defining is\nlimiting ; Suggestion is enlarging. Defining calls a halt ; Suggestion calls for an advance. Defining involves\nthe peril of contentment : \" I am here, I rest.\" \" Thtis far,\" says Definition, and draws a map;\nward,\" cries Suggestion, and builds a boat.\n\n\"West-\n\nI must take exception to one thing more that is implied thruout the paper rather\nthan said, namely, that there is never any restriction to be placed upon a teacher.\nSchool officials are generally anxious to give just as much freedom as can be borne by the\nteacher; freedom involves responsibility; the ability to exercise this responsibility comes\nthru a more or less prolonged experience under guidance and suggestion when a\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nteacher has become, thru self-reliant and self-active experience, thoroly efficient,\nit is readily recognized by all thinking people that the interests of the children are safest\nwhen the teacher is least restricted. Such a teacher may always be his own schedule\nmaker, may set his own time limits, may decide for himself which subjects need most\nemphasis at a given time. For such a teacher there are no requirements except those\nwhich his insight, his sense of duty, and his sense of the high privilege which he exercises as a friend and helper to the children impose upon him. It must always be\nremembered that beginners and inexperienced teachers need guidance, and that the\nsuperintendent who withholds guidance, or even restriction upon occasion, has a limited\nidea of true freedom and the pathway over which it is approached. The schools should\nreceive the benefit of the best thought of every member of the teaching force. He is the\nbest superintendent who knows best how to utilize the forces of those about him. The\nthought of all is better than the thought of one. The fact that it is possible for the superintendent tolearn something from the humblest teacher is altogether to his credit. To\nbe most helpful to others he must have lived long enough to know how to be helped.\nSuperintendent and principal are chiefly useful in holding up ideals and in securing to\nteachers and pupils conditions favorable for effective work in the direction of those ideals.\nUnity of aim is essential. Variety in execution is desirable. Responsibility and initiative\nare essential to a child's proper development; this is no less true of the teacher himself.\nWhen supervision is of a character to safeguard these essentials, freedom of the teacher\nultimately depends upon the teacher himself.\nSuperintendent John Richeson, East St. Louis, 111.— Superintendent Gilbert\nlooks at marks from the machine side. I have felt that marks were the tools of weak\nteachers. Teachers need to be educated above the need of marks. I do not agree with\nthe comparison of the city and the rural teacher. I do not see what store of knowledge is\nlaid up from which city teachers exclusively can draw. The teacher must have time to\nassimilate the good things. The city teacher, with the numberless things that attract\nher attention, does not assimilate so as to do better work for the children. I have the\nidea forced upon me that the teachers are not prepared as they should be. I think the\nsupervising corps should be something like a faculty of education, and continue the\ngrowth which the teacher began in the high school or his one year in the normal school\nSuperintendent Gilbert confessed that he had not sufficiently differentiated the principal, nor, I would add, considered him ; and yet he says : \" The principal is the supervising officer whose business it is first of all to be in personal contact with the teacher, and\nto do the various,things for her help of which I have spoken and am about to speak.\"\nThen, I ask, is not the principal \" it \" in this matter of supervision ? In all cities having a hundred or more teachers, to ask this question is to answer it. He is the one\nimportant factor in helping the teachers.\nA recent writer in a prominent educational journal refers slurringly to a superintendent who runs a post-graduate normal school, and says : \"At thirty years of age no person,\ncompetent by ability and character to teach, requires that kind of supervision which is\ncommonly called 'helping the teacher.'\" I suppose the author means a very low grade\nof supervision by his phrase \"commonly called,\" but heaven pity the children under a\nteacher who at thirty, or sixty, years of age does not welcome real help, who does not\nstrive to realize that she is still growing in knowledge of subjects and children, as well as\nin skill to teach ! But teaching these adults, more or less fixed in habits of opinion and\nthought, is a complicated matter, and requires the very highest teaching skill. The\nsupervisor who is to do this work must himself be a first-class teacher. He ought to be a\nman of broad and exact knowledge, and a clear thinker. He ought, if possible, to possess\nin himself all the native virtues which characterize the success of each teacher from the\nprimary grade thru the high school. Hard to find ? Yes. But the number of principals\nneeded is not great, and their work can be so valuable, or so disastrous, that there ought\nto be no question about getting the right man or woman for the place.\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n177\n\nIn conclusion, if we are to have teachers with the greatest freedom and the highest\nappreciation of their responsibilities to the children, if we are to have teachers constantly\ngrowing in efficiency and power to inspire, we must have principals and superintendents\nwho are educators first and machine directors second. Next after a \"teacher's devotion\nto her work as the most precious possession of a school's system \" must come the professional devotion of the supervisors.\n\nA READJUSTMENT\nE. W. COY, PRINCIPAL\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nOF THE HUGHES\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, CINCINNATI, O.\n\nThe public high school seems to occupy the storm center in our educational system at the present time. Placed as it is between the upper\nmillstone of the college and the nether millstone of the elementary school,\nit is in a position to be subjected to a great deal of trituration. Not that\nthere is any opposition to the high school worthy of notice; not that those\nwho are ever ready to advocate change merely for the sake of change are\nclamoring for something new and strange here as well as everywhere\nelse; but many sober-minded and conservative educators are coming to\nthe conclusion that there is need of modification and readjustment in our\nsystem. It is true that we are passing thru a period of educational\nunrest and upheaval when what is novel and bizarre is very likely to gain\nfavor and win the day for the time being. And it behooves us to go slow\nin adopting radical changes and not be too ambitious to lead the procession, lest we be numbered among those of whom it is written: \"Many\nthat are first shall be last, and the last shall be first ;\" yet what reason\nand sound judgment approve we cannot afford to reject. A rational\nconservatism does not decline to accept everything that is new; it\nsimply declines to accept anything that has nothing to recommend it\nexcept that it is new.\nNumerous are the suggestions, some wise and some otherwise, coming from experts and non-experts alike, for the improvement or modification of the course of study of the high school or of the work it is doing,\nor for the lengthening or shortening of the curriculum. Some would\ncut down its course from four years to three — upon what theory I know\nnot, unless it be the theory that the less there is of it the better. Others\nwould prolong its course upward, taking in two years of the ordinary\ncollege course. This would be piling Ossa upon Pelion. Still others\nwould have the high school declare its independence of the higher institutions and mark out a course of its own, without any regard to what is to\ncome after, teaching a little of everything and not very much of anything\nin particular; and this they call \"fitting for life.\" Some would have\npretty definite courses with occasional Options; others would spread out\nthe whole field of knowledge and invite the child in its innocence to\ncome and choose such viands as it may prefer before it knows the differ-\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nence between biology and theology or between physics and physic.\nFinally here and there may be found some fine old ichthyosaurian, come\ndown to us from palaeozoic time, who would abolish the high school altogether as an expensive luxury.\nAll this difference of view, this fertility of suggestion, indicates a\n'desire for a change from present conditions. Is there any reasonable\nground for such a demand ? I think there is.\nThis demand, however, does not arise because the work of the high\nschool is not done as well as could reasonably be expected under the circumstances. There has been a change amounting almost to a revolution\nin secondary-school work since the report of the Committee of Ten. High\nschools all over the land are today furnished and equipped in a manner\nunheard of twenty and twenty-five years ago, and the teaching force is\nyearly improving. I believe that there is no better work done in any of\nour public or private educational institutions, high or low, than that done\nalong many lines in our best city high schools.\nIt is not because the training obtained in the high school is unsatisfactory. Nothing is more needed in this country today, and all days,\nthan men and women who can see clear and think straight, and the traditional high-school curriculum is well adapted to accomplish this result.\nAgain, it is not because there are so many failures and so much dropping out of pupils in the high school. No four-year period in the whole\nschool course can be found during which there are so few failures and so\nlittle dropping out as during the four-years' high-school course, altho\nthe opposite has been iterated and re-iterated so persistently that even\nsome good schoolmen, who ought to know better, think that it is true, and\nso sometimes either directly or by implication help to give currency\nto the falsehood.\nThere are two reasons why the curriculum of the high school should\nbe readjusted: (i) the amount of work demanded of the high school;\n(2) the necessity for an earlier change from the elementary to the secondary school.\nThe amount of work required of the high school in these later days cannot be satisfactorily done in the time allotted to it. This is true whether\nwe regard the school as a fitting school or as a finishing school. Until\ncomparatively recent years the traditional four years afforded ample time\nfor the boy to fit for college, but college-entrance requirements today and\neven twenty-five or thirty years ago are two very different matters. And\nwhile the requirements of the colleges- have increased so enormously, the\ndemands upon the high schools for those who intend to go no farther\nhave been increasing in like manner. This is due in general to the ever\nwidening scope that education is assuming, as well as to the more thoro\nand extended pursuit of the different lines of study. Then again the\nspecialist in each department of study, to whom we owe so much for\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTHE\n\nHTGH -SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n^9\n\nincreased interest and improved methods, has not always exhibited a\nbecoming modesty in his demands. He too often sees only his own\nfavorite subject and is disposed to insist that it shall have the right of\nway, whatever else may suffer. The attempt to construct a course of\nstudy that shall include the recommendations of all these specialists is an\nattempt to perform an impossibility. The Committee of Ten discovered\nthis when they undertook to combine the reports of its nine conferences\ninto a coherent course of study. It found that there were not hours\nenough in the day nor days enough in the week to supply the various\nmodest demands for time.\nOf course, we may abandon the idea that the high school is a connecting link in a system extending from the primary school to the university,\nrelated to what may follow as well as to what has gone before, reduce the\namount of work required, omitting much that every high-school graduate\nshould have had, and thus run on an independent basis. But this, in my\njudgment, v/ould be the height of unwisdom. It would satisfy neither\nthe colleges nor the public. Under this arrangement, those who wish to\ncontinue their studies — usually the brightest and most promising of the\nstudents — would be obliged to resort to private tutors or to private\nschools for their preparation. This in many cases would involve an\nexpense that they could not bear and would prevent their carrying out\ntheir purpose. The high-school course should be of such a character\nthat the student, when he has completed it successfully, should find an\neasy entrance into the higher institution, to continue there his studies\nalong the lines that he has been pursuing.\nI know of but one practical remedy for this condition in the high\nschools, and that is to begin the high school two years earlier than we\nhave been in the habit of doing. This would not only relieve the high\nschool, but would also be a great advantage to the boys and girls who are\ngoing thru our schools. If it would only relieve the high school without\nbenefiting the pupil, it would be a sorry expedient. But I feel confident\nthat it would do both.\nNow, is there anything sacred about the term of four years for the\nhigh-school course, except that kind of sacredness that attaches to everything long established? If it appears better to have a five or six years'\ncourse, is there any insuperable objection to a change? Is it reasonable\nto continue the pupil in the elementary course thru eight years until\nhe has completed such subjects as arithmetic and English grammar, and\nthen pass him into the secondary school to begin the elements of such\nsubjects as algebra, a foreign language, or a science? It seems to me\nunreasonable, unscientific, and unpedagogical. It does not require an\nexpert nor the son of an expert to understand that the boy or girl of\ntwelve is better prepared to master the elements of algebra than he is to\ngrapple with the abstruse and difficult problems of advanced arithmetic,\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "l8o\n\nMATIONAL\n\nEDUCATTOMaL\n\nAS'iOCTATlOI^\n\nI Cincinnati\n\nand that the same boy or girl can learn the elements of half a dozen foreign languages more easily than he can unravel the mysteries and complexities ofthe English sentence.\nThe boy enters the German Gymnasium and Realschule at the age of\nnine, and continues there till he is eighteen — everybody knows with what\nresults. The French Lycee, under the reorganization, or readjustment,\nthat is just now going into effect, takes the boy at about the same age and\nkeeps him seven years, when he goes out with the baccalaureate degree, and\nis ready for the professional schools. Why is it that the German boy\nleaves the Gymnasium at eighteen having completed about two years of\nour ordinary college course, while the American boy goes out from the\nhigh school at eighteen scarcely prepared to enter college? Superior\nteaching doubtless will account for much ; the different home training and\nthe different habits of the foreign boy will account for much; but I\nbelieve that still more is due to the continuous, unbroken course of study\nin the secondary school for a long series of years. We are not urging\nthat our people should imitate slavishly the practice and method of the\nGerman and French schools, for there are some things about them that\nwe should do well not to imitate. Besides, the difference in temperament, in environment, in habits and customs, might render it very unwise\nto follow their example in all particulars. But still we may learn some\nvaluable lessons from the study of their systems and of the results that\nthey accomplish. Surely, if the German or the French boy may with\nprofit enter the secondary school at nine, it can hardly be premature for\nthe American boy to take the same step at twelve.\nLet the pupil, then, enter the high school at the end of his sixth year\nof school and be introduced to the elements of some of these so-called\nhigh-school subjects, instead of waiting until the end of his eighth year.\nLet the more difficult portions of some of these so-called elementary subjects be relegated to the latter part of the high-school course, where they\nproperly belong. By that time he will have flanked many of the difficulties of advanced arithmetic by his knowledge of algebra, and if he has\ntaken a foreign language he will have learned much that will render\nsmoother his path to a knowledge of the structure and analysis of his\nvernacular. In addition to this he will have acquired the maturity that\nis essential to the comprehension of these subjects.\nThe method of the elementary school differs from the method of the\nsecondary school just as the method of the secondary school differs from\nthe method of the university. This difference in method is founded upon\na difference in the state of mental development of the pupil. To use\nthe secondary-school method in the elementary stage is to offer a stone\nwhen asked for bread ; to continue to use the elementary method in the\nsecondary stage is to feed a boy with gruel when he is crying lustily for\na substantial diet.\nWe have continued to use the elementary method too\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\nl8l\n\nfar and too long, and in the upper grades of the lower schools we have\nbeen feeding gruel until there have often resulted mental anaemia, arrested\ndevelopment, and general intellectual flabbiness. The interest of the\nchild demands that this transition be made earlier and less abruptly than\nwe are now doing. If the boys and girls at the end of the sixth year of\ntheir course can be admitted to the school in which they are to complete\ntheir public-school education, a course of six years can be arranged for\nthe high school by which they can with less friction and greater success\nbe carried forward farther than they are under our present system. Then\nthe change can be made from the elementary to the secondary method\ngradually and naturally, without jar or jolt, instead of making it in a day,\nas we do under our present system.\nUnder this plan it is not proposed that every boy and girl shall be set\nat once to studying a foreign language, but it is proposed that, if any\npupil desires to begin a foreign language, the opportunity shall be\noffered. It is not proposed that all pupils shall decide at the outset\nwhether they are to prepare for a higher institution or to complete their\nschooling in the high school, but it is proposed that, if any pupil shall\ndecide that he wishes to prepare for college, or to go no farther than the\nhigh school, the choice shall be open to him. It is not proposed that\nthe pupils shall be put to work at once and exclusively upon the so-called\nhigh-school subjects, but it is proposed that they shall be gradually\ninducted into those subjects in a manner suited to their age and mental\nmaturity.\nThe placing of these subjects down in the lower schools does not\nmeet the necessities of the case. What is needed is to take the pupil out\nof the elementary school and the elementary-school atmosphere and the\nexclusively elementary-school method, and place him in the secondaryschool surroundings and under teachers versed in secondary-school work.\nSo far as my experience and observation have extended, the result of\nplacing these advanced subjects in the lower school has never been satisfactory.\nThe question will at once arise : Will not this plan involve too great\nexpense ? The subject of the expense of public education is one not to\nbe lightly treated, and yet we must remember that no community has any\nmore important duty to perform than that of providing for the education\nof its youth. Besides, that which costs the least is not always the cheapest in the long run. This is emphatically true in education. The\ncheapest teachers, the cheapest buildings, and the cheapest equipment are\nnot always the most desirable.\nIf we can make changes in our plan ^f organization that will result\nin improvement in the education of the youth, slightly increased expense\nshould not be allowed to stand in the way. The plan proposed would\ninvolve some additional expense, it is true, but not as much as might at\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nfirst appear. The additional expense in the high school would be largely\ncompensated for by the reduced expense of the lower school. No more\nteachers and no more room would be required than are required now;\nonly a different distribution. Of course, teachers of broader culture and\nof more extended acquirements would command higher compensation,\nand the material equipment might be somewhat more expeitsive ; but\nwould not the advantage of these more than counterbalance the increased\ncost ? I do not apprehend that the added expense would be large\nenough to make us hesitate, provided the adoption of the proposed change\nwill bring needed improvement.\nAnother question that may be asked is: Will not the drawing of the\ndividing line between the high school and the elementary school at the\nclose of the sixth year make a convenient stopping-place for pupils, and\nwill not the result be that many will leave school two years earlier than\nthey now do ? I think not. In the first place, in our present plan of\norganization the pupil is supposed to have completed the so-called common-school studies before reaching the high school, and hence there is a\nnatural stopping-place at that point. Under the proposed plan this\nreason for leaving will have less force, because these studies will not have\nbeen completed, but will be continued in the high school. Besides this,\nat the age of fourteen, about the average at which the lower-school course\nis finished, the pupil is beyond the reach of the compulsory law in many\nof our states, and he drops out for that reason. At twelve he would still\nbe subject to that law, and therefore would of necessity continue his\nstudies into the high school.\nIt may also be objected that the high school is so far away from the\nhomes of many of the pupils that a large number will drop* out because\nof the inconvenience and expense incurred in traveling to and fro. It is\ntrue that the nearer the school is to the homes, the greater the likelihood\nof a large attendance. But it must be borne in mind that, if pupils are\nadmitted to the high school two years earlier than now, the number of\nhigh-school pupils will be greatly increased, so that in cities where two\nhigh schools will suffice now, three or four would be required, and where\nnow there are three high schools, five or six would be required. These\ncould be so located as to bring the high school within reasonable proximity to the homes of all, and the falling off in attendance, for the reason\ngiven above, would be less than under the present plan, where the high\nschools are few in number and situated from necessity far from the homes\nof many who are prevented from attending because of the distance.\nAll of these objections, and others that may be offered, will, I am sure,\nvanish when the scheme is given a practical trial. We are the only progressive people in the world, so far as I know, who begin their distinctively\nsecondary schools so late and give to them so short a time. It is impossible to cover the ground that the secondary school should cover, or to\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n1 83\n\naccomplish the results that it should accomplish, without a curriculum\nextending thru a longer period of years.\nI know of nothing in American life and character, nor in American\nhabits, nor in the mental peculiarities of the American, that justifies us in\nignoring the long experience of other peoples in this matter. It has been\nwell said that \"the virtue of secondary teaching lies, in large measure, in\nits duration, in its slow influence upon the intellect. The best teachers\nneed the help of time, if they wish, not to furnish the memory with hastily\nacquired and badly digested knowledge, but to act upon intellectual\nhabits and accomplish the education of the mind, which is truly the essential aim of secondary education.\"\nLet us then give the high school a chance to do its work, and when\nthis shall have been accomplished, let us hope that, by omitting nonessentials and using a little saving common-sense, we may be able to\nshorten our whole school curriculum by one or two years.\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111. — I believe I am in sympathy\nwith most of what Principal Coy has said, tho I do not regard the separation of the highschool work from the elementary at the end of the sixth year as desirable.\nI believe that in many ways, considering the conditions that exist in the Chicago\nhigh schools, the best is one of these schools having pupils from the kindergarten thru\nthe twelfth grade. In that school we have manual training in the grades — manual\ntraining that can be carried farther than the grades. It seems to me that, while there is\nan advantage in employing something like the departnifental method with the seventh and\neighth grades, it is not necessary. We are giving teachers additional salary where they\nare able to specialize. I believe that the gap at the end of the eighth grade comes\nbecause we change too abruptly. I am not an advocate of the departmental method\nbelow the eleventh grade in the high school. I think that the lower grade in the high\nschool needs teachers who can teach the pupils as well as the subjects.\nIt seems to me that the most crying need is some improvement in the curriculum and\na change in the spirit of the work. We should have one or two years of manual training\nand commercial courses worthy of that name, and work that commends itself to the\nparents as dealing with real life.\nIt will be necessary to prescribe, of course, that a boy who takes physics must know\nmathematics, but we must allow choice. I do not think it is to the point to sneer at the\nchoices by boys and girls; if they pick out \"snaps,\" something is wrong with the teacher.\nI will not say it is a crime; but I will say it is a blunder, at least, to assume that schools\ngo to pieces under the elective system. When evils from this system are shown, I will\nconsider the objections.\nAnother point made by the writer of the paper is that the high school has a better\natmosphere and a better corps of instructors than the elementary schools. More poor\nwork is done in Chicago in the first and second years of the high school than in the\nseventh and eighth grades. More teachers are trying to bring university methods into\nthe high school than there are making such mistake»in the grades below. I do not believe\nthat algebra taught in the elementary schools will be more poorly taught than in the\nhigh schools.\nI think I can say in conclusion simply this : While not pretending to have discussed\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 84\n\nNA TTONAL\n\nEDVCA\n\nTTONAL\n\nASSOC/A TION\n\ntCincinnati\n\nthe subject thoroly, I agree as to the introduction of some of these studies lower down,\nsome departmental work lower down ; but not that the separation at the end of the sixth\ngrade is fundamentally desirable.\nSuperintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo. — I am in accord with much of\nthe paper and much of what has been said by the speaker preceding me. If 1 think of the\nreadjustment of the high school at all, I think of it not as changed by changing the course\nof the district schools. Instead of holding up to the district-school teacher the ideal of\nthe high-school teacher, I wish to hold up to the high-school teacher, as well worth\nimitating, the work done by the common-school teacher in the last ten of the fifteen years.\nThe common-school teacher has gone beyond the mere knowledge of the subject he is to\nteach; he has gone to the thoughtful consideration of how these subjects should be\ntaught to have the fullest educational influence over the children under his control,\nadjusted according to the wise and well-established principles of educational sciences.\nThe very first step in the readjustment of the high school is to show at least one book by\nhigh-school teachers that embodies the high-school method. It is strange that the books\nfor the common school teachers are without equivalents in the high schools. Let them\nfollow the example of the common-school teachers in mastering the subjects and also in\nmastering the pedagogics of the subjects.\nThe pupils enter the high school as children. Their work in the first year, and often\nin the second year, is done after the ways of children, but by the time they leave the high\nschools they are adults in many respects. That important transition from childhood to\nadolescence has not been considered, so far as I know, by any high-school teacher. The\ncourse of study should be adjusted according to the principles of wise pedagogics.\nI do not know whether your experience is the same as mine. The common complaint of a teacher is : \"If only those children came to me well prepared!\" That is the\ngeneral educational feeling. When the college professor finds that condition resulting\nfrom the infinite capacity of the young mind to resist new knowledge, he speaks of the\nhigh school as a failure. The high-school teacher speaks of the poor work of the district\nschools, and the only teacher that does not make the same complaint is the kindergarten\nteacher.\nThere is enough to readjust without adding below or cutting off at the top.\nProfessor Charles DeGarmo, of Cornell University. — Since I have been engaged\nin the business of training teachers all my professional life, I cannot be thought by anyone to disparage such training.\nTho it may be conceded that high-school teaching is often poor, yet I deprecate\nthe inference that often follows remarks up )n this subject, to the effect that the possession\nof knowledge is a presupposition of inefficiency in teaching. Such an inference, I am\nsure, is wrong.\nIt was stated by the previous speaker that we have not yet produced a book on the\npedagogics of high-school teaching. Tho we have no single volume covering this field,\nI wish to mention a few books on the teaching of secondary subjects that are worthy of\nour consideration : (i) The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, emhr?ic\\x\\g 2iX'\\\\.hmc\\.\\c,\nalgebra, and plane and solid geometry, by David Eugene Smith, of Teachers College,\nColumbia University, an expert in knowledge of the subject and a past-master of its\nteaching. (2) Geriuan Higher Schools, by Dean James E. Russell, of the same institution. This volume gives the American teacher a wide survey of secondary work in all\nits departments, as it may be seen in Germany. (3) The Teaching of Latin and Greek,\nby Professors Bennett and Bristol, of Cornell University — a book which gives a complete\nsurvey of the teaching of Latin from the beginning to the end of the high-school course.\n(4) The Teaching of English, by Percival Chubb, of the Ethical Culture Sclujol, New York\ncitv. This Ixiok ranges over both elementary and secondary work in English. (5) The\nTeaching of Physics and Chemistry, by Smith and Hall — a complete survey of the teaching of these two subjects in the high scl^ool. (6) Educational Aims and Educational\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRATNING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n185\n\nMethods, hy Paul II. Ilanus, of Harvard University — a book which discusses in broad\nand generous spirit the whole high school problem. (7) The Meaning of Education, by\nPresident Butler, of Columbia University, a large proportion of which pertains to secondary education. (8) The Making of our Middle Schools, by Professor E. E. Brown, of the\nUniversity of California. This book, tho historical in the main, gives many intimations\nas to how high-school teaching should be done. Besides these eight volumes, which are\ncertainly worthy of consideration, there are many other books and a large number of\nreports which deal with the various aspects of secondary education. It can, therefore,\nnot justly be charged that the high-school interest has been neglected in educational\nliterature.\nConcerning the main question before us, I wish to express my accordance with the\nmain conclusions of Principal Coy's paper. We have been considering this subject for\ntwo years at Cornell, and have come to the firm conclusion that the roots of the highschool studies must go farther down into the grades, unless we are prepared greatly to\noverburden the youth from fourteen to eighteen in preparation for the work of the collegesand\n•\nuniversities. The subject, however, is beset with administrative and other\ndifficulties. In Europe secondary education is simplified in that it not only extends over\nlonger periods than in this country, but because secondary education is offered in the\nmain only to children of educated parents. These schools are segregated from those for\nthe common people, but in this country we must preserve our educational ladder. We\nmust make it possible for the children of all classes to pass easily and readily from\nelementary to secondary, and from secondary to higher, education. This means that we\ncannot have a caste system for our secondary schools.\nIn most cases I think the best and most natural solution of the problem is to offer\nelective courses in beginning languages and in the elements of algebra and geometry in\nthe grammar schools. Plenty of teachers can be found who are able, not only to teach\nthe subject, but to teach the pupil.\nI did not rise, however, to settle this question, but rather to express my conviction\nof its importance.\n\nINDUSTRIAL\nALFRED\n\nBAYLISS,\n\nSTATE\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSUPE^NTENDENT\nOF\nSPRINGFIELD,\nILL.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nI visited a country school the other day, which I should like to\ndescribe as a basis for this discussion.\nThe house is comparatively new, and enjoys the unusual distinction —\nin Illinois — of being heated by a furnace. There is a narrow closet,\nextending the whole width of the building, from which leads the stairway\nto the basement. There is also an outer stairway to a door opening into\nthe basement. I took the liberty to work my way into the schoolroom\nthru this back door and up the inside stairs, thus making an opportunity\nto explore that basement and take an inventory of the contents of the\nlong closet before intruding upon the school.\nThe excavation for the basement is under about one-third of the floor\nspace, and was intended to be just large ©nough for the furnace and coal\nsupply. But by some happy inadvertence it had been made larger than\nabsolutely necessary for those conveniences, and so there is room in the\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ncorner nearest the window for a little workshop. There is a well-made\n(by the teacher) carpenter's bench — strong, but not elegant; with a good\nvise and. a fair kit of tools, including a jack-plane, two chisels, a trisquare, joiners' gauge, brace and two bits, a drawing-knife, saw, two jig\nsaws, two hammers, three bench knives, a small lathe, and a glue pot.\nThere were some pieces of unfinished work and quite a little stock of lumber. Such an outfit I had never before seen in connection with a oneroom country school.\nAs I stood in the closet upstairs, I could hear a small boy say: \" Lesson :two X's, V, one I — twenty-six. Forms of land and water. A penin-i-^^-la, is a body of land; \" etc., etc. As I entered the schoolroom, the\nfirst thing I saw was the omnipresent time-table of recitations — fifteen\nin the morning and seventeen in the afternoon. There was a twentyminute period for the \"A\" arithmetic, and fifteen minutes each for\nthree other subjects ; all the other \" hours \" were five or ten minutes\nlong. The school, therefore, is ** normal \" in some respects. Those\nfour long recitation periods are accounted for by the fact that six of the\npupils are in the eighth grade. The thirty-three pupils enrolled vary\nin age from six to eighteen years. A baker's dozen of them are over\ntwelve years old. There were fifteen boys and four girls present the day\nI was there.\nOne notes at a glance that the ceiling is papered, that the matting in\nthe aisles is neat, and the rug near the teacher's table rather pretty. But\nthe casual visitor might go away uncertain about the walls ; they are so covered with the handiwork of the children — colored maps, drawings, amateur photographs, and the like. These things detract so much from the\neffect of the three or four fine pictures that the children are planning to\nremove some of their own work to the halls, and give Rosa Bonheur,\nMillet, and Herring a better chance, ^ases of that kind of growth are\nnot uncommon in Illinois.\nThis school had attracted attention by the great variety and excellence\nof its exhibits at the Illinois State Fair. To illustrate, I quote a para,graph from a newspaper:\nThe Cottage Hill school in Sangamon county, Mr. E. C. Pruitt, teacher, is probably\nthe most remarkable country school in Illinois in the matter of making agricultural collections. Ittakes first premium in products of school garden, flowers from school garden,\ncollection of seeds gathered by the pupils, geological collection, school collection of woods,\nschool collection of insects, and maps of Illinois and grand division maps ; and second (no\nfirst being granted) in amateur photography of school grounds and scenes. Cottage Hill\nschool also has a library of 150 or 200 books. Sixty-five kinds of wood are shown; the\nlarge table of potted plants taken from the school garden is very beautiful and a credit to\nany gardener; the products of the school garden include potatoes, tomatoes, corn of different kinds, beans of different kinds, onions, turnips, several grasses and other products.\nThe seed collection is very elaborate, and the hundreds of kinds are neatly displayed in\nglass bottles and elongated globes especially adapted to the purpose. The other collections mentioned are much beyond the ordinary.\nA reporter talked with some parents\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencel\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n187\n\nwho send children to this school. They reported that the boys and girls are greatly interested in these collections and the garden-making, and that they talk about it a great deal\nat home. There is much enthusiasm in the school, and many things are learned about the\nfeatures mentioned.\n\nOne of the boys told me they had earned two hundred and ninety\ndollars in this way.\nI said : \" What have you done with all that money? \"\nHis reply was an expressive gesture, which said, as plainly as words :\n\"Look around and make your own list.\" I told the children that their\nlibrary would be richer by one or two more books, if they would tell\nme in writing what became of that money.\nThere was a ready assent, and\nthe next Monday morning after my visit I received thirteen letters bearing\non the subject.\nConsidered as a piece of literary art, the one I now\nread is neither the best nor the worst, but from the informational side it\nis among the best :\n' Cottage Hill School\n\nDear Sir:\n\nJan. 15. 1903.\n\nYou said you would like to know what we done with the \"^290 we took away from\nthe State Fair of Illinois for premiums I will menction some of the things I can think of\nthere is our library consisting of a 185 books, Two book cases, a 12-inch globe Dictionary\nstand. Music chart, case for seeds, and globes for seed, Lumber for stage curtain, an carpet. Six lampes with refiecters. Clock, Two fine pictures One of Christ, the other of ^ritany sheep, framed eight Diplomoes, and several of our premium maps and many other\npictures to numerous to mention, Artificial palm, three tables and eight Chairs, Six drawing\nboards, gave $17.50 to pupils, flowers and flower seed, papered the school room, 100 seed\nbottles, lathe work bench and set of tools, stand cover Song books, and many articcals we\nneaded to make all of these things Well I guess I will close now as I can think of\nnothing else.\nYours truly\n\n1 do not file this statement as an exhibit of the ** Illinois plan.\" The\ncase is not a type. It may not be an illustration of a rational solution of\nthe problem of \"■ industrial education in rural schools.\" I shall not be\nsurprised to hear it characterized as a case of misdirected energy, exhibiting nothing of educational value, or even as a lawless obstruction of\nthe real business of the school. It is, nevertheless, an existing case, and,\nmoreover, one of which there will soon be many counterparts, if the\nenergy of country teachers and supervisors is turned, as seems not unlikely,\nin the direction indicated by it. For the country school, as never before,\nis taking its cue from the town. The country teachers have z. feeling, if\nthey do not know, that the town teachers have the advantage of them,\nand are doing some things better than the town teachers can do them.\nThey are ready to make\n\nany sort of experiment — do anything their\n\nsupervisors suggest. They are impetuously eager to \" prove all things.\"\nThey will hold fast to that which is gooA, too, if, by reason of light and\nguidance they chance to find it.\nIn this instance there is, apparently, a lack of co-ordination and logi-\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATTO!^AL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfCincmnati\n\ncal continuity, or something else equally euphonious and equally meaningless to the country teacher. This teacher knows that as well as anybody.\nBut there is in it at least one element of a conscious educational purpose. \"When I came into this district six years ago,\" he told me, \"the\nschoolhouse had nothing in it and was falling to pieces. After the new\nhouse was built, the school grew, and I just couldn't keep those little\nfellows studying books all day, and so had to do something to keep them\nbusy. The older children just naturally 'got busy' because they wanted\nto.\" He admits that merely to \" take that money away from the State\nFair of Illinois\" would not have been a motive of the first class, had it\nnot been combined with the purpose to get things for the use of the\nschool. On the whole, lam not inclined to disparage the prominence of\nthe economic motive. Work for the good of the school is a good foundaation for a larger public spirit.\nThis young man's method \"touches life\" — at almost too many points,\nperhaps — but it does touch life, and makes life for those children \"more\nabundant.\" The articles made at that bench in the cellar, and on the homemade looms — I counted as many as twenty of the latter — develop inge•nuity and train the constructive imagination, for there were variations and\nsome signs of originality. One can see, within the first five minutes, also, a\nremarkably fine attitude of the children toward all their work. They\n\"mean business.\" That schedule of thirty-two daily exercises is perhaps\navoidable to some extent, but it is difficult to prepare a plan of conventional school work for thirty-three pupils, with eight grades represented,\nthat will keep all the children who are not reciting lessons occupied all\nthe time in preparing lessons. So at certain times in the day some of this\nhandwork may well be done in school hours, and the inevitable mischief\n— or, what is infinitely worse, idleness — is reduced to its lowest terms.\nBut by far the most noticeable phase of this special case is its social\nsignificance. The community spirit — each for all, and all for each — is\ndeveloped to a remarkable degree. They \"took that $290 away from the\nState Fair of Illinois \" for the benefit of their school^ and I submit that the\nitemized account of purchases made will bear some scrutiny. They solved\nfor themselves the vexed question of school supplies. The board of\ndirectors is a very good one. Witness that furnace in the basement and\nthe long closet at the end of the schoolroom. But in all human probability that board would not have bought three extra tables and eight\nchairs. The schoolroom might possibly have been cleaned ; it probably\nwould not have been decorated. Several of the \"many articles we\nneeded,\" besides the Brittany sheep and Pharaoh's horses, would not have\nbeen provided. The school itself might not have discovered the need.\nIt was a great step in advance to provide that furnace, but the education\nof those directors up to the point of regretting that the basement is not\nunder the whole house, and the unsolicited o^^x from them to complete\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n189\n\nthe excavation next summer, is in the nature of a triumph. They are\nlikely to be permitted to do it, making room for another bench or two\nand some lunch tables. \"You must have warm lunches down here next\nwinter,\" I said to some of the boys ; \" Gee, that'll be nice,\" was the prompt\nretort. I think they will have them, for this activity interests the people\nof the district. For example, I asked a little fellow: \"Who\n\ntakes care of\n\nthe garden in the summer vacation ? \" \" The man across the street watches\nit and keeps the town boys out of it,\" was part of the answer. The children talk about school at home, not more, but in a different way. The\npeople, in consequence, think about it in a different way. The teacher,\nas another natural consequence, has the firmest kind of a grip on his job,\nand an option on three or four more nearly as good.\nResults count. This man's pedagogical method may be vulnerable,\nbut, beyond a peradventure, he has achieved the prime result in any school\ndistrict — a genuine and general public interest in the school. The bane\nof the detached school, in the small independent district, is the withering\napathy — the utter indifference to anything but petty grievances that, in\nthe last analysis, can usually be traced to the intolerable dullness of the\nconventional school routine. Children are confined to a single mode of\nexpression, and that upon matters derived from books, which, as far as\nthey can see, have no sort of relation to anything whatever of interest to\nthem; and they naturally go to sleep. Why shouldn't they? Whatever\nwakes them up is justifiable. If the waking is followed by a new attitude\nof mind, extending beyond the school to the community, uniting directors, people, children, and teacher, the result is a distinct gain, apparent\npedagogical crudeness to the contrary notwithstanding. Saul, the son of\nKish, is not the only man who ever found a greater thing than he sought.\nMoreover, wherever the small district organization prevails, this sort\nof thing undoubtedly comes very near to the utmost limit of reasonable\nexpectation. The difficult factor in our equation is the supply of teachers. Teachers who can do much better than this are not to be had for\nthe country schools in anything approaching sufficient nuiijbers. They\ncan never be had under prevailing conditions, nor until the country school\nshall be reorganized up to the point of so increasing the financial ability\nof the taxing units that they can afford to pay living wages. All proposals\nto better the country schools seem to center at last in the plan of consolidation of districts and free conveyance of pupils. There is no other way\nin sight. Its advantages need not be recited here. The one commanding\npossibility in it is the leveling up of the quality of the rural teaching body\nand keeping it up to that of the town. The right kind of teachers would\nvery soon make such cases as the one I have described very common, and\nso modify them that they would be less olTlrusively \" long \" on the industrial and \"short\" on the training side.\nIn the meantime we must do as well as we can.\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "I 90\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n\\ Cincinnati\n\nThat insect collection should be continued, but its growth need not be\nquite so rapid. The number of varieties needed for training purposes is\nexceeded when it becomes so large that some of the children do not know\na little about nearly every specimen. No one child need know even the\nnames of all. Scientific classification is, of course, out of place and out\nof question. But it should be quite possible to learn, by inquiry from\nthe young collectors, whether a given specimen lived in the house, the\ngarden, or the field. The classification may well be carried a step or two\nbeyond the dividing line made by conspicuous beauty — the question\nwhether a species is harmful or useful to man being the natural beginning.\nThe permanent school collection need not be much larger than the number of life-stories the children are willing to learn. Private collections\nmay grow at the pleasure of the young collector.\nAs a mode of industrial training the school garden should stay. This\nhas been questioned. It is rather plausibly urged that a garden, as part\nof the equipment of a country school, is a superfluity. The children, it\nis said, work in the garden at home, and most of them can give the citybred teacher pointers already. All of this may be in accordance with the\nfacts. But in most home gardens the child's share of the work is so\nallotted as to be mere drudgery. He does it becaHse he has to. The\ngarden at home has but a single interest. The school garden may have\nseveral. Among others it may be made tributary to the natural instinct\nof ownership. The boy will want a garden of his own, in which he will\nnot only parallel some of the school work, but extend it in some ways and\nintensify it in others. His study of soil manipulation will lead to experiments of his own. If he learns nothing more than to figure the time,\nlabor, and material cost of some product he is allowed to market on his\nown account, he will know the essential difference between a good farmer\nand half the poor ones.\nBut the school garden should be better planned than the Cottage Hill\nschool garden. It was only \" three rails square,\" and they raised \"everything \"in it. An Illinois county superintendent (O. J. Kern, of Winnebago county) has already worked out a better plan. About a year ago he\norganized a '* Farmer Boys' Experiment Club,\" with thirty-three charter\nmembers, but which now has ii8 names on the roll; as did also the\nsuperintendents of two other counties (McHenry and Christian). He\ntook a large party (150 children and 130 adults) of boys and girls to the\nAgricultural College, 214 miles away, just to give them a chance to see a\nschool garden on the large scale. These boys went home and raised sugar\nbeets in accordance with directions given them by the teachers at the\nuniversity, and returned samples of the crop for analysis. Some of them\nraised prize corn ; others made investigations with reference to smut\nin oats, did something with alfalfa and some other legumes; and still\nothers entered into a lively competition to see who could devise and draw\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nJN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n191\n\nthe best plan for \"landscaping\" the school grounds. They are going\ndown to the university again next June, and to St. Louis in 1904. Just now\nhe is interesting the school directors in a plan furnished him by Professor\nBlair for a school garden twelve by thirty-six feet, laid off for three rows of\ncorn, eight rows of vegetables, and one row each of pansies, petunias,\nChina asters, Drummond phlox, nasturtiums, sweet peas, and sunflowers.\nThis is better than a larger variety, and much better than \"everything.\"\nIt will not be many years, if Mr. Kern's life is spared, before the farmers\nof that county will begin to visit the schools, to see what they can learn\nabout the newest varieties of seeds and garden products. The school\ngarden should make much of flowers, not forgetting to make room for\nsome of the beautiful wild ones, which do not seem to me to be as much\nappreciated as they used to be forty or fifty years ago. The problem of\nthe school garden, with all that it implies, when worked out, will make of\nevery schoolyard a little landscape garden— an object-lesson Tor the\nwhole neighborhood.\nI would keep that work-bench, and may its tribe increase! If it expands\nI think work with leather might follow the work with wood. Mixing\npaint and the knack of making putty would be invaluable accomplishments\nto farmer boys, leading to many economies and some beauties. Man is\ninstinctively a tool-using animal. \"Nowhere do you find him without\ntools ; without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all.\" The bench will\njustify itself as a factor in industrial training, if it does no more than\nincrease the manual dexterity of most of the boys. On, every farm there\nare cultivators, plows, mowers, and reapers to be mended, and buildings to\nbe repaired. It is an advantage to any man, in any business, merely to be\n\" handy \" with tools. I know a country carpenter who takes his annual\nvacation in the woods, or on the water, for all the world like a gentleman\nof means and leisure ; and a rich man who spends his summers up on the\nshore of Lake Superior, and finds one-half his pleasure in his shop,\nmaking whatever his fancy dictates for the cottage, the boat-house, or the\nbarn, It is worth while to know how to saw a board straight, or drive a\nnail, or make a waxed end ; it is no small thing to be able to make a\ngood joint. Incidentally it may help an occasional genius to discover\nhimself. \" Stick to the farm \" may not be the best advice to give a boy\nwhose known bent is for a town occupation. But utility is as good a motive\nas any for the bench exercises.\nFor strictly schoolroom occupations, weaving and sewing should be\ncontinued and clay-modeling added. The little children neither can\nnor should be permitted to spend the entire school day pretending to\nstudy books. They would much better sleep part of the time. There\nshould be a little kitchen in every countr/ school. Some of the boys will\nlearn to cook and sew, just as some of the girls will excel at the workbench. That, too, will be \"all right.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nThis is diversity enough.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfCindnnati\n\nThe country teacher who can substitute\n\nsomething \"equally as good\" for these lines of work, or any of them, is\nable to walk alone.\nAn old county superintendent who broke into the Illinois legislature\nlast fall, and in whose county there are more than a dozen country schoolhouses with furnaces and bay windows, said to me the other day: \"Oh,\nif my people would only allow such teaching as that, but they wouldn't ! \"\n\"Industrial training for country school children is nothing but another\nfad; teach them to read and write!'' said a scholarly man of affairs an\nhour later. And so it goes. There will no doubt be \"beautiful fighting\nalong the whole line\" before the school garden and the school carpenter's\nbench become accepted commonplaces; for which reason, as Sheridan\nsaid to the colonel, we may \"go in anywhere.\"\nThe book has been for too long a time the sole instrument of education. 'To admit its inadequacy is not to underrate its value. Time was\nwhen education in a very large sense was possible without it. It is not\nyet an infallible agent, even if used with the highest intelligence and skill ;\nmuch less if its use be limited to the capacity of a \"passive recipient\"\nsubjected to the \"pouring-in\" process. Children prefer action, for a\ngood and sufficient reason. They learn to do by doing. To do is better\nfor them than to say what 'twere good to do. Any kind of hand-training\nis probably better than none. It need not crowd the book-work out. The\ntestimony is all to the effect that it does not. It arouses an interest\nwhich reacts favprably upon all other interests. Motor activity is a necessity. Rightly directed, it promotes intellectual growth. Wholly restrained,\nmental life, even, would doubtless be impossible. To keep young children at a desk six hours a day working solely with books is the ultimate\neducational blunder. It is not only a false pretense; it is an outrage on\nnature.\nIt may be interesting to note, in this connection, that all the normal\nschools of Illinois have begun to do something to prepare teachers to\nbegin this mode of training intelligently. Of course, their output of\nyoung teachers will, for some time to come, continue to be absorbed by\nthe towns. Perhaps it is better so. Motor training has a deeper significance for the town boy, after all. Then, too, the country teacher is coming to be town-taught, if not town-bred. Thus the normal school is but\none remove from the country district.\nFinally, if a rational scheme of industrial training for country schools\nshould be devised and stated, and come to be understood, it could not\nbe fully carried out, pending the solution of that other problem of school\norganization. There are two indispensable factors in a school — children\nand teachers. I use the plural advisedly, because, in an ideal school at\nleast, both masculine and feminine elements will be present in the teaching force in approximately the ratio of boys to girls. A good house\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supermtendencel\n\nINDUSTRIA L 7'RA I NING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n193\n\ncomes very near being a third necessity, and some equipment is desirable ;tho the last can be, and, to a large extent should be, procured by\nthe school for itself. More schools surfeit with too much equipment than\nstarve with none. Now these essential elements of a school do not, and\nin the nature of the circumstances cannot, exist in thousands of schooldistricts as now organized. The fundamental problem, therefore, involving the interests of four hundred thousand children in Illinois alone, and\nfour thousand thousand or more in the United States, is to bring teachers and children together in the country districts in such numbers that\nefficient schools may be organized and taught, and in which the missing\nthree or four grades misnamed \"high\" shall be made as \"common \" for\nthose who want them as the first six or seven. The Council of Education\nonce expressed \"sympathy with and approval of\" something that looked\nlike a movement to turn public attention in this direction, but respectfully declined to lend it material aid and comfort. And yet the Council\nmight travel far and find no field of endeavor as worthy of its continuous\nattention for a term of years. As I read the signs of the times, no better\nnor more timely use could be made of the combined resources, intellectual and financial, of the whole body of which this department is a sturdy\nbranch, and the Council the ripened fruit, than to direct them all to the\ninformation of the public mind and the creation of such a public sentiment as would give this movement an impetus that would carry it on\nto the consummation which at this time is, in the American commonschool system, the one thing most devoutly to be wished.\nDISCUSSION\nEx-State Superintendent L. D. Harvey, Madison, Wis. — I take it that industrial\neducation in rural schools i^ but one phase of what is now known as the rural-school\nproblem, and that the purpose in its discussion here today is to see what bearing, if any,\nit has upon the larger question of the general improvement of the common schools in\nrural districts.\nSuperintendent Bayliss has presented an attractive picture of work carried on in a\nsingle district school by an enthusiastic teacher. He is careful not to claim too much for\nthis experiment, and makes no generalizations based upon his observations of the work\nbeing done. He presents it as showing the possibility of modifying the work now done\nin most district schools so as to present at least the beginnings of industrial education.\nHe admits that the case is not even a type, and sees but little possibility of much beyond\nwhat is now done in that school for the ordinary district school under existing conditions.\nHe recognizes that the small, isolated district school must give place to the consolidated\nschool, and that teachers trained in the industrial phases of educational work must be\nemployed in these schools before much further can be expected. He commends in\ngeneral terms the work which he saw in operation, and expresses a hope for its continuance and development.\nWith all these conditions I am in hearty accord.\nIn the further discussion of this topic which I^m to present, I wish at the outset to\ninvite your attention to conditions which exist in the country school today, and, as my\ntime is limited, I shall state briefly and without discussion what seem to me to be present\nhindrances to good work in the rural schools.\nThey are : poor, ill-kept, ill-furnished,\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ninadequately equipped school buildings, with surroundings the most depressing and\ndemoralizing ; poor teachers, with poorer pay ; frequent changes of teachers, but infrequently for the better ; irregular attendance of those enrolled ; withdrawal from school at\ntoo early an age ; inadequate supervision ; and schools too small to present proper conditions for successful work.\nI do not mean to say that these conditions exist everywhere, nor that there are not\nrural schools well housed, with trained, experienced, progressive teachers, and a teaching\nequipment entirely adequate ; nor that there are not some localities where pupils attend\nwith a reasonable degree of regularity for a reasonable number of years ; but I do mean to\nsay that the number of such schools is not so large as it should be to leave us without a\nrural-school problem of the most vital importance. Nearly one-half of the children in the\nUnited States who are in the public schools are enrolled in these rural schools. I do not\nknow what proportion of these pupils go on from the rural schools to higher schools in\nother states, but I do know that in Wisconsin at least 97 per cent, of them attend no\nother school. Are they entitled to something better ? Is the state entitled to something\nbetter in the preparation of its youth for the duties of citizenship? If we would proceed\nwisely for the betterment of the rural school, we must first of all determine the causes for\nexisting conditions, which are responsible for the poor results obtained in these schools.\nHaving determined the causes, we are then prepared to consider the means which must\nbe employed to remove those causes.\nTo my mind the chief cause for all the evils above enumerated is the low educational\nideals of the people in the rural communities. This cause exists because of a lack of\nappreciation of the value of education and of its cost in time and money. This lack on\nthe part of the rural population is largely due to their own limited education and to their\nenvironment.\nDissatisfaction with existing conditions is always the first step toward higher ideals\ndemanding better conditions. Even when dissatisfaction exists with the results of work\nin rural schools at the present time (and it does exist on the part of many of the patrons),\nthere is a lack of knowledge as to what must be done to secure better conditions, and,\nlacking such knowledge, there can be no improvement in ideals.\nDissatisfaction with any set of given conditions, coupled with ignorance of how to\nimprove them, results in a possible yearning for a change, in a growing dissatisfaction\nwith the present order of things, and in an increasing indifference to its maintenance.\nIt may be that some would bring forward other c^ses which have operated to\ndevelop the conditions interfering with the efficiency of the rural school, but I believe\nthat all such causes may be reduced in the final analysis to the one I have stated. If I\nam correct here, it follows, then, that the problem of improving the rural schools resolves\nitself into the problem of elevating the educational ideals of the people in rural communities. It cannot be denied that there are serious difficulties in the carrying out of\nthis program, but something is gained when we determine definitely the point of attack.\nThe isolation of the rural school and the rural family, their remoteness from centers of\neducational influence, introduce elements into the problem which do not exist when we\nare considering the improvement of city schools. It is not enough to point out the shortcomings of the rural school, to present the difficulties which exist in the way of its\nimprovement. We must do more than this. We must be prepared to show, and must\nshow, to the people in the country what must be done to improve conditions. Constructive work of the highest order is needed here.\nAs I have already stated, before higher ideals can be developed there must come a\nknowledge of what is essential for better conditions, and by this knowledge I mean, not\nsimply what you and I may understand and agree to be essential, but what the country\npeople shall also understand and agree to be essential conditions.\nWe all understand that when we would convince an individual as to the correctness\nof a proposition which sets forth something to be done and which he is to do, it is essen-\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIM RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n195\n\ntial to present it from a point of view which appeals to his own interests or to the interests of those with whom he is concerned.\nHere is where industrial education enters the field. We do not find it easy today to\neven get an audience among the country people to discuss the shortcomings of their\nschools and to present the necessity for their improvement, so long as we do not depart\nin our discussion from the lines of their past development and present organization ; but\nthe moment it is understood that we are to discuss the question of a change in the ruralschool system which shall introduce a course of industrial training dealing with the\nelements of agriculture, with manual training, and with domestic economy, we challenge their attention and awaken their interest. Such a proposition appeals to them at\nonce as having a practical utility which will increase the productive capacity of their\nchildren, better fitting them for earning a livelihood, and opening up to them such possibilities in life upon the farm as will induce them to remain in the country, and render\nthe attractions of the city less alluring than at present.\nShow them the possibilities of instruction concerning the soil ; its composition ; the\nkind of soil needed for certain crops; the effect upon it of raising year after year the same\ncrop upon the same soil ; the effect of rotation of crops; the proper mode of tillage; the\ntreatment of worn-out soils, and the best modes of fertilizing the soil for certain purposes.\nIndicate what may be done in instructing their children as to the plant life of the farm;\nthe varieties which may best be grown in the different localities for profit or pleasure;\n,the modes of selecting, caring for, and improving the seed ; the proper time and modes of\nplanting; the most improved processes of cultivation; treatment to prevent the ravages\nof insects and other pests, and the proper mode of harvesting and caring for the products of the farm. Outline the instruction which may be profitably given concerning the\nanimal life of the farm, involving a knowledge of breeds and breeding, feeds and feeding, selection and care of stock designed for certain purposes, and the treatment of their\ndiseases. Propose that their schools shall teach a practical system of keeping farm\naccounts; that they shall give such instruction in manual training as shall make the boys\nacquainted with the common tools used upon the farm and develop a reasonable skill in\ntheir use; as shall give them a practical knowledge of the elements of blacksmithing and\nof the architecture of the farm buildings; as shall afford their girls an opportunity to\nmaster the elements of domestic economy and something of the utilities and graces of\nhome making.\nWhen you have done this you have interested those to whom you have addressed\nyourself, you have opened up to them possibilities in the instruction of their children of\nwhich they had never dreamed, or have simply dreamed of without realizing their possibility. You have presented to them what is perhaps the most powerful argument which\ncan be addressed to the ordinary human being — the dollar-and-cent argument.\nIn their view, grammar, geography, history, language, and even arithmetic fade into\ninsignificance before the practical utility of this kind of training. You have presented\nto them something which appeals to their interests and which becomes a most powerful\nincentive to action on their part. Make this the corner-stone of your scheme for rebuilding the common-school system, and you have the people with you. You have presented\nthat which is knowledge to you. It has now become knowledge to them. You have\nlaid the foundation for the development of the higher educational ideals, and upon it\nyou may build your educational structure without the omission of a single valuable feature\nnow found in the rural-school system. Nothing is lost and much is gained for the schools,\nbecause you have gained the attention, the interest, the sympathy, and the support of the\npeople who must maintain these schools.\nI am not theorizing now. I am talking from experience. For four years I have personally discussed the rural-school problem from this standpoint before the farmers of\nWisconsin in scores of localities. I have had something to do with securing its discussion\nby others in hundreds of other localities, and, when properly presented, I have yet to\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "iq6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Clncimiati\n\nfind a single farmer to whom it did not appeal, who did not say that such a system of\ntraining for his boys and girls was just what was wanted.\nThe scope of this discussion will ni-t allow me to go into a consideration of other\nmeans for developing the educational ideals of people in rural communities ; but when\nonce you have made this start, the rest is easy.\nAs was suggested by Superintendeni- Bayliss in his paper, the possibility of work in\nthe direction I have indicated is limited in the present district school. It is limited for a\nvariety of reasons, but once get this before the people as an ideal to be realized, and it\nwill be seen that there is a necessity for another class of schools, secondary in scope, distinctly adapted to the needs of rural communities ; schools that will take the pupils at\nthe completion of the common-school course, and carry on the industrial work which may\nhave been given in a very modest way in the district school. Such a class of schools,\nwith a course of study at least two years in length, could carry out the complete program\nI have indicated, and at the same time add to it instruction in most of the high-school\nbranches of the first two years. At the outset one such school in a county would doubtless meet the demands. With properly equipped teachers of agriculture, manual training, and domestic economy, the school would become a center of interest to the rural\ncommunities of the entire county. It would arouse an interest in popular education never\nbefore known in that county. It would educate, not only the boys and girls, but in many\ncases their fathers and mothers. Today the agricultural colleges are sending bulletins by\nthe thousands to the farmers in the United States. Many of these bulletins are of the\nhighest importance to the farmer. In a few cases they are read; in fewer still they are\nunderstood ; and in still fewer are the suggestions acted upon. If these bulletins should\nfind their way into the farmers' homes thru the medium of their boys from such a school\nas I have indicated, a new interest would be developed at once. Demonstration in the\nschool would have taught the boy what it is necessary to do to carry out the suggestions\nof the bulletin, and he would teach the father.\nIn Wisconsin, two years ago, the loss in the oat crop caused by smut was equal to\nthe total expenditures that year for the entire educational system of the state. In the\nArbor Day Annual issued last year there was given a mode of treatment of seed oats\nwhich, at a cost of one cent per bushel, would absolutely prevent the ravages of smut.\nThis was put into every district school in the state. Teachers were requested to instruct\nthe pupils old enough to understand as to the character of this treatment. In many cases\nparents came to the teacher for specific instruction when the pupils were too young to\nunderstand it. I have reason to know that the farmers of the state appreciated this\ninformation, and that the teacher who was able to give it had by that one act secured support\nin the district which perhaps he could not have gained in any other way or in all other\nways. That instruction had a monetary value to the farmers. When they understand\nthat that is only one of the many things which can be taught, either in the district schools\nor in the secondary agricultural school, they have a new and greater interest in education\nthan ever before. Their ideals will be developed, and when these ideals are properly\ndeveloped, the attendance at school becomes more regular, partly because the parents\ndemand it as something the value of which they realize, and largely because the pupils\ndesire it. The children remain longer in school because the parents see the value of so\nremaining. The increased interest of the community in the school makes it easier to\nsecure appropriations for proper housing and equipment of the school.\nShow to the farmer that what is impossible in the small district school with the poorly\npaid teacher can be carried on successfully in the consolidated school of four, five, or six\ndepartments, with a piece of land connected with it for illustrative and experimental work\nin agriculture, and rooms for manual training and domestic science. Awaken an interest\nin these matters, and you have a powerful argument for the consolidation of the district\nschools beyond that of saving in cost. With the establishment of right ideals the question of cost is no longer the paramount one.\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n197\n\nOne thing more remains to be done. There must be better-trained teachers for the\ndistrict schools, either isolated or consolidated. In no state in the Union are the normal\nschools supplying the demands for district-sci.ool teachers. Most of the product of the\nnormal schools is demanded in the cities. These country schools need trained teachers,\nteachers trained to teach the country children the things which country children should\nbe taught.\nI shall not argue this question, but shall simply give you a statement of an attempt\nto solve this problem in Wisconsin. Three years ago two county training schools for the\ntraining of district-school teachers were established. We now have six such schools.\nThe state pays one-half the cost of the maintenance, the county the other half. These\nschools are free to people residing in the county who are qualified to enter them. The\ncourse is one year in length. The work at present is limited to the subjects taught in the\ncommon schools, including the elements of agriculture. In some of the schools manual\ntraining is being introduced, and it is hoped that in the near future those to be trained\nwill get instruction in both manual training and domestic economy. Two teachers are\nemployed in each of five of the schools ; in one there are three teachers. The number of\nstudents ranges from forty to seventy-five, the average number being about fifty. The\nprincipals of these schools are selected with reference to their ability to do professional\nwork in the training of teachers for the country schools. There are not more than a dozen\nprincipals of high schools in the state who receive salaries as large as are paid these men.\nThe assistants are paid salaries higher than the average high-school principal receives.\nFinancial inducements are offered which take professors from the state normal schools\nand put them at the head of these training schools. The teachers trained in such\nschools find ready employment in the county where the school is located, and in most of\nthe counties the number graduated each year is sufficient to fill the vacancies in the\ncountry schools. The teachers in these schools become an educational force in the\ncounty. They visit country schools ; they address meetings of citizens with the county\nsuperintendent; they get into touch with school boards and advise them in the selection\nof teachers ; and in one instance the principal has organized a reading club of one hundred and twenty farmers and farmers' wives, who are systematically reading the literature of agriculture and household economy. These people believe in the school and in\nits product. Wherever these schools are located a better educational sentiment begins\nto be developed in the county.\nI may add that we have two county schools of agriculture of the class of secondary\nschools I have advocated. They were organized last September, and have not yet been in\nexistence long enough to enable one to speak with positiveness as to what they will\naccomplish. In each school more than fifty pupils are enrolled and three teachers are\nemployed. During the winter a class of the older boys, who have been out of school for\na number of years and who are at work upon the farm, are in attendance, and special\nwork adapted to their needs is provided for them. The students and teachers are enthusiastic intheir work. The people in each county believe in the school. It rounds out\nthe rural-school system.\nIt may be said that perhaps it will prevent country boys and girls from going to the\nhigher institutions. I have already said that less than 3 per cent, of this class of children\ngo on to the high schools. The condition cannot be much worse than it is today, and all\nwho are familiar with educational matters know that every step forward in educational\nwork results in an ambition to do still further work.\nTo sum up, industrial education is the keynote to the improvement of the rural\nschools. It cannot be carried on with any degree of success in the isolated district schools\nas they exist today, with the present teaching forc^i except in isolated cases.\nThe secondary agricultural school should be the first objective point to be reached;\nthis because it is an easy thing to do and because it becomes a potent center of influence\nthru which the work may extend outward and downward into the rural schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe possibilities of industrial education less extended than that offered in the secondary school, to be given in connection with the consolidated schools, should be demonstrated, ifor no other reason, for its potency as an argument in favor of consolidation.\nLocal training schools for rural school-teachers should be established, and they\nshould provide reasonably well-equipped teachers in sufficient numbers to fill the existing\nshortage of trained teachers in these schools.\nI wish to add that I am heartily in accord with Superintendent Bayliss in the view\nthat there is work here which the National Council of Education should enter upon.\nDefinite plans of work need to be formulated and advocated for the improvement of the\nrural schools.\nThat body can undertake no other work more urgently needed than this.\n\nLITERATURE\n\nIN THE\n\nGRADES\n\nMRS. ALICE W. COOLEY, UNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nOF NORTH\n\nHOW\n\nTO USE IT\n\nDAKOTA, GRAND\n\nFORKS, N. D.\n\nWith telescopes and microscopes, searchlights and lanterns, we are all\ntrying to find the wasted time — lost somewhere between the entrance to\nthe kindergarten and the exit from the college. Traces of it have been seen,\nnow here, now riiere. Those most energetic in the search have even laid\nhands on it, each time in a different place. And still it has not been\ndriven from its hiding-place, because the time is wasted in tiot doing what\nwe are going thru the motions of doing, and the counterfeit so cleverly\nhides the loss of the real.\nFor example, we have deceived ourselves into thinking that we can\nteach reading first and then literature, with language lessons independent\nof both. When literature is given its rightful place as the basis of all\nreading lessons, the basis of all language lessons, oral and written, and\nthe interpreter and highest touch of all study of nature, geography, and\nhistory, then will the program be enriched and shortened. More than\nthat, the program will have enriched the child and shortened his hours of\njoyless inactivity of soul.\nThe expressions \"children's literature\" and \"literature for children\"\nseem to admit of two possible interpretations. The literature under discussion is not that which, rewritten and \"written down,\" masquerades\nunder this name, but real literature, used for, with, and by children as a\nvital element in their education.\nIn any consideration of this subject, one is tempted to dwell on the\ngeneral cultural value of literature — the power of living thought to\nquicken life in others. But to do so at this time, before this assembly,\nwould be most inappropriate; except to express appreciation of indebtedness to many members of this body. Truly, a clearer vision of the\npossibilities of the influence of literature on the growing mind, and\ninspiration to seek diligently for means of their realization, have come to\nus all from the clear seeing and strong feeling of many here. Their words\neloquence have been, and are, the \" live coal \" that both\nandillumines.\nof power and\nkindles\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperinfendenceJ\n\nLITERATURE\n\nIN\n\nGRADES\n\nAND\n\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nUSE\n\nIT\n\n199\n\nBut who can estimate the results in the development of the coming\ngeneration of men and women in these United States, if this same body of\neducational leaders were deterinined XhdX these ideals should be realized?\n_We feel the tremendous pressure of the present scramble for wealth, for\noffice, for show, for personal gratification in all its forms (the source of\ndecay in all dead civilizations), and know that the schools are educating\nthe men and women that must resist this pressure ; we know, too, that\nthe thoughts and desires of the child are shaping his life — may be said\nto /5^ his life ; and we say that we appreciate the quickening power of\nliterature as an expression of life. Do we not also know that it is quite\nwithin our power actually to bring this force to bear on the young mind?\nWe have a vision of the value to the American people of a school life\nin which each child, for thirty minutes of each day, should be under the\nsubtle and potent influence of a living truth, made beautiful to him by\nits beautiful expression. This vision uplifts the thought and quickens\nthe beating of the heart. And then, too often, the energy spends itself\nin heart-beats, instead of in the heroic effort that would bring the thought\nto birth in deed.\nOne of our eminent literary critics has truly said that \"a test of the\npopular education of a country is the kind of reading sought and enjoyed\nby its people,\" and he frankly and forcibly charges the American public\nschool with neglect of duty as measured by this standard. Here and\nthere, in all parts of the country, are individual workers that have risen\nto this conception of duty and have accomplished much. Many others\nhave caught the spirit, and, without either knowledge or wisdom, are\nmaking wild dashes at anything that bears the name of study of literature\n— a sort of helter-skelter jumping into bramble bushes. But, to be productive of its possible large results in any community, there must be\nunited and continuous action, under wise leadership.\nWe must not shrink from the fact that, if the educators represented in\nthis, the highest, department of the national organization of educational\nforces were to vitalize their wills by their ideals, there would be an\nevolution of an American people of higher tastes and nobler conceptions\nof life.\nIt is, then, the main purpose of this paper to present, in the light of\nthis reponsibility, a few /rrt!<:/zVa/ phases of the subject, viz.: how literature\nmay be so used in the grades as to realize its values; what are the great\nhindrances to this realization ; and how they may be remedied.\nFirst. Literature should precede all formal reading and language lessons, and the children should be allowed to live with and in it. Poems\nand stories given by a sympathetic teacher of literary appreciation are, in\nthe largest sense, a development of botlt reading and language power,\nand more. Rightly chosen, they appeal to child-life, and they also lift the\nspirit to a larger realm than that bounded by self. Listening to these\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfCindnnati\n\npoems and stories as they are read, recited, and told, by one who brings\nout their meaning and beauty, the child's mind is filled with pictures\nwhich he expresses or lives out, in word, by hand, and in play. He is\ngetting all that reading implies, except association of thought with written\nor printed forms. Familiar with the words by sound, he has their meaning in his soul and their use in his oral vocabulary. The wise teacher\ndoes not hasten to the recognition of word-forms by the eye; and the\nwise superintendent does not set dates for measuring her progress by the\nlength or number of her steps. Both know that premature struggle with\nform arrests life, and causes waste, not only of time, but of the joy of\ngrowth.\nSecond. Literature should be the basis of all reading lessons, the purpose of each being to kindle the thought and feeling of the reader,\nand to give him power to rouse the mini of another by its oral expression. Word-mastery is the only key, and only a key, and vocal culture is\na means, and only a means. Reading for information should find its\nplace in connection with the various school exercises, but should not^be\nallowed to encroach on the period given to reading.\nTheoretic agreement to all this seems assured, but it must be confessed that practice lags behind. This is the text of the preface of nearly\nevery modern reading book, but in many cases we find the truth expressed\nonly in the preface, and perhaps suggested by a few inserted pages of\n** memory gems.\" We believe, however, that books of sufficient number\nand variety, and of such character, are available for use in the intermediate and grammar grades that pupils in these grades may now read\nliterature every day. But the feeling seems still to prevail that the first\nlessons in reading can be only the learning of written forms of words and\nsentences that are the repetition of statements made by the child about\nhimself and familiar objects and actions. And most primers and first\nreaders assume that the language used would be that of a very young\nchild. That the child prepared for his first reading by living with literature is inclined to resent these lessons, is not a bit of theory, but of experience.\nMiss Sullivan attributes much of Helen Keller's marvelous ability to\nthe fact that books were her daily companions //-^//? the time she had learned\nher letters.\nShe says:\nHelen learned language by being brought in contact with living language itself,\nbrought for the purpose of furnishing themes for thought, and to fill her mind with beautiful pictures and inspiring ideals. Greater power of expression was obtained, but this\nwas not the most important aim. I believe every child has hidden away somewhere in\nits being noble qualities and capacities which may be quickened and developed if we go\nabout it in the right way\nI have always observed that children invariably delight\nin lofty poetic language, which we are too ready to think beyond their comprehension.\n\nAnd hundreds of those who teach normal children indorse the testimony\nof this rare teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Suprrlntendence] LITERATURE\n\nIN GRADES\n\nAND\n\nIIOW\n\nTO\n\nUSE IT\n\n201\n\nWith the material provided by such pictures of child-life as are drawn\nby Eugene Field, Longfellow, and many others, notably by Stevenson,\nthe very first lessons in both script and print, while based on a child's\nexpressions of his own experience, may also be based on a simple wordpicture of a similar experience. Read to him by one who feels its simple\nbeauty, the picture of another colors his own, and the new phraseology\nenters into his own. All needed repetition and variety may then be\ngiven, but the final result is his association, by sight, of his own mental\npictures with the words of the writer. Thus a bit of literature is made\nthe beginning and the end of a series of lessons; and the child, having\ngone out of himself and found a larger self, has tasted the joy of true\nreading. In addition to this, he has learned to recognize certain words,\nquite as readily and much more effectually than as if these words had been\nartificially put together for the purpose of recognition.\nWe certainly have evolved methods of teaching in the primary grades\nthat have needlessly complicated the problem. That, even for the eye,\nthe vocabulary need not be so commonplace as we have assumed has\nbeen proven. And many of us frankly confess our heterodoxy regarding\nthe necessity of thoroness, interpreted to mean the requirement that the\nchild shall learn to recognize, at sight, every word in the reading lesson.\nIs it really so harmful to tell the child a difficult word now and then, if he\nis alive with the thought?\nThe conception of the purpose of teaching reading modifies methods\nas well as selection of subject-matter. It is quite possible in any grade,\nhigh-school, college, or university class so to misuse a bit of literature,\nby making it the basis of a lesson in mere word-calling or anatomical\ndissection, that it shall cause not one throb of interest in the heart of the\nreader, but rather cultivate a distaste for what he might have learned to\nlove. The teacher that believes that the period of the reading lesson\nshould be one in which the child finds the enjoyment of kindled thought\ncannot make use of a method that builds and polishes beautiful structures\nof shells of ideas, of which life is later to take possession. He knows\nthat it is life that makes and beautifies its shell-home. He feels that the\nstudy of devitalized words as a preparation for reading literature is the\nsurest possible way to prevent reading and to prevent the right attitude\nof mind toward words. The teacher that feels the purpose or meaning\nof the poem or story, and appreciates the means by which the writer\nportrays this meaning — his pictures and their relation to each other, the\nbeauty of his imagery, and the music of his words, as well as the end they\nall serve — will so use it that the purpose, the pictures, the beauty, and the\nmusic will find some response in the mind of the pupil. To express them\ntruly and correctly in oral reading neceflsitates study and practice in the\nmechanics of reading, which is now animated by purpose and meaning.\nThe time will come when the daily reading lesson in school will univer-\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nsally mean the learning to read and to love literature. It will be delayed\nuntil we remove some of the hindrances. When it comes, we shall indorse\nthe words of Charles Dudley Warner : \" After many years of perversion\nand neglect, to take up the study of literature in a comprehensive textbook, as if it were to be learned like arithmetic, is a ludicrous proceeding.\nIt is not teaching life, nor love of good reading.\nIt is stuffing the mind.\"\nThird. The inspiration and models for language lessons, oral and written,\nshould be found in literature. Any principle underlying the teaching of\nan art is as true of language — the art of self-expression — as of painting,\nmusic, or sculpture. To teach an art is not merely to give instruction in\nthe use of its forms; it is, first, to rouse and stimulate the thought and\nfeeling to be expressed, which of itself generates the desire to express;\nand, second, to guide the practice in striving to express in terms of beauty.\nFor we know that art is not merely doing ; it is skillful doing in order to\nexpress something in a true and beautiful way. Response to truth and\nbeauty must always precede and accompany successful efforts to attain\ntruthful and beautiful expression. The teachers of music, of drawing, and\nof painting that do not build on this principle we call artisans, not artists.\nWhy should the divorce of ideals and practice be considered in this one\ngreat universal art? Surely there is no skill in any art without repeated\ndoing. It is equally certain that the product of low ideals and weak\nthought is valueless, be it ever so perfect mechanically. One must constantly look to his ideals and constantly put forth his own efforts. George\nEliot voiced what every human being feels when she said : ** For my part,\npeople who do anything finely always inspire me to try. I don't mean\nthat they make me believe that I can do it as. well as they. But they make\nthe things seem worthy to be done.\" And the time to act is when the\ninfluence is most strongly felt. From first to last, in the study of any art,\nit is by vital contact ^\\\\S\\ the best expressions of thought by means of that\nart that they constantly breathe into the learner their subtle influence\nof thought and modes of expression, and thus mold his efforts into\nfiner quality and form; and, on the other hand, by his own efforts to\nexpress, he attains not only skill, but better appreciation of the work of\nthe artist.\nAnd this use of literature is not as the setting of a copy. A necessary\nelement of art is that it shall be an expression of the individual's own\nway of seeing, feeling, and doing;, and this means neither imitation nor\nreproduction. A poem should never be reproduced. Certain stories and\ndescriptions may be rewritten; and a poem, description, or story may be\ncopied for various purposes related to vocabulary or to. study of form ; but\nliterature, as the basis of language lessons, has a far greater end to serve.\n\nX\n\nIt should suggest and recall, illumine and interpret, the child's own personal experiences, which he is later to tell in speech or in writing as expressJ3g himself. It is to him really a projection of his own experience, looked\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] LITERATURE\n\nIN\n\nGRADES\n\nAND\n\nHOW\n\nTO\n\nUSE\n\nIT\n\n203\n\nat objectively. The result is a series of pictures with familiar setting,\nsuggested and colored by the word-picture of another. One of Stevenson's Memories so forcibly illustrates the child's habit of weaving the web\nof the poem or story into his own life that we recall it here.\nHe writes :\nRummaging in the dusty pigeonholes of memory, I came once upon a graphic version of the famous psalm, \" The Lord is my Shepherd ; \" and from the places employed in\nits illustration, which are all in the immediate neighborhood of a house then occupied by\nmy father, I am able to date it before the seventh year of my age\nThe \"pastures\ngreen\" were represented by a certain suburban stubble field, where I had once walked with\nmy nurse, under an autumnal sunset\nHere, in the fleecy person of a sheep, I seemed\nto myself to follow something unseen, unrealized, and yet benignant ; and close by the\nsheep in which I was incarnated — as if for greater security — rustled the skirts of my\nnurse.\n\"Death's dark vale\" was a certain archway in the Warriston cemetery\nHere I beheld myself some paces ahead (seeingmyself, I mean, from behind) utterly alone\nin that uncanny passage ; on the one side of me a rude, knobby shepherd's staff, on the\nother a rod like a billiard cue, appeared to accompany my progress ; the staff sturdily\nupright, the billiard cue inclined confidentially, like one whispering, towards my ear. I\nwas aware — I will never tell you how — that the presence of these articles afforded me\nencouragement\nIn this string of pictures I believe the gist of the psalm to have\nconsisted; I believe it had no more to say to me; and the result was consolatory.\nI\nwould go to sleep dwelling with restfulness upon these images\nI had already\nsingled out one lovely verse — a scarce conscious joy in childhood, in age a companion\nthought :\n\"In pastures green Thou leadest me\nThe quiet waters by.\"\n\nThis simple and beautiful \"memory,\" which may recall to each of us a\nsimilar experience of his own, opens a window into the inner life of childhood. It reveals a bookful of truth. The words ** scarce conscious joy\nin childhood, in age a companion thought \" leave nothing to be added\nregarding the value of committing to memory — truly learning by heart —\nthat which has brightened, uplifted, and given joy to the soul. It also\nsuggests what has been much in our thought of late — the loss to the man\nor woman who has not in childhood become familiar with the gems of\nclassic Ifterature from the Bible.\nWhile there is clearly illustrated the greater value of the greater ends\nserved, there is also suggested the result to the child in an enlarged\nvocabulary and in high ideals of form as well as of content. Expression\nin terms of truth and beauty requires achoice vocabulary, and sentences that\nclearly, forcibly, and musically express their meaning. Written expression\nrequires, in addition, correct spelling, capitalization, and punctuation.\nIn the written forms of literature one may find his models; and in the\nrealm of form -study the same law governs — that attainment is the result of\npractice in doing, animated by correct ideals.\nLet us summarize by outlining the general plan of language-teaching\nthat embodies the principles presented : *\nA group of language lessons related in thought : (i) the pupil's reading, and listening to the teacher's sympathetic reading, of something that\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nhas both vital contact with his own life and literary value ; (2) thoughts\nand conversations suggested by the poem or story about the mental\npictures seen and incidents related, and about the personal observations\nand experiences they suggest ; (3) short conversations for the specific\npurpose of perfecting accuracy in use of grammatical forms and constructions; (4) exercises in copying and writing from dictation — sentences,\nstanzas, and paragraphs in which special attention is given to study and\nuse of correct forms in spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and arrangement; (5) the final outcome, the flowering and fruitage of the group of\nlessons — the pupil's telling or writing about something he himself has\nseen, done, heard, thought, felt, or imagined, suggested by the poem or\nstory^ followed by encouraging and helpful class criticism of the results.\nFourth. To leave literature out of the lessons in geography, history, and\nstudy of nature is to leave out the link that binds them most closely to\nthe child. To see the whole truth about a flower, a river, a mountain, a\npebble, or a shell, it must be seen with the eye of the intellect and the\neye of feeling. As the child both knows and feels, he responds to what\nis seen by both ; and complete knowledge of the works of the Creator\ncannot be divorced from appreciation of their wondrous meaning and\nbeauty. And from the poet a child may catch the meaning of many a\nfact in history as truly as he will ever reach it later with the philosopher.\nTrue teaching of reading and language, then, gives power both to\nmaster and to interpret the facts of the other lessons ; and thus literature\nmay unify and vitalize and shorten the program. Half asleep, one\ndrones for two hours over what, awake, he masters in one.\nBut such unifying and vitalizing demands much of the teacher. And\nthis brings us to the greatest hindrance, and the only real hindrance, to\nthe realization of these ideals in actual practice — our own limitations as\nteachers. But we may have undoubted faith in the teachers of this\ncountry. Let them squarely face their needs, and give to them the leadership that marches with the army and that carries into every day's march\nthe inspiration of a leader filled with life and enthusiasm by the force of\nhis own convictions ; then victory is certain. The hindrances will be\novercome. That they exist is not the fault of our teachers, but is another\nevidence of the defect in our educational system that makes it possible to\nspend so many years in our schools, and even in our colleges, universities, and schools of professional training, and come out without the\nproper equipment for this work.\n• What are these needs which we must face ? And how may we be\nhelped to meet them ?\nI. We need larger conceptions of reading and of teaching reading, of\nlanguage and of teaching language. If we would enter into a larger\nthought, let us listen to Carlyle, Ruskin, Emerson, and Stevenson, and\nlearn from them the meaning of literature, of language, of art, and of\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nIJTERATURE\n\nIN GRADES\n\nAND\n\nnow\n\nTO USE IT\n\n205\n\ntrue methods of teaching an art. Let us hold in thought these words of\nCarlyle: \"Language is called the Garment of Thought; it should rather\nbe Language is the Flesh Garment, the Body of Thought.\" And again:\n\" How can an inanimate, mechanical Gerund-grinder foster the growth of\nanything; much more of Mind which grows not like a vegetable (by having the roots littered with etymological compost) but like a Spirit by\nmysterious contact of Spirit.\"\nCannot a wise leader profitably spend an hour now and then in the\nconsideration of these great thoughts with his co-workers? Would not\nthe influence be felt by the children?\n2. We need a broader knowledge and cultivated appreciation of the\nsimple literature of the English language.\nMany a student that is able to quote Shakespeare, analyze Paradise\nLost, and unravel the intricacies of Browning knows little or nothing of\nthe great wealth of simple, beautiful poetry to which children respond as\ntruly as does the grown man. Again Carlyle : \" How shall he give kindling in whose inward man there is no live coal, but all is burnt out to a dead\ngrammatical cinder?\" To select the best literature to meet the conditions of a particular class of pupils at a particular time means a knowledge\nof the whole field that life is not too long to gain. Let not the \" dead\ngrammatical cinder\" attempt to enter in; but let him resolutely and persi-stently keep himself in daily contact with the literature that has in it the\nspirit that kindles, and out of the gray ashes a spark will glow. To know\nthe names of good poems and stories to use is not knowing them; to\nknow about literature is not knowing it; to know it is to live with it.\nThere is no other way. Hence, without knowing and loving literature,\nand being able to read and recite it sympathetically, truly to teach reading or language is impossible.\n3. We need clearer insight into the mind and heart of child life for\nthe wise selection and effective presentation of literature. In the book\nof the heart of childhood we read of love of home; love of father and\nmother, of sisters and brothers, and a half-parental love of the baby;\nlove of flowers and birds and animals, and of personifying sun, moon,\nstars, wind, and all phenomena of nature; love of the heavenly Father,\ntrust and faith in his goodness and wisdom; faith in a life in heaven as\nreal as a life on earth; admiration of brave acts; love of playing at all the\nactivities of mature life. In the book of the heart of the poet the same\njoys, loves, and aspirations are revealed by such poems as Wordsworth's\n\"We Are Seven,\" Jean Ingelow's \"Seven Times One,\" Tennyson's\n\"May Queen,\" Longfellow's \"Children's Hour,\" Helen Hunt Jackson's\n\"October and November,\" Alice Carey's \" Order for a Picture,\" Lowell's\n\"The Nest,\" Whittier's \" In School Oays \" and \"Snow Bound,\" Celia\nThaxter's \"Little Sand Piper,\" Eugene Field's \" Wynken, BIynken and\nNod,\" George\nMcDonald's \"The\nBaby,\" and many, many poems of\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nStevenson. Goethe said : ** How fortunate the young who know what\nart is!\" And we add: \"How fortunate the young whose teachers know\nwhat art is!\"\nIs there not opened here a field for helpful, inspiring, and enjoyable\nmeetings of teachers with superintendents and supervisors? Might they\nnot do much to remove present limitations?\nAnother great remedy for existing conditions must be found in our\nhigher schools and schools of professional training. Some of them are\nmaking the true study of literature a part of the education of each\nstudent ; many are not. It should be demanded of all training schools\nfor teachers that they recognize as an important part of their work the\nteaching to know, to appreciate, and to tell, to read, and to recite the\ngems of song and story that should become a part of the life of children.\nAnd this should be one of the required tests of a person's preparation for\nteaching in the grades.\nThe revival will come when professional schools, teachers, and superintendents unite in searching for the best literature to be used for, with,\nand by children ; when, loving and appreciating its thought and its\nbeauty, they unite in studying the inner life of the child, and the best\nways of making literature serve its great purpose in the development of\nthe manifold powers of that inner life.\nThat so many are thus searching and studying heralds the dawn of\nthe new day.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Josephine Heermans, principal of Whittier School, Kansas City, Mo. — What\nquestion lies at the very root of the organization of our system of education for our youth?\nWithout doubt it is the question of idealism. I mean by \"idealism\" the response of selfconsciousness to the ideal ; or the effort of self-consciousness toward self-realization; or\nthe spir tual process of the growth of mind ; or the development of the self from wiihin ;\nor, more simply, possibilities of reaction.\nWithout idealism we shall have feeble mental reaction. The ultimate aim of education\nis many and perfect reactions. Idealism, liberating mental reactions, abstracts the truth\nfrom each study in the curriculum, assists discrimination, and makes that study a living\nforce. These reactions cannot be taught by talking about them, nor by memorizing;\nrules of any or all the studies, but may be developed and strengthened and permanently\norganized in various ways. We reach out to literature — \"the fifth window of the soul,\"\nas Dr. Harris expresses it — dealing as it does with the spiritual, as the most potent\nagent we have for developing idealism.\nThe reactions of literature are conducive always to high thought and purpose ; they\norganize impulses into feeling, they nurture and augment feeling ; and feeling working\nthru will achieves character. Literature gives a certain power of adaptability and readjustment. Responsible individuality is best taught by contact with the institutions of\nsociety; yet literature pictures such contact and its results in terms of conduct, which\npatterns are supports to the child's need of experience. The child will and must build\nup a world of some kind in which his native reactions — fear, love, curiosity, etc.—\nmodified or unmodified, play a large part. During the plastic period the influence of\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence! LITERATURE\n\nIN GRADES\n\nAND\n\nHOW\n\nTO USE IT\n\n207\n\nliterature — active, corrective, and constructive — harmonizes these reactions with those\nof the group in vi'hich he lives, making possible for all the ethical life.\nChildren are not getting conceptions of literature, to know them as such ; or at least\nthey are very vague. They are getting something far more valuable — conceptions of\nlife. They do not analyze niceties of construction, but they do analyze sentiment,\nthought, conduct. They do picture ends more and more remote, and are influenced, on\nthe side of feeling, to greater sympathy for others.\nOur graded system of education without literature is as the body without the spirit.\nThe three highest activities of soul — the good, the true, and the beautiful — find an\nembodiment in literature. Who would defer their recognition ? Let the child know\nthat these activities are in eternal correlation with himself.\nWhile no one today is without convictions as to the necessity of literature in the\ngrades, here and there is one who thinks the difinculties of a course quite insurmountable;\nothers who would limit the American child, or the child taught in American schools, to\nAmerican literature ; others who are indefinite as to whether literature in the grades\nincludes supplementary reading of all kinds — geographical readers, historical readers,\nand the like ; and still others who, with minds open to the subject, are as yet unsettled\nas to its scope.\nI am familiar with the arguments concerning the difficulties involved in a \"course\"\nin literature, the principal one being that, because a course is of necessity selected, the\nteaching would lack spontaneity in case a teacher was not assigned the particular poet\nor writer of her choice ; or, worse, the teacher might not care for literature at all, and\nwould kill rather than awaken an interest.\nWhile there is something in that argument, there is not much. A course in literature,\nwhether in college, high school, or elementary school, must be selected and must be taught\nby someone selected to teach it. Such teacher cannot hope to limit her teaching to her\nespecial choice of writers. The truth is that we have in the grades many teachers of a\ncatholicity of taste which enables them not only to enjoy for themselves, but to lead others\nto enjoy, the essential excellencies of a great number of writers, writers as dissimilar as\nShakespeare and Shelley, Ruskin and Dickens, Tennyson and Browning.\nTaking schools as they are, the selective power could not be left to the teachers, for\nthe simple reason that such a course would lack organization and unity. It is left to\nthem in a measure in this way: How does Homer stand in your regard ? Which do you\nprefer, Ruskin, Hawthorne, or Dickens ? Could you make a class of pupils understand\nThe Rime of the Ancient Afariner ? The answers determine what authors could be safely\ncommitted to them. Good common-sense and careful, conscientious teaching vitalize\nliterature the same as other studies; and we must not forget that literature is one thing\nthat does its own work largely, for the results are only measured by the power of the\nliterature itself. Its ardor and flow negative any teacher. True literature, poetry, or\nprose always transports.\nIt is not desirable to make a set course in literature for every school in a system, as\nis done in arithmetic, grammar, and geography; but each scliool should have a course\nfitted to the conditions of that school, just as manual-training courses, to be effective,\nrecognize and meet the conditions of special environment. The supply of literature is\nlimitless, and substitutions and modifications are easily made.\nWho should make this course ? It must be one who knows and loves literature. It\nis not a question of official position, but one of ideas and ideals. It must be one who\nsees in literature the spirit of art, of culture, of morality, of love of nature, of patriotism,\nof sympathy, and knows where and when in the period of elementary education to build\nthese into the spiritual nature of the child. It night be a joint work. However made,\nwe should reach out our hands to the teaching body to assist with suggestions; and after\nthe course is made, it should be elastic enough to admit of substitutions and reinforcement,\nas conditions suggest.\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATrONAL\n\nAF;SOCTATrON\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nIts literary product is the best thing any nation has to show, from the days of Homer\nand of Moses until now. But this same product is rarely great during the infancy of a\nnation. Those who put all their stress on our national literature limit us unreasonably.\nIn developing our history we revert often to the reign of Elizabeth, but what event in her\nreign compares with the fact that it was the age of Spenser and of Shakespeare? Shall\nwe bar Shakespeare because not an American? Our history takes us to England,\nGermany, France, Spain, when dealing with religious intolerance; yet the history of\ncenturies of religious intolerance is epitomized in Lessing's Nathan the Wise. Shall we\nbar the classic because it is not American ? Surely we must have as much freedom in\nliterature as we have in history. History is great, but literature is greater. History may\nbe likened to Saul, literature to David. We love our national life, but we have no more\nright to limit our children to its literature than we have to ignore the influence of other\nnations on its history; no more right to limit to American literature than to American\nart. We gladly adorn our schools with Greek, French, German, Italian, and English art\nin casts of world-famed sculpture, prints of painting and architecture, doing this for the\ninfluence of the world-spirit; yet shall we bar the world-spirit in literature ?\nIn a practical course of literature for the grades, myth, legend, poetry, the drama,\nand strong prose must each have its place. The Hebrew, the Greek, Shakespeare, the\nEnglish, and the American poets and prose writers must each render tribute (and 1 should\nlike to add a little bit of Victor Hugo and Heine and Lessing). 1 hese writers should\ncome to the grades with texts perfect and unmutilated.\nWe want literature thgt is pure, serious, stern, joyful, truly educative; our purpose in\nits selection being culture, and not information. One of the many temptations in planning\na course of reading is to go outside real literature and to overload the course with\ninformational reading, scientific or historical.\nThis is a great mistake.\nWhile realizing the limitations of my sphere of observation, I wish to speak of my\nown experience with a course that has been in successful operation nine years. In\norganizing the course the aim has been simplicity and thoroness. The object is not to\ncover the largest possible field, but the reverse of that. For the time being the child is\nconsecrated to one book until he understands it as well as he is capable of understanding\nit. The course is presented on the opposite page.\nThere is some organization of the subject-matter of the literature to harmonize with\nthe absorbing interest of each particular stage of advancement. Hiawatha^ Robinson\nCrusoe y Ethics of the Dust, and many of the legends and short poems appeal to the constructive instinct of the young child ; later, in the highest grades, literature teeming with\ncausal sequences is chosen. Some effort is made to place emphasis upon the social and\neconomic conditions portrayed in each classic, but the main object in the grades is not\nto study in a minute and detailed way, but to read and enjoy and converse freely about\neach, making of it an influence penetrative and strong.\nIn the first grade are the Greek myths, based upon nature, and the Hebrew stories\nas found in the Old Testament. Hebrew does not stop there. It reappears in each\ngrade in the form of passages from the Old Testament written on the blackboard ; not\nwith the indefinite word \" Bible \" underneath, but the particular book from whence it\ncame, as Isaiah, Psalms, Joel, etc. These are changed frequently. Each blackboard has\nan extract also from some world-poet, \"jewels, five words long\" — poets not read in the\ngrades ; and on some little corner of the blackboard in all the upper grades is the\npermanent tabulation :\nHomer.\n1200 Dante.\n\n1500 Shakespeare.\n1600 Milton.\n\n1300 Chaucer.\n\n1800 Goethe.\n\nThe work in the first grade is memory work, the myths and stories being told to the\nchildren until they give them back. We have a simple dramatization of the myths. The\nchildren assume the characters necessary to the development\nof each story, using\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Su-erintendencel\n\nLITERATURE\n\nIN GRADES\n\nAND\n\nnow\n\nTO USE IT\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY\nStories of\nGideon.\n\nMoses,\n\nJoshua,\n\nPilgrim's Progress.\nProse -i Rni> and His Friends.\n\nMyths\nof Clytie,\nSelene,\nEos, Hephaestus, Demeter,\nHermes, Apollo, Poseidon,\netc.\n\"The Children's Hour.\"\n\" The Village Blacksmith.\"\n'' Seven Times One.\"\n\nGrade I\nPoetry\n\n\" Sheridan's Ride.\"\n\" Annabel Lee.\"\n\" To a Water Fowl.\"\n\"Calm on Listening Ear of\n\nGrade IV A\n\nPoetry - \" America.\"\n\" Home, Sweet Home.\"\nof Moses\" (Alexander).\n\" Burial\nNight.\"\n\" Landing of Pilgrim Fathers.\"\n\" Lexington.\"\n\n\" Lady Moon.\"\n\"The Winds.\"\n\" Persephone.\"\nPoems from Garden\netc.\n\nProse\n\nEthics of the Dust.\nT\" Paul Revere.\"\n\nof Verse,\n\n\" The Building of the Ships.\"\n\nStories of Jephthah, Saul,\nDavid, Absalom, Rizpah,\nSolomon, Sheba, etc.\n\nJI Gentle\nStories Boy.\nfrom the Hebrew,\ntion).\nf\" Odyssey\" (Bryant's transla-\n\n\"Hiawatha\" — entire poem.\n\nGrade II\n\n\" In School Days.\"\n\" Thanksgiving Day.\"\n<\n\" A Visit from St. Nicholas.\"\n\" The Corn Song,\"\nPoetry <\n\" Kitty.\"\n\" Barefoot Boy.\"\n\" The First Snowfall.\"\n\" King\nSolomon\nand\n\nProse\n\nGrade III\nPoetry\n\nthe\n\nBees.\"\nnson\noe.\nRobi\nCrus\nk tories.\ne\ne\nGr\nS\n.\ne rBGooolkden River,\nfd\nKing on\nthe\nWo\ns\"\n{\nl\ni\nd\ndse\no\nr\"Thworth)Da. ff\n(Wor\n.\"\n\" The Sa\"nd Piper\ns.\n\" Icaru\nm's\ny\n\" By Cool Siloa\nShad\n\" Lyric from Pippa Passes.\"\nled\nRill.\"\nBanner.\"\n\" The Star-Spang\nn\n\" The Dandelio \" (Lowell).\n\"\n\"The Snow Storm.\n\" March.\"\n\n\" Robert of Lincoln.\"\n'• The May Queen,\" Part I.\n\" Grandmother's\nStory of\nBunker Hill.\"\n\nGrade V\n\n-! Poetry\nEvangeline.\"\n1^*' Miles\nStandish.\"\n^\nf The Tempest or The Merchant\nDrama -^\n. „\n.\n1 of Venice.\n\nSesame and Lilies.\nLincoln's Gettysburg Speech.\ns translation).\nant'ro\nf\" Iliad \" (Bry\nl.\ni ^ ristmas Ca\nGrade VI { Poetry\n„ {C\"hVision of Sir Launfal.\"\nLays of Ancient Rome.\"\n• [^\"Ancient Mariner.\"\nJ Julius Ceesar, The Tempest,\nI or The Merchant of Venice.\n(■Mosses from an Old Manse.\nEmerson's essay on Nature or\nCharacter^.\nDeclaration of Independence.\nProse - Constitution of the United\n- States.\nGrade VII ^ Drama^ Macbeth or Henry\n\nV.\n\n[\"Idylls of the King.\"\n\" The Lady of the Lake.\"\nPoetry ■{ \" The Princess.\"\nEnoch Arden.\"\nSnow Bound.\"\n\nmounted pictures correct as to costume and accessories, each holding the picture of the\ncharacter he represents.\nIn the lowest grades the literature is further impressed by using as copy in the writing exercise a line from whatever story they are studying, as : \" Ruth gleaned in the\nfields,\" \" Apollo drives the sun chariot,\" etc. The object in these grades is expression.\nThis work is done in the language period, because the reading periods in the first and\nhalf of the second grade are fully occupied with the formal side of reading. Beginning\nwith the last term of the second grade, the reading^eriods are devoted to literature.\nMyths are chosen because childhood loves the symbolic. Myths bring nature nearer.\nMyths are an attractive and convenient medium to teach the glory and power and constancy of nature, and man's relation, whether of subjection or of dominion, to it. In\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ndifferent garb it is the same thing that we find in Job, chaps. 38 and 39 : \" Where is the\nway where light dwelleth and as for darkness where is the place thereof ? \" I think it is\nEmerson who says : \" The universe has three children, born at one time, which reappear\nunder different names in every system of thought, whether they be called Cause, Operation, and Effect, or more poetically Jove, Pluto, Neptune.\" How fitting that each generation should first apprehend poetically what later it must struggle with poetically !\nThe Greek thought reappears several times in the course. In the third grade the\nWonder Book is read ; in the fifth grade the Odyssey (Books V, VI, VII, VIII, XIII) and\nin the sixth grade the ///a^(Books I, VI, XXII, XXIV) occupy three months of school life.\nThese are placed before the drama because of their simplicity, their steadiness, and their\nrepose. In one sense they prepare for the strenuousness and conventionality of Shakespeare. The great lesson of Homer, that everybody needs everybody, finds a ready\nacceptance with the children of the fifth and sixth grades. Wherever we use the Greek\nthought, we link it with some expression of our own time ; with the myth of the seasons in Jean Ingelow's \" Persephone ; \" John G. Saxe's poem supplements the story of\nIcarus ; Tennyson's \" Ulysses \" accompanies Odysseus.\nLiterature is like other arts in one respect. It includes subject and treatment.\nThere is a wide scope in treatment which must be intelligently recognized. Literature in\nthe grade means the pure joy of sympathy. All the method required is to stimulate sympathy and to make the impression profound and dominating. It is not the place for\ndetailed study, for etymology or structural analysis ; not the place \"to chase a panting\nsyllable thru time and space ; start it at home, and hunt it in the dark, to Gaul, to\nGreece, and into Noah's Ark.\"\nIn the second grade Longfellow's Hiawatha is read entire. The whole poem is\nidealized nature study. But its great value for second-grade work is in its rhythm.\nChildren delight in rhythm. It satisfies some unrecognized idea of self-activity. It was\nwhile searching for this principle that I found this splendid encouragement from Plato\n{Republic). In effect he says : \" Rhythm sinks most deeply into the recesses of the soul,\nbringing a just disdain for the unlovely and a commendation for the beautiful. The\nchild receives it, feeds upon it, and grows to be noble and good before he is able to be\nreasoned with, and when reason comes welcomes her and recognizes her by the instinct\nof relationship, because he has been thus nurtured.\"\nSomewhere in the intermediate part of the course it is necessary to introduce some\nstrong prose to give word, phrase, and sentence practice, intelligently connected with the\nthought back of the words. This is hard work, but not too hard for the fourth grade.\nSoft pedagogy should be left behind by this time. For this purpose we have used in the\nlast half of the fourth grade Ruskin's Ethics of the Dust. It gives fine opportunity for\nverbal reaction, not to mention its value on the character side. Mot>t refreshing are the\nchildren's interpretations of the author's message, which is, in the words of N. D. Hillis,\n*' that goodness is more than gold, and character outweighs intellect.\" Of all that Ruskin\nhas written, this is the book in which he speaks directly to the child.\nThe prose in the course includes a complete book or essay of Holmes, Hawthorne,\nIrving, Emerson, Bunyan, Defoe, Dr. John Brown, Ruskin, Dickens ; certain American state\npapers and certain fine passages from the Old Testament. This range secures familiarity\nwith many different styles of literary composition.\nBeginning with the fifth grade and continuing thruout the course, we read a book a\nterm, usually in this order : fall term, prose ; winter term, a drama ; spring term, poetry.\nSometimes it is necessary to change this order.\nOne word about the drama. Pupils of ward-school age do respond to the strong\ndemands made by the drama. In these plays pupils are confronted with the institutional\nlife of man. The impressions are strong. The reactions of condemnation or approval\nare also strong, suggesting the strength of their own springs of action. Imagination is\nkept active, and enthusiasm follows naturally.\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] LITERATURE\n\nIN GRADES\n\nAND\n\nnow\n\nTO USE IT\n\n211\n\nIn choosing plays for the pupils in the grades there is much to consider. The Tempest, The Merchant of Venice, Julius Ccesar, Macbeth, and Henry V. are all suitable.\nThere is no reason why pupils should not read at least three of these before entering the\nhigh school.\nThere are short poems by our American poets that are linked with our national\nexistence and must find a place in any course. These are classics in the best sense of the\nword, and must be made sacred to every American child. \"The Building of the Ship\"\ncontains the spirit of our nation. It alone would keep alive patriotism. Add to it \"Paul\nRevere,\" \"Lexington,\" \"Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill,\" \"The Star-Spangled\nBanner,\" and we have a national preservative force.\nBesides the course as outlined in this paper, which means reading carefully done, we\nhave many sets of supplementary readers, some of them literature in the truest sense, and\na small collection of authors not in the course, for reference.\nIt may be interesting to state that we have two oiher means of growth and of\nimpressing this work. One of these is organized composition work — a composition each\nmonth in all grades above the second, based on the literature of that grade. The other\neffective agency is a course in literature for the teachers' meeting, held once a month.\nWe began these meetings many years ago, with the study of American authors. We\nworked backward to Chaucer, and then worked lorward again to Browning. We did not\nstudy by periods or schools, but simply by reading to the point of saturation. That this\nhas had its influence in strengthening our work is a fact that needs no comment. We\nhave had a training school of our own.\nI look upon this course for the grades as suggestive merely. It might be amplified\nor it might be reduced.\nMiss Florence Holbrook, principal of Forestville School, Chicago, 111. — What is\nliterature? Has it a place in the elementary schools? If so what literature shall be\nselected, and how shall it be presented ?\nLiterature is the most perfect tapestry woven in the loom of Time that has escaped\nthe moth of decay. Observing it closely, we enter into the lives of those who otherwise\nwould be unknown. Their thoughts of nature and of God; their hopes and fears; their\nstruggles, victories, and defeats; their loves and hates; their weakness and their\nstrength ; their ideals of life and of conduct — all are revealed for our instruction and our\ndelight. The literature of a race is the form in which its life is preserved ; when all else\nis destroyed this remains on stone, or brick, or scroll.\nIn all true literature the unnecessary and transitory has disappeared — only that is\nleft which is vital, which the thought demands. As is true of all the arts, literature\ndelights in the simplicity which is consistent with perfection of form, with grace and\nbeauty. Painting and sculpture appeal to our souls thru the eye, music to our emotions thru the ear, but literature reaches the intellect and emotions thru both eye and ear.\nThe eye reads and the thoughts delight the mind, but for full enjoyment the music of the\nvoice must be added. The perfection of form, the beauty of word and phrase, are then\ndoubly felt and a twofold pleasure obtained.\nThe beatitudes of literature have been the theme of those competent to judge and\npraise in all ages. The joy we feel from the study of any masterpiece should be the portion of every soul. Do we, teachers, really believe that this joy is the inheritance of everyone, or that only a few, specially gifted, can comprehend, enjoy, and profit by the words\nof the greatest teachers ? Do we believe that literature can be taught to pupils in the\nelementary schools? Then it will soon have its rightful proportion of the school day; for\nteachers will be found who are ready and willing 4P undertake the work, and whom experience will make successful.\nThere is no class of children in our public schools for whom there is not some classic\nThe more stolid the pupils, the greater\ntale or ballad or drama suitable and inspiring.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCTA TION\n\nrcincinnati\n\nthe need for reading which possesses the divine spark of genius. The highest, purest\nthought expressed in the most artistic and natural way will most quickly arouse them to\nappreciation and intellectual activity.\n\" No one can afford to be influenced by one man alone.\" Men and books and nature\nare our teachers, and when the class-room teacher can stand aside and let the genius of\nthe master-minds of the world appeal to the pupil, the growth under that impulse will\nreward her sacrifice of self.\nInstruction in literature should begin with the first day's work in school and should\nbe continued during the eight years for at least a half-hour a day. The material will be\nfound in fairy-story, in myth, in fable, in legend, and in lyric, epic, and dramatic poem.\nThe literature given to the pupil should not be adulterated, but should be \" pure and\nundefiled.\"\nThe teacher selects some story or poem, and continues the reading of it from day to\nday until the entire story or poem has been read. The literature given to the class is not\nto be excerpts, but wholes. This reading by the teacher of matter too difficult for them\nto read trains the pupils in attention, concentration, memory. They are getting lessons\nin beauty of style and in beautiful reading. They long to be able to read for themselves\nthese charming stories.\nShort poems are selected for the pupil to commit ; and in this way his mind is filled\nwith beautiful images, he is trained to exactness in memory, and his vocabulary is\nincreased.\nMyths and stories are read or told to him for reproduction in dramatization. This\nis a most valuable exercise. In dramatizing a story, in reproducing it by action, gesture,\nand word, the pupil makes the impression more vivid, more real ; as in constructing a\nbox which has been described, or in drawing an object placed before him. Children are\nconstantly \" playing \" many parts. Their imagination and their desire for action lead\nthem into the dramatic way of expressing themselves.\nAnother exercise for the pupil is to reproduce the story in his own words. The\nteacher reads or tells the class some beautiful myth. A child is asked to repeat the story.\nIn doing so, altho words and even phrases are quoted, he is making original efforts at\ncomposition.\nLearning to read is so difficult a task in itself that it should be made as interesting\nas possible. To appeal to the child's imagination and love for the beautiful ; to work in\nharmony with his interest ; to reveal a phase of life that appeals to his love for nature and\nanimals — will be the care of the thoughtful teacher, and the result will be an ever-present\njoy to both. It will not do to make the beginning of reading formal, a matter of \"words,\nwords, words.\" He should read always for the thought, and therefore literature and\nreading should not be separated. Whatever the child reads should be simple in thought,\nartistic in form, and choice in vocabulary — a work of literary art. Such reading is training the child along the right line, and the beauty and value of books will never be questioned bypupils who have been nourished by mental food — a question often put by those\nwhose eager and docile minds were smothered in the chaff of reading books written down\nto what was supposed to be the child's vocabulary and mental ability.\nThe work thus begun is continued in the second grade. The story or poem which\nthe teacher read to them in the first grade may now be read by the pupils. Children never\ntire of the repetition of a good story, and will even resent any deviation from the original\nform. Kipling realized this in \\)\\%Just So Stories. No objection need be made if many\nwords and phrases of the story are repeated in the oral or written reproduction. Not many\nan adult invents words or phrases, but uses those he has heard or read. The memorizing of expressions is not required, and variety is found among the versions of the children as would be found if a number of adults repeated the same story. It is difficult to\nseparate the work in literature from the work in oral and written composition, for the\ndesire is not only to find enjoyment in literature, but to gain the power to express our\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] LTTERATURE\n\nIN GRADES\n\nAND\n\nHOW\n\nTO USE IT\n\n213\n\nown thoughts. This ability is improved by the daily contact with great literary treasures.\nFor the child's reading the folklore of primitive peoples is adapted. The legends\ncurrent among many tribes, tho differing slightly in form, childlike and simple, aopeal to\nthe child's imagination. The my h of Indian, Scandinavian, or Greek is excellent in\nmany ways. The thought is not complex ; the child lives in the midst of the phenomena\nof nature, whose beauty and grandeur form the subjett of the myth. The simple myth\nis short and can be heard and repeated as a whole, and the knowledge gained is valuable\nas a preparation for the understanding and consequent enjoyment of the literature, music,\nand art of the world, based so largely upon the mythology of the primitive races.\nThe training of the pupil in literature, then, in the primary grades consists in (l)\nhearing a ballad or legend read by the teacher; (2) memorizing choice poems; (3)\ndramatizing fairy-story and fable ; (4) reading literature, namely, fairy-story, fable,\nmyth, legend, and poem ; and (5) reproducing them in the form of oral composition, a\nwritten paper, or in dramatization.\nThe same general plan should continue thruout the grammar grades when the\nIliad 2ind Odyssey, the stories of Siegfried, Beowulf, Balder, and King Arthur are studied and\ndramatized. Some of the dramas of Shakespeare, the Antigone of Sophicles, are studied,\ncommitted, and given by the classes. The poems of Emerson, Lowell, Whittier, Scott,\nBurns, Browning, and many others are studied, enjoyed, and made part of the intellectual life. With these older children who have had the experience of reading many beautiful things, more time and attention are given to the artistic form of the production, to the\nstyle of the author, and in the written work more conscious attention is bestowed upon\nthe beauty of word and phrase. The main thing, however, is the thought. If one\nreally has a thought he considers valuable and wishes to communicate, a good expression will be forthcoming. Style can be improved, doubtless, but if the thought is lacking,\nthe result will resemble a dummy clad in rich garments.\nUniformity in our work in literature should not be insisted upon ; nay, it should not\neven be considered wise. The districts in large cities vary much, and the work in every\nschool should be what is best for the pupils then and there. So even in the same school\ntwo classes in the same grade may well study different selections, each chosen with a view\nto the need of the class. Whatever literature the teacher of the class especially delights\nin, that will generally be best for the pupils. Her enthusiasm will inspire them. Famous\nresults have been obtained from the Fairie Queene, The Ancient Mariner, the Nibehmgen Lied, Robinson Crusoe, Emerson's Essays, Browning's Saul, because the teacher\nwas herself under the spell of the authors' genius.\nThe beauty which is inherent in literature is of itself a joy, a power, an enrichment\nof life; but, more than all this, the moral and spiritual nature is appealed to and nourished\nby the lessons which no truly great literature lacks. I do not mean that the moral must\nbe insisted upon; that might, indeed, prevent the very result we desire. But the lessons\nof true courage, friendship, honor, loyalty, patriotism, self-sacrifice, and devotion to principle which are found in legend, poem, and drama all have their benign influence upon\ncharacter. Many other studies should have their places in our elementary schools, and\nthey all have special claims to our approval. But if individual responsibility to the\ngovernment, to humanity, and to the higher self is to be taught, the one great means —\nomitting direct religious training, which is the province of the church — is literature. As\nlong as good books are the power for right-thinking and right-living, for joy, inspiration,\nand comfort we know them to be, our ever-present teachers and guides, let us value our\nresponsibility and lead our pupils to know, to love, and to appreciate good literature.\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nTO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nPAPERS\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAND\n\nSTATE\nAND\nTENDENTS\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERIN-\n\nWHAT EXTENT AND\nIN\nWHAT FORM\nSHOULD\nTHE\nMANUALTRAINING IDEA BE EMBODIED IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK?\nW.\n\nO. THOMPSON,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nOHIO\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nO.\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to enter into the discussion of the merits of manual\ntraining in a system of education ; nor is it expected that the discussion will set forth a\nmodel course of study in which definite place and proportion shall be given to the several\nstudies. It is understood that we are to consider the general place of manual training in\nthe public schools. This at once leaves out of consideration the question of manual\ntraming or the equipment for it in specially favored localities where manual-training high\nschools are in operation. Our question is whether in the broad field of the public schools\nin cities, villages, and rural districts there is any place that now may be wisely given over\nto manual training. It may help toward a conclusion if we give attention to a few\nconsiderations bearing on the general aim of the public schools.\n1. Here, first, I remark that we should keep in full view that the results desired in\nthe public school are educational, and not commercial.\nWe are familiar with the pressure for a low grade of commercial education often felt\nin the public schools, backed by the theory that it helps toward a livelihood. People fail\nto take the broader view that education should prepare for life rather than for a particular\ntype of life. The public schools have frequently been criticised because in their desire\nto meet popular demand there has been a departure from the best methods in education.\nIn much the same way manual training has suffered at the hands of its professed friends.\nThe so-called practical man has looked upon it as a form of education intended to help\nboys and girls to a livelihood. Such people would make the public school a trade school\nwhose duty it is to stand for skill in a particular craft rather than for the all-around\ndevelopment of mind and body. Public education thus is transformed into a private\nconvenience. The true theory is that the public school is organized for efficiency in\ncitizenship ; for the symmetrical development of the child's powers ; for such training of\nthese powers as will minister to their harmonious use in manhood ; and for that broad\nsympathy with mankind that is the best fruit of education. Under this conception every\nsubject that commands a place in our courses of study must take its place in young life\nin such a way as to lay the foundation for whatever demands the future may make.\nMoreover, these subjects are all preparatory in character. It is not presumed that\nelementary education may be anything else. It is to train pupils for experience rather\nthan to give them experience.\n2. A second consideration is that manual training is educational in character and\nfills an evident gap in our educational scheme.\nIt is readily understood that the older forms of education made the claim that they\ntrained and developed the intellect, cultivated the will, and in general gave such exercise\nto the natural powers as to produce normal, healthy growth in pupils. It is not worth\nwhile to dispute that claim. Later the invasion of science into school courses has established its value in developing the powers of observation, in demanding accuracy, in\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n215\n\ncalling for the use of the judgment, and indeed in a number of wajs exercising the same\nfaculties called into use by the older education.\nNow it needs no argument, but a mere statement, to show that manual training does\nmuch of the same work. Observation, comparison, accuracy, judgment, are the alphabet\nof manual training. Indeed, they are actively at work in the kindergarten. There is as\nmuch of any of these in shoving a plane as in shoving a pen. From the viewpoint of\ntraining or discipline one may be as useful as the other.\nOn the educational value of manual training. Superintendent Seaver has said:\n\"Manual training is essential to the right and full development of the human mind, and\ntherefore no less beneficial to those who are not going to become artisans than to those\nwho are. The workshop method of instruction is of great educational value, for it brings\nthe learner face to face with the facts of nature ; his mind increases in knowledge by\ndirect personal experience with forms of matter and manifestations of force. No mere\nwords intervene. The manual exercises of the shop train mental power, rather than load\nthe memory ; they fill the mind with the solid merchandise of knowledge, and not with\nits empty packing-cases.\" Under this training manual dexterity becomes the evidence\nof a certain kind of mental alertness and power. There is here a correlation of the\npowers of mind and body that makes for the mastery and freedom toward which all\neducation leads. This feature is overlooked by many. It is but common experience to\nsee young men, freshmen at college, who can neither walk, write, sit, or perform any other\nfunction that requires a graceful use of the body. In other words, the correlation of mind\nand body has been neglected. The result is not merely awkwardness, but a great loss of\npower and efficiency. Not one high-school graduate in ten could estimate, in a reasonable\ntime, within six inches the length of a string or a board that would measure six feet and\nseven inches. This is a typical illustration of a lack of training in comparison. The boy\nwho cannot use his eyes, his hands, or his feet with any degree of accuracy must be\nexcused from all those exercises of reason and judgment that imply this correlation of\nmind and body. It is evident, too, that he lives in a confused world and is incapable of\nthat clear thinking which should mark the well-educated person. Do not regard this as\nillustrating an extreme case. The high-school graduate will do as well as the college\ngraduate. I mean to say that the incompleteness of our education is most manifest and\nthat manual training is meeting a recognized deficiency.\nIt is confidently affirmed, therefore, that manual training is justified from pedagogical\nconsiderations. Nothing stimulates and quickens the intellect more than the use of\nmechanical tools, when used under the direction of competent teachers. The boy who\nconstructs is the boy who thinks, deliberates, reasons, and concludes. The training of\nthe eye and the hand reacts upon the brain and calls out powers not developed by memoryprocesses in language or the discipline of mathematics.\n3. A third consideration is that manual training in the schools does not imply that\nwe are to develop a system of trade schools.\nThe appeal for trade schools fails to note that they are utterly impracticable in the\npublic schools, owing to the large number of trades, since each one would have an equal\nclaim ; it fails to note that the unlimited expense for such a proposition defeats the whole\nplan, and it fails to note the narrowing effect upon children to have a few trades represent\nthe channel in which their lives are to flow. Moreover, a trade cannot be well taught in\na school. The economic questions of time in construction, quality of material used, different methods ot producing, and other questions of ordinary competition in business are as\nnecessary to the successful mastery of a trade as the mechanical side of it. All this is\noutside of the possibilities of the schoolroom. To attempt such results would only end in\ndisappointment and failure, and bring against th^school the charge of being theoretical\nand not practical.\nEducation is a slow and continuous process. Manual training in our public schools\nshould put emphasis upon the educational values, leaving out of consideration the elements\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "2l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[CJndnnati\n\nof time, expense, and others properly in view by the mechanic. The questions with reference to what shall be done, material used, and all similar questions should be determined\nby the teacher from educational, and not from commercial, considerations.\nIn view of these personal considerations I now offer a few suggestions upon the extent\nof manual training in the public schools :\n1. I believe that manual training opens the way to lengthen the school day with\ndecided advantage to all pupils so engaged. I hear the protest against lengthening, but\nas a parent I strongly advocate it, provided we do not lengthen the hours of ordinary\nschool work. Manual training, if properly presented, will furnish an opportunity to relieve\nthe tension of desk study by furnishing a laboratory at once wholesome and pleasing to\nthe child. The shop exercises need not interfere with the ordinary schedule to any serious\namount, but, if properly adjusted, would interfere with some usual, but not very useful,\nexercises between the close of school and the close of day. The protest against the confinement ofthe school does not apply to manual training, since it provides for healthful\nchange of occupation.\nIt would strengthen and not overtax the nerves.\n2. Provision being thus made for a reasonable portion of time, I believe manual training should be kept as a continuous subject from the kindergarten to the end of publicschool work.\nThe danger arises from our impatience. Let us not attempt too much in a given year.\nLet the educational process continue from year to year. The arrangement of a schedule\nso that a definite portion of each day could be assigned to every student would in the\nseveral years prove its wisdom.\n3. If by the term \"extent\" it was meant to ask when manual training should be considered completed, as we complete history or algebra, I should say there was no limit.\nNot skill, but growth in skill, is the measure of the course where education is desired.\nManual training would never be completed. I cannot imagine a time or a condition in\nwhich the shop would not furnish an opportunity for the pupil.\n4. The question of expense is an ever-present one. It must be conceded that manual\ntraining involves some expense, but it is not unreasonable in its requirements. Besides,\nthe equipment may always be a matter of growth. In most cases to install a complete\nsystem would invite failure. This type of education, like all others, needs time, and will\nproduce its best results if introduced conservatively. The time may never come when it\nwill be either desirable or possible for the isolated rural school to teach more than the\nelementary drawing, but most of our villages would do well for both the intellect and the\nmorals of its pupils to invest in a good shoproom. This provision for the idle hours of\nthe day to many village pupils would be a valuable investment for any community and\ncould be defended on economic grounds.\n5. The expense of any program is, of course, determined largely by the amount the\nschool undertakes. The answer to this question in some degree answers the question of\nthe form in which this subject should be taught. In most schools where manual training\nhas been introduced the year includes the workshop, drawing, mathematics, some science,\nand a language. If the school is divided into sections, the shopwork might go almost\ncontinuously in case of large schools, or at convenient hours in case of smaller schools.\nTo provide for drawing and woodwork is not a very expensive matter. In many villages\nthe building might be separate and inexpensive, so that after a shop was once furnished\nthe pay of a competent teacher would be the chief item of expense. The material used\nneed not be a very serious consideration. The second year does not differ largely, except\nin the modifications of the subjects already presented. Shopwork, science, language,\ndrawing, and mathematics usually make up the program. It is common to change the\nscience of the course; to have some progress in mathematics and drawing, and some\nchange in the shopwork. The work in wood is followed by work in iron and the metals.\nThere is no necessity, however, to bind ourselves to a definitely fixed program, with a\ndetermination to accomplish a certain quantity of manual training within a year, or indeed\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n217\n\nwithin the three years. It is necessary ordinarily to teach in groups or classes, but not at\nall necessary to burden the school with the necessity of completing a definite amount of\nwork. As already intimated, the great problem is the educational problem. Even if\nthe school stops short of the desires of the pupil in that matter, it has made a great gain\nby inspiring in them a love for some form of work, and by leaving them with the wellsettled conviction that they have not learned everything.\n6. In this connection let me say that it is of greatest importance that the teaching of\nsuch subjects be done by persons trained in schools of manual training under proper pedagogical influence, with the purpose of making manual training a part of the system of\neducation. No greater mistake is current than the common theory that a mechanic would\nbe the best instructor in such subjects. Many a good mechanic for commercial purposes\nwould be a complete failure in the schoolroom. The important aims and objects of the\npublic schools must not be diverted by any false notion of the place of manual training in\neducation. We are not attempting to train mechanics, any more than when we teach\nalgebra we are training engineers. We are simply laying the foundation upon which any\ntechnical education may be built, or, if no further time is given to education in the schools,\nwe are laying a foundation for intelligent and sympathetic citizenship.\nIn conclusion it may be stated that the amount of technical training given in the\npublic schools will be determined largely by circumstances. Local conditions may be\nmore efficient in settling this question than any theory that might be presented. I'he\nimportant issue is to get recognition for this phase of education, and it may be safely\nasserted that the future will easily take care of the place of the subject in the curriculum.\nThe consensus of opinion among teachers that the subject has a place in our public\nschools and the willingness to begin modestly will steadily solve the problem.\nDISCUSSION\nPrincipal E. W. Wilkinson, Cincinnati, O.— It seems to me that the paper was\nbristling with common-sense. I hesitate to address this audience on a subject in which I\nhave had so little experience, but there are one or two points to which I desire to give\nhearty commendation.\nI have manual training in the schools over which I preside. I have heard much\ndiscussion about it, but I have never before heard the statement made that manual\ntraining is a purely local issue. But it is a fact. The farmer's boy has not a great deal\nof need for manual training. When the plow breaks down and it is three or four miles\nto the nearest carpenter shop, it is not good policy to take a boy and a horse away from\nthe work that is pressing and send the plow to the shop to be mended. The plow is\nmended at home. The boy gets plenty of experiences such as this, and he does not stand\nin need of instruction in such arts at school as does the boy from the city, who has no\nsuch outside training. What does the girl do on the farm ? She helps her mother with\nthe housework ; she washes the dishes ; does the cooking ; puts up the fruit, and dries or\ncans the cofn ; and does all manner of similar work. Of course you can go to the store\nnow and buy a can of corn for eight cents that is almost as good as that which the girl\nused to help her mother put up, and so there is no need for the city girl to learn things\nof this sort. In the cities and in places where the children do not get manual training\nat home, it is our duty to give a sufficient amount of manual training so that the brain\nand the hand shall work in harmony, for that is, after all, the real object of manualtraining instruction. It is in the city schools and in the schools of the larger villages\nwhere manual training should be taken up. It is not the purpose to make the boys\nand girls artisans and seamstresses. It is simpTy to help them to become able to\nhelp themselves. If the mind and the muscle work together, they both realize their\nhighest efficiency. If we can get the minds and the bodies to act promptly and in\nharmony with each other, we have aided the child greatly.\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nSuperintendent Charles H. Cole, Martinsburg, W. Va. — Why could not\nmanual training in the grades well teach the elements of some of the common trades, and\nwhy should it be regarded as purely educational instead of partly technical ?\nPresident Thompson. — First, manual training is an educational feature, and not\nan artisan feature ; second, when you turn aside to teach something you yourself do not\nknow, you make a botch of the whole thing. All the students are not preparing for the\nsame sphere or occupation. Here is a boy who wants to study for a particular craft.\nIf he wants instruction in that occupation, that is his particular business, and does not\nconcern the pupils who are not expecting to follow that occupation, and the boy should get\nthe work he wants in the proper way ; but we should not make the public schools a\nprivate affair in such a way as this would indicate. As a matter of fact, the elements\nof the common trades are taught in manual training, but emphasis should be put upon\nthe educational feature and not upon the artisan feature.\nSupervisor George H. Martin, Boston, Mass. — I venture to speak of manual\ntraining in cities and in the larger towns, and, to a considerable extent, in the villages of\nthe country. In the evolution of society, the children have been largely taken out of\ntouch with the external world. They are out of touch with natural products and natural\nforces. They are out of touch with what the pioneer child got in the home, in the field,\nin the forest. The new things in the new education are explained and justified by this,\nand they have grown out of the efforts to replace to the child those things he has missed\nfrom those older days. This must be the justification for all that we have had in the way\nof manual training. It is to rehabilitate the child, and to bring him again to his own.\nThe practical question is : To what extent and in what way shall this be brought about ?\nIn a small community which I know the school authorities have started with the idea that\nthe whole school life should be correlated with the home life, and that the work of the\nschools should be made to harmonize thruout with the home life. One of the things they\nhave introduced is the school garden. This introduces the child as early as the first\ngrade to nature, and brings him into touch with the home life of the community. The\nground is prepared, the seed is planted, the plants are tended and cared for, the products\nare harvested and sold, the financial accounts are kept by the children of the school,\nand all their garden work results in the furnishing of an abundance of material helpful in\ntheir other school work.\nThe sewing by the girls is connected with the needs of the home ; the children\nbring in whatever piece of work the mother wishes to have done. By means of the\ncooking, home life is enriched. In towns near the sea, hammock- and net-making have\nbeen introduced into the school.\nSome attempt has been made to have the younger children practice some of the\nindustries of the primitive peoples — the weaving of mats and of baskets, and the making\nand decorating of pottery.\nThe pupils have constructed a ^house the walls of which are papered with paper of\ntheir own design, and hung with pictures which they have drawn and colored. The\nfloors are covered with mats of their own weaving, and sets of furniture of cardboard\nhave been made for all the rooms. In all these ways the school and home have been\nbrought closer together. This experiment is being worked out in the State Normal\nSchool at Hyannis, Mass.\nState Superintendent\n\nDelos Fall, of Michigan. — The modern course of study\n\nis fearfully and wonderfully made. It has grown from the traditional three R's, because\nevery, once in a while some person has arisen and insisted that his specialty shall be put\ninto the course ; and so we have a long list in the curriculum now. I think we can reduce\nthe course in a practical way, not only back to the three R's, but to two R's. One of\nthese is in character essentially the power to read or to acquire knowledge, and the other\nis the ability to impart that knowledge after it is acquired ; and this in its essential char-\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n219\n\nacter is the art of writing. Manual training receives commendation, not only from the\npower which it gives the student to use his knowledge of a subject, but also, in one way\nor another, to express his thoughts clearly and fluently. All men think, and their thoughts\ncome surging up for utterance, but out of twenty men who have the thoughts only one\ncan express them fluently by the ordinary method, by word of mouth. The majority of\npeople utter their thoughts methodically by the hand, and not by the word of mouth. The\nfact that we have failed to recognize this is the reason why we have disregarded manual\ntraining so long. The carpenter in his sawing and planing, in all his work, has a\nthought which he is trying to utter — a thought that is far-reaching and broad. When,\nby the aid of lumber and tools, nails, paint, putty, and all the other materials of his craft,\nhe has finished his work, he has erected a house. The thought of the carpenter is as rich,\nas far-reaching, and as blessed to the world as the word which we think of as the most\nblessed word in the English language, the word that we might write above the door of that\ncarpenter's house when he has completed it, and which he has been holding in mind in all\nhis building of the house.\nI feel that manual training is a subject which will enable children to express themselves lucidly in ways which many of them will easily master, when the majority of\nthem would not be able to express themselves in the ordinary way.\nState Superintendent C. J. Baxter, Trenton, N. J.— I can hardly agree with\nthose who regard manual training as a *' local issue \" and who think it would not serve\na useful purpose in the rural school. All children should be so trained that the motor\nnerves and voluntary muscles will respond promptly and accurately to the dictates of the\nmind ; all need the balance and precision that the correct training of hand and eye alone\ncan give.\nIt has been asserted that high-school pupils are sometimes awkward and helpless.\nI think this can be said with equal truth of some college students. This is because they\nhave not been symmetrically developed.\nI think the manual-training school should, wherever practicable, be supplemented\nby the technical school, but do not think we should attempt to introduce technical\ntraining into the public school. It is not the province of manual training to make\nmechanics. It fulfills its purpose in this respect when it provides a good foundation lor\nfuture technical training.\n\nB. ROUND\n\nTHE\n\nTABLE OF STATE NORMAL\nSCHOOLS\nCITY TRAINING SCHOOLS\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nWILBUR\n\nH.\n\nBENDER,\n\nAND FUNCTION OF\nTHE STATE NORMAL\n\nTHE\nTRAINING\nSCHOOL\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF ADVANCED\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL, CEDAR\n\nTRAINING\nFALLS, lA.\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nIN\n\nSTATE\n\nThe purpose of the state normal school is to prepare teachers for the public schools\nof the state. In the qualifications of the teacher there are three distinct elements that the\nnormal school may assume to have a direct influence in developing. These three elements are: (i) scholarship, or academic attainments; (2) a workable knowledge of the\nscience of education, the laws of mental development, and the consequent laws of teaching ;(3) definite, personal skill in the art of teachkig. A fourth element that lies outside\nthe immediate influence of any school is that mysterious something that we name \" personality.\" While this cjualification is not subject to such direct treatment as the others,\nthere is often marked improvement in the personality of the student thru the sensible\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "^26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TtON\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ndirection that he receives in the effort made to call out his highest powers in the more\ndefinable lines. The three features directly within the power of cultivation on the part\nof the normal school give origin to three distinct lines of work for the normal school to\nperform. This leads to the organization of three departments: academic, professional or\npedagogical, and traming.\nTHE\n\nACADEMIC\n\nDEPARTMENT*\n\nThe ideal for the normal school, as held in some sections, is that it should give its\nentire time and attention to the second, third, and fourth features of the teacher's qualifications mentioned above. This is an ideal so far not attainable in most of the institutions known, whether correctly or incorrectly, as state normal schools. Conditions must\nbe faced as they are. Ideals must be of working dimensions. They must be such as\nmeet the demands of the present by furnishing the best teachers it is possible to get, by\nwhatever road discernible that will lead to the desired end. It is not a matter of definition of what a normal school is or should be. It is a question of what the normal school\nshould do and can do for the schools of the state.\nNo matter how high the scholastic attainments of teachers as a body may be at any\nparticular period, there is always room and demand for something still higher. \" Excelsior \"! is ever the cry of the human soul. Also there must be a constant supply of\nrecruits added to the ranks, and these must have scholarship as well as training in the\narts of the schoolroom. That normal schools feel it a part of their province to furnish\nopportunity for this instruction along academic lines is proven by an examinatioii of their\ncourses of study and their recitation programs. If it is not their desire to do this work,\nthey at least feel compelled by circumstances to do it. Exceptionally high standards in\nthe way of entrance requirements would leave many a worthy teacher to go elsewhere\nfor study or to be debarred from study at all. There are great advantages to come to\nthe teacher that gets much of his scholarship under the roof of the normal school and in\nthe professional atmosphere thus imposed. The normal student should study the subjects\nusually given in the common-school course in order to learn their place and value as\ninstruments in the development of the pupils in the schools. This semi-pedagogical\nstudy of the academic branches is conducted most profitably in close relation with that\nstudy of the subject in which the student is trying to attain accurate scholarship and his\nown personal culture. The professional and the scholastic values of the branch thus\nbecome more apparent and unified in his daily experiences.\nThe high schools are doing good work, but they cannot be expected to give the time\nand attention to these branches ordinarily that the person preparing to teach must give them.\nSome academical work should be done beyond the high school, and the logical place for\nthose preparing to teach to do this is in the academic department of the normal school.\nThe person who is to set about acquiring skill in the processes of instruction in the classroom should have his mind as free as possible from difficulties incident to uncertainty of\nknowledge. This freedom can be secured only by giving some time to reviews of common- and high-school branches and advanced study in the academic department of the\nnormal just previous to the time that the student is to go into the class-room to acquire\npower in the art of teaching. Also a large part of the students that present themselves\nfor entrance to the normal school must necessarily come to its doors by some other route\nthan that of the high school. This is especially true of most schools of this central\nvalley. All these conditions demand of the normal school that it shall make some provision for giving academic instruction. But there are still other advantages in having\nacademic work done in the normal. The class instruction in this department should be\ngiven by teachers who are superior in their lines. The instructors in the normal school\nshould ever be awake to the purposes of such schools, and make their instruction such\nI The term \"department\" is used ns a means of setting out in this paper different sides of the work of the\nnormal school, and not to indicate unrelated and independent functions.\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n221\n\nthat it will be suggestive of the best that can be done in the public schools. Thus, as the\nstudent acquires his scholarship, he is also absorbing the best methods of presentation\nfrom the way that it is presented in his classes from day to day. With such conditions\nprevailing, things that otherwise would lie far apart in the mind of the student will come\ninto right relations and build for him a clearer idea of his own work as a teacher.\nTHE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENCE\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nThe department engaged in instruction in psychology, history of education, school\nmanagement, general method, and specific devices is admitted as belonging properly in\nthe normal school. This work is partially of an academic nature, as is shown by the fact\nthat some of it is found in college and university courses and taken by students who have\nno thought of becoming teachers. On the whole, it bears no closer relation to the student's final ability as a teacher than his knowledge of the subjects to be taught. If the\nstudent in the normal school masters these professional subjects, he does it by the same\nprocess that he uses in the academic branches, and likewise at the same time that he is\ntrying to see their application in a professional way. They are means of development of\nthe individual personally, and at the same time they have a technical value in ti.e preparation that they give him for a more successful practice in the art of teaching. Here\nagain the spirit and method of the class-room in the normal are to do a specific work for\nthe coming teacher in the examples and ideals that they give. It is just as essential that\nthe normal school should do academic work in other lines as it is that it should do the\ndistinctively academic work in these branches.\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSkill in the art of teaching is acquired mainly in the training school. The relation\nof the training school to the other departments of the normal school is a question of\nimportance. This may be called its external organization. Should the training school\nbe the center around which all other departments are collected? Should it be subordinate and under the direction of the other departments in its management ? Should it be\non equal footing and co-ordinate with the other departments in the development of\nteachers ?\nThe tendency to overemphasis of methods and devices to the neglect of strong\nscholarship in the normal school should be avoided. This tendency is likely to become\ntoo marked when the training-school idea is allowed to overshadow all others. On the\nother hand, the training school must be protected from diversity of interests in method\nand matter in the course. Subordination to other departments endangers the unification\nof the work that is imperative for the interests of the children and most valuable to the\npracticians. One great difficulty in the training school is to keep pupils and patrons\nfrom the feeling that there is no center of interest for the child. The pupil should feel\nthat he has some centralized power to which he may look for direction in all his efforts.\nThis is not the case when the course of study and the directions for teaching come from\nas many heads as there are branches in the course. Co-ordination and co-operation seem\nto come nearer to the best solution of the difficulty than centralization or subordination do.\nINTERNAL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nAs nearly as possible the training school should consist of such pupils as the representative communities of the state have in their schools. All grades from the kindergarten thru the high school should be found in the training school. This is not required\nwith the idea that all candidates for the diploma of the normal school shall leach in all\ngrades before graduation is allowed. The purpo^ is to furnish a working example of\nthe grades of the public school and to supply the means for such class-room teaching as\nthe interests of individual students demand. Such as have especial taste for primary\nwork and a manner and personality that promise success in that line should do their\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nobserving and teaching in those grades. The other grades can be used for the training\nand observation belonging especially to those grades. Certain fundamental principles of\nteaching are the same for all grades. The ability to apply such variations as are needed\nfor the different grades should come readily to one who has good ideas of the working\nprinciples in two or three different grades. From such experience the practician, critic\nteacher, and supervisor in consultation should be able to reach a very reasonable conclusion as to the grade to which the student is best adapted.\nThe training school should be like the public school also in the spirit o\\ the work\nand the atmosphere that should thus surround the practician while he teaches. It should\nnot have the air of an experiment station where new and untried doctrines are to be tested.\nIt should be progressive enough to keep up with the practices of the best public schools.\nIt should be conservative enough to inspire the confidence of the public to such a degree\nthat its example may be accepted as perfectly safe to follow. The whole idea in the\nschool should be to give the student the very best exposition possible of what is feasible\nin the public schools of sensibly progressive communities and a reasonable degree of skill\nin putting these things into practice.\nROOM\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIn order that there may be a feeling of interest in their work on the part of the pupils,\nand a proper balance in study, there should be a regular teacher provided for each room in\nthe training school. These are not critic teachers, but should give their time to looking\nafter the assembling of pupils, opening exercises, general exercises, irregular work of\npupils, keeping records required by law, visitation of patrons, and like duties. These\nteachers should do some teaching regularly, to keep in touch with the children. They\nmay take a class at any time that is dropping below what it should do in the hands of\na practician, and teach it for a time to bring it into proper condition again. At such\ntimes and for special lessons the practician may be present to observe and then take the\nclass again. These room teachers should have a salary that is about what is paid for\nsimilar grades in the ordinary school. They may well be selected from the class of the\npreceding year, and thus get the advantages of longer training in the school while acting\nin the capacity of room teacher. They should be able to undertake the best of positions\nin the public schools at the end of the year, but they need not be obliged to leave, if they\nprefer to stay.\nPRACTICIANS\n\nMost of the teaching in the training school is done by the practicians. These\nare the senior students in the other departments in the normal school. Academically\nthey should be well in advance of what they are to teach. In the professional\nclasses of the normal school they should have had clear presentation of the principles that\napply to instruction and class management. When quite inexperienced there should be\nbut little demanded of the practician in the way of control of a room while teaching. He\nmay wisely be allowed to give his entire attention to the instruction and management of\nthe class he has for instruction. As strength is developed, more may be required in the\nway of taking charge of a room. In the selection of class and subject the practician may\nbe allowed some choice, if convenient. A stated amount of work may be required, but if\nspecial ability is shown, that may be reduced, or if there is necessity for it, with certain\nindividuals, the amount of work may be extended. So far as possible, the practician\nshould be relieved of the notion that he Is in the training school for the purpose of having\nhis faults eradicated by criticism, or that his teaching is a test of his powers simply to\nexemplify what he can do. On the contrary, he should feel that the work in the training\nschool is for the application of principles previously learned and for the development of\npower thru the suggestions that may be given and thru his own activity. The practician\nshould make notes or plans of lessons to be given, and hand them in for consideration and\nsuggestions before the lessons are presented.\nThe class and the subject will make the\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n223\n\nreal method or order in which the matter is to be taken up somewhat imperative, but the\nindividuality and origmality of the practician should be allowed to show itself freely in\nthe means and devices used in class instruction and management. The work in the\ntraining school should be long enough in duration to allow the practician to get into the\nreal spirit of teaching.\nCRITIC\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe position of critic teacher in the training school is one of especial importance.\nIt requires a person of broad scholarship, keen discernment, large hopefulness and\noptimism, unbounded sympathy devoid of sentimentality. The critics may wisely be\nselected from among the graduates of the normal who have been thru the training school\nthemselves as practicians at some time in the past. They should have had experience in\nactual public-school work ; also they should have taken advanced instruction in some\nhigher institution of learning. The work of the critics may wisely be divided on the\ndepartmental plan. They should examine the notes of the practicians and make suggestions where these may be improved. They should visit classes and see the practician\nafterward for private suggestions. They should conduct meetings of teachers instructing\nin the same branch for general suggestions. These meetings should be on a higher plane\nthan to suggest devices alone, but should also look to the purpose of the devices and the\nsubject itself in the development of the child. These critics should do some actual teaching for the observation of practicians and prospective practicians. These lessons should\nbe of the regular work of the class and should be discussed fully with the observers afterward. The work of pupils should receive the careful attention of the critic teacher,\nand they should feel that she is interested fully as much in what they are doing as she is\nin the teacher in charge.\nSUPERVISORS\n\nFor the purpose of general supervision, the training school may be divided into two\ndepartments, primary and higher grades. There is territory enough here to engage the\nattention of a special supervisor for each department. This supervisor is not to be a\ndictator to command just what shall be done, but rather an adviser and general manager\nto keep the proper unity in the work of the department. With the work of the critics\norganized on the departmental plan and the practicians not working long periods each\nday, there is much to demand attention in order that the necessary balance is secured for\nthe children. The supervisor should do special critic work also, and should do some of\nthe teaching for observation. He should conduct general meetings with the senior\nstudents, to give such directions and help as may be useful in making the teaching in\nthe training school more effective, and to give practical illustrations collected thru his\nbroader view of the work in the training school. Supervisor, critic teachers, and room\nteachers should constantly be studying together the latest phases of public-school work,\nin order that the spirit of the training school may be kept up to the proper standard.\nThere should be frequent conferences with the critic teachers and room teachers, looking\ntoward the advancement of the work and the protection of the interests of the children and\nthe practicians alike. Thru these conferences, and others with the president and heads\nof departments, proper relations with other departments of the normal school may readily\nbe sustained. Scholarship is universal in application, and principles of method and of\nteaching are so nearly so that it is not seriously difficult to keep near enough to common\nground to preserve the coordination of the training school and the other departments of\nthe normal school.\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIt is not possible to discuss any organism without at least implying what the function\nof that organism is. Most that might be said under this title has been sufficiently shown\nin the previous discussion.\nThe primary function of the training school as a department\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNAT/OATAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrcindnnatJ\n\nin the normal school is the development of the student's powers in the line of the art of\nteaching. In part it is the purpose in the training school to supply the opportunity for\nthe practician to work out his own schoolroom problems. What has been taught as to\nscholarship and as theories of teaching is to be rendered concrete thru practice. Finally,\nthe training school furnishes the means for the culmination of the school process of\nacquisition of knowledge, scholastic and professional, thru the operations of expression\nand application in practice.\n\nC.\nTHE\n\nROUND\nMOST\n\nTABLE\n\nEFFECTIVE\n\nA. B. BLODGETT,\n\nOF CLTY SUPERLNTENDENTS\nUSE\n\nOF A\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT'S\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSYRACUSE,\n\nTIME\n\nN. Y.\n\nCity charters and special legislative acts, widely divergent, give to school superintendents so great a diversity in their environment that one can scarcely present this subject in a way that will have a particular application and at the same time be of special\ninterest to any considerable number. The importance of the topic is of value to each and\nall; but the variance in the amount and kind of work, the responsibility definitely located\nwith the superintendent, the power given him to discharge that responsibility, the absolute\nauthority placed in his hands, the attitude of the community toward the schools, and\nmany other features differ so widely in different cities that what is wholly applicable to\none superintendent's field of labor may have only a slight bearing to that of another.\n1 shall discuss this question, therefore, as it appeals to me, in connection with a\nschool system employing 500 teachers and caring for 18,000 pupils, whose educational\ninterests are presided over by a board of seven members. I could not present a theoretical view of this topic should I try, and must therefore speak from a personal experience\nof fourteen years in the superintendency. I shall present my views along the lines of\nsaving tune as one of the most effective uses a superintendent can make of his time.\nWhere there is a constantly changing membership in a board of education, a superintendent isbadly handicapped. A considerable portion of his time must be consumed\nindirectly in the instruction of his board, and every experienced superintendent realizes\nthat it takes practically about two years properly to educate the average school-board\nmember.\nA straight out-and-out course, consistently and wisely followed, will so plainly determine a superintendent's position that schemers, in or out of the board of education, who\nendeavor to work the system for political or personal ends will cease to approach him,\nand the result will be a saving of much valuable time and a condition of ease and satisfaction to the superintendent. It is a real blessing to be entirely free from manipulators\nof this character; to have them pass by on the other side. I am happily relieved of this\nclass at the present time.\nUnder any conditions, a superintendent can save time by knowing his exact relations to every feature of his work. In certain lines his authority must be unquestioned\nand his acts decisive. To other questions he should hold a joint responsibility, while to\nstill others his position should be advisory only. When these things are understood by\nall concerned, there is only one position for a superintendent to take. At all times and\nin all places, and steadied by an accurate sense of the fitness of things, he should present\nhis views and take his stand upon all questions, with all the fearlessness of a fearless\nnature. He should have the right — should claim it, if it be questioned — to speak his\nmind fully on all matters within his legitimate field. I made a statement similar to this\nin the presence of a fellow-superintendent of a large city system a short time ago, and he\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nsaid to me :. \"What ! do you dare discuss questions in open sessions of your board?\"\nThere is no dare about it — it is just what a superintendent should do, and it is thoroly understood with us that the superintendent is expected to speek freely. He is always invited to\ndo so, and it saves a large amount of time in the way of explanations and individual discussions. He should present his views freely and positively in open meeting, and should\nnever consent to be covered up — smothered — in secret sessions of either board or committee. The superintendent is no more the servant of the board of education than he is\nof the people, and the people expect and have a right to know his individual opinion on\nall school matters. The stronger the confidence of the community in the honesty and\nsoundness of the superintendent's judgment, the more hearty and generous will be his\nsupport in school administration, and no better use of a superintendent's time can be\nfound than in a study of how best to secure the full confidence of the community.\nIf a superintendent has worked from a good motive, and seeming personal troubles\nor conflicts with his board, or any member of it, cause him annoyance, he will clear the\natmosphere quickest and best by meeting the question at the earliest opportunity in a dignified, straightforward, out-and-out manner. He should neither cringe nor fawn, nor\nattempt explanations when explanations are not demanded by the circumstances. Such\naction weakens him with his board.\nIf a superintendent has some new departure to propose in connection with his work,\nhe should advocate it openly, forcefully, and wisely, and in the first instance in the presence of his full board ; and he should never maneuver to find out how many will be for\nand how many against his proposition before he presents it. Don't play politics ! Let\neach question stand or fall on its merits.\nNeither should a superintendent waste time in casting about to see in or from which\ndirection the wind is likely to blow next, and then hustle to the forefront and try to lead\nthe breeze himself in connection with any measure he may guess is about to emanate from\nhis board.\nNo board or member of a board cares to be handled with leading strings.\nOne of the greatest drawbacks to the effective use of a superintendent's time, and\none of the most dangerous elements to the progress of his work, is found in the brevity of\nschool-board membership. For instance, the superintendent suggests the introduction of\nmanual training. While the subject is under consideration the board- changes. Half of\nits members come in knowing nothing of the proposed introduction or the consideration\nalready given to the proposition. The remaining half are to leave the board in another\nyear and do not care to be responsible for its introduction. Nothing is done, or at best\nsomething is only half done, and there you are.\nOn what may be called the material or business side of this topic there is another\nway to save time ; and that is by being loyal to authoritative decisions. I have said that a\nsuperintendent should present his views plainly and unequivocally. But when the debate\nhas ended and the decision has been reached, no matter to what extent that decision may\nbe adverse to his views, he should be intensely, even religiously, loyal to the decision rendered, relying upon the unquestioned proposition that no responsibility as to results can\nrightly attach to him when his position has been positively taken and his duty discharged.\nSTRATEGY\n\nGeneral Grant once said, in substance : \" My idea of strategy has always been to\nget just as close to the enemy as possible.\" A superintendent may very wisely adopt this\nsaying, and, applying it with discretion, find it extremely helpful in many situations. He\nmay find the \"enemy\" in that member on his board (usually the new member) who feels\ncalled upon frequently to project something new of strange into the curriculum. Or it\nmay be a member who was elected for a specific purpose — possibly to curb the effusive\nprogressiveness of the superintendent. In any case, and whatever his purpose, get close\nto him.\n'Twill save time.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nAn \"enemy\" may be found in the person of the president of the mothers' club, who,\nwith the best of purposes, decides that certain remedies for supposed evils in the public\nschool can best be administered by the organization over which she so ably presides. I\nwould not decry the usefulness of mothers' clubs, but unless a superintendent manages\nthem, and is not managed by them, they may become the enemy against which he should\nemploy the wisest strategy.\nIn this case, too, I would get close to the enemy.\nBut why enlarge upon this thought ? Other enemies as wasters of a superintendent's\ntime will readily present themselves. Some of them are phantoms relating to possible\nunpleasant features of the next board meeting which never existed except in the superintendent's own imagination, and which rapidly vanish into thin air when he gets close\nto them. But in whatever form the enemy presents himself — if it be the carping critic,\nor the angry parent who knows you are all wrong because he \"used to teach school himself;\" ifit be the enraged mother of the boy who, she thinTcs, has been unjustly treated,\nand who wants the trouble adjusted right away because \"we pay taxes;\" or if it be the\npeddler of atlases or the genial but persistent bookman — by quickly getting close to him,\nher, or it, as the case may be, the superintendent will find the strategy of the famous\ngeneral of intestimable value.\nThe above suggestions pertain more closely to the material or business side of our\nwork.\nLet us consider for a brief moment the instruction side.\nIt is unquestionably true that the teaching force of any school system should be kept\nmoving along lines of educational progress ; that reading, study, and much discussion of\nvarious topics are a sine qua non with all teachers and educators. But in a large city\nsystem every honest superintendent must frankly admit that he cannot possibly touch\neach side of the instruction work as it ought to be touched. We are none of us gifted\nwith omniscience nor omnipresence. Then it follows that relief must be had from some\nsource.\nAn important feature is how to give to the great body of teachers the right kind and\namount of instruction and inspiration. There are ways to reach this difficulty and still\nremain superintendent of it all.\nIn order to save the time of the superintendent, and in a measure to save his schools,\nskilled supervisors and instructors must be employed to cover certain parts of the work.\nThere must be fixed places of responsibility, and in each such place must stand a person\nproperly qualified successfully to meet and rightly to discharge that responsibility. Then\nclothe that person with all needed power and authority to meet the duties of the position,\nand hold -him accountable for results. Many of us, I fear, are loath to cut loose from\ntraditions, from practices handed down to us by our predecessors — even from the dark\nages. We think our personal touch must be in or on everything, rather than simply over\nit in a supervisory and directive sense.\nI would make the position of school principal one place of fixed and definite responsibility, and I would magnify and dignify that position and office. I would have him\nfeel the responsibilities of the place he occupies. I would do my work with his school\nthru him. I would have everything pertaining to his school pass thru his hands, both to\nand from. Questions and complaints, whether of parents, teachers, or pupils, should be\nanswered, adjusted, and settled either by him or in his presence. I would have all\nparties, however, and particularly the principal, understand that an appeal from all\ndecisions was always in order provided the principal be first served with notice of such\nappeal.\nI would make the supervisorship of any particular branch or department another\nplace of responsibility, and thus with each principal and with each supervisor I would\nhave fixed and definite stations thru which I could reach every avenue of school work ;\nand I would still be superintendent.\nI would leave grade meetings for special instruction, except in specific subjects —\nwhich means those I wish personally to handle — to supervisors and principals selected\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n227\n\nas instructors. It is my practice to call these principals and supervisors together, usually\ntwice each month, for consultation and discussion. We call them \"cabinet meetings,\" and\nfind them very helpful.\nI have found one of the greatest and best of time-savers in a general teachers'\nmeeting held once each month, when the entire corps of five hundred teachers comes\ntogether. The occasion furnishes a spur for the superintendent, and is a good thing for\nhim. It also keeps the teachers in close touch with the superintendent's views of general\nschool management. If a superintendent on his rounds will make book notes of things\ncommendable and things criticisable, particularly those of a general nature, and at these\nmeetings comment upon them frankly, pointedly, and in a spirit of helpfulness — always\neliminating the personal element — he will find material enough for an interesting monthly\ntalk and will have a decidedly interested audience.\nIt is astonishing in these daily visits to the schools how many items one finds that\napply to a large number of teachers when brought to their notice in this way. I would\nnot, and could not, dispense with the regular monthly teachers' meeting without serious\nloss to the esprit du corps and the general tone of our school work.\nNo superintendent can use his time more effectively than by establishing frank,\ncordial, sympathetic relations with every teacher. They should have his confidence. He\nshould have theirs. They should know and feel that his criticisms and suggestions are\njust and are given for their benefit. Full confidence in his judgment and his spirit of\nhelpfulness should never be wanting. Teachers need the helpfulness that reaches them\nfrom honest hearts, friendly hands, and plain words ; and they always welcome the visits\nand the suggestions of one who carries such a spirit with him.\nCONCLUSIONS\n\n1. Know your exact relations to every feature of your work.\n2. Get close to the heart of every situation.*\n3. Take a tenable position on all debatable questions and speak plainly without\nbeing pugnacious.\n4. Be loyal to the decisions of those in authority.\n5. Have fixed places of responsibility and have that responsibility met.\n6. Magnify and dignify the office of school principal and supervisor.\n7. With your full corps of workers establish relations founded upon cordiality, frankness, plain speech, and sympathy.\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent Z. H. Brown, Nashville, Tenn.— I rise simply to emphasize what\nhas been said by Superintendent Blodgett. To my mind he has plainly and succinctly\nset forth the best and most satisfactory way in which the time of the superintendent\nshould be occupied. He has said, what I heartily indorse, that the authority of the principal\nshould be honored ; that all directions should be given to the teachers thru their respective principals ; and that all complaints of parents should first be made to the principal.\nAbove all, we should be absolutely open, frank, honest, and fearless in dealing with our\nboards of education, and none the less so with our teachers. Never deceive a teacher by\nleaving her to believe that she is succeeding, when the contrary is true. It may be very\npainful to her for you to make known to her that she is failing, but she will thank you\nafterward for your frankness.\nSuperintendent Charles S. Foos, Reading, Pa.— I have a board of sixty-four\nmembers, and I find it an economy of time fully tokexplain and discuss matters pertaining\nto the schools in the open board meetings. I believe that a policy of frankly telling your\nboard where you stand prevents much misunderstanding and misinterpretation of your\nofficial acts. This is my policy, and in the past eight months we have made at least six\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\norganic changes in our method of conducting the schools. We have regraded the schools;\nchanged the method of promotion; abolished monthly examinations; adopted a course\nof study; made more uniform the work in the several grades; and established a night\nhigh school. Not a smgle negative vote was cast against any of these recommendations.\nI attribute this to the fact that I discussed the matters in full before the board. Surely\nthis entailed less time than going around from member to member to ascertain how each\none felt. Considering the many duties of a superintendent, a wise partition of time is\nnecessary.\nJ. F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo. — The paper just read contains much that is good and helpful, but it also contains advice that is dangerous —\ndangerous to the young superintendent.\nIt is not the part of ordinary business sense always to introduce an important\nmeasure before a meeting of the entire school board without any preliminary discussion\nwith individual members of the board. When I began my work in supervision I used to\ndo that way, but as I grew older in practice I learned better.\nThere are two thmgs that a superintendent must know : what is good for his school\nand how to get it. The first implies knowledge of school work, and the second knowledge\nof how to manage men.\nBefore introducing a measure for open discussion it is often wisest to consult with\nthose members who are most in sympathy with the superintendent's aims and plans, and\nmost keenly alive to the needs of the school. This so called always open and frank discussion at the outset often defeats an important measure. It not infrequently happens\nthat men taken individually are more open-minded and fairer than when taken collectively. Intrying to secure the best for his schools it is the duty of a superintendent\nto recognize this fact and to act accordingly.\n\nPUBLIC\nJ. K. STABLETON,\n\nOPINION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nGOOD\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSCHOOLS\nBLOOMINGTON,\n\nILL.\n\nFourteen years I lived in central Nebraska. In 1891 Nebraska was burdened with a\ngreat crop of all kinds of grain; in 1894 it was one vast stretch of desolation, two hundred\nmiles north and south, four hundred miles east and west. Yet it was the same land that\nbrought forth bountifully in 1891 ; the same farmers were there to plant and cultivate; in\n1891 the atmosphere was full of moisture; in 1894 it was a hot, dry atmosphere that\nsapped the life from the sprouting grain.\nThere is an atmosphere of public opinion that causes a school system to blossom and\nbe fruitful ; there is another atmosphere of public opinion that takes from a school system\neven the life that it seems to have.\nThe school itself is largely responsible for the atmosphere of public opinion in which\nit lives. If public opinion concerning the school is bad, continually bad, the administration\nmust be at fault, largely at fault. If the school continues for any length of time worthy of\nthe support of public opinion, it will receive such support. If public opinion does not\nchange, the administration ought not to change. That is the best school which most\nnearly meets the needs of the community where it is located. That school most nearly\nmeets the conditions when it is a great intellectual, moral, and social loadstone or magnet,\nby its irresistible force drawing all young life into it, and, thru its moving power over\nyoung life, readjusting, modifying, and uplifting the life of the older ones. \"And if I be\nlifted up, I will draw all men unto me,\" said the great Teacher. And the school, if it be\nlifted up, will draw all the young life of the community to it. And when the young\nlife is touched, the school arouses the parents, and they reinforce the work of the schools ;\nan4 thus there is a knitting together, a back-and-forth interest that forms a meshwork or\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n229\n\nweb with the school at the center lifting up. And in this way the school Imilds up a\nhealthful public sentiment. The school must make itself felt, and it must recognize that\nthere are many other educational forces in the city which, when properly affiliated with\nthe public schools, will lend additional strength to the work of the schools. Among these\nmay be mentioned the woman's club, mothers' and patrons' clubs, bureaus of associated\ncharities, business-men's clubs, daily newspapers, and the different courts before which\njuvenile offenders and delinquents appear, All these and others can be affiliated with us\nin our school work.\nI believe strongly with William Hawley Smith that \"we, the people,\" today includes\na great many peculiar people — the white, the black, the cream-colored, and even the\nspeckled and striped ; and that when we speak of the common, free public schools for all\nthe people, it means all the people — all the boys and girls, without regard to their color\nor condition of life, except that they are boys with some mental ability. I believe further\nthat it is not merely a matter of choice, but a duty that superintendent, principals, and\nteachers owe to a community to know every gir^ and boy of school age in the city or ward,\nand see to it that every one of these children is in school ; and that one of the greatest works\nwe can do for a community is to bring all these into the schools : and that the very work\nof bringing these in puts the school in a position to touch the responsive chord of public\nopinion; for the heart of the public is always with the children when the public is aro.used.\nBut says one : \" How can we do these things ? How can we bring into our school the\nchildren who do not attend, when our boards do not favor it ? How can we affiliate the\nvarious agencies mentioned ?\"\nIf our boards do not favor compulsory attendance, we must educate our boards. It\nwas Henry Ward Beecher who stirred his people on the subject of slavery by putting up\na^lave girl at auction. If we select a number of families where the children do not\nattend school and present their claims to the board, these helpless boys and girls will\nappeal to our boards of education as we cannot, and our boards will gladly give us officers\nfor the work. Then we must select our officers with greatest care. The good commonsense and kind-heartedness of these officers must be above question, or their work will do\nbut little good.\nNow that we have our officers at work hunting up and bringing in those who are not\nattending, we must reinforce their work on every hand. Call upon the president and\nleading officers of the woman's club. Put the subject before them, ask them to aid us in\nthe work. They only wait for the privilege and to know what we would have them do\nand how we would have them do it. We must point out the way, and ask them to indorse\nthe movement, to talk about it publicly and privately, and in every way possible to help\nto make a strong sentiment in favor of the work. They will do it. And the influence of\nthe organization will mold the sentiment in hundreds of homes in the city.\nIf we have not mothers' clubs already organized in our different wards, let us\norganize them. When the mothers of a district are brought together at a school, we\nmust tell them what we are trying to do for the boys and girls who are not in school ;\nwe must ask them to help us. We should tell them of some of the pitiful or helpless\ncases ; their mother hearts will be moved, and they will pledge us all the help they\ncan give. They will look up the children in their wards who are not in school. They\nwill agitate the subject; and when most of the mothers in a ward talk strongly in\nfavor of sending the children to school, it is very difficult for one or two families to\n4iold out against the popular feeling of the neighborhood ; so that the officer finds it\nvery easy indeed to bring all the children of this district into school. Then each\nyear there should be in each ward at least one or two evening meetings of parents,\nteachers, and supervisors, for conference and a s9tial hour. If the teachers of the school\nand the women of the mothers' club jointly arrange for the meeting, the fathers as well\nas the mothers will be there. Here is a great opportunity to come into touch with many\nwho otherwise do not know those of us to whose care they commit their children.\nCare-\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrCincinnati\n\nfully, tactfully, we can talk with these people of what we are trying to do for their children, and what we hope to do for all the girls and boys, and they will understand us and\njoin with us in our work. Sometimes, you know, when we try to see to it that all the children have at least some opportunity for an education, parents feel that we have no right\nto say what their children shall do; but when we meet them in these parents' meetings\nand talk to them about their boys and girls having the same opportunity to prepare for\nbeing men and women that their neighbor's children have, then we appear to them, not\nas those who would take away their rights, but as those who would help them to see to it\nthat their children have a fair show. Parents' hearts, however crusted over they may\nsometimes be with ignorance and crime, have still some tender spots toward their offspring, and it is ours to find these spots. It is so much better to win than to simply compel ;for, after all, the greatest compelling force is but an intelligent winning force in its\nultimate analysis.\nHere is a meeting, a parents' evening that was held in one of the poorer wards in a\ncity but a short time ago. The mothers' club women and the teachers had sent a special\ninvitation to every home in the ward. In many cases the mothers' club women had gone\nto the homes and thus induced the parents to be present. The large room at the school\nbuilding at 7 : 30 p. m. was full to overflowing; fathers and mothers were there, not for a\nshow, but to hear and learn of the school and its work. The president of the mothers'\nclub presided. The eighth-grade orchestra opened the meeting with music; then a song\nby some of the eighth-grade girls — just one of their school songs, not anything specially\nprepared for the occasion. The superintendent was present, and with him a professor\nfrom a department of one of our great universities. This visiting gentleman was first\nintroduced, and talked to the people of their schools and of the changes that were coming\ninto schools, and the reasons for the same ; and he talked in a plain, matter-of-fact vifay\nthat appealed to them and held their attention. This was letting the light in from an\noutside source.\nAfter he had spoken, there was music by the orchestra ; and then the superintendent\ntalked to them, not of compulsory attendance, but of another subject that was on his\nmind — the importance of their boys and girls not stopping at the close of the eighth\nyear, but taking some work at least in the high school. Many of them knew little of the\nhigh school, for it was a district where a great many children never pass beyond the\neighth grade. He explained how the high-school course had been broadened by the\naddition of manual training and a business course ; he also explained to them how the\nhigh school was open in the widest possible way to their girls and boys ; that there were\nstudents in the high school who could be there for but two, and in some cases one, recitation hour a day, the remainder of their time being taken up with work in our stores\nor offices ; and yet these pupils in the work they were carrying were making excellent\nrecords. He said that, if any of their boys or girls could not come all the time, they\nwould be welcome to take a part of the work and be there a part of the time ; that the\nhigh school with all its advantages was theirs just as much as the first eight grades.\nThe parents understood what was intended and their responsive faces told him they\nwere with him heart and soul in the work. The supervisor of primary grades then talked\nfor a few moments of her work, after which was a pleasant social half-hour, when parents\nand teachers mingled freely.\nThe value of such meetings in creating an intelligent, healthful public opinion concerning the schools cannot be overestimated. At some of these meetings parents wish to\nask questions, so that there is a back-and-forth talking and explaining that results in\ngreat good.\nBut let me say this, that unless we show in all the management and school discipline that the school exists for the children, and not the children for the school, it would\nbe better not to hold these parents' meetings ; for even among the most ordinary, common people sometimes there is a vast deal of common-sense that sees thru any mere\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n231\n\npretense on our part. In our attempts to show high per cents, of attendance, and records\nfree from tardy marks, we sometimes defeat the very end for which the schools primarily\nexist. There is a school of medicine which says simiha similibus curaniur, \"like cures\nlike,\" but even the doctors of this school do not say that the same thing cures the same\nthing ; or, in other words, that if a rattlesnake bites you once, you must have it bite you a\nsecond time to cure the first bite; yet we, school people do sometimes practice this\nin our schools.\nThe social work of a district cannot be done, nor can a healthful public opinion be\nbuilt up, by suspending boys and girls for tardiness and non-attendance. We must put\nforth every effort with them and with their parents to bring them to regular habits ; this\nand this alone is right. A persistent effort in this line cannot fail to bring good results.\nI do not believe in tardiness and irregular attendance, but I do believe that it is\nbetter to have some girls and boys in school part of the time than not to have them at all.\nThere is another class of children that cannot be in school every day and serve the\nbest social good ; and when we fail to serve the best social good, we fail to build up a '\nhealthful public sentiment: a large family of little children; a frail woman trying\nto decently clothe and keep her family on the small wages her husband earns as an ordinary laborer; the washing, the sewing, the cooking — in fact, all the work of the home —\nto be done by the mother with the help of the children; she cannot do it alone, and she\nwould shun the idea of charity; she is self respecting, and so trains her children. What\nis right in this case? I will tell you what we must do to try to help her and at the same\ntime help the children. We must permit the children to stay at home busy days to help\nthe mother. We must try to make the school help this home to do the best possible by\nthe children of the home, while the mother is doing her utmost to give her children the\nadvantages the school offers and at the same time to keep herself and family out of the\ndependent list. It is to my mind a great social work to help families to keep their selfrespect ; for the school to come to their needs in such a way as to help them to feel that\nthey are independent. This case only emphasizes the importance of the close relation that must exist between the home and the school, in order that the school may do\nthe great social work that it is designed to do, or that modern life commits to it to be\ndone.\nWe should not fail to keep in close touch with the Bureau of Associated Charities and\nother benevolent organizations of the city. They gladly join us in keeping children from\nunfortunate homes in school ; or, in other words, they will clothe and care for the\nextremely needy, while we follow up their work by keeping these children in school. In\na great many cases where the families are not what would be called destitute, where only a\nlittle help is needed, the mothers' club can and will give aid in a way that will not\nbreak down the self-respect of the family. From time to time these women will spend an\nafternoon with some tired, overworked mother, helping her with her sewing, sometimes\ntaking with them clothing that can be worked over for the little ones of the less-favored\nhome.\nThe schools cannot be interested in helping the children of the unfortunate without\ncoming into a working relation with the courts before which juvenile dependents and\ndelinquents appear. All the courts look with favor on the school whose officer appears\nin behalf of the neglected children. Many a child can, thru the intervention of the\nschool officer, be saved from the jail and redeemed to a better life than he has known.\nOften the boy or girl will be given a trial at the request of the school officer on condition\nthat he attends schools regularly and is obedient to school authority.\nIn Illinois and some of the other states the school authorities can ask the courts to\nappoint certain persons probation officers for the^ delinquent or dependent children ; and\nthe fact that the children know that the court has committed them to the care of these\npersons, instead of sending them from home to some institution for delinquent children,\nexerts a great influence over them, and causes them to feel that they must attend school\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nA\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nand be obedient to their school authority. Then, too, they appreciate that a kind act has\nbeen done for them, and they usually look upon those who have interested themselves in\nthem as their friends. I could tell you of instances in more than one city of children that\nhave been helped in this way.\nIn the work of the public schools we must remember that we have no more faithful\nallies than the daily press. If the school administration impresses itself on the community as an administration of service, and not of political intrigue and dishonesty, the\ndaily papers will gladly give their columns that the work of the public schools may be\nplaced before the people. This is a great opportunity to reach the people — to help them\nto understand what we are trying to do. I sometimes think that we school people do\nnot fully appreciate the great work the daily press does for the cause of public-school\neducation. Our work should always be of a character that we should gladly have it\nspoken of in the daily papers.\n\nIs a large educational gathering to meet in our city ? Then the business-men's\nrganizations stand ready to aid in arranging for the proper entertainment of the visiting\npeople. As they are interested in the visitors, they become interested in the subject that\nbrings these people together, and, unconsciously at first to the business-men, the educational interests of the community are presented to them in a new light. Of course, most\nof them have children in school, and so are interested ; but when they meet leading educators from other cities and hear them talk on various topics related to school interests,\nthey immediately begin to wish to know whether or not schools in their own city take\nrank with the best. This leads to an intelligent investigation on their part, and they thus\n- become active supporters of every advance move made by the administration of the\nschools. Everything that tends to make prominent the best in education, so far as\nknown tends to arouse a strong public opinion in favor of a school system when it is\ngood.\nThe high school has much to do with public opinion concerning the school system.\nIt must have breadth as well as depth ; courses that fit students (pupils) in the best possible manner for college, and courses that appeal to those who do not look to a college or\nuniversity education. This giving breadth to the work of the high school appeals to all\nclasses and makes the high school the people's school, and not the school of a certain\nclass. Then, too, we must use common-sense in opening the doors to the high school to\nall who can possibly avail themselves of its privileges. When we do this, the common\nsense of the people approves it.\nHere are some boys and girls who spend one or two hours each day in class work at\nthe high school, the remainder of their time being given to work in stores and offices.\nTheir lessons are prepared in the evenings. In almost every city is a large class of these\nyoung people who are early forced to earn their living, and yet would snatch a little time\nfrom their daily labor to receive instruction, if they knew it were possible to receive\nsuch instruction free at the public high school. If they should have but one hour a day,\nthe school should welcome them, that they may be the better prepared to contribute their\npart to the common social good.\nIt is not only a privilege, but a duty, that a school administration owes to the people\nto let them know what the high school has for them. In some wards but few of the\nparents look upon the high school as for their children. At patrons' meetings, and in fact\non all occasions, we must lead these parents to appreciate the fact that the high school is\nfor their children ; we must inspire them with a desire for their children to enter the\nhigh school.\nTo help to make the connection close between the high school and the eighth grade,\nwe should have every eighth-grade class in the city spend a day at the high school, visiting. Set apart certain days for certain schools to visit. When these eighth-grade boys\nand girls come to the high school, let them go to the principal's office, where he will give\neach eighth-grade boy into the hands of some high-school boy for the day, and each girl\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n233\n\nto some high school girl. In this way no one feels lost or uncertain what to do or where\nto go, but is conducted about from recitation to recitation, so that he feels as much at\nhome as tho he were in his own ward school. This day's visit bridges the gap between\nthe eighth grade and the high school for many a boy or girl, and is the beginning of\nwhat proves to be a full high-school course.\nIf the executive head of a school administration, the superintendent, impresses himself on his board and on his people as a man who knows his business, and is full to the\nbrim with the spirit of service, willing to give himself freely for the cause he represents,\nhis board will gladly accord him the right to select teachers and other supervisors of the\nschools — a right which must be largely his or all his planning may come to naught\nbecause of inefficient assistants. No school without a strong teaching force can long hold\nthe respect and confidence of the people.\nAnd with this privilege comes a duty; if he selects his teachers, he must bear the\nresponsibility of dropping the inefificient ones. He must be willing to tell a teacher where\nshe is short and lend her all possible aid to overcome her weakness ; then after he and his\nsupervisors have done all they can for her, if she is still below the standard, tell her that\nshe is unable to do the work, that he cannot recommend her fur re-employment. Even\nthis, not always a pleasant duty, can be done in a spirit of fairness that will add to rather\nthan detract from the good name of the school. When it is known that efficiency both in\nthe ability to instruct and in the spirit of the work are the characteristics without which\nno one can hope to hold a position for any length of time in any system of schools, the\nconfidence in the administration that this knowledge begets among the most intelligent\nof the community creates a strong public opinion in favor of the schools.\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent R. A. Ogg, Kokomo, Ind. — I wish to emphasize just two of the\nmany good points made by Superintendent Stableton — the value of parents' and teachers' clubs and the tendency of teachers to be impatient over absence and tardiness. For\nseven years I have had experience with parents' clubs in connection with the schools, and\nhave found them very helpful. They bring parents and teachers into closer sympathy.\nThey give parents a better idea of the spirit of the schools, and teachers a truer understanding of the attitude of parents. They give the superintendent an opportunity to\nexplain the policy of the schools; answer questions and meet parents face to face. One\nvery important gain is that, when difficulty arises, parents are much more ready to take\nsuggestions and to see the reasonableness of the course pursued. They are valuable also\nin making the schoolhouse the intellectual and social center of the district.\nRegarding the impatience of teachers as to absence and tardiness, I have found it\nvery difficult to get teachers away from the idea that they are measured by the per cent,\nof punctuality and attendance they secure. Such is a false basis of estimate and leads\nteachers to be unduly exacting upon pupils, creating friction between the school and the\nhome. There are times when a child ought to be tardy or absent, not only because the\nhome may imperatively need him, but because he should learn that helpfulness at home\nand self-sacrifice are worth more than adherence to the form of the rules regarding attendance. Teachers should learn the home conditions and distinguish between carelessness\nand a conscientious doing of what appeals to the child as a duty to the home. If we\nonly knew the occasion of the absence or tardiness we would sometimes sympathize\nwhere we now condemn.\nW. S. RowR, superintendent of schools, (^nnersville, Ind, — In our schools we carry\nout the same general plan of parents' meetings as outlined by Superintendents Stableton\nand Ogg. We have, however, carried it one step farther, and have federated these several\ndistrict clubs.\nThe federated body is officered in like manner by parents.\nIts meet-\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNational\n\neducational\n\nassociation\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nings are at night, take place three times a year, and are referred to as \" public educational meetings.\" By this arrangement fathers are able to attend.\nAt one of these public meetings the topic for discussion was manual training.\nThe paper was carefully prepared and presented by the high-school principal. Equally\nthoughtful papers on the subject were read by two of our influential public-spirited citizens. Others participated in the discussion which followed. This occurred two years ago,\nand the interest taken then and since in the subject of manual training has undoubtedly\nhad the effect of encouraging our school board to take an advanced step and incorporate\nthis important educational feature in the plans for our new high school now in process\nof building.\nWith us similar influences are tending to make the school a social and educational\ncenter. As indicative of this, our new building provides on the second floor for an assembly hall to seat six hundred, and also on the first floor for a good-sized corridor and\nreception hall. Provisions are made for brilliant natural and artificial light. In the latter\nthe colonial fireplaces at either end of the corridor, the table and bookcases in the reception hall, will give a fine home-library effect. This will be open for use, not only to the\nmothers' clubs, out also to the literary clubs of the city.\nAs supplementary to the thoughts given in reference to knowing the home conditions\nof delinquents, in order to deal with them sympathetically, we have a plan which works\nadmirably. Our teachers write a card to the delinquent, calling attention to some highly\ninteresting things which have happened in the room during the day, and which he has\nmissed.\nThis notably decreases unnecessary delinquencies.\nSuperintendent W. W. Chalmers, Toledo, O. — In Toledo we have arranged with\nthe business manager to take the school census by primary districts instead of the old plan\nof by wards. The census enumerators furnish two copies of the census list ; one is for\nfile in the board of education office, and the other copy is handed to the principals of the\nelementary schools at the opening of the school year in September. This list contains the\nnames and ages, addresses, and parents' names of the children of the district. Some\ntime during the first week of school the principal calls a meeting of his teachers and reads\nto them the list of children of the district coming within the compulsory-education age.\nThose that have been enrolled in the school are checked, and those that are not enrolled\nin the school form a new list to be investigated by him and by the truant officer.\nSuperintendent H. V. Hotchkiss, Akron, O. — I-wish to emphasize the power of\nthe teaching force in any city to create and foster a just appreciation on the part of the\npublic of the work that is done in the schools of that city. Any system of schools of any\nvalue whatever has a certain genius or spirit which distinguishes it from any other system, which embodies itself in certain characteristic principles and processes ; in short,\nwhich brings things to pass in an effective and desirable manner.\nNo body of people can have the training and opportunities which will enable them\nto know what the schools are doing so thoroly as the teachers themselves know. Every\nsuperintendent, therefore, should enter into the confidence of his teachers ; should put\nforth his best effort to lead his teachers to know, in a broad way, the spirit of the system\nof schools in which they labor. I fear that too many superintendents satisfy themselves\nwith the details of the work, grade by grade, and do not instruct their teachers in a broad\nway along the lines that I have indicated. Even very good teachers are usually familiar\nwith the work of their grades or departments only, except in a very narrow and limited\nway.\nWhenever the knowledge and ideals of the teaching force as to the broad work done\nin a school system shall approximate the knowledge and ideals of the superintendent, all\nthe teachers who are loyal and earnest, meeting representatives of the entire city, as they\ndo, in church work, club work, social gatherings, etc., will, with here a word and there a\nword, little by little build up thruout the entire community a public opinion of the work\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\ndone in the schools that will be of inestimable value to the schools themselves and to the\nwork they are attempting to accomplish. Confide, then, in your teachers ; let them know\nthe best that you have planned for your schools ; and, believe me, you will find them a\nvaluable and helpful power in your community.\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD\n\nCLARENCE\n\nBE\nF.\n\nTHE\n\nCARROLL,\n\nFEATURES\nOF A MODERN\nSCHOOL\nBUILDING\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nELEMENTARY-\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe ideal elementary-school building has not yet been built, but here and there we\nhave all found buildings parts of which appear to satisfy our most critical judgment.\nIn this statement I shall seek to put together these fragments into an ideal whole.\nThere are two types of school building that appear to be most generally acceptable.\nPlan No. I provides for four rooms to a floor. The first floor may be duplicated above\n\nPlan No. i.— Woodland Street School.\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Cincinnati\n\nonce or twice, making eight or twelve rooms in a building. The hall runs thru the center,\nWith two rooms upon each side, and with a projection running out from the hall, to which\nan addition may be made. This-addition is easily accomplished, since a square or oblong\nmay be added at a minimum expense.\nrian No. 2 shows a four-room building, with two rooms to a floor, to which an addition of four or eight rooms may be made.\nNo. 2 is intended to be the reverse of No. i.\n\nPlan No. 2.— Harlow Street School.\n\nIn the city of Worcester most buildings are built with a view to an addition, and either\nplan No. I or plan No. 2 is usually adopted. A six-room plan is frequently followed\nwhere the amount of land i% limited.\nEither of these shows a building architecturally complete in itself. In case of an\naddition, the open space between the two buildings admits light freely to the middle of\nwhat might otherwise be the center of a long dark hall.\nIn the model elementary-school building at least half of the third floor should be\nleft vacant as a gathering-place for either the school or the neighborhood. In the basement there should be left ample space for play-rooms.\n,\nThe water-closets for girls and boys should be on opposite sides of the building.\nOn the assumption that there would be about two hundred boys in an eight-room building, there should be about twelve urinals. Underneath these there should'be a single\ntrough with no subterranean passage, easily accessible to the janitor. These should be\ndivided into stalls, and in no case should boys be exposed to one another when standing\nat the urinals. There should be a slate incline running so far back that no urine can\npossibly come into contact with the brick work.\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n237\n\nThere need not be quite as many closets as urinals. Ten is a reasonable number for\nan eight-room building. Each of these closets should have a separate inlet and outlet.\nIn other words, each should be as complete as if it did not belong to a system. The\nimproved closet is in strong contrast to the old Smead system — to the long box trough\nstill found in many old schoolhouses.\nThere should be an ample sink made of slate, with twelve or fourteen faucets, and a\nseparate cup for each faucet.\nThere should be an exit into the yard from each side basement, that pupils may not\nbe called to pass back up the stairway to get out of doors.\nThere should be an ample play-room on each side of the basement. In the ideal\nschoolhouse one of these basements might be used as a library and' reading-room, to be\nopen night and day.\nThe bath-room must not be omitted from the model elementary school building.\nLong ago it found its place in school buildings on the continent. Boston and Springfield have each two or three schoolhouses with bath-roums. One such building may\nanswer as a center for a district, children being sent for baths as for manual training.\nThe details are easily managed at comparatively slight expense. Many children do not\nhave the privilege of a bath at home. Some are so unclean as almost to create a nuisance\nin the schoolroom. Apart from the consideration of health, a thoro cleansing of the\nbody is the first step toward rendering these children wholesome.\nIf a furnace is used for heating and ventilation, one large furnace should be provided\nfor every two, or at least for every three, rooms ; one stack heater should be provided for\neach set of closets. For an eight-room building this would make at least three large\nfurnaces and three small ones — six furnaces in all. This makes an admirable, tho\nexpensive, system of heating for a cold climate.\nIf steam is used, direct radiators should be placed in the rooms, with indirect heat\nfrom coils provided for ventilation. A fan is generally most effective for ventilating\nlarge buildings. Steam pipes running around the room are much more reliable than\nany other form of radiating surface.\nAt least one side of the schoolroom should be pretty completely taken up by windows. Every available inch not taken up by windows should be filled with blackboards.\nSolid slate should always be used for the blackboards.\nThere is no excuse at the present time for using anything but adjustable desks.\nThese have become so familiar as to call for no particular discussion.\nIron ceilings should always be used, both because in the end they are more economical\nand because they are safer. There should be no platform in the room. Two closets should\nbe built into the wall, providing ample room for the storing of books and collections.\nThese closets take up some room, but this may be offset by a reversible standing blackboard, which is a piece of apparatus with which every teacher should be supplied.\nThis plan provides for a hall (twenty-two feet wide) running from one end of the\nbuilding to the other. Light and air are admitted freely from both directions. This hall\nis so large as to furnish in itself a playroom upon occasion, or, in the absence of an\nassembly hall, a place for gathering together the school for public exercises. The\ndressing-rooms (three feet and one-half wide) may be built into these halls without\ninterfering very much with free movement. It is, however, very desirable that these\ndressing-rooms should be separated from the niain building and ventilated. This can\nmost easily be accomplished by means of sliding partitions. With these sliding partitions, very little floor space is needed for the dressing-rooms.\nTar concrete should be laid in the play-rooms, and the same material should be laid\nin the basements, and also around the outside <9i the building to a width of three feet.\nThere should be a room for manual training and another for sewing in buildings\noccupied by intermediate and grammar grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nIn the primary buiMing there should be a room set apart as a kindergarten room,\nwith windows reaching practically to the floor.\nThe halls and rooms in the model building should be tinted from the outset.\nThere should be plants in the building itself, and a lawn bordering the playground,\nwith shrubbery and gardens both for plants and vegetables cared for by the children.\nThese are undoubtedly at the present hour an essential part of every model elemen-\n\nc\n\nr c\nr c\n\nLavatory^\nGirls\n\nm\n\nc\nc\nr c\nc\nr c\n/\n\nPlan No. 3. — Canterbury Street School.\n\ntary school, and a building must have a principal who is intelligent enough to keep all\nthis machinery in order. The janitor should keep the place clean and wholesome, and\nco-operate as far as possible in securing all that is here suggested. The principal should\nknow his janitor as well as his teachers, should have his confidence, and constantly study\nwith him the action of every furnace and boiler, every draft, damper, and valve. After\neverything else has been provided, this intelligent co-operation between principal and\nteachers, on the one hand, and between principal and janitor, on the other, is indispensable.\nThe development of the modern school building has been steady, and is apparently\nquite complete.\nFrom the basement up, every part has been the product of scientific\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n239\n\ninvestigation and long experiment. There ought to be no question about the main features of this building. We may make the rooms small to accommodate a less number of\npupils, or we may add library and entertainment rooms. We may add artistic furnishings, we may add pictures and carpets, we may make the school as elegant and as comfortable as the best home.\nWhen we do all this, we shall not have done too much.\nPlan No. 3 shows the outline of another style of building. On one side of this\nbuilding is the hall. On the other side are the rooms, two or more in number. In Brookline, where this model prevails, there are usually four rooms on a side, each of course\nwith its separate entrance from the hall. Sometimes one of these opens into another.\nThe entrance to the hall is sometimes on the side and sometimes in the front. These\ndetails are not material. An elegant new building just completed in Springfield, Mass.,\nfollows substantially this plan. The rooms, however, extend on three sides of the hall.\nThis limits both the light and the space.\nTo illustrate this plan more fully, I will describe briefly the Canterbury street building in the city of Worcester. In this building there are two rooms upon the first floor\n(twenty-eight by thirty-two feet). The hall is twenty by thirty-two feet — in itself a fairsized room. Stairways up and down are located at both ends of the hall, and light is\nadmitted from both.\nLight is also admitted from the weather side of the hall.\nExtending backward from one side of the building is a passageway connecting the\nmain building with a two-storied annex used for sanitaries. The boys' sanitary is on a\nlevel with the basement floor, and the girls' sanitary is on a level with the first floor.\nThis annex might easily be raised another story, providing for an annex on a level with\nthe second floor.\nFrom a moral standpoint, this arrangement is certainly ideal. As a matter of fact,\nthe girls never need go to the basement for any purpose. In the history of every school\nthere are complications and unfortunate incidents in connection with the passage of children, and especially girls, into a part of the building practically underground. Girls are\nnaturally timid, and, if possible, ought not to be sent on so long a journey and into so\nunattractive an atmosphere.\nAnother feature of this building is that the blackboards and the windows are near\nthe floor. There is still a strange conservatism that prevents school committees from\nlowering both blackboards and windows. In another six-room building in the city of\nWorcester the windows are only two feet from the floor. At Teachers College in New\nYork city the windows in the kindergarten department reach quite to the floor, and the\nrecesses are filled with plants.\nIf these rooms are used as kindergarten rooms, they may be opened together, as is\nthe case in the new primary building in Springfield already referred to. One of these\ntwo rooms is used as a play-room only and the other as a working-room only. This does\naway with the necessity of handling the tables and chairs, which is no small task.\nThe first floor may be duplicated in a second and in a third floor.\nIn another building in Worcester the upper floor is given up to a hall which may be\nused as a play-room on a rainy day and as a gathering-place for the school or for the\ncommunity.\nLarge recreation rooms are also found in both basements.\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y.— I desire to supplement at a\nfew points the remarks of Superintendent Carroll. Also I must disagree with him upon\none point.\nOur experience has taught us to use exclulSvely the plenum fan to drive the air for\nventilation. All other plans fail on some days or in some rooms. The entrance of the\nair is thru a large enough flue to furnish the required amount of air with the rate of flow\nnot over 300 to 400 feet per minuteThe air comes into the room at about two-thirds of\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfCincinnati\n\nthe height of the room, and the impure air goes out near the floor on the same side of the\nroom. Facilities should be made for circulating the air of the building outside of school\nhours in all rooms not provided with direct radiation. This is to save fuel. We get the\nbest results at least expense from a combination of direct and indirect steam heat.\nAgain we insist upon entire separation of the ventilation of the toilet-rooms from the\nventilation of the schoolrooms and corridors.\nWe save expense by partitioning off the sides of the corridors for cloak-rooms by\nthe use of wire or expanded metal with one-inch or one and one-quarter-inch mesh and\nproper supports.\nIn every school we now use, and greatly like, stationary drinking-cups, with water\nconstantly flowing over the edge during hours of use. They solve completely and at\nsmall cost the problem of danger of contagion from ordinary drinking-cups used in\ncommon.\nSome three years since I wrote to six or eight of the best authorities I knew upon\nthe question of the best color for school walls. These authorities included artists, eye\nspecialists, and schoolmen who had made a study of the matter. The answers received\nshowed a preference for very light Nile green for side walls and a clear white for ceilings. For rooms with northern exposure a light terra cotta was favored by several. We\nhave followed this scheme for three years, and are entirely satisfied both with the artistic\neffect and with the comfortable feeling these colors give to the eyes of those in the rooms.\nThe point where investigation and our experience lead us to differ from Superintendent Carroll is in the matter of lighting. We are strongly in favor of unilateral lighting.\nIt is better for both pupils and teachers if sufficient light can be secured from one side.\nWe find that this can be done by massing the windows upon one side of the room, by\nusing iron mullions instead of brick piers, and by carrying the windows up to the ceiling.\nBy this treatment in an ordinary room of twenty-four by thirty-two feet, about 20 per\ncent, of floor space may be secured in glass surface. This is regarded as sufficient, except\nwhere there are serious obstructions to the light caused by adjacent buildings or dense trees.\nIn such cases \" factory-ribbed \" glass should be used to improve the transmission and\ndissemination of the light. By this arrangement, moreover, no desk need be farther from\nthe window than one and one half times the height of the top of the window from the\nfloor — a desirable condition.\nQuestion by a superintendent : \" What do you use to shut out the direct rays of the\nsun- ? \"\nAnswer by Superintendent Griffith : We never use blinds or dark shades. The narrow streaks of light admitted thru blinds are very injurious to the eyes, and dark shades\nshut out altogether too much light. We prefer very light straw-colored or very light\ngreen shades of Roxonia sun-fast Holland. We hang them double-wound on spring\nrollers at the center of the window, with a cord over a friction pulley at the top of the\nwindow, and so arranged that any part of the window may be shaded without shading\nthe rest of the window.\nWe have two school buildings equipped with shower-bath facilities for both boys and\ngirls. These have proved so beneficial that we are to put them into a third building this\nsummer. The cost of equipment of two bath-rooms in one building was about ^400.\nThe cost of running these for one year was less than 3 cents per bath for over 3,700 baths\nvoluntarily taken by the 450 children of this school. We furnish soap, hot and cold\nwater, and a clean bath-towel and wash-cloth for each bath. The janitor and his woman\nassistant supervise the baths under the direction of the principal. I have no hesitation\nin declaring baths a very beneficial, and not expensive, addition to all school buildings\nin sections of a city where the great majority of residences are not equipped with bathrooms.\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\nCHARLES\n\nFULL\n\nUTILIZATION\n\nOF A PUBLIC\n\nUTLLIZATLON\n\nW. ELIOT, PRESIDENT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF A PUBLIC\n\nOF HARVARD\n\nPLANT\n\nSCHOOL\n\n241\n\nPLANT\n\nUNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE,\n\nMASS.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nIn approaching this subject we should first consider to what extent\nthe public school plant is now ordinarily used. The following estimate\nis a tolerably close approximation to ordinary practice at present : Schoolhouses may be said to be used about six hours a day during one-half of\nthe days in the year, Sundays, vacations, legal holidays, and Saturdays\nor two half-holidays in each week, having been deducted from the total\nnumber of. days in the year. It is obvious at a glance that so partial a\nuse of an industrial plant would never be thought possible. No productive industry could be successfully carried on with so incomplete a use of\nan expensive plant. Yet public education ought to be the most productive of all industries; and its plant should be more fully used than\nany other. It is as true of the country as it is of the city that schoolhouses are used but a small portion of the working time of an industrious\npopulation.\nWhat sort of a school plant can best be completely utilized? In the\nfirst place, it cannot be expected that ordinary school buildings should\ncontain machinery or other elaborate tools. No exceptional equipment\nis expected. The problem is to utilize more fully the ordinary schoolhouses provided for the first eight grades, as well as the high-school\nbuildings. The first requisite is the means of brilliant lighting. When,\nbut a short time ago, it was proposed to utilize in the evening several of\nthe Boston schoolhouses, it appeared that most of these buildings had no\nadequate means of lighting. Here is an initial expenditure. In the\nnext place a schoolhouse which is to be used twelve hours out of the\ntwenty-four will need some rooms which are not completely occupied with\nfixed desks and chairs. It will need some rooms which can be used for\nsuch exercises as drawing, modeling, dressmaking, embroidery, cooking,\nand basketry. Again, it will need an assembly-room provided with seats\nwhich adults can comfortably occupy ; and this room should be provided\nwith an electric lantern and the accompanying fixtures. Lastly, no\nschoolhouse can be made as useful to the public as is possible unless it\nhas a yard, playground, or roof garden. The yard or playground need\nnot necessarily be immediately attached to the building; it maybe a little\nremoved, if the access to it be convenient. Thus relatively cheap back\nland, instead of front land, can be utilized for the yard or garden.\nThe time is ripe for a fuller utilizatioii of public school plants. It is\na historical fact that improvements in education have generally been\noriginated and developed in our country in private and endowed institutions, and have spread from them to the public schools.\nAt this moment\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\na great deal of the work which I am about to describe as suitable for\npublic school systems is already being done in many parts of the United\nStates by private and endowed institutions of education and religion.\nThus, evening work on a large scale is carried on by such institutions as\nthe Cooper Union, and the Pratt, Drexel, and Armour Institutes. So it\nis by the Young Men's and Young Woman's Christian Associations.\nVacation work, which was started at Harvard University more than thirty\nyears ago — originally by the two great naturalists, Asa Gray and Louis\nAgassiz — has now been adopted by many universities, and has proved to\nbe an important enlargement of university influence and serviceableness.\nAt the University of Chicago the summer term is the most important\nterm of the year. I recall distinctly Asa Gray's plea for a summer school\nin Botany: Here are the herbarium and botanic garden maintained at\nlarge cost in labor and money, and we fail to utilize it during the three\nmonths of summer, the very months in which they could be most serviceable. It was an argument for the better utilization of an expensive equipment. The recent report of the Commissioner of Labor at Washington on\n\"Trade and Technical Education\" contains a great body of evidence\nconcerning the serviceableness of evening schools all over the civilized\nworld ; and one interesting feature of this exhibit is the large proportion\nof private and endowed enterprises in this field. Trade schools were first\nestablished in the United States by private benevolence, and the newer\nschools of this sort, like the Lick and Wilmerding Schools at San Francisco, have the same origin. Another evidence that the local institutions\nof public education fail to meet a widespread and large demand for\ninstruction may be found in the extraordinary development of schools of\ncorrespondence which has taken place in our country during the last ten\nyears. It is hard to imagine a more disadvantageous way of getting\ninstruction than the occasional receipt of typewritten directions and comments from a remote instructor who has never seen his pupils ; but nevertheless over three hundred thousand persons are at this moment maintaining\ncorrespondence with one such school in this country, and these persevering and ambitious pupils are scattered all over the United States in both\ncity and country. Unable to get what they want at their homes, they pay\nconsiderable sums for this extraordinarily uninviting and uninspiring sort\nof instruction. What a picture of local educational desolation do the\nfacts about schools of correspondence set before any mind which has a\nlittle imagination! The experience of the Chautauqua Reading Circles\nsets in a clear light the same sort of local school unfruitfulness.\nI turn now to a description of the work which a fully utilized school\nplant might do; and the first branch of this part of my subject is evening\nschools. Evening schools, like vacation schools, are in our country of\nprivate origin, and in many cases religious or philanthropic associations\nStarted them.\nFifty years ago I was a teacher in an evening school in\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUTILIZATION\n\nOF A PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPLANT\n\n243\n\nBoston which was carried on by an association of churches in that city.\nAll the teachers were volunteers. The equipment was very meager, and\nthe phj^sical surroundings deplorable; but it was good pioneer work,\nand showed the way toward the somewhat ample organization of evening\nschools which now makes part of the Boston public school system. The\nfundamental idea of the evening schools is to continue and supplement\nfor individuals the school training which was too early broken off. They\nare continuation schools. They are schools for boys and girls who have\nalready worked many hours during the day. Experience seems to have\nproved that for such pupils, so occupied during the day, manual and\nlaboratory subjects and methods are to be preferred to book methods.\nSuch pupils can be taught from things better than from words and\nphrases. They can more easily attend strenuously to exercises which\ninvolve the use of the hands as well as of the eyes. In such schools the\nelective or optional method is indispensable; for the pupil gets more\nprofit from a single subject than from many, and that single subject\nshould be one which naturally enlists his interest and zeal. It is interesting to observe that the present program of the Boston Evening High\nSchool is a longer and richer program than is provided for the day high\nschools, and that the system is thoroly elective, not only for short-term\npupils, but for the long-term pupils who seek the diploma of their school.\nThus the total amount of instruction offered by the school in all its subjects represents eighty-three points on the program ; but to attain the\ndiploma of the school only twenty-four points are required. The evening\nschools offer a continuation of instruction to boys and girls who have\nbeen obliged to leave school at the conclusion of the eighth grade, or\neven earlier. They offer additional instruction to boys who have been\nobliged at too early an age to become apprentices in shops and factories.\nThe evening school ought to be a refuge and refreshment for an apprentice. The objection to apprenticeship is that the interest of the shop or\nfactory is constantly in collision with the interest of the apprentice. It is\nthe interest of the shop that the apprentice should learn to do a few\nthings well and stop there ; it is the interest of the apprentice to learn to\ndo many things and to understand many more — to comprehend a whole\nmachine, and not that part only to the production of which he day after\nday contributes. The evening school should enable him to widen his\nknowledge; to understand principles as well as practice; and to escape\nfrom the contracting influence of automatic repetition.\nThe moment we come to consider what the subjects are which may\nbe most profitably taught during the evening in our, at present, unoccupied schoolhouses we shall see that some modification of the arrangement of the rooms and of the furniture in the rooms will ordinarily\nbe needed. There will be needed, for example, rooms in which conveniently to teach drawing,\nboth free-hand\nand\nmechanical.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincmnati\n\nvalue of drawing as training does not seem to me fully appreciated by\nthe ordinary American school superintendent and school-teacher. In\nthe first place, drawing is a mode of expression which is universally\nuseful in all callings or occupations. There is no mechanical art or\ntrade and no learned profession in which a capacity to draw is not a\nsource of power as well as of enjoyment. Drawing develops the perception of beauty and of the sources of beauty, and cultivates in a\nquick and effective way mental accuracy and habitual regard for truth.\nAs a means of conveying ideas and of recording impressions it can be\ncompared only to language, and is often far more convenient than language. Those of us who cannot draw — and I fear that we are a great\nmajority in this meeting of superintendents — are seldom impressed\nwith a more disagreeable sense of personal inferiority than when we\nwatch a man or a woman who uses a pencil effectively in sketching or\ndesigning, or a blackboard and crayon in lecturing. Who of us h:s not\nwatched with great delight, but with a sense of hopeless personal inferiority, an artist depicting with rapid strokes a landscape or a person, or\nthe mobile surface of the sea? It is by practice in drawing, and particularly in free-hand drawing, that the intelligent young artisan may most\neasily be brought to unite artistic and technical capacity. After drawing\ncome clay- modeling, pattern-making for the parts of machinery, and the\nexperimental study of electricity and electrical apparatus, as useful subjects for boys in the evening schools, and for girls sewing, cooking, household economics, dressmaking, millinery, and embroidery. All these arts\nhave much educational as w^U as industrial value; they train the mind as\nwell as the hand, and they may all impart habits of accurate observation,\njust reasoning, and moral rectitude.\nThe next enlargement of the use now made of school buildings should\nbe their use for vacation schools, not for a short term of four or five\nweeks, but for seven or eight weeks during July and August. Vacation\nschools, like evening schools, were first established by private enterprise,\nand with a view to keeping children off the streets and giving them congenial and improving occupations. They have been adopted by some\nAmerican cities, and have uniformly succeeded wherever adopted ; but they\nought to become a regular part of every urban school system, and they\nshould be as numerous and as well-sustained as the public schools which\nare open the rest of the year, altho the resort to them will not be so large\nas it is to the ordinary schools maintained from September to July: In\nthese schools the instruction should chiefly concern things, and not language, just as in the evening schools. The pupils need something to do\nwith their eyes and their hands; hence the same subjects which are used\nin evening schools should form the staple of instruction in vacation\nschools. In many cases the evening-school teachers from September to\nJune can be employed for the vacation schools, for this staff can very\nwell take its vacation in June.\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nUTILIZATION^\n\nOF A PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPLANT\n\n245\n\nWe should not imagine that either the evening school or the vacation\nschool is to be regarded as play ; on the contrary, both are real work.\nBoth provide a serious mental training, and both ought to have an excellent effect on the moral quality of their pupils. The pupils' minds should\ngain in accuracy of observation and clearness of conception. The cultivation of good judgment in productive labor may be more successfully\ncarried on in manual operations than in mathematical operations or in the\nstudy of languages. Whatever illustrates and inculcates good judgment\nin work during youth will add to the industrial efficiency of the nation\nwhen the youth become adult. There is no well-directed manual labor\nor laboratory work which does not give valuable training in the power of\napplication, in the capacity to give keen attention and to grasp quickly\nand firmly the gist of the matter under consideration. This power of\napplication may be as well developed in the classes appropriate to an\nevening school or a vacation school as it can be in the classes appropriate to an ordinary day school ; indeed, for some minds this invaluable\npower of application can be developed only thru manual training and\nlaboratory processes.\nI have said that there is strong moral training in the work appropriate\nto evening schools and vacation schools. Let me illustrate this proposition: To make a true joint between two pieces of wood or a true socket\nfor a square stanchion is a process in which may be displayed all degrees\nof accuracy in planning and of conscientiousness in work. As a test of\nhonesty in labor I know nothing better than the preparing of a plane\npiece of metal, proved to be plane by the application in all directions\nacross it of a veritable straight-edge. The foreman of a school shop in\nwhich such work is done has, in my opinion, better means of ascertaining\nthe moral quality of the pupils under his charge, with all its various shadings and gradings, than the teacher has in an ordinary schoolroom where\nlanguage, geography, and history are taught. In all good workmanship\nthere is a large element of morality, and this fact comes out very strikingly in every evening school and vacation school where the proper manual and laboratory subjects are utilized. This is a strong argument in\nfavor of vacation schools ; for the contrast between the kind of mental\nand moral training which they supply and the effect on idle children of\nthe sights and sounds of thronged city streets is a very striking one.\nThe next additional use of schoolhouses is evening use for adults as\nwell as children. This use is described by the phrase \"the schoolhouse\nan educational center.\" It regards the school building as the center of\nvarious instructive entertainments offered gratuitously to the people of\nthe neighborhood, but particularly to 4he families and friends of the\nschool children. These entertainments comprehend singing classes, performances bylocal choruses, bands, and small orchestras, readings of\npoetry, fiction, travel, and the drama by good readers, men, women, or\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinnati\n\nchildren; the acting of simple plays by children or adults, and lectures,\nillustrated by the lantern, on architecture, sculpture, city government, landscape, history, biography, the useful arts, and social questions. The illustrated lecture has in recent years been brought to great perfection, and\nhas become a very interesting and profitable mode of teaching. It used\nto be laughed at as an easy method, fit only for children and other inattentive persons ; but it has firmly established itself as superior in all subjects to any written lecture without illustration, not only for popular\naudiences, but for university audiences. Nowadays even Latin and Greek\ncannot be taught well without the lantern as a means of illustration. All\nthe sciences need it, and the teaching of history can be effectively vivified\nby it. For these instructive entertainments in great variety the assembly\nroom of all modern schoolhouses can be advantageously used four or five\nnights out of every week from the ist of November to the ist of May.\nIn a densely populated city the schoolhouse can thus be made the center\nof an active, intellectual interest for persons of all ages, from the child of\nfourteen to the grandmother and the grandfather. The schoolhouse\nshould be the most active social center of the neighborhood, kept so by\nthe interest in the music, recitations, plays, readings, and illustrated lectures which there can be enjoyed. This work needs a sympathetic director\nwho knows how to enlist in it all the available talent of the neighborhood\nand much outside talent besides. If it be objected to this suggestion that\nit is a new function for the public school to provide pleasures for the\npopulace, 1 reply that the adding of pleasures, joys, and satisfactions to\nhuman life ought always to have been recognized as the principal function\nof every school and of all education.\nFinally, the school yard or playground ought to be utilized by the\nneighborhood whenever the school is not in session. For this purpose\nthe playground ought to be decorated at its borders with vines and shrubs,\nand provided with seats. It should, of course, have a large asphalt or\ngravel surface, in order to secure quick movements of the children during\nrecesses, and this surface should be accessible for free games to all the\nchildren of the neighborhood, when the school is not in session. There\nought also to be provided in every schoolyard sand-boxes in which babies\ncan play at all times of the day when the weather is mild. The mothers\nof the neighborhood should be encouraged to come and sit in the school\nyard with their babies or little children, whenever the weather permits.\nIn short, the school playground should be an open-air parlor for the\nneighborhood, and should be kept accordingly with perfect tidiness and\nwith the utmost possible provision of pleasant objects for the eye on and\nabout the neighboring walls and buildings. It is astonishing how much\ncan be done to adorn commonplace or even dilapidated and forlorn buildings by means of vines, hanging baskets, and window-boxes, and it is often\neasy to interest the occupants of such buildings in this sort of decoration,\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superlntendrncel\n\nSEVE^T-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nPVARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n247\n\nparticularly if they belong to any Latin race, or have come from the\nsouthern half of Europe. Every such playground would require careful\nwatching by a man who had the double duty, first of keeping it tidy, and\nsecondly of seeing that nothing rude was done there. It is an axiom\nthat every piece of public ground, large or small, must be effectively\npoliced.\nYou perceive that all this larger use of school playgrounds involves\nan expenditure of money; but such expenditure is the only true economy. It is an abominable waste to use a very costly piece of open city\nground only during the recesses of a day school. Such breathing-places\nshould not be used for any highly competitive sports in which the few\nplay and the many look on; they should be chiefly used for free, spontaneous, active games which require very little apparatus and no elaborate\ntraining. These remarks apply most directly to city school playgrounds.\nYour own minds will suggest the modifications which would be needed in\nthe country. The surroundings of a country school ought to be beautiful. They should be thoughtfully contrived to exhibit successive beauties\nas the season of the year advances; and they ought to make ample provision for quick-moving spontaneons games. A fortunate movement to\nthis end is already well advanced in various parts of the country, and we\n\nI^^\n\nhope that before long Whittier's description of the country school as\n\" a ragged beggar \" will no longer be applicable.\nYou are all well aware that I have made in this discourse not a single\noriginal or novel suggestion. Every idea or plan I have mentioned has\nalready been put into execution in some part or other of the United\nStates. What I have desired here to urge on school superintendents and\nschool committees is that the full utilization of a public school plant is\nthe only true economy; that the present inadequate use of schoolhouses\nis wasteful precisely in proportion to the costliness of the grounds and\nbuildings, and that reform in this respect means a larger and better yield,\nphysically, mentally, and morally, from the public schools, and therefore\na significant addition to the health and wealth of the nation and to the\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\n\nM.\n\nGREENWOOD,\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\nPUPILS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nFOR\n\nWARD-SCHOOL\n\n^H\n\nJAMES\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nKANSAS\n\nCITY, MO.\n\n^H\n^H\n\nIn this discussion T am obliged to deal with conditions of things\nrather than with laws of thought, and I flatter myself that I have been\n\n^H\n^H\n\ncautiously conservative rather than rashly radical in advancing and defending the views I maintain.\nMy object is to have you look at a course of\n\n^K\n\nstudy from another's experience, and to weigh the facts presented in the\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfClncinnati\n\nlight of reason guided by unbiased judgment. The argument is based on\nthe assumption that children are not admitted to school before they are\nsix years old, as is the law under which the schools in Missouri are\noperated. With this limitation as to age, the inquiry is narrowed to a\nsingle proposition : Can children of average intellectual ability complete a\nsubstantial ward-school course of study in seven years?\nMy answer is in the affirmative, without any reservation whatsoever,\nand I shall discuss this question on its educational merits fairly, candidly,\nand fearlessly by taking my viewpoint at the center of the situation. I\nshall submit what I have seen, investigated, and feel sure of, after years of\npatient observation. Whether I assign true or false causes for results\naccomplished, you must judge of the facts set forth. If these be irrelevant, then cast them aside ; but if they appear reasonable, estimate them\nat their real worth.\nIn order to simplify this discussion, and to pick out the factors\ninvolved and to determine the weight of each, so that its truthfulness or\nfalsity may be the more easily shown, the following propositions are submitted for consideration :\nI. The custom in vogue in this country of estimating the ages in a grade by a mean\naverage age is fallacious and untrustworthy.\nII. The mean average age of a class completing a ward school course is a false\nstandard by which to judge of the time required for each pupil to do the work.\nIII. That pupils of ordinary intellectual ability have completed, and do complete, in\na satisfactory manner as heavy a course of study in seven years as is pursued in all firstclass city schools of this country.\nIV. The educational effect a seven-year course has on high-school attendance.\n\nFrom the very nature of the question proposed, it necessarily follows\nthat I must draw largely from my own observation and experience.\nA seven-year course for ward schools is not a recent discovery in Kansas City. The schools were organized on this basis in 1867, and have\nbeen operated on it ever since. Therefore I speak with confidence,\nstrengthened by convictions as deeply and clearly fixed as anyone can\npossibly have after watching and directing this work for -twenty- nine\nyears. Had I found after going to Kansas City that the children required\neight years to do the work satisfactorily, I should have asked the board of\neducation to change from seven to eight years ; but I have never found it\nnecessary, or even desirable, to suggest a change. Beginning under the\nseven-year course, and not feeling sure at first as to results, I watched\ncarefully and cautiously the entire work over which the pupils passed, and\nI made it a point to test our seven-year pupils with all kinds of questions\nused by the eight-year pupils in the best schools of this country ; and our\nseven-year pupils stood as high as the highest, whether the questions were\nfrom Brooklyn, the ** Regents' Examination Questions\" of New York,\nCivil Service or West Point preliminary questions, or those prepared by\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nWARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n249\n\ncity or state superintendents. The tests were chiefly on English grammar and composition, arithmetic, geography, and United States history.\nWe have always emphasized reading, spelling, writing, and the four\nbranches previously mentioned, and not neglected vocal music, drawing,\nand calisthenics.\nIn presenting my argument, I regret that other school systems did not\nhave, or at least supply, the information I wanted ; or, if it was published,\nit was in such vague form that I could not organize it for any useful or\nreliable purpose. These explanatory remarks prepare the way for entering upon the discussion of the four propositions previously announced.\nI. THE\n\nCUSTOM\n\nIN VOGUE\n\nIN THIS COUNTRY\n\nOF CHILDREN IN A GRADE BY A MEAN\nCIOUS AND UNTRUSTWORTHY\n\nOF ESTIMATING\n\nTHE\n\nAVERAGE\n\nIS FALLA-\n\nAGE\n\nAGES\n\nWhen a pupil enters school at the beginning or during the school\nyear, his age in years and months is recorded ; but in making up the\ntable of ages — for publication in annual reports — he is usually counted\n6 till he is 7, the months being omitted, and so on for each succeeding\nyear. It is also assumed that, if the age of admission be 6 years, practically all the pupils in the first grade are somewhere between 6 and 7\nyears old, and the same assumption is made for each of the following\ngrades. That is, the pupils thus massed by years, instead of by scholarship and educational proficiency, give many surprises when a critical\nexamination of classes is made involving both age and proficiency. If\nthe age theory be the correct one, all 14-year-old pupils should be in the\nhighest class almost ready for high school. On the contrary, I have\nfound that the ages of children in each grade vary from 8 to 10 years.\nThis variation in age in the same grades has existed in Kansas City\nschools for more than a quarter of a century, and I have no reason to\nbelieve that it is an anomaly and is not found in other cities.\nThe following will illustrate this point:\nIn Missouri children are admitted to school when 6 years old, if their parents wish\nto send them then. Now, the Kansas City school report for 1902 shows that 6,996 children belonged to the first grade. According to theory, all of these children should have\nbeen between 6 and 7 years old, or very nearly all of them ; whereas 3,044 were between\n6 and 7, counting their ages in years and months; 2,100 between 7 and 8; 1,002\nbetween 8 and 9; 426 between 9 and 10; 215 between 10 and 11 ; 89 between 11 and\n12; 53 between 12 and 13; 21 between 13 and 14; 3 between 14 and 15; and i, 16.\nThe mean average age of all these children was 7 years, 5 months, and 20 days. But\nonly 44 per cent, of these children were between 6 and 7 years old at the time of enrollment, while 56 per cent, were more than 7 years old. The extreme limit between the\nyoungest and the oldest was 10 years, and this variation is only slightly changed thruout\nall the other grades.\n%\nThe second ^rade. — In this grade the breadth was from 6 to 16 out of a total enrollment of 3,760 — 1,856 boys and 1,904 ^irls, grouped by years as follows: 72 between 6\nand 7 ; 724 between 7 and 8 ; 1,214 between 8 and 9 ; 878 between 9 and 10 ; 467 between\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\n10 and II ; 226 between ii and 12; III between 12. and 13; 42 between 13 and 14;\n20 between 14 and 15; 5 between 15 and 16; and 2, 16. That is, 34 per cent, from 6 to\n8 years of age, while 66 per cent, were above 8 years old. Statistically, these children\nshould have been between 7 and 8 years of age, yet only 20 per cent, fell within this\nlimit, and 80 per cent, above it.\nThe third grade.— T\\\\\\% grade presents a still wider variation, ranging from 6 to 17\nyears, two pupils being 6 years old and one 17. The enrollment in this grade was 3,974,\nor 2,001 boys and 1,973 gii\"ls. From 6 to 9 years of age there were only 609 children,\ncompletely upsetting all theoretical predictions; but between 9 and 10, 1,090; between\n10 and II, 1,042; between 11 and 12, 596; and 637 above 12 years of age. Not quite\n15 per cent, of these children were from 6 to 9 years of age.\nThe fourth grade. — The variation remains unchanged, beginning with 7 and extending to 18. The enrollment in this grade was 3,780 — 1,872 boys and 1^08 girls. Theoretically, the large bulk of these children should have been between 9 and 10 years old.\nAs a matter of fact, 1,513 children were registered as being from 7 to 10 years old, and\n2,267 from II to 18 years. In this grade just 40 per cent, were where theory places\nthem, and 60 per cent, above it. By condensation, however, 91 per cent, of the pupils\nwere from 9 to 13, 7 per cent, above 13 years old, and nearly 2 per cent, were under 9.\nIt is in this grade, however, where the masses begin to consolidate, and the enrollment\nconforms somewhat more closely to theory. The massing pupils within a narrower limit\nis also observable.\nThe fifth grade. — In this grade there were enrolled 2,912 pupils — 1,297 boys and\n1,615 girls. The ages varied here from 8 to 20, but 1,907 were from 8 to \"12 years old,\nand 1,005 from 13 to 20. Of every 1,000 pupils in this grade 630 were from 9 to 13,\nwhile 367 were over 13. Considering the ages of the pupils as a sort of \"milky way,\" the\ncluster was thickest from 10 to 13. It should be remarked, in passing, that the boys in\nthe fourth and fifth grades have commenced to drop out of school, and the girls are in\nthe ascendancy.\nThe sixth, grade. — In this grade the consolidation thickens from 11 to 14, there being\n86 per cent, within these limits, 12^ per cent, above 15 years of age, and i^ per cent,\nbetween 8 and 9. The total enrollment in this grade was 2,242, there being 999 boys\nand 1,243 girls.\nThe seventh grade. — The total enrollment in this grade was 1,828 — 763 boys and 1,065\ngirls. The ages of these pupils are from ii to 19, there being 31, ii years old, and 2, 19.\nOf the total enrollment, 1,609 were from 10 to 15 years old, and 219 were from 16 to 18.\nIn another way, 86 children out of every 100 pupils in this grade were comprised\nwithin the limits between 11 and 15 years of age, while the mean average age of the\ngrade was 14 years and 14 days.\nThe most carefully prepared mean average reports by years are those of the Cleveland schools, made by Superintendent Jones, but, unfortunately for the purpose that I\nhad in view, these tables, so laboriously wrought out, do not tell what I wanted to know\nconcerning the ages of the children individually. Nevertheless, his tables are instructive\nin showing the phase of school statistics by mean averages. From Table IV, Cleveland\nreport for 1901, one could infer that every child upon entering the first primary room\nthat year was between 6 and 7, and so on year by year up thru the eighth grade. The\nregularity in ages — like a long flight of stairs — is very monotonous, a year at a step.\nThis fact strengthens the belief that an examination based upon age and educational\nstanding would reveal a different set of conditions, even where compulsory laws exist\nand are enforced, if enforced.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\nII. THE\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nWARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n251\n\nMEAN AVERAGE AGE OF A CLASS COMPLETING A WARD-SCHOOL\nCOURSE IS A FALSE STANDARD BY WHICH TO JUDGE OF THE TIME\nFOR\nEACH\nPUPIL\nTO DO\nTHE\nWORK\n\nAges of pupils entering high schools. — In the investigation of this particular phase of the subject, I shall endeavor to show the unreliableness of\nmean average ages from different points of view. The first is from the\nMinneapolis report of Superintendent Jordan for 1901, which is verycomplete in the presentation of this subject. On p. 62, showing the age\nof the pupils in the high school that year, is the following : Number\n12 years of age, 5; 13 years, 39; 14 years, 223; 15 years, 502; 16\nyears, 681 ; 17 years, 564; 18 years, 346; 19 years, 152 ; 20 years, 48;\n21 years, 21 ; over 21 years, 3 ; total, 2,584. By grades or years in high\nschool, these pupils are grouped as follows : first year, 984 ; second, 770 ;\nthird, 518 ; fourth, 312.\nI quote next from Superintendent Soldan's report of the St. Louis\nschools, 1900, an extract submitted by Principal William J. S. Bryan.\nThere were 855 pupils admitted to the high school that year. Thirteen\nwere 12 years old ; 62,, 13 ; 228, 14 ; 270, 15 ; 201, 16 ; and 80, 17. By\ntaking the entire enrollment in St. Louis, which was 1,993, ^^^ percentages\nby ages are practically the same as those from Minneapolis; that is, there\nwere 14 pupils 12 years old; 76, 13; 320, 14; 457, 15; 502, 16; 359,\n17 ; 177, 18 ; 629, 19 ; and 26, 20 years old.\nIn these two cities, whose systems of schools are among the best on\nthe continent, the ages of the pupils in the high schools range from 12\nto over 20 years, each having the largest percentages in the fourteenth,\nfifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth years ; but the extreme limits here\nare in line with those that I had previously found to exist in the ward\nschools of Kansas City.\nAttention is next called to Superintendent Maxwell's third annual\nreport of the city of New York for the year ending July 31, 1901, under\nthe head of the \"Average Age of the Elementary-School Graduates,\"\nwhich is as follows :\nThe following table shows the average age of the children graduated from the elementary schools during the year in each of the boroughs ; two classes graduated, one in\nFebruary, 1901, and the other in June, 1901. I will give the ages of the February class\nfirst: Manhattan and the Bronx — boys 14 years and 6 months, girls 14 years and 7\nmonths; Brooklyn — boys 14 years and 9 months, girls 15 years; Queens — boys 14 years,\ngirls 14 years and 6 months ; Richmond — ^boys 14 years, girls 14 years. June: Manhattan and Bronx — boys 14 years and 6 months, girls 14 years and 7 months ; Brooklyn —\nboys )4 years and 8 months, girls 14 years and 10 months; Queens — boys 14 years and 3\nmonths, girls 14 years.\n\n%\nAlongside the New York report I will set the average ages of those\nentering the Cleveland high schools according to the report of 1901 :\nCentral High School, 14.3 years; East High, 14.9 years; Lincoln High,\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\n14.9 years; South High, 14.6 years; and West High, 15 years.\nThese two\nreports are practically the same.\nAppended to the New York table is the following by Superintendent\nMaxwell :\nThe fact that the boys and girls who graduate from the seven-year course in the\nelementary schools of Manhattan and the Bronx are on the average quite as old as the\nboys and girls who graduate from the eight-year courses in the elementary schools of\nBrooklyn and Queens, and are older than the graduates of the Richmond schools, destroys\nthe last argument that remained to those who advocate the maintenance of a course of\nstudy of seven years in the elementary schools. A seven-year course is made for the\nbright pupils, and places the average and dull pupils at a most decided disadvantage.\nAn eight-year course is best adapted for the average and the poor pupils, who must, in\nthe nature of things, constitute the great majority, while provision may easily be made for\nthe bright pupils to graduate in seven years, if they are able to accomplish the work of\nthe grades in that time.\n\nIt is just such an inference as this that I wish to examine from the\nbottom as well as from the top of a city school system. The only real\nargument, so far as can be discovered, in the New York report is a series\nof averages, and mean averages at that. To meet this inference I now\ninvite attention to the —\nAges of pupils in the Kansas City high schools in igo2. — To see whether\nthe pupils in the Kansas City high schools are younger or older than\nthose in other high schools of corresponding grade, I submit the following facts as bearing directly on this subject: For the year closing June,\n1902, the total enrollment of pupils in the four high schools was 3,653 —\n1,419 boys and 2,243 girls. There were 18 boys 12 years old; 117, 13;\n249, 14; 324, 15; 289, 16; 239, 17; no, 18; 54, 19; 19, 20. Of the\ngirls, 29 were 12 years old; 245,13; 565,14; 800,15; 661,16; 661,17;\n347, 18; 135, 19; 52, 20.\nBringing the pupils in the high schools of St. Louis, Minneapolis, and\nKansas City together, the total enrollment was 8,230, and taking the ratio\nof percentages of each year to the total enrollment in the high schools,\nSt. Louis and Kansas City are practically the same for the twelfth, fourteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth years, but in the\nthirteenth Kansas City has 3 per cent, more than St. Louis, i per cent,\nless in the fifteenth, and 3 per cent, less in the sixteenth. In St. Louis\nand Kansas City 43.4 per cent, and 44.7 per cent, of the high school\npupils are from 12 to 15 years of age, respectively, while in Minneapolis\n29.4 are from 12 to 14; but in Minneapolis 61.6 per cent, of the pupils\nare from 16 to 18 years of age, and 52.1 per cent, and 50.6 per cent, in\nSt. Louis and Kansas City, respectively. This comparison relates only to\nthe ages of pupils, and not to the years in high-school classes. This distinction isimportant.\nAges of pupils prepared for admission to Kansas City high schools in\nSeptember, igo2. — There were\n\n1,200 who gave in reports — 1,130 white\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nWARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n253\n\nchildren and 70 negroes. There were 487 white boys and 643 white girls;\n20 negro boys and 50 negro girls. These reports were made out at the\nclose of the school year, and the pupils counted their ages to September\n15. The items are all in years and months for each pupil ; but in order\nto condense this information I shall handle the statistics in periods of\nsix months each for convenience. Two white boys between 11 and 12\nwould enter high school, one being 11 years and 5 months old, and the\nother 1 1 years and 9 months old; 12 boys and 4 girls between 12 and 12^\nyears old; 15 boys and 12 girls between 123^ and 13 years; 40 boys and\n60 girls between 13 and 13^ years; 61 boys and 54 girls between 133^\nand 14 years; 83 boys and 129 girls between 14 and 14]^ years; 68 boys\nand 89 girls between 14^ and 15 years; 90 boys and 128 girls between\n15 and i5>^ years; 40 boys and 62 girls between 15^ and 16 years; 45\nboys and 59 girls between 16 and 16^ years; 9 boys and 25 girls between\n16^ and 1 7 years; 21 boys and 31 girls 17 years old. From an analysis of\nthis table, which is published in detail in the Kansas City annual report,\nthe following items are obtained: Of 1,130 white pupils prepared and\ncertificated for admission to the high school last September, 3.8 per cent,\nwere 12 years old at the date of admission; 19 per cent., 13; 32 per\ncent., 14; 28.3 percent., 15; 12.3 per cent., 16; 2.6 per cent., 17; i.i\nper cent. 18.\nOnly one other table of this character have I found, and it is by Principal Bryan, of St. Louis, who has kept these items since 1893. His\nstatistics on this point for 1900 are as follows : 1.5 per cent, were 12\nyears old ; 7.4 per cent., 13 ; 26.7 per cent., 14 ; 31.6 per cent., 15 ; 23.5\nper cent., 16; 9.3 per cent., 17.\nPutting these figures from St. Louis and Kansas City together, in St.\nLouis 35.6 per cent, of the pupils admitted to the high school were\nregistered as being from 12 to 14 years of age, and in Kansas City 56.4\nper cent, of the corresponding age ; and if those classified as being 15 be\nincluded, then in St. Louis 67.5 per cent, and in Kansas City 84.7 per\ncent.\nTime required to complete ward-school course. — A special report was\nmade to me in September, 1902, by 441 boys and 554 girls who entered,\nor intended to enter, high school, stating the length of time each pupil\nhad taken in ward school or rural school to prepare for high school,\ncounting nine months to the year. Nearly all these children had been\nprepared in the Kansas City public schools. The boys reported as\nfollows: 6 had completed the ward-school course in 4}^ years; ii in 5\nyears; 45 in 6 years: 29 in 6^ years; 209 in 7 years; 29 in 75^ years;\n9 in 9 years; 3 in 10 years; 2 in 11 years. Of the 554 girls, 3 had completed the work in 3 years; 6 in 5 years ; 5 in 5^ years; 80 in six years;\n290 in 7 years; 26 in 75^ years; 104 in 8 years; i in 8>^ years; 9 in 9\nyears; 2 in 1 1 years. Putting this in another form, 71 per cent, of the\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nboys had completed the course of study in 7 years or less; 27 per\ncent, required from 7 to 8 years to complete it, and 2 per cent, required\nmore than 8 years; and of the 554 girls to enter high school, 74 percent,\nhad completed the course of study in 7 years or less, 23 >^ per cent,\nrequired between 7 and 8 years, and 2]/^ per cent, more than 8 years.\nThis statement does not differ in any material respect from several\nother reports I have published upon previous occasions and at different intervals, and I think it and other similar reports materially invalidate\nSuperintendent Maxwell's inference that a seven-year course is made for\nbright pupils only. His conclusion must have been based on a series of\narithmetical averages.\nSubstantiating this report made from the pupils of 1901 who entered\nhigh school, I herewith submit summaries from the pupils of the four\nhigh schools of Kansas City who are members of the graduating classes\nin June, 1903. This information was procured from the pupils directly,\nwho filled out a printed blank which I had prepared and was returned to\nme December 23, 1902. In this report a school year is also counted as\nnine months.\nThe total number of boys who reported is 143; 3 had completed\nthe ward-school work in 2 years ; 2 in 2^/^ years; 2 in 3 years; 3 in 4\nyears; 6 in 5 years; 42 in 6% years; 61 in 7 years; 20 in 8 years; 4 in\n9 years; putting this in briefer form, 119 had completed the ward-school\nstudies in-7 years and less, while it took 24 more than 7 years.\nOf 288 girls only 42 attended ward school more than 7 years; more\nspecifically, 4 had completed the ward-school work in 2 years, 7 in 3\nyears, 10 in 4 years, 28 in 5 years, 59 in 6 years, .138 in 7 years, 27 in 8\npears, 10 in 9 years, 5 in 10 years.\nCondensing: 85 per cent, had completed the ward school course of\nstudy in 7 years and less. This again confirms the argument hitherto\nadduced in regard to a seven-year course, and that it is not made for\nbright children only. It is pertinent to remark in this connection that I\nhave upon three former occasions examined into all cases of failure to\ndo ward-school work on time, and I found the chief causes to be irregular\nattendance, loss of time by changing from one school to another, sickness, and a few cases of inability to do the work.\nIII. THAT\n\nPUPILS\n\nOF\n\nORDINARY\n\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nABILITY\n\nDO\n\nCOMPLETE,\n\nIN A SATISFACTORY MANNER, AS HEAVY A COURSE OF STUDY IN SEVEN\nYEARS AS IS PURSUED IN ALL FIRST-CLASS CITY SCHOOLS IN THIS\nCOUNTRY\n\nThe subject-matter in a seven-year course. — The quality and quantity\nof subject-matter in an eight-year course have appeared to superintendents, principals, and teachers engaged in graded school work as incapable\nof reduction or compression into a seven-year course, without some losses\nof the essentials in the common\nbranches.\nI admit that the announce-\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nWARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n255\n\nment of such a proposition to conservative school people is very repellent\nto their habits of thought. This feeling is apparent in Superintendent\nSoldan's excellent paper read at Chicago, November 8, 1902, before the\nAnnual Conference of High Schools and Academies, in which he discussed \"Shortening the Course in Elementary Schools.\" As I read\nbetween the lines in his published paper, he is haunted by a strong misgiving in regard to subject-matter. He thinks that possibly the substitution ofone text-book in geography for the customary two books, with\nthe reduction of text-books in arithmetic, would be necessary; he would\nput stress on the practical acquisition of good English (deferring some\nof the formal grammar to the time when a foreign language is studied\nin high school), and thought that a change in the method of conducting\nrecitations would become necessary perhaps. With modifications such as\nare indicated, he thought a seven-year course might become feasible.\nWith all due respect to the opinion of a man so able as Superintendent\nSoldan, and one whose judgment is always calm and judicial, I must dissent most earnestly from his views of a \"bob-tail\" course of study,\nand I therefore deal with the entire question on the basic fact that all the\nnecessary work done in an eight-year course, in order to prepare children for life or a high-school course, can be done, and is done, just\nas well in seven years. Why should a child be kept eight years on an area\nof school work that can be done in seven years under the limitation stated\nat the beginning of this paper ?\nThe branches in detail, — First, as to two geographies being replaced\nby one, as suggested by Superintendent Soldan, I dissent on the ground\nthat it is not necessary. We have always used two good books in geography, besides doing a very great deal of work not found in any text-book.\nButler's two books were used since their publication till September, 1901,\nwhen Morton's two books were adopted instead. Elementary geography\nis introduced as a regular study, that is, by reading from the book during\nthe last three months of the third grade; and it is continued for twelve\nmonths, or to the end of the fourth year. At the beginning of the fifth\nyear, the advanced or complete geography is begun, and it is continued\nto the end of the sixth year. Our pupils have done the work in geography\nas well as, if not better than, it is done in a large majority of the city\nschools with which I am acquainted. In fact, I do not know a system of\nschools in which there is so much latitude given to the teachers in\nteaching this subject. We have man-geography, dirt-geography, commercial-geography, industrial-geography, correlated-geography, wet- and\ndry-geography, field- and visiting-geography, and some straight-geography.\nWith reference to arithmetic, I am equally positive that the course\nshould not be abridged, and, furthermore, that no necessity exists\nfor curtailing it. Besides oral-arithmetic, wooden-arithmetic, pint-ing-\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ninch-ing-measuring-arithmetic, doing-arithmetic-concretely, we have also\nelementary arithmetic, introduced at the beginning of the second term,\nthird grade, or at the beginning of the twenty-second month of the\nchild's work. He continues this text, Milne's Arithmetic, for twenty-four\nmonths. But this work is largely supplemented by outside miscellaneous\nproblems and exercises. At the beginning of the sixth year Moore's\nGrammar School Arithmetic is taken up and studied till the close of the\nseventh year. This is not all. We have never been maudlin enough to\nthrow out of our course of study mental or intellectual arithmetic. While\nall thru the course much quick work is done mentally in fractions and\nintegers, yet at the beginning of the fifth year the pupils take a mental\narithmetic, Book II, Oral Arithmetic, Kirk and Sabin's; and this text is\nstudied till the end of the seventh year. If there are any eight-year\nschools that have a solider course in arithmetic, I am not aware of the\nfact. Our course in arithmetic is practically the same as the one in use\nin the schools of France at this time — a strong, three-book course —\nbesides all the new fads practiced in Chicago and elsewhere.\nIn English grammar and composition the same solid work is carried\non, with still greater force, if possible, than in arithmetic. It is obvious\nto anyone that children in the ihird grade, who observe and study natural\nobjects with a considerable degree of interest and curiosity, will, if their\nminds are properly directed to words and sentences in their oral language\nwork and composition, study these with a like degree of intelligence and\nunderstanding. This is the result of our experience, corroborated by\npractice in grammar, composition, reading, and spelling. If the children in the public schools of France have, beginning at seven and by\nthe end of the ninth year, or at the farthest by the end of the tenth year,\nacquired not only a good working knowledge of their mother-tongue,\nbut also a fair understanding of technical grammar, including the nicer\nshades of meaning in .the ''subjunctive mode,\" I should like to know\nwhy our children cannot grasp in the fourth grade some of the essential\nprinciples underlying the use, function, and syntactical structure of sentences and paragraphs of the English language — one of the simplest of\nall languages in its structure. While the usual practice with teachers in\nthe reading and language exercises of various kinds in the first, second,\nthird, and fourth grades is to watch carefully over the child's pronunciatjon of words, his putting words into sentences so as to express his\nthoughts definitely and forcefully — and all these things are strongly\nemphasized — yet it is just as true that the child's attention is seldom or\nnever directed to the forms of sentences, to the principal elements and\nthe modifying elements of which sentences are composed; while, if, on\nthe other hand, the object be a tree, a clear distinction is drawn in regard\nto root and trunk, branches and branchlets, leaves and leaflets, even down\nto the venation of the leaves.\nWhy should we not carry the child along\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintrnacnce]\n\nSEVE^-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nWARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n257\n\na similar process of investigation and reasoning in sentence structure,\nwhere material is so abundant and ready-made ? Instead, he is kept\nusing words and sentences as things not to be studied, and his language\nwork, except a little preliminary drill of a routine character, is chiefly\nconfined to copying sentences and paragraphs — simple, careful work\nthat cultivates attention and penmanship, but exceedingly dull work.\nWriting from dictation is a grade higher in value, especially if the pupil\nis put to correcting his mistakes by the use of the book from which the\ndictation has been made. Whatever the exercises may be, the pupil\nshould be made to see in what his mistakes consist, whether in spelling,\nthe use of capitals, punctuation, syntax, unity, or concord. Gradually,\nbeginning with the second grade, a few of the simpler prefixes and suffixes in the spelling exercises should be introduced, and their meaning\nand use taught ; and by so doing some advance will be made over the\npresent slow methods in vogue. In the fourth grade, especially, it is\ntime to commence systematically to teach the four different kinds of\nsentences as to their use in the expression of thought and feeling, and\nimmediately after these divisions have been mastered by the pupil he\nshould begin to study sentence structure in a formal manner, then\npassing to the elements that enter into sentence structure. Anyone who\nhas ever tried it will find that pupils are just as keenly interested in\ntaking sentences to pieces in thought as they are in any other kind of\nanalytic work. Either before or after, the child can be taught to tell the\nparts of speech in all plain sentences, and the properties of the same.\nBut I need not point out in detail how these different things can be\ndone. I simply say they are done, and that any intelligent teacher who\nis able to organize the material in English grammar and composition\non a rational basis can do all I have indicated, and much more ; and\nthis work should be commenced in the third or fourth grade. Enough\nfor me to say that Reed and Kellogg's English Grammars, the Graded\nand the Higher Lessons in English^ are the texts that we have used for\ntwenty years, interspersed with composition work ; and I am of the\nopinion that this series is as severe as any other published in this country.\nBy the time the pupil has passed thru the fourth grade, he takes up\nGraded Lessons in the fifth year, much having been anticipated in the\nthird and fourth grades by oral work ; but the work in the text is not\ntaken up as the authors arranged it, but related topics are brought\ntogether and studied, and not cut into little pieces, as the authors conceived ito be their duty to do in arranging the text. The best method\nof teaching the essentials of any subject is not to nibble at this thing a\nlittle while, and then at something else, ^nd so on ; but to bring related\nmatter together, organizing and handling it in good-sized pieces as\nwholes. Too many teachers — and some superintendents, I fear — do\nnot discriminate between essentials and non-essentials when teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfCindnnati\n\nAs to whether this is feasible or not, I shall not waste words in trying to\nconvince anyone. Should any doubt, try it, is my advice. This is the\nbest and quickest way to settle such questions. The Graded Lessons \\^\nused by the pupils one year, -and in the sixth and seventh grades the\nHigher Lessons is studied, after the same general plan as that pursued in\nthe lower grades. We cut nothing out of the text, but rearrange some\nof the material by putting it together in a better way to handle it, so\nthat it may be the more easily comprehended by the learners.\nIn United States history, McMaster's is the regular text. It, with\nmuch collateral reading, gives the children a fair knowledge of the history\nof the United States, and some glimpses of outside matters, past and\npresent.\nThe way for this is prepared in the lower grades also.\nLest some may conclude that music, drawing, and calisthenics are not\ntaught, I will simply state that the Kansas City schools were the first in\nthis country to employ a supervisor of calisthenics, and to teach the subject in all the grades in the ward schools ; and that it, in due time, spread\nto other cities. I will also remark that we never employed a special\nteacher of penmanship, because we had no use for one when our pupils\ndid prettier writing, whether slant or vertical, than do the pupils of any\nother city, except the children of the Cincinnati schools ; and from them\nour children learned to do it.\nI think that I have shown that by sticking to the common branches,\nas we have, and having kept steadily in mind solid attainments in these\nbranches, not omitting any essentials, but by emphasizing them, neglecting nothing important, all that is really valuable to the child in a wardschool course can be learned in seven years. Furthermore, I do not\nhesitate to affirm that, in view of all the facts, an eight-year course is one\nyear more than pupils of average ability need to do the work.\nIV.\n\nTHE\n\nEFFECT\n\nA\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\nCOURSE\nATTENDANCE\n\nHAS\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nA few years ago, and even at the present time, various remedies were\nand have been suggested, and some of them strenuously and ably advanced\nas successful measures for increasing the attendance in high schools. In\nsome cities and towns it was maintained, with some degree of plausibility,\nthat if Latin, and algebra were left optional in high schools, the boys who\nhad completed the ward-school course would gladly enter the high school.\nThis elimination, which was the substitution of a downy bed for solid\nwork, has had little appreciable effect one way or the other. There has\nnot yet been found a quick commercial or an electric method of learning\nany subject outside of faithful, persistent, intelligent work. The mind\nyet moves in its own way, and possibly will continue to do so as long as\nthe earth spins in space. Legislation does not change human nature, and\nneither do milk-and-water courses of study make sound scholarship, no\ndifference how deep or thick the sugar-coating is.\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nWARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n259\n\nA more hopeful panacea was the manual-training high school, which,\nit was believed, would be sure to catch and hold boys and girls better\nthan the old-fashioned high schools had done ; but with the largest city\nmanual-training high school in this country, after several years of experience, we have found thus far that it neither holds pupils in school so\nwell as do the other high schools, nor do they pursue their studies so\npersistently ; that is, they do not stick to what they start in with so continuously, especially in mathematics, Latin, German, French, English,\nand natural science. But in manual training and domestic science the\nclasses continue at a relatively high level.\nAnother view was that of large options in high-school studies. This,\nI believe, is a potent factor in influencing some minds not yet fully\nqualified to choose intelligently, but capriciously, such studies as strike\nthe fancy of the pupils for the time being, or in sliding thru school on a\ndown grade. There must be a broad and deep educational background\nin the mind of man or woman upon which a solid structure can be built.\nThat, in my opinion, is the only safe and sure foundation to fit boys and\ngirls for the manifold duties of life. In high schools, as in other schools,\nthe chief factor is whether the pupil is sent to school or he goes to school.\nThe sent pupil looks out for soft snaps ; the other goes to work.\nTurning aside from these reflections, I cannot account for the heavy\nenrollment and attendance of pupils in the high schools of Kansas City\nexcept upon the hypothesis of a seven-year course as compared with an\neight-year course in other cities.\nA few references will be sufficient to indicate what I mean. In New\nYork the total enrollment in ail the high schools is 3.4 per cent, of the\nentire enrollment; in St. Louis, 2.6 per cent.; in Cleveland, 6.4 per\ncent.; in Los Angeles, 6.2 per cent.; in St. Paul, 5.2 per cent.; in Springfield, Mass., 5.2 percent.; in Denver, District No. i, 10 per cent., (the\nrichest school district in the United States in proportion to population );\nin Omaha, 8.2 percent.; in Buffalo, 5.1 per cent.; in Chicago, 4.49 per\ncent.; in Lowell, 6 per cent.; in St. Joseph, 7.2 per cent.; in Indianapolis,\n7.2 percent.; in Boston, 6.2 per cent.; in Kansas City, 12.5 per cent.\nI have used the most recent information from these cities, and in\nseveral instances the reports for the second school year ending June, 1902.\nIf this subject be viewed from the standpoint of graduates from the high\nschools in different sections of the country, the contrast is still more\nstriking. The number of graduates for the last three years from the\nKansas City high schools thus summarized is : in 1900, 387 graduates,\n135 of whom were boys; in 1901, 430 graduates, 158 of whom were boys ;\nin 1902, 486 graduates, 152 of whom were boys.\nIt may be that the public-school spirit in Kansas City is more enthusiastic than in other cities, but I hardly think so. I can see no reason why\nthere should be a more pronounced feeling among us on this subject\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nthan among other patriotic citizens living in other sections of our\ncountry. Neither am I persuaded that our citizens as a class are better\nable financially to keep their children in high school than in other localities, or that our principals and teachers persuade the children to go to\nhigh school more successfully than in other cities. Competition to get\nahead in this world's goods is as keen and exacting with us as it is with you.\nPerhaps it is more pronounced than in many other localities. So far as I\ncan determine by an analysis of the facts, I firmly believe that the chief\nfactor is the seven-year course of study pursued in the ward schools.\nA good course of study in the ward schools and a heavy course in the high\nschools — just such courses as fit young men and young women for college\nor for life — are the inducements we offer to our boys and girls. Our\nplan has always been honest, persistent, intelligent, systematic, and conscientious work in ward and high schools.\nBefore closing, I will venture an opinion on the six-year plan forward\nschools and six years for high-school work. In my opinion some\npupils can be well prepared in six years for the high school. Such a course\nwould further particularly such as are foreordained to take .a classical\ncourse, and to begin it early in life, as is done in the German schools.\nA six-year course for high schools, viewed from a financial standpoint,\nwould render such a scheme impracticable, unless the salaries of highschool teachers were reduced to a common denominator with those\nteaching in the ward schools.\nI need not argue this questi'on further.\nSummarizing the results, I conclude as follows :\n1. That the custom of presenting tables of mean averages as a coefficient\nof the ages of children in a particular grade, or class, is practically of\nno real educational significance.\n2. That the mean average age of a grade, or a class, completing a year's\nwork is a false measuring unit by which to estimate the time required\nby each pupil to do the work.\n3. It has been shown, and it cannot be successfully contradicted, that\nchildren admitted to school at six years of age, or older, do complete,\nin a satisfactory manner, as heavy a ward-school course in seven years\nas is pursued in first-class city schools of this country.\n4. That Kansas City has a greater percentage of pupils in her high\nschools than any other city of the same or larger size, whether percentages be estimated on entire population, the total enrollment in\nthe public schools, or the number of high-school graduates in proportion to the total population.\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent Richard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O. — In the first place, the\nimportant point is not that the children shall have learned so much of the subjects,\nbut/that they should become eager to attack new problems.\nThere are not so many\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSEVEN-YEAR\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nWARD\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n261\n\nessentials in those branches as we may think. The child should learn how to make\napplication to history of his studies in literature, and then he will be able to take history\nwork in the high school.\nSo in the nature work in the elementary grades, the child must learn how to get hold of\nits meaning, and then, when he comes to the high school, he can take whatever science is\noffered. We must remember that there is no convincing reason for the present curriculum; the amount of each subject put into it is arbitrary. The traditional limitation of\nsubject-matter is being removed. As a matter of fact, it seems to me that the experience\nof the best schools is that during seven or eight years, without using more time for reading than before, we can read eight times as much as we used to think we could read.\nWhat is true of reading is true of geography. It is not necessary to reduce the number\nof books nor to reduce the assignment. The child needs to get at these things in a more\nresourceful way. The schoolmaster dawdles, works on the unimportant details of subjects, on things that bring no insight. Much in history is of no use to life; much in the\nfield of nature study has no earthly use, and could not be of heavenly use, in the very\nnature of things.\nThe trouble with too much of our work is that it is given up to details.\nIf we only knew what to teach of these matters, far more could be done in six years\nthan we now do in eight. It is not a question of years so much as of the age and development of the children.\nWe are all doing something in the direction of pushing down from the high school\ninto the grades — introducing into the elementary schools studies heretofore considered as\nhigh-school studies. We are beginning algebra in the grades, constructive geometry in\nthe grades ; history, belonging in the high school as formerly believed, is being done in\nthe grades.\nWe have a peculiar situation in Cincinnati. Forty-five thousand children are in the\nschools, and seventeen thousand take the German language in the elementary schools,\nspending during the first four years one-half of their time in that subject. So far as I am\nable to see, the seventeen thousand do the work of the English course of study about as\nwell as the others do. This means six years for our English course, and a large percentage of our children get for the English course only six years.\nI should be afraid to give you here the figures on attendance. I am not so well fortified on that point as is the writer of the paper. We in Cincinnati get very few children\nthe whole ten months of the year. Thousands come not more than eight months, and\nthousands not more than seven months. When they finish in fifty-six school months,\nyou see how much farther the reduction would go. The course is made out for eight\nyears because the children are so irregular in attendance. If our children were in school\nnine months per year, or even eight months, seven school years would be all that is\nnecessary.\nThere is a great waste of time. We do not begin to do what we might *do if the\ncircumstances were more favorable. As I have already said, the greatest trouble is that\nthe majority of teachers do not see what is vital. They should select what is vital\nin your arithmetic, drawing, geography, history, grammar, spelling, etc. Some years\nago, in an attempt to revise an elementary course of study, I went to some members of\nthe faculty to ask assistance. In physics the teacher said, \"All the points can be counted\non the fingers of one hand.\" In history the teacher of that subject gave practically the\nsame response. There are not many things to be taught in language, geography, etc.\nThe problem is the problem of selection.\nI recognize the fact that the time is needed for growing. An eight-year course must\nbe better than a seven-year course on this account. I do not mean by this that we are to\nshorten the time in school. Mr. Greenwood is wrong about the seven-year course making alarge high school. I think their manual training and the enrichment of the courses\nhave popularized their high school. Altogether, it seems to me that we might make some\nshortening of the elementary course.\nI am not sure but his last suggestion for shorten-\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ning to six years the elementary course, with a little more time in the high school, may\nbe worthy of adoption.\nFrank M. McMurry, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.— I\nwant to support one of the thoughts suggested by Mr. Boone, namely, that there is nothing sacred about the present common-school curriculum. In the last fifteen years we\nhave introduced subjects until we have probably twice as much as we had in the course\nbefore that time. We all know, however, that what we now have is the result of enthusiasm, enterprise, and extension. If we know that much we have introduced is not very\nvaluable, why can we not agree that there must be much omission? We should unload\nfrom one-third to one-half of what we have. I was disappointed in the indication that\nthe author of the paper wanted to hold in the course all that is now there. Why shall\nwe not discuss the question of what can be left out of the course?\nThe omissions we have referred to will, on the whole, involve the omission of\ndetails. There are many details that lead nowhere to vitals, but there are details that\nAyill aid the comprehension of the subject and will greatly enrich the course. We must\nsubstitute details of the more valuable kind.\nSuperintendent C. F. Carroll, Worcester, Mass. — Yesterday, and on Tuesday\nperhaps, the question was presented here of dropping the high-school course two years\nlower. This morning the question is the shortening of the preparatory course. Twentyfive years ago President Eliot proposed the enrichment of the common-school course.\nThe grammar-school principals almost made a riot, but now we are taking his view.\nLast night President Eliot proposed an industrial course reaching down thru the grades,\nand I think he voiced the feeling of almost all who are here.\nNow, it seems to me that both this morning's discussion and the previous discussions\nare parts of the same question : How can we readjust the entire curriculum from the\nkindergarten to the university?\nFor my part, I am not particularly interested in shortening the elementary course.\nIn New England nine years is still given to this course in many cities. I thought Superintendent Greenwood skipped something. In Worcester we send children to the high\nschool below the age of fifteen years. It is reported that in Kansas City 35 per cent, go to\nthe high school below fifteen ; in our schools all go below fifteen after finishing a nine-year\ncourse.\nA larger percentage go to the high school in Worcester than in Kansas City.\nIt does not seem to me that this is the important question. As Mr. McMurry has\nsaid, it is the question of enrichment. We need something of history, something of\nliterature, as was set forth on this platform yesterday. All these things really shorten\nand enrich and enlarge the elementary course. The languages should be put into the\nelementary schools, as Dr. Boone has already suggested. This is being carried out in\na number of schools. Mr. Coy contended that it is not practical to teach languages\nand algebra in the elementary schools. I will tell you what I think we are accomplishing in the schools of Worcester. A year ago I asked the board of education to\nauthorize putting German and French into the seventh grade, Latin and algebra into\nthe eighth, algebra and geometry into the ninth. One very intelligent man, a college\nman, was anxious that his children be spared the mountain of higher arithmetic and\nsimilar omitted subjects. This year we have five city centers, containing nearly four\nhundred pupils, taking this work. There are administrative difficulties to be overcome.\nWe simply select good teachers, employ one special teacher in French and one in German, and the schools go along in the usual way.\nIt is impracticable to lengthen the high-school course by dropping it down into the\ngrades. The high-school teachers can never, in point of skill or sympathy or effectiveness, take the place of the teachers in the grades. I have been a high-school teacher.\nThe teachers coming from college, as I did, anxious to take a chair, learn at the expense\nof your children and mine how to do good teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] OXFORD\n\nUy/VERS/TY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n263\n\nWe have in the grammar grades a company of teachers wonderfully interested in\nthe children and improved in skill beyond what is common in the high school. May the\ngood Lord forbid that we shall ever put the children of the upper grammar-school\ngrades into the hands of the untrained teachers in the high school, thus taking them out\nof the hands of teachers who love them !\nAll honor to the university men at Columbia, Chicago, Cornell, who are trying to\ntrain high-rchool teachers so they can teach along pedagogical lines I It is the hardest\nproposition I have ever met, this making of college graduates into teachers. I have\ntried fifty such teachers, and I have not in Worcester today a single college graduate\nteaching little children. The question of readjustment from top to bottom is the vital\nquestion.\nSuperintendent J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind. — I have read somewhere that, in\nwriting a novel, the excellence of the book consists largely in what is left out. I want\nto take but one moment of your time to utter my most emphatic disapproval of overcrowding the elementary-school course.\nI have not been with people announcing great educational doctrines ; I have been\nalong the firing line, where we are trying to do the work that they say needs to be done,\nand we are suffering from intellectual dyspepsia. It is not the question of how much can\nbe crowded into the course, but of how much can be done, how much can be digested.\nI want to say that French and German and algebra and geometry are not to be crowded\ninto the elementary schools. We are not to crowd out the old-time studies. Spelling\nstill has a place in the public-school curriculum of this country, and my plea is for relief\nfrom some of the things we have. I am willing to try in my school to leave some of the\nthings out.\nPrincipal E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O. — I do not want to give an account of my\nwhole life, but I wish to say that there is no grade of school in which I have not taught.\nI have been in primary schools, and I have worked in the grades. If the Lord will\nforgive me, I will confess that I have been a city superintendent. I want to enter a\nprotest against what has been said about high-school teachers. In Cincinnati we do not\nhave that kind of high-school teachers. In Cincinnati high schools we have the most\nthoro devotion to the pupils. When young people come to the high school, the whole\nplan of instruction must be changed ; no class comes into the high school without the\nteacher's considering the adjustment that must be made for the individual pupil. That\nthose teachers do not teach the children, but teach the subject, is not true. 1 not only\nknow the high schools of Cincinnati, but I have visited Columbus and Chicago and\nother cities, and I can show that there also it is not true.\nI did teach in a normal school once; I believe in normal schools; but there are\ngood teachers that have never been to the normal schools. I want to protest against\nthe abuse of high-school teachers not founded on fact, and much of what has been said\nhere in that direction is not founded on fact.\n\nOXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nW. T. HARRIS,\n\nUNITED\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nRHODES\n\nSTATES\nCOMMISSIONER\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nOne of the memorable events of last 3^ear was the offer of Cecil Rhodes,\nmade known to us thru the provisions of his will, providing for a hundred\nperpetual scholarships in the University of Oxford, two for each state\nand each territory in the United States, a scholarship amounting to the\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nhandsome annual sum of three hundred pounds — say $1,500 — to support a student for three years at the most famous university in Great\nBritain.\nThis provision was made with the noble purpose of bringing about a\nmore intimate and sympthetic acquaintance between the most influential\nclass of citizens in the English nation and the people who have gone out\nfrom it in past times and founded an independent nation on the basis of\nconstitutional liberty and local self-government. In the words of his\nwill, \"the union of the English-speaking peoples throughout the world\"\nimpelled him to make this endowment. He desired \" to encourage in\nthe students from the United States of North America, who will benefit\nfrom the American scholarships, to be established, for the reason given,\nat the University of Oxfordunder this my will,an attachment to the country from which they have sprung, but without withdrawing them or their\nsympathies from the land of their adoption or birth.\"\nAs a guide to his trustees in the selection of incumbents of these\nscholarships, Mr. Rhodes mentions four qualifications: first, literary and\nscholastic attainments ; second, fondness for outdoor sports; third,\nunselfishness and fellowship; and lastly, moral force of character and zeal\nin the performance of public duties.\nAll good people will respond with a hearty spirit of co-operation to\nso noble a project, and we may well consider what it signifies and what\nare the conditions of its successful management.\nThe past three years have been noteworthy, in the history of industry\nand finance, for the development of productive industry. Pari passu\nwith this has gone on the taking possession of the resources of nature,\nand the increase of the assets of civilization — wealth in mineral, vegetable, and animal productions; natural forces have been harnessed for the\nuse of men, lessening distances and removing obstacles to communication\nby land and water. Never before has the potency of capital been so aweinspiring. To name in one word the function of the great process going\non, one would say that it is the removal of the middle man, who effects\nexchanges, to the function of the end man, who is direct producer or\ndirect consumer. By saving in the middle term of cost of manufacturing, transporting, and distributing there comes to be an enormous accumulation ofcapital. After apportioning to the producers and consumers\ntheir quota of the benefit derived from reducing the expense of the\nmiddle term, the owners of capital have for many years made large gifts\nto education.\nThe names of Tulane, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, Leland Stanford,\nDrexel, Vanderbilt, Sophie Newcomb, Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, Yale, and\nHarvard come to our minds as the leading universities recipient of\nendowments.\nFor the year 1899 -1900, gifts for higher education amounting in the\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n265\n\naggregate to $11,995,463 were reported to the Bureau of Education by\nthe several colleges and universities. For the year 1900-1901 the gifts\namounted to $18,040,413. For the year 1901-1902 thus far the gifts\nreported amount to $16,989,967. Not all of the university reports for\n1902 are in.\nThe Carnegie gifts for libraries and other institutions have been estimated at the following: for 1895, $1,000,000; for 1898, $310,000; for\n1899, $3,370,000; for 1900, $5,065,000; for 1901, $30,243,500. Counting\nin his gift for the Carnegie Institution in Washington, his grand total\nof gifts in the United States is estimated at $52,270,173. Besides this\nhis total for Canada, Cuba, England, Ireland, and Scotland amounts to\n$15,000,000 more.\nThis enormous increase in gifts to education incident to the amassing\nof capital is of special interest to this consideration of the Rhodes gift, by\nreason of the fact that the application of capital to the increase of wealth\nis a process somewhat mysterious to the common mind. Karl Marx's\nformula C-M-Cj commodity — money — commodity, or the producer\nexchanges the commodity which he has created for money, and with\nmoney procures the other commodities which he wishes for use— states\nthe first and obvious economic process (in a formula C-M-C); but the\nmiddle term, money, when expanded, comes to mean the market, and the\nmarket has a different function from C-M-Q or commodity — money —\ncommodity, namely, it starts with J/, or money, and buys commodities,\nto sell again for money, hoping to increase its money by the process —\nearning an income by the process of exchange — and this formula is\nM-C'M, according to Marx, and in that he sees the origin of all the evils\nin an industrial and commercial civilization, for this is the formula of the\ncapitalist. The capitalist as the middle term represents a stock of goods\nand its transportation and distribution. Without this middle term the\nproducer can produce only what is useful to himself, and not for his\nneighbor or for the market of the world, because there is and can be no\nmarket without this second formula M-C-M,\nmoney.\n\nmoney — commodity —\n\nIt is obvious that the profit of the market, the middle term, is greater\nwhen its own expenses of collection and distribution are diminished — and\nwhen this is done on a large scale, say by gigantic railways on land or\nships on the sea, great economy is secured, and there are large savings\nto be distributed, partly to the producer of raw material, partly to the\nmanufacturer, and partly to the consumer, and a large dividend left for\ncapital which supports the world-market.\nThings without use cannot be counted as property, and there is no\nobject in creating a surplus of goods that cannot be used. To transport\nthings from a place where they have no use to a place where they are\nneeded is to produce value ; and, as an actual fact, by far the largest por-\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATJONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ntion of the final cost (to the consumer) of the commodities that in the\naggregate constitute wealth derive their value from the two functions of\nthe market, namely, the collection and the distribution of commodities\n— the function of the market {M-C-M) so strangely misunderstood and\nsuspected by Karl Marx.\nBut the market collects its toll from the consumer. It shares with the\nproducer the total amount received from the consumer. The market\ncauses competition, and competition reduces the producer's profit, and\nalso the profits of the market. The less the charge of the market (that is\nto say, of the middle man), the efficiency of collection and distribution\nremaining the same, the greater the profit to the end men, that is, to the\nproducer and the consumer.' It is obvious that the increase of the efficiency of the market and the diminution of its charges. indicate economic\nprogress. It is in the line of the reduction of the necessary labor to conquer nature. The production of the raw material, its collection, its manufacture, distribution, and consumption, require less expenditure of human\nlabor, or of its representative, which is money.\nFrom this point we can see the significance of this great movement of\ncapital in our times which diminishes the number of middle men and\ntransfers them to the function of end men, that is, producers and consumers. It is the aim of every combination that capital makes to reduce\nthe expense of exchange, give the producer a higher reward, and share\nwith the consumer by lowering the price of the finished product to him.\nFor the performance of this function capital collects its tithes. It gets\nperhaps a tenth of what it saves, distributing on an average the other\nnine-tenths to the producers and the consumers.\nIn our day the enormous aggregates of capital are hastening forward\nthis beneficent process with ever-increasing speed. It is, of course, out\nof place to consider here the fact that so important and radical a transformation as results from this great process necessarily involves much\nevil and much suffering to the human beings that are forced from the\nplace of middle men to the place of end men. All readjustment of vocations involves inconvenience, and sometimes suffering, and sometimes\ninjustice.\nBut we may remark that if a new investment of capital pays well for a\nwhile, it is constantly attacked by newer inventions and newer combinations which, being more economical than the old — that is to say, needing\nfewer middle men — cause the old investment to pay less and less interest\nto the capital. Old investments, therefore, in capital are obliged constantly to divide with new combinations, and the producer and the consumer— the end men — finally get all the profit. The inventions of fifty\nyears ago are nearly all now the property of the community at large.\nI A ready example of this is found in the reduction of the cost of transportation from St. Paul to New Vork\ncity, which has given the consumer his year's flour in New York as cheap as it can be had at St. Paul with the\naddition to that price of only a single day's wages.\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence! OXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n267\n\nReturning to our theme, endowments for education, we see what significance there is for the future of civilization in this accumulation of\ncapital. For its accumulation stimulates the work of prospecting for\nnatural resources, not only the home resources of the great nations, but the\nresources abroad in the world at large — the possible resources of all lands.\nWitness the acquisition of the oil lands, the deposits of gold, silver, and\ndiamonds, the ore deposits of useful minerals — coal, iron, copper, and\ntin, wherever they are. Apparently the era has arrived when the possibilities of food-producing \\^ihich belong to the tropics — to the Amazon\nvalley, for instance — shall be first capitalized, and after that made tributary to the populations of Europe by a vast commercial stream of merchandise consisting of cheap elements of food and textile fabrics and\nlumber. On reflection one sees that vast possibilities of raw material are\nmore likely to be soon utilized if they come into the possession of great\nstock companies than if they belong to private owners. Great companies\nsee to it that there are provided all the necessaries of production and of\ntransportation to the best markets.\nThe era of the creation of capital is also the era of endowment of\nhigher education. Higher education is becoming more and more a process of research and original investigation. And it is the experts furnished bythe instruction of the laboratory and the seminarium that are\nmost needed in the work of prospecting for the natural resources and in\nthe work of transporting and manufacturing.\nThere has never before been so much wealth created in the form of inheritable goods and chattels — wealth of a permanent kind that goes down from\ngeneration to generation, relieving the people of the future from the work\nof creating a plant of some kind or other — railroads, bridges, tunnels,\nwater-works, schools, and libraries. These and the like items of inheritance add a permanent contingent to the wealth of the future by their\nannual earnings, and swell the income of after generations.\nIn the midst of this economic change our population is called to new\nobjects of interest and new duties. In 1 880 the national census indicated the\narrival of a population of fifty millions. At that time we began to ascend\nabove the horizon to the great powers of Europe. Twenty years later our\nactive participation in the control of the world which is exercised by the\ngreat powers has become so apparent that all see the necessity of forming\na special class of experts who are to become familiar with the national\npurposes and ideals of such nations as Japan, Russia, Germany, Austria,\nFrance, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, and Holland. Foreign diplomacy\nwill furnish a great field for the employment of a larger and larger class\nof American citizens, and the most successful among these will be\nrecruited from the ranks of those who*have made studies at the universities in those foreign countries and become familiar with that class of\ntheir population that furnishes the directive power.\nIt is natural that\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrcincinnari\n\neach nation throws its influence in favor of the perpetuation of its own\ninstitutions in the world-council of the great powers. It is, of course,\nnecessary that the United States shall have an influence in the great council of the world, favorable to the preservation of our own national idea\nof local self-government and productive industry.\nThe Rhodes bequest comes opportune at the beginning of this epoch\nof training our citizens for diplomatic influence abroad, for of all places\nfor training diplomats the first one in direct usefulness is the University\nof Oxford. The offer of constant residence in that great English university to one hundred students from the United States will afford the best\npreliminary training for the experts required in our consulates, embassies,\nhome cabinets, and international commissions.\nOxford is the English school for gentlemen. A typical English gentleman isa peculiar product, somewhat different from the ideal gentleman\nof France or Germany, or any other country in Europe. An American\nwould suppose, on first hearing of the English gentleman, that he must\nbe a person very sensitive as to his caste — as to his wealth, or nobility by\nbirth, or by official position — and continually making demands for recognition ;and that in his ordinary actions he is likely to imply a consciousness of his superiority in wealth or birth or official station. No greater\nmistake could be made. Of all people in Europe the Englishman is the\nmost apt to see that any such manifestation is vulgar, and any consciousness or self-assertion of caste is marked at once as a gross violation of the\ncode of the gentleman.\nBoth universities, Oxford and Cambridge, have been long famous for\ntheir function in training youth in the principles of good breeding. This\nis especially true of Oxford. A rich man's son who comes to Oxford\nwith conceits founded on the wealth of his family is made to feel very\nsoon the difference between the ideal of the English gentleman and his\nown ideal. In most cases a three-years' residence will modify his character in this respect, so that he will come to avoid ostentation either in his\nclothing or other belongings, or in his manner toward people not wealthy.\nSo, too, the scions of nobility. In all well-established houses the private\ntutors and governesses have already trained the young nobility, before\nthey come to Eton or Winchester, in the code of English politeness, and\nthey have not so much to learn in this matter at Oxford. But any youth\nfrom a noble family who has not already received this training is likely\nto learn the lesson so well in his residence at Oxford that it will become\na second nature to him to stand on his humanity and never to indicate a\nconsciousness on his part of the possession of a noble ancestry, or of\ninherited possessions, or of the station of his family in the army or navy,\nor as a member of the government. This is true also of those who have\nrisen to military or political station from the ranks of the people. The\naverage child of a noble house learns this difficult art of behavior more\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence! OXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n269\n\nreadily than the other two species of aristocracy, namely, the aristocracy\nof wealth or the aristocracy of government position. This is so because\nof the fact that the nobility have been longer in training, whereas the\nwealthy family may have gained its property within the present generation; and the high position in the government may also have been\nachieved by extraordinary services on the part of a citizen possessed of\ngreat strength of will-power or special capacities of intellect, all of which\nis sometimes accompanied by great deficiency in a knowledge of the\ncode of the ideal gentleman.\nThis function of Oxford and Cambridge is of national and international importance. An aristocracy of wealth or birth or station whose\nchildren are trained in the ideal code of the gentleman have a certain great\nadvantage over all other people brought up without the proper sense of\nself-control. They possess an imperturbable self-respect which intrenches\nitself on a humane basis that not only easily captivates all classes of\nBritish citizens, but makes an easy conquest of a citizen of any other\nnationality in the world. It has an inimitable charm. It is impossible\nto storm its intrenchments, because it assumes nothing for itself. It has\nhabituated itself to this repression oi the vulgar desire to attract attention\nto its havings and made it a second nature, so that it does not reveal any\neffort. If any effort on its part were visible, it would take the form of\ncondescension and would betray its consciousness of caste ; but the ideal\nEnglish gentleman never permits himself to think of his rank or station ;\nhe has acquired a sense of honor that excludes even the thought of it as\nsomething odious. Indeed, the English gentleman can easily be distinguished from the other Englishmen by the ease with which he bears this\nimpersonality, this sincere humanity, and this utter effacement of his own\nclaims for special consideration. In the long run this accomplishment\nof being a true gentleman wins its way in the world and constantly reveals\nits power.\nIn the diplomacy of Europe it has always held a high place.\nThe English nation is famous for its love of fair play. This love of\nfair play is sometimes, however, very brutal, as interpreted by the brutal\nclasses, altho even then it is far superior to the manifestations of treachery\nand fraud which the lower classes of people in some other nations furnish.\nBut the Oxford gentleman realizes the English sense of fair play in a\ntransfigured form by the complete suppression of all manifestations of the\npride of aristocracy. He is the simplest of all men, but it is a simplicity\nwith the wisdom of the serpent coiled up within it and thoroly under\ncontrol. One would almost infer that the ideal of the English gentleman\nhad changed somewhat since the publication of Thomas Carlyle's Sartor\nKesartuSy and that the Briton had tak^n to heart the lesson of the philosophy of clothes and determined within himself to refute that philosophy by making the matter of clothes no indication whatever of character.\nThe English gentleman puts his fine clothing upon his lackeys and goes\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 7o\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC I A TTON\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nabout himself in easy and comfortable undress, choosing his clothing for\nits warmth and comfortableness — sparing no expense in this matter, but\nutterly refusing to make his clothing manifest wealth or position.\nA good story illustrating this was once told by a visitor in my office.\nHe mentioned a commercial traveler from the colonies who was riding\nfrom Edinburgh to the north. A very plain English gentleman entered\nthe railway coach, took out his briar pipe, and began to smoke, and\nopened a conversation on current topics with simple, unaffected manners,\nand the humane spirit of an English gentleman, without the exhibition of\nany fad, or the consciousness of carrying with himself a desire to impress\nanyone else with any purpose of his, or any indication that he was\ncharged with a particular mission or the advocacy of any cause. After a\ndelightful two-hours' ride another gentleman entered the railway carriage\nat Perth, quite as simply dressed and quite as urbane in his manners as\nthe first. He entered readily into conversation with our commercial\nagent and his companion traveler. In the course of the morning they\narrived at the station where passengers leave the train for Blair Atholl.\nHere the second gentleman left the coach, and our commercial traveler\ntook note that a splendid carriage and a train of lackies were in waiting\nfor him, and he asked, with some haste, his companion : \"Who is that\nman that just left our coach?\" \"Oh,\" he said, \"that is his grace the\nDuke of Atholl.\" \"Indeed,\" said our commercial traveler; \"he was very\ncondescending to talk in such a friendly and genial manner to two cads\nlike us.\" The remark was cordially assented to by his companion. In\nthe course of the journey to the north they arrived at a station where the\nfirst gentleman left the coach and an equally imposing train of lackeys\nwith a fine x:arri age awaited his arrival. If our commercial traveler had\nbeen astonished on the first occasion, he was astounded at a second incident of the same kind. He approached the guard or conductor of the\ntrain and asked him : \" Who is that man that just now left my coach? \"\n\"Oh, that is his grace the Duke of Sutherland.\" Our friend, wishing now\nto probe the case to the bottom, fearing that he should make again a\nsimilar mistake in judging greatness by aristocratic manners and fine\nclothing, said to the guard: \"And will you pray tell me who are you?''\nThis manifestation of common humanity and the desire to be of service\nto one's fellow-men is the real tower of strength of the true English\ngentleman.\nBut Oxford trains not only the aristocracy of wealth, birth, and official\nposition in these matters of ostentation, but it also trains the great scholar,\nthe person who has achieved distinction in letters, or science, or art, making him conscious that it is vulgar to show in any way a consciousness of\nsuperiority or to advertise in any way what one has done to distinguish\nhimself.\nOne\n\nreads\n\nin the apprenticeship\n\nof Goethe's Wilhelm\n\nMeister the\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nOXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n2 7i\n\nStudies which Goethe made on the difference between the born nobleman\nand the distinguished but not highborn citizen. In the one case the\nperson is content to be, and never lets his possession either of culture or\nwealth or of great deeds appear — for that, he feels, would degrade him.\nTo be a nobleman is sufficient for him, whereas the ordinary citizen stands\non his achievements and finds it difficult to forget these (or to forget his\nhavings in his sense of being). He must rely upon his possessions, and\nhe is likely to make them obtrusive.\nOur country, the United States, belongs to the vast regions of the\nworld which may be called border-lands. In the border-lands there are\nfound the most active processes of transformation. A synthesis is in\nprogress between different nationalities. The raw materials of commodities, mineral, vegetable, and animal, are being gathered and worked over\nfor transportation to the central emporiums — Paris, London, New York.\nOn border-lands the human spirit is fullest of hope and courage, because\nit sees from day to day and week to week the wilderness conquered for\nhuman purposes and for civilization.. But the frontier is the most\nunstable and variable region of civilization. Its institutions are less\nfirmly established.\nIn the times of King Alfred, and earlier, Oxford was on the borderland of Wessex, between it and Mercia on the north. Mercia, as its\nname indicates (\"Mark\" or \"boundary\") was the border-land between the\nAnglo-Saxon kingdoms and the British tribes which, driven into the fastnesses of Wales, sullenly resisted the encroachments of the Teutonic wave\nof migration. It was a fording-place, shallow enough to allow herds of\noxen and other cattle to be driven across without too much danger of\nloss by the flood. The Cherwell and the Isis united here, forming the\nThames, and spread out in shallow reaches separated by islands. We may\nconclude that the place was on the line of trade which Walter Besant\nspeaks of in his book on West London. This commercial route led on\nits way to Dover thru Westminster, the lowest ford on the Thames — much\nused before London Bridge was built in the fourth century. Here in\nOxford, of course, was a mart or market, and after Christianity came to\nthe Saxon some religious houses were built as early as 728 A. D., and\nwith religious houses there came scholastic learning.\nWherever the Christian church went in Europe there was created an\ninterest in the history of the religion of the Bible and in the history of\nRoman nationality. We do not forget that the history of Rome was for\nsix hundred years practically the history of the world, the six hundred\nyears including one century before and five centuries after Anno Domini.\nHence in the monasteries of Britain, France, and Ireland there was more\nor less interest in regard to the history of the world and the dealings of\nGod's providence with mankind. St. Augustine, the bishop of Hippo,\nsaid in his great work The City of God that \" the world and its history is\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Cincinna«\n\na sort of antiphonic hymn, in which God reads his counsels, and the earth\nand man read the responses.\" Those inclined to learning among the\nChristian monks all over Europe studied Orosius, the disciple who had\nbeen induced by St. Augustine, his master, to sketch a general history of\nmankind in the spirit of his view that made it an antiphonic hymn. This\nis noteworthy in our inquiry as to Oxford, because King Alfred the\nGreat, king of Wessex — Oxford was in Wessex — translated the history of\nOrosius into Anglo-Saxon, so that it could be read by the laity as well as\nby the priesthood. But not only did Christianity take this first rational view\nof the world-history, but it also collected and prized certain elements of\nWorld -knowledge. It had the irivium and quadrivium or the seven liberal arts. The scholar and philosopher Boetius nurtured in the latest\nyears of the Roman empire and the early years of the reign of Theodoric,\nthe Goth, who held all Italy in order by his firm hand — Boetius has in his\nConsolation of Philosophy described the contents of the trivium and quadrivium, giving a brief resum^ of the insights which formed the learning\nas to nature and man — another work that Alfred translated into AngloSaxon.\nFirst, there was grammar, considering not only the structure of language, which reveals human nature in general as will, intellect, and\nfeeling, but also literature ; then, in the next place, logic, which reveals\nthe structure of the pure intellect ; and, thirdly, rhetoric, which reveals\nthe process by which ideas are made into feelings and convictions and\nresult in deeds. These three constitute the trivium. Then there was\narithmetic, including the science of numbers and what was known\n\nof\n\nanalytical mathematics in the form of algebra. They had not yet discovered the works of Euclid, and what was called geometry in ihQ quadrivium\nwas an abridgment of the work of Pliny on geography. Music and\nastronomy complete the four branches of the quadrivium; music relating\nnot only to what we call music, but also and chiefly to poetry, art, and\nsuch matters as are found in the part of grammar called prosody;\nastronomy relating to the facts and theories regarding the movements of\nthe visible bodies of the heavens, the changes of the moon, the seasons,\nthe climate, meteorology, and the like. These elements of knowledge\nwere more or less studied by the intelligent and influential monks. Of\ncourse, religion was the main interest, but these other matters were not\nentirely neglected, and there were some places in those early Christian\ncountries where considerable attention was given to them.\nAs a matter of course, the Teutonic countries had to learn, besides\ntheir native tongue, the Latin language. It was a study, of the language\nthat had been rendered capable of expressing subtle thoughts of all kinds.\nLatin had become a sufficient organ for the description of the facts then\nknown of Europe, Africa, and Asia, and its study opened up the world to\nthe provincial youth that had left the narrow circle of his home to join\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] OXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n273\n\nthe monastery which formed a ganglion in the great spiritual nervous\nsystem that contained the intellectual brotherhood of the world.\nSlender as was the store of human learning, it held in germ all that has\nbeen unfolded since. It was taught at Paris, Cologne, Metz, Bologna,\nWinchester, Oxford, Cambridge, Ely, St. Ninian's in Galloway, St. Columba on the island of lona (north of Argyleshire) in Scotland ; St.\nCuthbert's Holy Island, Lindisfarne on the northeastern coast of England;\nSt. Peter's south of the Tweed (here lived the venerable Bede) in Scotland— to mention only the places which come to one's mind, without\nattempting a careful list.\nIt is certain that monastic education had gone on for centuries at\nOxford before the foundation of the first college in 1249. It seems that\nthe nunnery of St. Frideswyde was founded there in 727. Edward the\nElder, in 912, soon after Alfred died, took possession of Oxford and\nmade it a fortified city to defend it against the Danes.\nHistory records that Vacarius, professor at Bologna, lectured at\nOxford on the Roman civil law in 1149, less than fifteen years after the\ndiscovery of the Pandects of Justinian, and only eighty years after the\nNorman conquest ; and it is well argued that this implies a European\nreputation already achieved by Oxford University. Evidences multiply\nfrom that time on of the existence of important schools at Oxford.\nThe first college, which is called University College, was founded in\n1249, and there were two more before 1300, namely, Balliol and Merton;\nfour more in the following century, 1300 to 1400, the century of the\nbeginning of English literature with Chaucer, Gower, and the author of\nPiers Plowman ; these four colleges were Exeter, Oriel, Queen's College,\nand New College; in the next century, 1400 to 1500, three more colleges\n— Lincoln, All Souls, and Magdalen ; and in the century of the Reformation (1500 to 1600) there were six more colleges founded : Bra&enose,\nCorpus Christi, Christchurch, under Henry VIII. ; Trinity and St. John's,\nunder Queen Mary ; Jesus College, under Queen Elizabeth. Two colleges, 161 3, 1624, were founded under King James, namely, Wadham and\nPembroke Colleges. Worcester College, founded in 1714, is the only\none of the eighteenth century. In recent times Hertford College, St.\nEdmund's College, and- Keble College in the nineteenth century make\nup the twenty-two colleges in the corporate body of the University of\nOxford.\nThe college is the characteristic of Oxford and Cambridge, for the\ncollege collects within its walls anywhere from a dozen students up to\nsomething over three hundred. Of the twenty-two colleges in the University of Oxford, four have over tw^ hundred students; and twelve\nbetween one and two hundred ; and the remaining six have less than one\nhundred each. Merton is sometimes called the oldest college, but it\nwas founded in another town and removed to Oxford about 1270.\nMer-\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nton College is the first one which erected dormitories and study halls, a\nrefectory and a chapel, surrounding the whole by a college wall with only\none gate for entrance. A new step was taken with the foundation of New\nCollege, in 1370, by William Wykeham. This step consisted in the separation of preparatory students from the regular university students. The\nschool at Winchester furnished the preparation, and New College contained only those students who were fitted to take up and go on immediately with the university work. Other new departures are mentioned ;\none in particular was the founding of Corpus Christi in the early part\nof the reign of Henry VIII. — a new beginning, because it made so much\nmore provision for the modern studies that had come into vogue with the\nrevival of learning,* particularly the study of Greek and of mathematics.\nIn America there prevails class feeling, but in Oxford the college\nfeeling predominates. The small group of students living within the\nwalls of a given college form a sort of family or monastic community,\nbringing together the older students and younger ones, so that the unit\nis the college, and not the class. It is better adapted than the American\nplan for the production of the type of gentleman which we have been\ndiscussing. The older students have much more influence on the younger\nstudents.\nAll books on Oxford tell us about the two courses of study — the easy\none, called the \"pass,\" adapted to the students who desire the social culture\nof Oxford with its athletics and good fellowship, and no more of its erudition than is necessary to pass examination for its degree of bachelor of\narts (master of arts is given in course to all bachelors who have been\nenrolled twenty-seven terms, and who have paid the fees). This course\nof study shows in all its parts the influence of \\he,triviu7n zxidi quadrivium\n— ^especially the branch called \"music\" or \"prosody,\" in the insistence\nupon the study of the quantity of Latin words — the writing of Latin\npoetry.\nBesides the \" pass \" examination for the minimum scholarship, there\nare courses of study for honors. The honor schools are eight in number;\n(i) English language and literature; (2) literae humaniores — modern\nphilosophy and logic and grammar called \"greats\" (opposed to \"greats,\"\nthe \" pass \"-examination studies are called \"smalls\") ; (3) mathematics;\n(4) jurisprudence ; (5) modern history ; (6) theology ; (7) oriental studies;\n(8) natural science.\nThe design of the honor examinations is to afford the ful.est scope\nfor scholarship — specialization and thoro research being required.\nThe honor school in literae humaniores is most sought and highest prized.\nThe chief branches of study in that school are Latin and Greek, ancient\nhistory, logic, ethics, and philosophy:\nThe entrance examination, which is called \" responsions,\" is passed\nsome time in the first year of residence, and is not required before matricu-\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] OXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n275\n\niation, as in American universities. The second examination is called\n\"moderations,\" and comes in the second year of residence, about the\nmiddle of the undergraduate course. The third and final examination\ntakes place in the last year. Of the subjects offered for the \"pass \" three\nare compulsory.\nThe pass examination includes:\n(l) Classic languages; (2) mathematics; (3) modern history ; (4) the Bible. Each\nwith its affiliated subjects forms four groups, within which there may be selection for\nexamination of one or more of the f mr subjects of the classic group, one or more of the\nfive subjects in the modern group, one or more of the seven subjects of the mathematical\nand scientific group, and one of the religious group. It is compulsory to choose one\nforeign language, ancient or modern, and to have some portion of the Old or New Testament (with Greek) and the elements of religious knowledge, and another subject from\nmathematics and science, or from moderns, or from classics.\n\nOne of the facts that excite surprise in an American student at first is\nthe short period of residence required in Oxford each year. There are\nthree terms, each of eight weeks : Michaelmas, beginning the first Monday after October 10; Hilary, on the first Monday after January 14;\nEaster and Trinity, beginning on the second or third Monday after Easter\nSunday : twenty-four weeks of residence (which may be reduced to eighteen\nweeks) and twenty-eight weeks of vacation, the long vacation, ending\nabout October 10, being sixteen weeks, and the other two vacations six\nweeks each. A greater surprise is created by learning that the hard work\nin scholarship is not expected so much at Oxford in term time as in the\nvacation. The demands of athletics and social functions at Oxford\nduring term time are too severe to permit the hard study necessary for\ngreat success in scholarship.\nAthletics is perhaps the most prominent feature in Oxford life. Boating leads; next come football, cricket, and golf; next running, walking,\ncycling, etc. There is much literature regarding this phase of English\nuniversity life.\nThe hours for exercise are between lunch and tea — i p. m., 5 p. m.;\nthat means that games begin usually at 2:15 or 2:30, and stop at 4 p. m.,\nexcept in case of cricket, which goes on till sundown, or till dinner time\nwhen the days get longer. \"Lunch is usually a very spare meal, often\nbeing simply dessert with bread and something simple to drink. Similarly\ntea is simply one cup, especially if a man is wanting to keep in good form\nboth for exercise and for dinner at 7 p. m.\"\nOxford has solved the problem of making athletics develop nervous\nforce instead of nervous dyspepsia by its care to give its two hours in the\nbest part of the day to systematic exercise and guard it against encroachment on the time needed for digestion of the chief meal of the day.\nIt would seem that our candidates for the Rhodes scholarships\nshould all have obtained a preparation in scholarship amounting to\nthat required for the A.B. degree. But it is obvious that it was the intention of Mr. Rhodes himself to have the benefits of his bequest reach\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfCincinnatl\n\ngraduates of the secondary schools ; but the provisions of the will give\nauthority to the trustees to modify the bequest, if in their opinion a modification will make the grand purpose of the will more effective. I have\nfound myself obliged to come to the conclusion that any and every\nattempt to fill the proposed scholarships from graduates of our secondary\nschools, or indeed even from college students of attainments below the\ndegree of bachelor of arts, will fail to realize the expressed wishes of the\ntestator. In the first place, there is not a sufficient maturity of mind on\nthe part of graduates of our secondary schools to profit by the exceptional\nopportunities of Oxford, nor is th,ere any considerable degree of maturity\nuntil entrance upon the third year of the American college or university.\nNow, the chief difficulty with the immature student from the United\nStates will lie in the fact of his sensitiveness to criticism, and of his readiness to fall back upon what he believes to be his rights. While the criticism of his fellow-students at home actually prevails with him because\nthere is no appeal, yet in a foreign university he will, if possible, reinforce\nhis cause by an appeal to the importance of his state or to the importance\nof his nation. The candidate, if appointed by a state authority — say, a\ngovernor — or by a national authority — say, the president, or a board\nchosen by him — will feel himself in some sense a representative of his\nstate or nation. This form of conceit will be more likely to take root in\nthe mind of the immature student than in that of the holder of a bachelor's degree. It is needless to say that such a conceit in any form would\nbe so offensive to his fellow-students in a foreign university, and to the\nauthorities of such an institution, as to make his residence abroad impossible.\nThe Rhodes trustees have been fortunate in appointing as their agent\nDr. George R. Parkin, whose wide experience in English-speaking communities within and without England has admirably fitted him to the\nwork of adjusting the details of arrangements for filling our quota of\nthese Rhodes scholarships. If the matter of primary selection and nomination of a list of candidates be left to the college presidents in each\nstate, this will be best. But certainly the final selection from the list\nnominated should be determined by an examination conducted by an\nOxford \"don\" visiting this country for the purpose, and holding examinations at convenient points in the several states. The examination should\nbe in place of \"responsions,\" for the students chosen must be sure of\ntheir qualification before the serious undertaking of the long journey\nand large outlay of money necessary to reach Oxford.\nIt is admitted by all who are acquainted with the present and past of\nOxford that it has fulfilled the function of educating the English gentleman. It has had the effect of creating a democratic code of manners\nand of securing its adoption by the sons of the powerful families in the\ngovernment, and by the heirs of nobility.\n\nI have already discussed suffi-\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence! OXFORD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nRHODES\n\nSCHOLARSHIPS\n\n277\n\nciently this code. It has made it one of the distinguishing characteristics\nof the English gentleman that he never mentions his titles, or the influence of his family, or his wealth, or his literary productions, or any\nservices of his to his ration or to his fellow-man. He holds his tongue\nunder a severe restraint, and has learned to do this without the appearance of restraint. Not only Oxford, but other English institutions, are\npowerful in creating in the mind of the youth an ideal of good form in\nthis respect; but Oxford is by far the most potent factor in this influence.\nBut there is another phase of this matter to be considered : Good\nform includes also the code of etiquette, established from time immemorial, which gives precedence in a certain fixed order to the members of\nthe nobility, to the dignitaries of the national church, and to the elected\nor appointed representatives of the English commonalty, settling in\nadvance the rank due to each order in all ceremonials. This recognition\nof fixed rank and position must be observed as an indispensable form of\ngentlemanly courtesy in such matters as the addressing of letters, or in\npersonal allusions in a speech, or in a written communication, etc. It is\na characteristic of English good form that it makes a code of limitations\non each class of people : the nobleman or other gentleman, the tradesman, the servant, and the common laborer. Each one not only observes\ncarefully the proper manners toward his superior, but he is careful to\nexpect and to exact the proper etiquette from those beneath his station.\nThe most refined gentleman will not himself make a personal matter of\nthe neglect of courtesy, but the class to which he belongs or moves in\nwill take care of this matter on his behalf, and this, too, effectively.\nOn the whole, the code of the English gentleman has in it what is considered the most admirable the world over as belonging to polished manners. I have tried to show that these traits give the person a certain\nsuperiority in diplomatic councils, in statesmanship, and in social relations. While this is the case with the individual, it is not so with the\nclass influence which supports and makes valid on occasions the aristocratic prestige or pretense which underlies the condescensions and the\nreservations of the Englishman's manners. For the very reason that the\nEnglish gentleman takes none of these upon himself individually in his\nown behalf, but only as a member of his caste or class, in behalf of some\nother members of his class, the foreigner not prepared in advance for this\nphase of English life is apt to feel himself baffled even to exasperation.\nHe finds himself unable to right himself. He meets only personal courtesy and democratic simplicity in individuals, but he finds himself proscribed bya caste. To attack this caste barrier is to meet an ignominious\ndefeat without any ability to set oneself right.\nIt must be admitted that what is very noteworthy and impressive in\nEnglish society, as a whole, is more or less to be met with in some degree\nin all social circles of Europe, and indeed of America, and it must also be\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nadmitted that the English form is more highly refined because within it\nthe individual preserves his democratic cordiality of manner, calmness of\ndemeanor, and careful observance of all the requirements of courtesy due\nto an individual from his equals.\nIn the new epoch that is upon us now we are compelled to come into\nforeign relations. We cannot choose but take part in the councils of the\ngreat powers which determine in the aggregate the course of present history; we must have our say — have an influence in international decisions,\nand an influence that will be proportionate to our strength in population.\nBut for all this there is need to provide sufficient skill.\nHere is the important point: We must educate hundreds of our\nscholars and politicians in jurisprudence and international law; we must\nhave a corps of trained specialists who know the minute details of each\ngreat nation's past history and present achievements — Great Britain,\nGermany, France, Russia, Austria, Italy, Spain, Holland, and the\nScandinavian countries.\nThe Rhodes bequest is the most timely of gifts for higher education,\nbecause it gives opportunity to begin this education of that class of our\npopulation which will furnish our diplomatic corps with attaches to our\nconsulates and to our home offices and to our embassies. Out of the\nmost successful of these will come by and by our foreign ministers and\nour home experts in diplomacy.\nEngland is the best place in which to begin this work. The excellence of the University of Oxford is without doubt the training of the\nready gentleman who cannot be pushed off his feet by an attack directed\nupon the weaknesses of his personality. His training at Oxford gives him\nthat secure self-possession and self-respect which commands the respect\nof his fellows.\nOur American students need have no fear that they will lose their\nnationality at Oxford; for they will find the English ideal of a gentleman exactly fitted for Anglo-Saxons everywhere.\nThe more perfectly they accept its training in this regard, the more\nready they will be for the great work of extending our American influence\nin the councils of the world.\n\nSOME\nCHARLES\n\nPRACTICAL\nR.\n\nRICHARDS,\nTEACHERS\n\nPROBLEMS\nDIRECTOR\nCOLLEGE,\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nOF\nMANUAL-TRAINING\nCOLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY\n\nTRAINING\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nI do not propose to deal with the theoretical aspects of manual training in this paper, but with certain practical considerations and some very\npractical quantities in regard to this work in the elementary school, which\nI suspect are of more interest to the Department of Superintendence.\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n279\n\nThe main elements of weakness in the manual-training situation at the\npresent time — and in this outlook I include work in domestic art and\ndomestic science — it seems to me, can very well be summed up under two\nheads: first, isolation or lack of organic connection with the practice and\nspirit of the other work in the school ; and, second, the factor of expense.\nThe first fact undoubtedly is partly due to the change and readjustment\nthru which all school work is now passing, in which each subject is\nseeking to find its place and relation to the whole. From this point of\nview manual training is simply in the same condition as the othersubjects\nof instruction, a condition that cannot be much improved until greater\nunity has been reached in the entire course of study.\nThe isolation of handwork, however, is also due in part to the conditions under which this work was introduced into the school system. The\nfact that manual training in our country began in the high school, and\nnext appeared in the upper grades of the grammar school, and always\nthru the medium of the special teacher working in a special laboratory,\nhas in itself contributed much to keep the work apart in spirit and practice from the other school activities. Under such conditions it is little\nwonder that the special teacher has worked largely by himself and been\ncontent to measure results by his own standards.\nWhen to this situation is added the further fact that the conception of\nmanual training held by the special teacher is often that of some cut-anddried scheme of exercises and models, the tendencies making against real\nunity are clearly evident. I do not, of course, wish to lose sight of the\nfact that such work is often the most vital and stimulating influence in a\nschool, but to point out that, even when this* is true, the lack of connection has commonly been no less evident.\nThe full correction of this evil and the solution of the practical problems presented will not quickly be reached, but the corrective tendencies\nare already evident ; indeed, they are well under way, and their progress\ncan undoubtedly be greatly furthered by the influence and assistance of\nthe school superintendent.\nIn the first place, greater organic unity will obviously be possible only\nwhen the special teachers of handwork have attained a professional outlook beyond that represented by the technique of their subject — when\nthey recognize larger ends than mere skill in manipulation, and when\nthey see their subject in broader relations both to industrial life, on the\none side, and to child life, on the other. Without such a broad grasp of\nthe problem on the part of the specialist, it is idle to expect manual\ntraining to enter into thoroly natural relations with the rest of the\nschool work.\nWhen a superintendent refuses t(? employ a professionally trained\nteacher because he can obtain a mechanic for $200 less salary, it is evident that not much\nheadway is liable to be made in this direction.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nAdvance will be made very much in the degree that men and women who\nhave been trained to look at the whole and not at a part, who know\nsomething about child nature and the tendencies and forces of education,\nare given preference over those whose idea of handwork is confined to\nsome narrow technical formula. With broadly equipped and resourceful\nteachers it should certainly not take long for handwork to reach its\nproper place in the scheme of the whole.\nUnder such direction will come the introduction of richer content\nand more thought material into the work. With teachers accustomed to\nconsider principles rather than a formula, growth will inevitably be made\ntoward greater scope and suggestiveness in subject-matter. Progress in\nthis direction need not mean work of greater complexity, but, on the contrary, should make toward things of greater simplicity and more familiar\nuse. Less attention will perhaps be given to mere skill and more to\nbreadth of information and insight. Instead of elaborate and erudite\nsystems built up by the endless drawing out of meager subject-matter will\ncome the effort to set forth the elements of industrial life in simple\neveryday terms. We shall be liable to have less of instruction, but much\nmore of construction, in our work. When the problem is approached in\nthis way, relations to locality and the character of the particular pupils in\nhand will be studied. No one scheme will be regarded as unduly important, but out'of the whole field of art and industry will be selected those\ntypes of most significance for each special set of conditions.\nUnder such an influence we should expect to find a different line of\nwork in the schools of Grand Rapids from that undertaken in the schools\nof Pittsburg. In a town where three-fourths of the working population\nare connected with textile mills we should look for the development of\nweaving and applied design, and the study of simple machines. Where\nclay-working is a prominent industry we might find the making of simple\npottery built up by hand and enriched with simple decorations as a central feature in the school handwork. In each case the real life of the\ncommunity would furnish the key to subject-matter, and the problem of\nthe teacher would become that of reducing its suggestions to methods and\nprojects practicable for the school.\nOne other tendency that is doing much to overcome the isolation of\nmanual training as a school subject is represented in the steadily increasing introduction of the work into the lower grades under the regular\nteacher. In this movement lies perhaps the largest hope of bringing\nhandwork into natural and vital relations with the educative process as a\nwhole. When handwork is taught by the regular teacher, it will at least\nreceive the same treatment as the other elements of the course of study,\nand can hardly escape establishing relations with them in the course of\ntime. But, after all, as Dr. Dewey has said in an address before this\nbody: \"What gets to the child is dependent upon what is in the mind of\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n281\n\nthe teacher, and upon the way it is in his mind;\" and because of this fact\nhandwork will enter into natural and effective relations with the course of\nstudy as a whole only to the degree in which the teacher appreciates and\nfeels the need of such relations. Evidently no external prescription\nfrom supervisor or superintendent will take the place of this attitude of\nmind. Nevertheless, as in all school work, much may be effected thru\nadministrative influence. If that influence is toward natural and sensible\ncorrelations with the other elements in the course of study, such as history, geography, and nature study, with allowance for individual latitude\nwhere practicable, rather than toward narrow \"courses,\" it is plain that\nthe progress of handwork toward its proper place in the school cannot\nfail to be greatly promoted.\nIn such work no one material or process has any paramount value.\nNatural relations will be secured only when the teacher feels free to make\nuse of clay, paper, wood, yarn, thread, cloth, or other available material\nthat will best serve the purpose in hand. Such a proposition undoubtedly\nraises serious problems in regard to the supply of materials. These problems can be worked out only by experience, but it seems safe to say that\nunder proper administrative direction they will not prove insurmountable.\nOne of the important correlations that make toward greater vitality\nand fruitfulness is that between constructive work and art instruction.\nWe have been prone to consider these subjects quite apart as so much\nconstruction, on the one hand, and so much art teaching, on the other;\nand yet it is not only true that the art of a democratic people must\nexpress itself largely in the things of common use, rather than in\npainting and in sculpture, but it is also true that thru these channels of\nsimple use and understanding lies the readiest approach to the aesthetic\nappreciation of the child. The simple decoration of a box destined for\nsome definite use appeals to him most strongly, when the abstract composition with brush and paper leaves him cold. It is, indeed, only thru\nthe application of design to definite use that it becomes of meaning and\nconsequently of educational value. We have generally started with our\ndesign and then looked about for some place to apply it. Work of this kind\nmay develop into some sort of facility and show of results, but it lacks\nbottom and meaning in the child's mind and is apt to be readily forgotten.\nWhen the start is made from the other end, and the making or beautifying of some actual thing calls for the design, the idea becomes full\nof meaning and interest. The process becomes alive with real qualities.\nIt is no longer a matter of merely formal relations, but a question of what\ncan be done to improve the form and eiyich the surface of this particular\nconstruction in wood, or clay, or weaving, or basketry, or needlework.\nEach material has its own peculiar possibilities and limitations, and the\nwhole process is a constant study in adapting means to ends.\nEach\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ninstance develops some concrete way of realizing beauty in simple things,\nand brings the meaning of art down from an abstraction to a reality.\nWorking co-operation in this field is by no means impracticable. If\nthe art supervisor and the manual-training teacher can be brought to\nwork upon the same problems, the influence of both will soon be blended\nin results vastly superior in artistic quality to most of our present work.\nMuch may be done here to vitalize the drawing and color study of our\nschools, and at the same time to build up a true appreciation of right\nprinciples in design. A practical demonstration of the rich possibilities\nof such CO operation is afforded in the interesting and artistic handicraft\nproduced at the present time in the public schools of New York city,\nwhere both the art and constructive work are in charge of one director.\nIn this problem of the lower grades one of the practical difficulties\nmost often cited is that of size of classes. It is claimed that fifty or sixty\npupils in a class present an insuperable obstacle to the introduction and\nproper teaching of handwork. It is without question that such classes\npresent serious problems in relation to any work that requires simultaneous\nactivity on the part of each and every pupil, and that under such conditions any work of this kind cannot reach its fullest possibilities. In most\nschool work these problems are largely avoided, inasmuch as real activity\nis commonly demanded of but one pupil at a time.\nIt is far from true, however, that effective and valuable instruction in\nhandwork is impracticable with classes of even the size just mentioned.\nThe best and most adequate proof of this proposition is the fact that\nsuch work is at the present time being carried forward successfully in a\nconsiderable number of cities and towns. In a large primary school not\nfar from New York, a varied program of handwork is provided thruout the different grades from the kindergarten upward. In this school\nthe number of pupils in each class ranges from fifty to fifty-seven. Handwork lessons intimately related to the instruction in number, spelling,\nnature study, geography, and history, in which a considerable degree of\nexpression is demanded of the pupils, are given each day, and it has not\nbeen the fortune of the speaker ever to have visited a school marked by\ngreater order, neatness, and smoothness of routine than is the case in this\ninstitution.\n• The remaining serious problem in the manual-training situation has\nbeen stated as that of expense. This element necessarily conditions the\nrate of progress of all school work. Manual training undoubtedly means\nexpense. There is no escape from that fact, but the amount of this\nexpense is unquestionably often very much greater in practice than there\nis any need, and because of this the estimates as to the cost of introducing\nhandwork are often much exaggerated.\nThe factors of expense are twofold in character; first, as to the special\nteacher; and, second, in the cost of equipment and supplies.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supcrmtenclence]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n2^3\n\nspecial teacher is a necessity if the work is to be introduced in the upper\ngrades, and, as has already been pointed out, the character of the results\nwill depend upon the character of the man or woman employed. This\nis not the place to suggest economizing. Not only will the character and\nspirit of the work depend upon the training and outlook of the special\nteacher, but capacity and knowledge at this point is the best assurance of\neconomy in all other directions.\nThe place for the special teacher, however, as far as class instruction\nis concerned, may well be limited to the upper two, or at most three,\ngrades of the elementary school,' where, by means of laboratory centers\nof instruction, his time may be distributed among the pupils of several\nschools. Below this point the regular teacher may be brought gradually\nunder proper supervision to handle all the work that is essential. The\nproblem of developing or training the regular teacher to take charge of\nsuch work is, under the usual school conditions, not a simple one.\nTeachers' meetings, prepared suggestions in printed form, personal conferences, and illustrative lessons by the supervisor all represent helpful\nmeans of approach, according to the special conditions presented.\nThe greatest danger in the situation is that of forcing some arbitrary\nand externally formulated scheme upon the teacher before she understands its significance. Haste should undoubtedly be made slowly at this\npoint. The great end, I take it, is to bring whatever is attempted into\nnatural relations with the teacher's experience and point of view, so that\nshe may come gradually to make use of constructive work in the same\nspirit that she employs writing and speaking. In order to make a start\nin this matter, it may be necessary to present the plan of work at first in\nvery specific and detailed form, but there seems little danger in saying\nthat, if more effort were then made to consult the individual sympathies\nand bent of the regular teacher, richer and more natural results would\nsoon be reached.\nIn the matter of equipment the manual-training situation presents all\nmanner of possibilities. It is the greatest mistake to conceive that valuable results depend upon an elaborate and expensive equipment. Here,\nas in all other lines, completeness and thoroness of material conveniences\nmake toward richness of results, and avoidance of waste in time and\nenergy, but the educational result depends upon the brains and spirit\nin the instruction, and not upon the extent of benches and tools. A\nteacher of capacity and energy will develop a rich harvest out of the\nmost meager resources, whil^e a weak man remains a slave to his conditions.\nThis problem is most significant in*regard to the laboratory equipments for the upper grades. Given the room, a comprehensive equipment for twenty- five pupils in benchwork on the usual basis may run up\nto $800 or $1,000, but it is entirely possible to devise a thoroly practical\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nequipment for such work that can be obtained in the open market for\n^^300 or $400. Further than this, when the problem is reduced to its\nstrictly essential elements, and the benches and fixtures built by the\npupils, as was done in the case of the Sterling High School, and the\nDeKalb Normal School, even these figures may be cut squarely in halves.\nOn the side of materials it must be allowed that manual training is at\npresent suffering in certain directions from the employment of unduly\nexpensive materials. The zest and enthusiasm that have attended the introduction of certain lines of artistic handicraft, such as basketry and weaving,\nhave led to the use of materials in many ways excellent for their purpose,\nbut objectionable both on the score of expense and from the fact that they\nrepresent materials of a foreign and unfamiliar character. The searching\nout and adaptation of common domestic materials are a crying need in all\nthis kind of work. Much has been done already, particularly in the South,\ntoward developing local resources in this direction. Grasses, rushes and\nflag, pine needles, yucca, palm leaves, corn husks, and willow twigs have\nall been brought into use, but much still remains to be done.\nThis matter has an educational as well as an economic aspect. Anything that brings manual training into more direct contact with the\ncommon facts and activities of every-day life, and requires it to find its\nresources therein, makes toward a training in economics that is of inestimable value. For this reason, if for no other, the effort should be constantly toward simplicity and cheapness of material.\nWith a teacher of proper influence and spirit much simple material\nfor handwork may be obtained from the home resources of the pupils.\nIn one southern town that has come to my knowledge sacks in which\nflour is purchased and which would otherwise be thrown away are turned\nover to the children, washed by them, and brought to school, where they are\nused as a basis for work in sewing and embroidery. In another place\nthe common burlap bags used for farm products are secured for the same\npurpose.\nEven in the matter of wood a considerable saving of expenditure\nmay often be effected by studying the possibilities of the cheaper woods\nand conditions of the local supply. Instead of depending solely upon\nthe fast-disappearing white pine, such woods as cypress, whitewood, and\nbasswood may often be used with just as much appropriateness and at\none-third or one-half the cost. When it becomes a question of doing\nsomething or nothing, there are still further resources. The material of\nthe grocers' packing-boxes, which ^ may be obtained at very small cost,\noffers a supply of planed lumber of which a goodly percentage is capable\nof being immediately utilized in the school shop and transformed into\narticles of use and beauty.\nThe limitations of this paper hardly allow of a reference to the problems presented by manual training in the high school, and yet there is\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] PRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIN MANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n285\n\none fact evident in the tendencies in this field at the present time\nthat the speaker cannot forbear to mention. Manual-training workers\nin the past have to a large extent rested their philosophy upon the disciplinary and formative value of handwork, and have given comparatively\nslight attention to the subject-matter, value, and opportunities of their\nwork. Practice has for the most part conformed to this attitude, and the\nresult, as has been suggested before, has been systems or schemes of work\narranged with great attention to the development of skill in rather\nnarrow lines, but with little concern as to breadth of knowledge or\ninsight into practical conditions.\nA change, however, is becoming apparent in the situation. As the\ninsufficiency and incompleteness of the theory of formal training has\ncome to be recognized, and as the sociological reference has been added\nto the psychological, it is coming to be seen that breadth of experience\nand widening of outlook must be added to the mere training in manipulation. With this view, a clearer outlook as to the field of manual work is\nbeing obtained. It is seen that manual training means, not only a\nmethod of teaching, but something to be taught, and that something is\nthe study of art and industry.\nWith the growth of this idea a rich field of subject-matter is at once\nopened up, and the question of what is to be presented in our instruction\nassumes a new phase. This change of attitude is resulting in the\nattempt to get closer to the real facts of industrial practice, and to represent these facts in a more suggestive and practical fashion. This tendency does not represent in the slightest degree any more of a desire to\nteach a trade than formerly. It is simply the coming of manual training\nto its proper estate, as the representative in the school curriculum of the\ngreat field of modern industry.\nIt has been said many times recently that the dominant tendencies\nof the present age are mdustrial. If that is so, why should we be afraid\nto acknowledge the fact in our school practice ? The question was asked\nin this hall yesterday afternoon : \"What is the objection to teaching the\nrudiments of an industry in connection with industrial training?\" What,\nindeed ? Manual training itself has been slow to take this point of\nview. It has been largely content with forms and symbols, but it is putting these by and looking forward into a larger horizon and a work of\ngreater meaning. In this, I take it, it is but following the tendencies of\nall education, which is more and more finding the materials of culture\nand discipline in the facts and tendencies of real life.\nDISCUSSIQN\nGusTAF Larsson, principal of Sloyd Training School, Boston, Mass. — In discussing\nthe practical problems in manual training, I take for granted that we are considering this\nproblem from an educational point of view, rather than from an industrial point of view.\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nI think that most of us agree that it is not practicable in our public schools to prepare the pupils for a trade for making a living, or for a professional career, however\nvaluable these may be. Nor is it best, in my opinion, to utilize manual training merely\nas a means to further other school subjects.\n*\n1 believe, with the previous speaker, that manual training should have an organic\nconnection with other school work, but it is still more important that it have a vital connection with child life and child interest. It may be practicable to have manual training\ntaught by the class teacher in the regular schoolroom below the sixth grammar grade,\nbut in this lies the danger that, in dealing with large clast,es in this organic work, we\nsometimes fail to reach the need of each individual ; and drill and mass instruction is not\nwholly educational. I believe that well-directed plays and games which have vigorous\nmotion and interesting motive would be belter than many of the occupations that have\nbeen practiced.\nI think we could not do better than to carry out Froebel's beautiful idea in many of\nthe grades above the kindergarten. In his Education of Man, with which we are all\nfamiliar, he says : \" Every child, boy, and youth, whatever his condition and position in\nlife, should devote daily at least one or two hours to some serious activity in the production of some definite external piece of work. Lessons through and by work, through and\nfrom life, are by far the most impressive and intelligible, and most continuously and\nintensely progressive, both in themselves and in their effect on the learner.\" The first\npractical point, then, would be that the teacher should make a study of the child before\nhe takes up the means whereby he should be educated.\nThere is a danger that the teacher may be so engaged in the study of the material\nprocesses that the child is forgotten ; in other words, the children are likely to be fitted\nto the school, rather than the school to the children.\nIt is true that correlation of studies has been much discussed of late years, and I\nbelieve that it is a good thing ; but I also believe that manual training of the right kind\nhas by itself an educational possibility not always recognized by our educational leaders.\nI believe that manual training will lose much of its educational effectiveness if we try to\nmake it a means directly to intensify the instruction in some of the other school subjects;\nfor whatever interests and strengthens the whole child will enable him to grasp more\nstrongly any subject.\nIf we are able to prove that manual training can help to produce a healthier, happier, more capable, and more social individual, we must have it ; if this is not true, we\nshould not have it.\nIt has been proved over and over again, in places where manual training has been\nadequately tried, that it touches the whole human being, physically, mentally, and morally.\nIn other words, it gives a simultaneous development to hand, head, and heart. Over\nthirty years' experience of educational handiwork in the public schools of Sweden will\ntestify to the correctness of this statement.\nIn order to obtain these higher educational results — to reach effectively this threefold nature of the child thru manual training — it is evident that the teacher of the subject must be a person of high qualifications, a master of his subject, and also one who\nfully understands child nature.\nWhile I do not yet see the educational advantage of correlating manual training with\nsome other studies — at least as far as wood-working goes — I do most earnestly believe\nthat it would be very profitable for the teachers of the different subjects to meet in conference as often as possible, particularly those of manual training, gymnastics, drawing,\nand art. They would have much to gain from this interchange of thought that would\nstrengthen each and all of them in accomplishing that for which they are all striving —\nthe development of the whole child.\nIf time allowed and the opportunity were possible for illustrations, I should try to\nshow by what means handwork of the right sort would teach our children to think to\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supcrintendencel PRACTICAL\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nIM MANUAL\n\nTRALNJNG\n\n287\n\nmore profit, and to act more individually, and yet in perfect harmony with the constant\nupward growth and development of the human life around them.\nIn regard to the so-called \"Russian system of manual training,\" which has been\npredominating in this country and has been described as being \" a series of exercises\nbased upon tools, materials, and the elements of construction,\" I would say that \"sloyd\"\nrecognizes and uses all these in its means, but it goes a step farther and also recognizes\nthe importance of the fact that effort and action must be stimulated by human interest.\nThis idea is now also fully recognized in Russia, for during the past year I have corresponded with some of the leading educators in Russia on this subject, one of them being\nDirector Zirul of the Royal Normal Teachers' Seminary in St. Petersburg, and I have\nobtained from that school two large volumes of working-drawings for manual training in\nboth wood and metal, showing that every exercise now used in the schools of Russia is\napplied on finished articles of use and beauty. This idea of the importance of a stimulating, worthy motive in all our school subjects is nothing new, and I think needs no discussion before an audience like this. In order to gain a correct idea of the evolution of\nmanual-training methods in this respect, seven years ago I collected photographs of objects\nused in some of the leading manual-training schools in this country, and three years later\nI obtained another collection from the same schools. By comparing these collections I\nfound that during the period intervening fully 75 per cent, of the exercises had been put\ninto completed objects. This will show more truly than any reports that the progress\ntoward a stimulating motive has been steadily increasing.\nA word as to the meaning of \"sloyd\" and its adaptation to American schools: We\nprefer to use the anglicized Swedish word \" sloyd,\" because this single word means more\nthan the double term \"manual training \" — it means educational handwork, or the simultaneous training of all the faculties of the child. Like the word \" kindergarten,\" it has\nthe disadvantage of being foreign, but I hope it will soon become perfectly familiar. The\nCentury Dictionary gives a good definition of the word \" sloyd,\" but the following may\ngive a clearer idea of its meaning: \"'Sloyd' is tool work so arranged and employed as\nto stimulate and promote vigorous, intelligent self-activity for a purpose which the worker\nrecognizes as good.\"\nThe Sloyd Fraining School of Boston, which I have the honor of representing, was\nstarted in 1888. It is a free school for teachers, supported by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw.\nOnly men and women having special qualifications as teachers are considered as applicants, and of these a limited number are admitted each year. The course covers one\nshort school year of eight months, from October i to June i. Over two hundred teachers\nhave been graduated from the school, and most of these are now engaged in teaching\nsloyd in different parts of this country. In the Boston public schools alone thirty of our\ngraduates are employed.\nThe particular aim of sloyd is to seek to provide the harmonious development of the\npupil during the formative age, i. e., from eight to fifteen years of age. Sloyd has often\nbeen misrepresented by well-meaning people, who do not know the principles which\ngovern our work.\nLet me briefly state the general principles upon which sloyd is based :\n1. The teachers must be {Professional teachers, and not artisans merely.\n2. The teaching must be systematic, progressive, and, with the exception of class\ndemonstrations, as far as possible individual.\n3. Such manual-training work should be selected as will give the best physical development thru free, vigorous movements.\n4. The visible or material results should in every respect represent the individual\nworker's own effort. This should mean no division of labor, and practically the exclusion\nof machinery as labor-saving contrivances.\n5. The exercises should be applied on objects the use of which can be thoroly appreciated bythe worker: each object should be simple, of good form and proportion —\nhence artistic.\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\n6. The course should include, not only objects which can be made accurately thru the\nuse of ordinary testing tools but frequent work which develops appreciation of curves\nand exercises the sense of form thru both sight and touch.\n7. Special importance must be attached to neatness, accuracy, and finish, and to the\ndevelopment of independence.\n\nCOEDUCATION\nALBION\n\nW. SMALL,\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\nSOCIOLOGY,\n\nOF CHICAGO\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF CHICAGO\n\nI understand that my invitation to discuss this subject was virtually\na request to explain the recent action of the University of Chicago in\nmodifying certain administrative details. In accepting the invitation,\nhowever, I speak solely from my own individual standpoint. I am not\nauthorized to represent either the university or any official policy of the\nuniversity. I happen to have voted with the majority in our recent\naction, and the members of that majority, of course, in a certain general\nway, think alike about the matter. At the same time, as in all such cases,\nthe action adopted represents compromise and concession even between\nthe members of the majority. The view of no single person appears\nprecisely.. I speak of the case, therefore, as it looks to me individually,\nwithout attempting to calculate how nearly I may voice the views of\nanyone else.\nIt would be immodest to thrust forward a local incident as deserving\nthe attention of a body like this, if it really were nothing more than a\nlocal incident. It has value, not because in itself it decides anything\nof general validity, but because it is a single experiment under conditions\nwhich may or may not exist elsewhere, and it is worth what it is worth as\na contribution to the theory and practice of education, merely so far as\nsimilar circumstances exist. Accordingly, I must say very distinctly that\nmy paper relates to one situation only, and to the practical conclusions\nwhich have been reached by the people dealing with that situation.\nWith a single fundamental exception, to' be spoken of in a moment, the\nconclusions are not regarded as necessarily applicable in detail anywhere\nelse. We have had no revelation of a new educational gospel. We have\nmade no claim that our newly adopted workiijg policy has any bearing\nupon high schools. Whether it has or not I shall omit to inquire, as that\npart of the subject belongs properly to the gentleman who follows me.\nI am presenting merely a single case and the conclusions which it has\nforced upon the persons most responsible.\nIn the first place, it is safe to assume that impressions which members\nof this body may have gathered from the press about our experiment are\nthoroly out of true. Nothing that has been published, with the exception\nof extracts from the president's latest quarterly statement, gives an\napproximately correct idea of the action itself or of the considerations\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] COEDUCATION\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF CHICAGO\n\n289\n\nthat led to it. The reason for this is easily stated. No question ever\nroused intenser interest in the university faculty than the one that I am\ndiscussing. This interest early spread beyond university circles. The\ndaily papers got inklings of it, and of course tried to get more. Versions\nof what was going on were furnished by unauthorized reporters, and the\npapers published them with liberal garnishings of their own. The\nmajority of our faculty did not believe the case belonged in the newspapers while it was in process of decision. Not by formal agreement,\nbut by natural reaction against a public agitation which we felt to be\nunfortunate, we found ourselves uniformly refusing to argue our case in\nprint. The opposition had a monopoly of the newspaper field. Before\nthe discussion had gone far, fanciful accounts of what the proposition\nmust involve, and what its friends must really be aiming at, had been set\nadrift in the newspaper current. They have been floating in the stream\nof reportorial gossip and editorial comment ever since. Statements have\nbeen published denying the correctness of the rumors, but the positive\narguments of the majority have been presented to the public only in\nversions prepared from the opposite point of view. They have consequently been in a large degree fictitious. Like all other mythologies,\nthis folklore is much more entertaining than the truth. It will doubtless\nbe a long time before the commonplace reality supplants the fictions\nthat preoccupied the public mind. My task, however, is principally a\ndull recital of the literal facts. It is hoped that the truth may not fail\nutterly to command the attention which wild rumor provoked.\nThe first proposition which requires emphasis is that the new admifiistrative measure at the University of Chicago was devised and supported and\ncarried by men who believe in coeducation. They do not merely accept it\nas a necessary evil. Most of them have always believed in coeducation.\nAll of them expect that they always will believe in it. It is a curious fact\nthat, while the minority was composed chiefly of persons who regarded\nthemselves as the only real friends and defenders of coeducation, the men\nwho are outspoken opponents of coeducation voted with that minority.\nThey said : \" The proposal will not abolish coeducation, so we do not\nbelieve in it.\" There would have been no majority for the measure if it\nhad abolished, or tended to abolish, coeducation, or if it contained any\nconcealed opposition to coeducation. The men who actively promoted\nthe change did so on the ground that it is a constructive measure, destined\nin our particular case to make coeducation stronger than ever before.\nWe believe that our attitude on the matter will contribute, at least\nindirectly, to improvements in the administration of coeducation everywhere. •\nMy second main proposition is that coeducation is not like the form of\na geometrical figure, yesterday, today, and forever the same. Our opponents\nat once pounce upon this formula and make it the key to their plan of\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ncampaign. They reply: \"This is a quibble, a subterfuge, a word-juggle.\nIt shows that you do not mean what you say when you profess friendship\nfor coeducation. There is only one proper meaning for coeducation,\nviz., instruction first, last, and all the time to men and women sitting\nside by side in the same room.\" To people occupying the traditional\nposition the detail thus magnified is the citadel of women's intellectual\nrights. Weaken this stronghold, they argue, and you surrender all the\neducational opportunity for women that the struggles of the last century\nhave secured.\nTo this I reply that we absolutely refuse to recognize anybody's right\nto identify the principle of coeducation with the purely accidental detail\nof promiscuity in classification. If coeducation amounted to nothing\nmore than this, belief in it would be formalism of the most mechanical\nand superstitious sort.\nThe fallacy of this merely dialectic method of deciding the merits of\nthe case may be shown by an analogy. Making coeducation consist\nessentially in the form or quantity of association between male and female\nstudents is parallel with the notion that marriage is one unchanging and\nunchangeable form of association between a man and a woman. Not to\nnotice ruder forms of marriage, and considering monogamy alone, we\nhave, as a matter of fact, all the variations in the form of the monogamous union, from marriage under early Roman law, in which divorce was\nat the absolute discretion of the husband, to marriage under the canon\nlaw, which recognized no divorce whatever. We have marriage according to the Code Napoleon, which denies to the wife who has earned\nmoney and deposited it in a savings bank the right to draw it without her\ndo-nothing husband's permission ; and marriage according to the Kaiser,\nin which Kinder, Kuche, and Kirche measure the tether of woman's liberty. At the other extreme we have marriage according to our western\nAmerican republics, which consists of a union between an acquiescent man,\nas silent partner, and, as party of the second part, a woman whose voice\nis never silent in the streets, so long as there is a public reform to be\nagitated or a political election to be contested. Accordingly, a very\nlarge part of what Mrs. Browning calls \" the social spasm and crisis of\nthe ages\" is the problem, not of stereotyping the conjugal union in an\ninflexible form, but of realizing that spirit of association between husband\nand wife which will make each most valuable to the other, and both most\nuseful to society.\nA similar problem is at the heart of the case before us. Coeducation\nis something profounder than mere adherence to a local tradition of\nmechanical arrangement among pupils getting their schooling. Coeducation isa stage and a phase in the apprenticeship of men and women\nfor their appropriate life-functions. What are the conditions most conducive to the passing of this stage into the most highly adapted and\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencej\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO\n\n291\n\nadaptable manhood and womanhood ? Are we to assume that this tremendous question is the one solitary detail which is settled beyond revision for all time among the innumerable open problems of educational\ntheory and practice ? The University of Chicago, at any rate, declines\nto accept any such snap-judgment. We have no quarrel with separate\ncolleges, either for men or for women. They undoubtedly have a mission, and perhaps a limited number of them will always be desirable.\nWe believe, nevertheless, that as a rule association, not isolation, is the\nnormal condition during the years of preparation for manhood and\nwomanhood. The terms of association, however, should not be rigidly prescribed apriori, but should be flexible according to the dictates of experience. It should be possible to regulate the association as circumstances\nof time and place and individual needs require. This demand reduces\nthe item of co-instruction to the rank of one among the many details\nwhich the development of coeducation must utilize for what they are\nworth. It is as foolish to make a specific, or a shibboleth, or a fetich,\nout of one accident of the educational program as out of another.\nFor myself — and now I do not know whether this fornlula would be\nacceptable to my colleagues or not^I define coeducation as instruction^\nunder a single management, of males and females, upon equal terms, under\nconditions which promise to prove in the long run most advantageous to all\nconcerned. That is, coeducation is, like education in general, a progressive revelation, and selection of means according to the revelation. The\nonly essential specifications added to the generic term \"education\" to\nform the special concept \"coeducation\" are, first, affirmation of the\nequal claims of men and women lo all opportunities of education, and,\nsecond, endeavor by the same educator, whether state, or church, or private\ncorporation, or individual, to furnish equal educational privileges to the\nmales and females of a given constituency. It is most fortunate that the\ncharter of the University of Chicago was deliberately framed so as to provide for this flexible conception.\nThird : So far as I am aware, no published statement, with the exception of Dr. Harper's report, just alluded to, has been within respectable\nguessing distance of the actual grounds for our action. It has been\ncharged that the aim was to diminish the number of women in the university. This neither is, nor has it ever been, nor is it likely to be, the\ndesire of any individual who has actively interested himself in our movement. On the contrary, we not only expect, but hope, that the number\nof women in our student body will rapidTy increase, and it is the policy\nof the university to promote that increase as diligently as it attempts to\nincrease the number of the men. Without partiality for men or for\nwomen, the University of Chicago will not, by its own fault, be second to\nany institution in providing educational opportunities for both.\nAgain, an ingenious guesser has contributed to one of our most influ-\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nential American weeklies the interpretation that our move has been in\nresponse to a demand of the male students for the exclusion of women,\nand he treats this supposed fact as a cardinal symptom of the times. In\nreality, to the best of my knowledge and belief, no sign of opposition\nto the old system ever reached the faculty from the students. So far as\ntheir feelings were concerned, the inherited system was rather conspicuously satisfactory. This is, of course, in marked contrast with familiar\ncases in New England colleges founded for men but afterward opened\nto women.\nOnce more, it has often been said that some serious moral problems\nmust have been met, some grave misconduct must have been detected, to\naccount for disturbing the status quo. Again, I may reply that for myself\nI have never had personal knowledge of a single case of immorality,\neither at Chicago or elsewhere, which was fairly chargeable to coeducation.\nIf any member of the Chicago faculty has had a different experience, he\nhas never put it in evidence in any argument of which I have knowledge.\nImmorality, in the usual sense, has never been a factor in the case. It is\nimmoral to scrawl letters with a pen, when one can afford a typewriter.\nIt is immoral to waste time running errands, when one can afford a telephone. In that sense alone has our problem been concerned with morals ;\n/. e.y we think we have discovered a more excellent way, and it would\nbe immoral not to adopt it. Our action has not been prompted by anything that would usually be classed as sins of commission on the part of\nstudents. It is rather a provision against sins of omission on the side of\nthe university.\nNow, to state the facts positively : The movement in question was\noccasioned immediately, not by any speculative theory about coeducation,\nbut by reaching a point in the growth of the university at which it became\nan inexorable necessity to recognize an axiom of physics, namely, two\nbodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time. Our lecture halls,\nlaboratories, and departmental libraries were overcrowded. They were\nwanted by both graduates and undergraduates. Enlarged accommodations\nwere imperative. Unless we were to proceed without system, and regardless of the future, the question was forced upon us : Looking ahead as\nfar as we can, what principle of assigning ground space for the needed\nbuildings will best provide for all the interests of the university? Time\nwould not permit rehearsal of the many considerations which had to be\nweighed, and it is not necessary for the present purpose. It soon became\nclear to everyone, however, that the four blocks to which the university\nhad been confined would be needed for the higher work alone, and should\nbe reserved accordingly. This meant, in other words, that removal of all\nfreshman and sophomore work — that is, in our terms, the Junior College\n— from our present base of operations, and provision for it elsewhere, was\njudged to be the wisest method of relieving our overcrowded condition.\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] COEDUCATION\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF CHICAGO\n\n293\n\nWhen so much was clear, everyone taking it for granted that the higher\nwork was anchored by the laboratories, etc., the questions were forced\nupon us : How can we best provide for the Junior College ? Shall we\nplan to develop in the future an indefinite number of quadrangles, in\nimitation of the central university quadrangle, with dormitories for women\non one side, for men on another, and with intermediate buildings for common instruction ; or shall we adopt some other principle ? The moment\nthis was recognized as a practical and urgent administrative question,\nsome of us saw that we could not do our full duty in answering it unless\nwe reconsidered on its merits, and in all its bearings, the whole traditional\nmachinery of coeducation, which we had inherited. In other words, it\nwas not sufficient to inquire : How can we most conveniently continue\nto do the thing we are already doing? The more important question\nwas : Is this the best thing possible ? Would any changes in our system\nimprove it in the interest of both men and women ?\nThe newspaper advertising of our discussion, as something that grew\nout of hostility to women, or jealousy of women, or illiberal disposition\ntoward women, was a long shot in the opposite direction from the mark.\nWhatever may be our deficiencies in other respects, I feel perfectly safe in\ndeclaring that the world does not contain an educational institution in\nwhich recognition of the equal right of women to all that it offers is\nmore complete than in the University of Chicago. I make this boast\nwithout qualification or apology, because when a thing is absolute it can't\nbe any more so. This is not only the fact, but the fact corresponds with\nthe whole animus of the university. Women are no more there on tolerance than the men are. Use of all that the university affords, from the\nkindergarten in the School of Education to private laboratories for special\nresearch, is not a privilege dependent on concession, but the unquestioned\nright of women on precisely equal terms with men. The trustees and\nfaculty of the university are probably more anxious to guard this equality\nin the interest of the women than of the men, for they assume that the\nmen would be more aggressive in defending their rights if by oversight\nor accident they were ever impaired. There has never for a moment been\nany halting or wavering, or equivocation, in our purpose to develop and\nimprove and realize coeducation. The few individuals in our number\nwho do not believe in the idea have always accepted the fact that the university isirrevocably committed to it, and that they could not change it if\nthey would. The great majority not only accept the fact, but are in cordial sympathy with it, so that they would not change it if they could.\nAs the newspapers have taken pains to let everybody know, the first\nstep which we have taken, in pursuit of tiie purpose to perfect our system,\nhas been the establishment of separate Junior Colleges for men and\nwomen. They are to be located, the one on the east, the other on the\nwest, of the main quadrangle reserved for higher work, an'd their nearest\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nboundaries will be three or four blocks distant from each other. The ugly\nterm \"segregation \" was invented by misinformed outside agitators against\nwhat they excited themselves into believing to be our purpose. It is a\nsneer, with which it is useless to argue. If it is applied to the division\nbetween the Junior College and the higher work, it is no more in point\nthan it would be to use it for the separation between the elementary medical work in lecture-room and laboratory, and the more technical work in\nclinics. If the epithet applies to the division between Junior College\nmen and Junior College women, the separation is equally of each from\nthe other, and it is only by a freak of the imagination that it can be made\ninvidious. Each Junior College is in the same sense, and in the same\ndegree, a part of the university that the other is. There are no divisions\nof the faculty, but merely temporary shifting in assignment of duties.\nThat is, the professor who gives a course in geometry, or French, or history in one college at one hour of the day, or in one quarter of the year,\nwill offer the same course at another hour of the same day, or in another\nquarter of the same year, in the other college.\nFor myself, I do not believe that this will work out as \" identical\ninstruction\" in the two colleges, and I do not believe that it should. It\nis a moral impossibility for a teacher who is thoroly alive to give precisely\nthe same instruction to a class of men which he would give to a class of\nwomen. He will and should adapt himself to the different mental attitudes of men and women. The more skillful he is, the more will his\npower to vary his instruction accrue to the advantage of both men and\nwomen.\nThe division just described between men and women ceases at the end\nof the sophomore year, or, in our terms, at the completion of the work of\nthe Junior College. Meanwhile, the foundations of a somewhat coherent,\nsheltered community life will have been laid for both men and women.\nNo Chinese walls, nor barbed-wire fences, nor even hedges will inclose\nthe students in either college. They will have more and better opportunities for meeting each other in perfectly natural ways than the average\nman and woman of the same age who are not in college. No one who\nis acquainted with the social tendencies of Chicago is likely to harbor\nvery desperate fears lest our boys and girls may henceforth see so little of\neach other that their social development will be permanently arrested.\nThe modification that I have described has been hysterically denounced\nfrom one point of view, and almost as hysterically ridiculed from\nanother. On the one hand, it has been claimed that this is merely the\nbeginning of the end of coeducation in the University of Chicago, and so\nit is regarded as the first move in a campaign for the educational disfranchisement ofwomen. On the other hand, it has been ridiculed as a change\ntoo insignificant to affect coeducation one way or the other. Unlimited\nscorn has been aimed at the futility of a scheme which merely sandwiches\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] COEDUCATION\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO\n\n295\n\nin two years of separate class work between earlier and later years of association. As to the former charge, I have already shown that our answer\nmight be in baseball language: \"Never touched me.\" To the latter\ncriticism we may properly reply: \"Then why these tears? If the effort is\nso feeble, why waste agitation on it? Why not leave it to expire of inanition?\"\nNow, the truth is, this measure can never have anything like the radical importance, either for weal or for woe, which its friends have been\nsupposed to claim for it, or which its opponents predict as its consequence.\nReactionary it never was, in any shape or degree. On the other hand, we\nhave never thought of it as a cure-all. It is a measure designed to guard\nthe equilibrium of students at a stage when it is peculiarly liable to be\ndisturbed. It is an adjustment, an adaptation, a relief of nervous and\nmental tension, at a point where there is excessive stimulation.\nIn a word, what I mean is this: We are in the geographical center of\na large city, the focus of a group of states in which there is an enormous\nincrease of families whose children are not compelled by poverty to hurry\ninto bread- winning. The time is apparently approaching when the number\nof girls who choose college education in the country at large will equal the\nnumber of boys. However this may be, in a city like Chicago, and to a\nlesser degree in the tributary country, the time is fast approaching when\ngirls will enter college in equal numbers with boys, and from closely similar motives. The days when going to college was an ordeal that tried\nwomen's souls, and when only the rare few would undertake it, are\nancient history. Today in our city colleges we can match the immemorial\nspecies \"generous youth \" with equal numbers of the lately differentiated\n\" generous maiden.\" To speak sooth of either type, it means well enough,\nand will mostly find itself by and by, but just now it frankly does not\nknow what else to do with itself, and college is its line of least resistance.\nNo one who has been a freshman or a sophomore will think hard of me\nfor not stopping long to verify the other scattering specimens in the collection. The aforesaid \"generous youths and maidens\" come to college\nvery human boys and girls. They have been with other boys and girls\nbefore, but they didn't mind particularly. Now they are thrown in with\na crowd of new boys and girls, and they begin to take notice. The boy\nof seventeen or eighteen has grown up by the side of his younger, or even\nolder, sisters, and other boys' sisters, and has probably never wasted a\nminute on the purely academic question of their possible equality with\nhimself. In the college environment the perspective changes. He is\ndoggedly aware that the girls in his class are sophisticated beyond his\nyears. He has always supposed himself at least as old as anyone of his\nage. Now, when he hears the girls of h^ class talk about \"high-school\nkids\" he has a guilty feeling that it means him. While he is being guyed\nand hazed and, if lucky, \" rushed,\" the chasm yawns wider between him and\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nhis girl classmate, who does not even shrink from the presence of the\ncaptain of the football team, and has already made a distinct impression\nupon some of the social stars of the fraternities. Our freshman doesn't\nfeel happy. These girls embarrass him. The only relief they can offer is\nby electing courses as far ahead of the natural sequence as the rules\nallow, so as to get into the company of older and more interesting men.\nBut what of these freshman girls themselves; these eager, impulsive,\ninexperienced, adventurous maidens that our prosperous American life\nproduces; these heirs-expectant of the world and the fullness thereof;\nthese latest arrivals at the gates of life, equipped with anticipations as\nomnivorous as they are indefinite; with nerves a-quiver for the next sensation; with serene assurance that their future must be a long crescendo\nof happiness? What of these on-the-whole most admirable specimens of\nunfulfilled womanhood that any civilization has ever produced? A man\nold enough to be a grandfather may be safe in confessing that he would\nsuspect the mental and moral wholesomeness of the college boy who could\nlive within the horizon of these peerless girls, and not in his secret heart\nbe gloriously in love with them one and all!\nBut how fares it with these girls in the atmosphere of the big city\ncoeducational college? More than anything else they need poise, repose,\nstandpoint, perspective, purpose. They need long, clear looks at life\nfrom its upper side, unconfused by the jostlings of the crowd. What are\nthe chances in this direction, when every nerve is at concert pitch, when\nambition for prestige is goaded by the keenest spurs, when the whole air\ntingles with the excitement of a continuous social function?\nI grant you all this is not argument. I am dealing with facts, to be\nsure, but let us say that my use of them is merely parable. What I mean\nby it is that things like those which the parable suggests are bound to\nproduce a large amount of distraction of attention, which would wander\nenough without such provocation. Much of this disturbance is avoidable.\nRemoval of needless causes of it would do just so much toward securing\nmaximum conditions of comfortable, healthy, normal growth, and incidentally ofeffective college work. Is this a trifle? If any of us think so,\nwe might learn rudimentary psychology from the gymnasium, not to say\nfrom the paddock.\nBut you reply: \"After all, you have not proved either that unwholesome conditions exist, or that, if they did, your measure would be a remedy.\" You are right, and I do not deceive myself in the least about the\nlogical status of the discussion. In the twenty-seven years of intermittent\ndebate in which I have participated on this subject, and particularly in\nthe portion of it which has been carried on among my colleagues during\nthe past two years, I have known of only one absolute demonstration.\nThe one thing established is that, if a person has once had an opinion,\neither />?'^ or con, upon the subject of coeducation, all the arguments in\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n2^^\n\nthe world will never prove anything to the contrary one way or the other.\nOn every subject, with this one exception, reasoning may have some\neffect. In this case never. The only possible change of view has to come\nthru collision with new experiences and the sensation of facts arguing for\nthemselves. I have no ambition to fly in the face of Providence by\nattempting the impossible. I have been content to state our position,\nand to indicate the spirit in which we are acting. We may be mistaken\nabout our facts. We may be fatuous in our way of treating them. Our\npurpose is beyond attack.\nSpeaking again for myself only, it seems to me that in education we\nhave parodied the practice of Judge Lynch; that is, first hang your prisoner, then try him. We first extemporized a coeducation, and then, with\nuncanonical speed, we canonized it. I believe that the contrast between\nthe naive coeducation which'we stumbled into and that which we shall\ndevelop in the future is parallel with the difference between the little\npurgatory which the memories of my childhood recall under the name of\nprimary school, and the kindergarten which the wisest teachers are perfecting today.\n\nCOEn\nAARON\n\nGOVE,\n\nUCA TION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nDENVER,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\nCOLO.\n\nDISTRICT\n\nNO. I,\n\nI believe that the interests of the thousands in the high school are quite\nas important as are those of the hundreds in the colleges. I am aware that\nwhat I am about to say will arouse antagonism, especially on the part of\nmy women friends. They will seem to see an attack on what is commonly called the equality of the sexes. I address myself especially to\nopposing the present identical education of the high-school boy and\ngirl, without reference to the \"co.\" It matters little where they receive\ninstruction; I am protesting against the identical education that schools\nhave been led to give to the sexes. Altho the high schools have largely\nmodified their curricula because of the elective courses and of the privilege of equivalents which is one of the blessings of the present time, we\nhave not yet got thru with the notion that the diploma of a secondary\nschool must be the same certificate, whether issued to a boy or to a girl.\nThe equivalent for the boy and the girl ought to include and exclude\nmuch of either.\nFrom the homes — and I speak for the high schools — the girls have\nbeen compelled to enter school with the brothers, to select the course of\nstudy with their brothers, to enter school at the same time in the morning, to attend recitations at the same time, and to receive diplomas at\nthe same time — identical education.\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\nThe\" progress in our nation along all industrial lines, the advance in\ncommercial lines, the improvement in all the opportunities of human\nlife have been so rapid in the last fifty years that our fathers hardly know\nwhere we are; but the public high school has remained the same until\nrecently. It is changing now, but in some respects the girls are working\nat an increased disadvantage. I remember two boys who, in their city\nhome, had nothing to do but go to school; no kindling to prepare at the\nhome, no coal to carry in, no chores to do, no horse to take care of; no\nwork whatever was to be done by the boy. When they left school at two\nin the afternoon, they dawdled, unless fortunate enough to have inherited\na bias for football or other athletic sport.\nThe sister is never free from a task. In common life, domestic cares\nemploy her; if the middle station in life be hers, duties about the house\nengage her attention; if above the middle cfass, duties of society engage\nher. The American girl must have society — not dull society, not balls\nlate and long, but girl society, society social and contributing to the\nculture of the individual. With such differing conditions, it is wicked\nto assign the same task to both girls and boys.\nI ask the teacher of physics: \"Tell me, if you had the girls at one\ntime and the boys at another, would your instruction be modified? \" He\nreplies: *' I would modify the instruction; I cannot tell you just how,\nbut I should not always take the same route.\" The girl who has\nfloundered thru arithmetic in the grammar school may be one of the\nbrightest in the high school under proper conditions. We wrong the\nhigh-school girl by saying that the science must be taken as the university graduate wants it, with complicated apparatus, original investigation,\nand the notions of the college. This is at the present time harming the\ngirls' and the boys' high schools. The first, second, and third years in\nthe high school are suffering for lack of good teachers, because the college men coming to us must wait to learn from practice there.\nI have little respect, and so have you, for him who undertakes to\ndemolish without suggestions for building up. I have a suggestion for\nthe better. The mothers and the sisters and the aunts remonstrate\nagainst the statement that the girl cannot be equal with the boy. She\nis equal and frequently superior. The girl does more for self-culture\nbetween fourteen and eighteen years of age than does her brother, but\nshe must take longer to get thru the high school.\nLet her go with her brother in the morning and go home at noon,\nand not appear again until the beginning of school next day. She will\nbe engaged in the extra duties I have spoken of; I trust she will be out\nof doors some part of the time. From this it follows that the girl's afternoon vacation will necessitate six years, in which she is to do the work in\nschool which her brother does in four. The objection I meet is the\nprejudice of the people and the home in concluding that this means\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n299\n\nthe depreciation of the young women of the country. Every high school\ncould so adjust its work that the girls could all go home at noon. Just\nthink; the boys have gone to college and gone to business; the girls are\nsaved in health, have the accomplishments, have learned domestic life,\nhave been able to read more than their brothers, and they are made free\nin their lives, and are ready for life's duties quite early enough, with six\nyears of high school to offer against four years of the brothers'.\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent Edwin P. Seaver, Boston, Mass, — I want to declare my great\npleasure in hearing the preceding speaker say that identical education for girls and boys\nis the error in which we have been allowing ourselves to proceed for a good many years\npast. With Superintendent Gove, I believe that the high-school girl should not have\nidentical education with the high-school boy, because they are not equal — as he says,\nthe girl is superior. Something was said about Boston not having come into line, and I\nmust be allowed to tell you what we have been doing. Some twenty-five years ago\nBoston enlarged her borders by taking in the neighboring towns. Each of these\nannexed towns had high schools of the usual coeducation type. In the old city we had\nthe English high school for boys, dating from 1821; the Latin high school for boys, dating from almost the founding of -Boston, 1635; the high school for girls, established in\n1854 ; and the Latin school for girls, established about twenty-five years ago. So\nwhen I am asked what Boston stands for, I say we stand for about everything that\ncan be thought of. But there is a curious piece of history which I wish to state, and then\nto point out consequences. Soon after this annexation, it entered into the heads of\nthe committee that all these high schools, except the Latin, must be organized and\nrun on a uniform course of study. The women who had lately obtained places on\nthe board insisted that the girls' high school must do just the same work that the boys'\nhigh school did. The equality of the sexes must be recognized in education. The two\nhigh schools, the one for boys, and the one for girls, had grown each from its own roots,\nand had become different in character, and the schools in the suburbs had grown each\nin its own way; but all these schools were driven to use the same course of study. After\nmy official connection of twenty years with this work of enforcing an identical education\nfor boys and girls and for all high schools, I do not hesitate to declare that it has been\na gigantic failure, and if my experience is worth anything, the rest of you are welcome to it. After our trial of a uniform course of study, we had to smash the whole\nthing, and now all the studies are elective. The girls take what it is best for them\nto take, and the boys take what it is best for them to take, and they display quite a\ndifference in taste or in judgment. There is also an option as to the quantity of\nwork to be done. We allow the girl, if five studies are too many, to take three, or\nas few as two for the time being. In the case of a certain girl I have in mind, it\nwas better for her to take some studies than to stay out of school entirely. This was\nnot in Boston, but in the neighborhood. The father asked permission for her to continue with three studies, and was told that she would not finish, would have a one-sided\neducation, would become a special student, and would not graduate with her class. The\npersistent argument by the father gained the permission, but the girl was never allowed\nto take the diploma. She went thru the usual studies in five years, but could not have\nthe diploma. The prospect of losing the dipftma operates injuriously upon the girls of\nthe high school. The \"special student\" receives less consideration, not only from the\nteachers (that might be endured), but also from the body of her classmates.\nI believe, if the studies of the high school are arranged on a liberal elective plan, a\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Cincinnati\n\ngood many of theSe difficulties will disappear, and we shall better adapt high-school\neducation to the boys and girls who enter. That was one of the \"adjustments\" which\nI hoped our friend from the Hughes High School would bring into his paper. A most\nimportant adjustment is the adjustment of the kind and quantity of study to the boys\nand to the girls respectively. The time has gone by when we are to consider that the\nboys and the girls are all alike, and are best treated by a uniform course of study.\nSuperintendent E. A. Gastman, Decatur, 111. — Forty-one years ago I helped\norganize, in a town of about five thousand inhabitants, a high school. I am still trying\nto make that high school as good as I can. My sons and daughters have passed thru it;\ntwo of them are graduates of the University of Michigan, and one of them a graduate of\nthe Lewis Institute. I never knew a time when a parent was not told that a physician's\ncertificate would excuse his child from any work that he might desire. Two things are\nrequired in our course — mathematics and English; the others are elective.\nI have great respect for my friend Gove, and attach importance to what he says, but\nI want to state this experience : I never have seen, in the forty-one years, that either the\nboys or the girls were injured by the regular work of the high school, even when they took\nexactly the same studies.\nSuperintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo. — I think only a portion of the paper\nwas on the subject of coeducation. We find the distinguished gentleman from Chicago\nsaying that we shall have identical education in the segregated schools. Then Mr. Gove\nsays we must not have identical training for the boys and girls. Thus the doctors continue to disagree.\nIn the presence of these gray hairs I hesitate to speak, but I do want to know what\nsort of system, under the modern elective plan, will compel both sexes to take identical\nwork in the high school. I wonder if the boy does not pass thru the period of adolescence as well as the girl, and whether he does not have times of rapid growth also. I\nhave found the boys needing to drop off at times in their studies, as well as the girls.\nI think this is simply a reversion that we have had introduced to us. I think, with the\nelective system in the modern high school, we can leave the boy and the girl to take care\nof themselves.\nOne thing more I want to know is, why Dr. Small would turn the boys and girls\ntogether socially, but would not allow them together in the recitation room. In other\nwords, they may dance together, play cards together, but they must not recite together.\nIn regard to Superintendent Seaver's statements, I think it a mistake to generalize\nso broadly from a few isolated cases presented by him, just as I think it would be a mistake for a man to purchase a house from the average real-estate agent when he had only\nshown him two or three bricks from the house.\nSuperintendent L. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex. — I believe the time will come\nwhen we shall admit that fundamentally, psychologically, and in everyother way the education of the girl should not be the same as that of the boy. If the social environment is to\ndetermine education — and we all admit that industrially, in the home, and in many other\nways, the environment of the girl is different from that of the boy — then it must follow\nthat the educative material must not be identical. Mr. Gove only partially solves the\nquestion, because he does not allow the girl any credit for the growth she gets in the\nhome. The girl studies music and does brain work in the home ; will the time ever come\nwhen she can have credit for that work ?\nDr. John T. Prince, West Newton, Mass. — My friend Mr. Gove suggested that the\ngirl close up work at 12 o'clock and go home. I suggest that the boy go home then, too;\nbut I suggest that both may come back in the afternoon for manual and physical training,\ndomestic science, and other things that might be extra, but entirely voluntary. Three or\nthree and one-half hours a day of close intellectual work is quite enough for boys as well\nas girls. The afternoon's exercises should be optional, but may be made so attractive\nthat no one will wish to miss them.\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\n\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions ; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting\nits discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the\nsubject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds\nand reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the\ngenesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of\nthis object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in\nopinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further\nrequire the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion,\nwhenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall\ninvite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions. Any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view,\nand the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the\nCouncil. It shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational\nAssociation, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous\nyear, and placing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It\nshall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for\nany action on the part of the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own\nnumber, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby\nfacilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand\nthe attention of the profession or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI — MEMBERSHIP\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after\nthe first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members for six years, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect\neight members — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years;\nand annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council\nfive members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (sec. 5), to serve\nsix years, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nthe annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\n\n301\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first\nelection shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE II — QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIII — MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as\nthe meeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quoruin for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called ; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV-THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall,-from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council ; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association, or\nany of its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT\nOF SPECIAL\nEXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and\nspeakers, it shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the Council or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— THE\n\nPROGRAM\n\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance\nand approval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meetmg as\nshall realize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized\nand exists.\nARTICLE\n\nVII — STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n303\n\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may\nbe filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next\nmeeting, a report on \"Educational Progress During the Past Year,\" in which a survey\nof the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given.\nThis committee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each\nyear, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal\nhas been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational\nAssociation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\ncharacter.\nARTICLE\n\nIX— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular meeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\n\nOFFICERS,\n\nSTANDING\nOFFICERS\n\nWILLIAM R.HARPER\nW. H. BARTHOLOMEW\nJ. F. MILLSPAUGH\n\nCOMMITTEES,\nFOR\n\nJoseph Swain\nRichard G. Boone\nNicholas Murray Butler\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President, ex officio\nBloomington, Ind\nCincinnati, O\nNew York, N. Y\n\nOFFICERS\nFRANK A. FITZPATRICK\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\n\n1902-1903\n\nChicago, III\nLouisville, Ky\nWinona, Minn\nEXECUTIVE\n\nMEMBERS\n\nFOR\n\nBoston, Mass\nSwarthmore, Pa\nBaltimore, Md\n\nTerm expires in 1903\nTerm expires in 1904\nTerm expires in 1905\n\n1903-1904\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n3o_4\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nEXECUTIVE\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President, ex officio\nRichard G. Boone\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAnna Tolman Smith\n\nCincinnati, O\nNew York, N. Y\nWashington, D. C\nCOMMITTEE\n\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nJames M. Greenwood\nJames H. Van Sickle\nW. T. Harris\nAlbert G. Lane\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nNew York, N. Y\nMenomonie, Wis\nKansas City, Mo\nBaltimore, Md\nWashington, D. C\nChicago, 111\n\n;\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nTerm expires in 1904\nTerm expires in 1Q05\nTerm expires in 1906\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nEdwin A. Alderman\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\nNicholas Murray Butler\nNewton C. Dougherty\nWilliam R. Harper\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairtnan\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nElmer E. Brown\n\nAND\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1904\nexpires in 1504\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1906\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nNew Orleans, La\nNew York, N. Y\nMenomonie, Wis\nNew York, N. Y\nPeoria, 111\nChicago, 111.\nKansas City, Mo\nBoston, Mass\nBerkeley, Cal\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in*i904\nexpires in 1904\nexpires in 1904\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1906\n\nMEMBERS\nNote : The letter \"A\" following a name denotes that the member\nciation the\n;\nletter \" C,\" by the Council.\n\nTerm expires\n*Richard G. Boone, Yonkers, N. Y\n*F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo\n*Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis.. ..\n*R. H. Halsey, Qshkosh, Wis\n♦Carroll G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb\n♦Anna Tolman Smith, Washington, D. C.\n♦Josephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo...\n*James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md\nJohn Dewey, Chicago, 111\n*Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111\n*W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky\n♦Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass\n♦I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis\n♦E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa\n♦J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo\n♦Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash\n♦Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa\n♦Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa\n♦Louis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo\n*Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal\n♦J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala\n♦Livingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111\n♦James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo\n♦Robert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn\n♦Lucia Stickney, Cleveland, O\n♦Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn\n♦Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo\n♦J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind\nFrank A. Hill, Boston, Mass\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\n\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1904\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1906\n1906\n1906\n1906\n1906\n1906\n1906\n1906\n\n* C 1906\nC 1906\n\n♦Present at the Council sessions at Boston, 1903.\n\nis of the class elected by the Asso-\n\nTerm expires\n\n♦James M. Green, Trenton, N. J\n♦Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y. .\n♦A. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111\n♦Charles D. Mclver, Greensboro, N. C. . . .\n♦E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky\nJ. L. Spaulding, Peoria, 111\n♦Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O\n♦Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn\n♦Andrew S. Draper, Champaign, 111\nWilliam F, King, Mt. Vernon, la\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, O\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\nA\n\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1907\n1908\n\n♦Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111\n♦Edwin A. Alderman, New Orleans, La. . .\n♦Charles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn...\n♦J. F. Millspaugh, Winona, Minn\n♦W. M. Davidson, Topeka, Kan\n♦E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O\nO. T. Corson, Columbus, O\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\n\n1908\n1908\n1908\n1908\n1908\n1908\n1908\n\n♦James E. Russell, New York, N. Y\n♦Oliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111\n♦W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C\n♦William R. Harper, Chicago, 111\n♦Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y\n♦Ella F. Young, Chicago, 111\n♦Howard J. Rogers, Albany, N. Y\nAlexander Graham Bell, Wash., D. C. . ..\nL. H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich\n♦Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal\n♦W. H. Black. Marshall, Mo\n♦Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y.\n\nC\nC\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\n\n1908\n1908\n1909\n1909\n1909\n1909\n1909\n1909\n1909\n1909\n1909\n1909\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHONORARY\n\nAND\n\nDECEASED\n\nHONORARY\nEarl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam N. Barringer, Newark, N. J.\nNewton Bateman, Galesburg, 111.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nGeorge P. Brown, Bloomington, 111.\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nJohn T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nJames H. Canfield, New York, N. Y.\nClara Conway, Memphis, Tenn.\nJohn W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Me.\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\nJohn W. Dickinson, Newtonville, Mass.\nJohn Eaton, Washington, D. C.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nR. B. Fulton, University, Miss.\nW. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn.\nCharles B. Gilbert, New York, N. Y.\nDaniel C. Gilman, Washington, D. C.\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nW. N. Hailmann, Boston, Mass.\nG, Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nEdwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nIra G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Evanston, 111.\nE. S. Joynes, Columbia, S. C.\nDavid L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn.\nThomas Kirkland, Toronto, Can.\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\n\nDECEASED\nRobert Allyn\nIsrael W. Andrews\n\n1894\n1888\n\nJoseph Baldwin\nHenry Barnard\nReuben S. Bingham\nNorman A. Calkins\nAaron L. Chapin\nJ. L. M. Curry\nN. R. H. Dawson\nLarkin Dunton\nSamuel S. Greene\nJohn M. Gregory\nGeorge T. Falrchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\nJohn Hancock\n\n1899\n1900\n1902\n1895\n1892\n1902\n1895\n1899\n1883\n1898\n1901\n1896\n1891\n\nMEMBERS\n\n305\n\nMEMBERS\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlbert P. Marble, New York, N. Y.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nLillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nCharles A. McMurry, De Kalb, 111.\nLemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E, Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis.\nW. H. Payne, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nSelim H. Peabody, Chicago, 111.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, O.\nWilliam F. Phelps, Duluth, Minn.\nJoslah L. Pickard, Brunswick, Me.\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam B. Powell, New York, N. Y.\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, Boston, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Bristol, Tenn.\nFrank Rigler, Portland, Ore.\nWilliam H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, la.\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la.\nH. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nHomer B. Sprague, East Orange, N. J.\nJ. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis.\nThomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I.\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\nH. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nH. S. Thompson, New York, N. Y.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nArnold Tompkins, Chicago, 111.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, O.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb.\nC. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nWilliam D. Henkle\nElnathan E. Higbee\nBurke A. Hinsdale\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\nH, S. Jones\nMerrick Lyon\nJames McCosh\nThomas J. Morgan%\nM. A. Newell\nBIrdFey G. Northrop\nEdward Qlney\nGustavus J. Orr\nFrancis W. Parker\n\n1882\n1889\n1900\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1888\n1894\n1902\n1893\n1898\n1886\n1888\n1902\n\nS. S. Parr\n1900\nJohn D. Philbrick\n1885\nMatilda S. Cooper Poucher..i90o\nZalmon Richards\n1899\nAndrew J. Rickoff\n1899\nCharles C. Rounds\n1901\nEdward R. Shaw\n1903\nJames A. Smart\nR. W. Stevenson\n\n1900\n1893\n\nEH T. Tappan\nCharles O. Thompson\n\n1888\n1885\n\nJames P. Wickersham\nS. G. Williams\nEmerson E. White\n\n1891\n1900\n1902\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July 6, 9:30 a. m., 1903\n\nThe Council met in the Second Church of Boston, and was called to order by the\npresident, William R. Harper.\nThe usual formal exercises of opening were omitted. The first paper of the session\nwas presented by Charles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y., on \"The Voluntary Element in Education.\" I.C. McNeill briefly discussed the paper.\nThomas M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass., presented the subject \"Saving of Time in\nElementary and Secondary Education; \" and was followed by Mrs. Ella Flagg Young,\nChicago, 111., upon the same subject.\nIn discussion of these papers C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo., James M. Green,\nOliver S. Westcott, and Aaron Gove each spoke briefly. Mrs. Young and Mr. Balliet\nclosed the discussion.\nPursuant to a motion directing the president to appoint the Committee on Nominations, the following were named as such committee :\nW. T. Harris.\nNicholas Murray Butler.\nJames M. Greenwood.\n\nJames H. Baker asked that a committee of the Council be appointed to investigate\neducational questions of national interest, and report its conclusions to the Council.\nIt was moved that Mr. Baker's suggestion be referred to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations. After discussion, in which several members of the Council\nparticipated, the motion was laid on the table.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— 2:30 p. m.\n\nThe Council was called to order at the appointed hour by the president.\nAfter the reading by the secretary of sec. 5 of Art. VII of the constitution, which\nprovides for an annual report on \"Educational Progress During the Past Year,\" the\npresident introduced William DeWitt Hyde, president of Bewdoin College, who presented the report.\nFollowing the reading of the report, the president called upon John W. Cook,\nDeKalb, III., J. W. Carr, Joseph Swain, and C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo., each of\nwhom responded with brief remarks pertinent to the subject under review.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 7, 9:30 a. m.\n\nThe Council was called to order by the president.\nOn motion, the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations was\nmade by Nicholas Murray Butler, on behalf of the chairman, J. M. Greenwood, as follows:\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nAND\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nTo the Council:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations begs leave to report as follows relative to the\nseveral matters which have been before it either by reference from the Council or from the Board of Directors,\nor upon the initiative of the committee itself:\nI. Action on the proposal of President Baker, of Colorado, to appoint a committee, and to ask for an\nappropriation to inquire into the contemporary judgment as to the culture element in education and the time\nthat should be devoted to the combined school and college course, should await a clear definition of the topic\nto be studied and a precise indication of the methods of inquiry to be pursued. We recommend that the president of the Council be authorized to appoint a committee of five active members of the Association to under-\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n307\n\ntake to define the question as presented by President Baker, the report of this committee to be printed and\ndistributed in advance of the next annual meeting of the Council, and its discussion made a special order for\nthat meeting.\n2. In reference to the request of a number of active members of the Association, made to the Board\nof Directors and referred by that board to this committee, that an investigation be undertaken to determine the economic condition of public-school teachers thruout the United States, your committee feels that\nthe time is ripe for the prosecution of such an inquiry. There is a great and growing interest thruout the\ncountry in matters relating to the condition of public- school teachers and their compensation, and there is\nevery reason to believe that, if the facts could be correctly ascertained and lucidly set forth, the effect upon\npublic opinion, and consequently upon the status of the teachers themselves, would be excellent. We, therefore,\nrecommend that the president of the Council be authorized to a{»point a committee of seven, to consist of active\nmembers of the Association, and of not more than two experts in statistical and economic science, who may or\nmay not be members of the Association, to inquire and report to the Council upon the salaries, tenure of office,\nand pension provisions for public-school teachers in the United States. We recommend that an appropriation\nof $1,500, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be asked from the Board of Directors to defray the necessary expenses of conducting the work of this committee.\n3. The committee is unable to recommend any appropriation to defray the cost of the work being carried\non by the so-called Committee on Formulation of Contemporary Educational Doctrine. The attention of the\nCouncil is called to the fact that, by resolution of the Board of Directors, and by terms of the constitution of\nthe Council, Art. IV, all investigations made in the name of the National Educational Association shall originate\nin the Council, or, if not, shall be made under its direction or authority. To the best of our knowledge and\nbelief, no request has ever been made that the Council should authorize or approve the work of a Committee\non the Formulation of Contemporary Educational Doctrine.\n4. With reference to the request of the Board of Directors that this committee report upon the expediency\nof undertaking an investigation in the field of industrial education in schools in rural communities, we report\nthat such an investigation seems to be urgently needed in view of the requests for information and advice that\nare reaching the school authorities in several states of the middle West. We recommend that the president of\nthe Council be authorized to appoint a committee of five, consisting of active members of this Association, and\nof not more than one expert in agricultural education, who may or may not be a member of this Association,\nto undertake such an investigation and to report to the Council. We recommend that the Board of Directors\nbe requested to appropriate $500, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to defray the cost of the investigation to be conducted by such committee.\n5. Several times during the past few years the National Educational Association has explicitly declared\nin favor of strengthening the Bureau of Education, and of increasing its dignity and importance in the scheme\nof governmental administration at Washington. At a meeting of the Department of Superintendence held at\nChicago February 28, 1900, upon motion of the Commissioner of Education, a committee of six members was\nappointed for the purpose of aiding the Bureau of Education to accomplish Its work. This committee has from\ntime to time had under consideration the needs and opportunities of the bureau. It has recently held a series\nof prolonged sessions for the purpose of giving careful consideration to the whole matter, and, in conjunction\nwith the Commissioner of Education himself, has arrived at the conclusion that the time has now come when\na determined effort should be made to secure from the administration and from Congress such action as will\nput into practical effect the oft-repeated recommendations of this Association relative to the Bureau of Education. Itis the judgment of the committee referred to that the Bureau of Education should be speedily restored\nto the status which It had at the time of its formation, namely, that of an independent department — a status\nwhich the Departments of Agriculture and of Labor had before they were raised to cabinet rank. Inasmuch as\neducation in the United States is not a matter committed to the general government, the Bureau of Education\ncan never become a strictly administrative office save In certain limited respects. The bureau should, however,\nhave the dignity of a separate organization, and there Is reason to believe that it would fare better if it enjoyed\nsuch status rather than continued in its present rank as a bureau of the Department of the Interior. The\nsalary of the Commissioner of Education should be raised to at least $5,000, preferably to $6,000. He should\nbe given two assistants, at salaries of $3,000 or $3,500 each, and the annual appropriation now made to the\nbureau should be increased by not less than $50,000, primarily to enable the commissioner to bring together\nand to make public a still greater and more practical amount of information than he now collects and brings to\nthe attention of school officers and school-teachers in every state and territory. One assistant commissioner\nmight well have charge of the division of statistics and reports — the work which has been so effectively carried\non under Dr. Harris' personal direction for fourteen years. The second assistant commissioner should have\ncharge of the administrative division of the Department of Education, whose duty it should be to deal more\ndirectly and more strongly than now with education in those parts of our domain that are not organized\ninto states and territories, and where in consequence the matter of public education is either neglected or is\nunder a local control which is not in touch with the experience and the resources of the educational system of\nthe nation as a whole.\nIt is our belief that the National Council should take vigorous action In the matter of the status of the\nBureau of Education, and that It should either assume as its own the committee appointed by the Department\nof Superintendence in 1900, as mentioned above, or should name a committee in succession to that one, whose\nduty It shall be to undertake an active propaganda before Congress and the country in favor of the upbuilding\nof the Bureau of Education into a department, as outlined above.\nWe, therefore, recommend that the presi-\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndent of the Council be authorized to appoint such a committee, to consist of seven active members of the\nAssociation, and that the sum of $i,ooo, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be asked from the Board of\nDirectors to pay the necessary expenses of the work.\nAppropriate resolutions to carry these recommendations into effect are attached to this report.\nRespectfully submitted for the committee,\n(Signed)\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nChairman,\n\nBoston, Mass., July 8, 1903.\n\nEach of the recommendations proposed by the committee in its report was adopted\nby unanimous vote.\nThe committee also offered the following resolutions designed to cany into effect\nthe recommendations of the report :\nResolved, (i) That the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, made under date\nof July 8, 1903, be accepted and its recommendations adopted.\n(2) That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be requested to make the following appropriations :\nOne thousand five hundred dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for a committee of seven to\ninquire and report to the Council upon the salaries, tenure of office, and pension provisions of public-school\nteachers of the United States.\nFive hundred dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for a committee of live to investigate and\nreport to the Council upon the subject of industrial education in schools in rural communities.\nOne thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for a committee of seven to urge upon\nCongress and the country the erection of the Bureau of Education into a separate administrative department,\nand its adequate equipment and financial support.\n\nThe above resolutions were also unanimously adopted by the Council.\nThe topic for the morning's discussion, \"Religious Education,\" was introduced by\nGeorge Albert Coe, Evanston, 111., who presented a paper on \"Contributions of Modern\nEducation to Religion.\"\nThe discussion was continued by Rev. Edward A. Pace, Washington, D. C, who\nread a paper on \" The Influence of Religious Education on the Motives of Conduct.\"\nW. T. Harris read the third paper in the series, \" The Separation of the Church from\nthe School Supported by Public Taxes.\"\nDiscussion followed the reading of Mr. Harris' paper, participated in by the following persons, in the order named : N. C. Schaeffer, \\V. T. Harris, William Sheafe Chase,\nof New York, J. W. Carr, W. E. Crosby, of New York, Lucia Stickney, J. M. Greenwood,\nJ. L. Brooks, of New York, Carroll G. Pearse, of Nebraska, and Edward A. Pace, of\nWashington, D. C. The discussion was closed by W. T. Harris.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9, 9:30 A.M.\n\nIn the absence of the president, Vice-President W. H. Bartholomew called the\nCouncil to order and requested the secretary to announce the committees appointed by\nthe president in compliance with the recommendations of the Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations.\nCOMMITTEES\nI.\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nTHE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nTO DEFINE\n\nAND\n\nAPPOINTED\nREPORT\n\nBY\n\nUPON QUESTIONS\nOF COLORADO\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nHARPER\n\nJULY\n\nPROPOSED\n\nBY PRESIDENT\n\nBAKER,\n\n8, 1903\n\nPresident Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University, chairman.\nPresident Edwin A. Alderman of Tulane University.\nPresident James H. Baker of University of Colorado.\nPrincipal Edward J. Goodwin of the Morris High School, New York, N. Y.\nSuperintendent James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.\nIL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nTO\n\nINQUIRE AND REPORT UPON THE\nOF TEACHERS\nIN THE\nPUBLIC\n\nSALARIES, TENURE OF OFFICE, AND\nSCHOOLS\nOF THE UNITED\nSTATES\n\nPENSION\n\nCarroll D. Wright, United States Commissioner of Labor, Washington, D. C, chairman.\nSuperintendent Edwin G. Cooley, Chicago, 111.\nProfessor Franklin H. Giddings, of Columbia University.\n\nPROVISIONS\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S\n\nCouncil]\n\n309\n\nMINUTES\n\nMiss Catherine Goggin, Chicago, 111.\nPresident R. H. Halsey of the State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.\nPrincipal William McAndrew of the Girls' Technical High School, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Anna Tolman Smith, of the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.\nIII.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nTO\n\nINQUIRE\n\nAND\n\nREPORT\n\nCONCERNING\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSuperintendent L. D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis., chairman.\nProfessor L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University.\nState Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois.\nState Superintendent W. T. Carrington, of Missouri.\nProfessor Willis M. Hay , of the University of Minnesota'. .\nIV.\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON THE\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nPresident Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia University, New York, N. Y., chairman.\nSuperintendent Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111.\nPresident Andrew S. Draper of the University of Illinois.\nSuperintendent Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo.\nHdn. G. R. Glenn, Atlanta, Ga.\nPrincipal E. Oram Lyte of the State Normal School, Millersville, Pa.\nTogether with the United States Commissioner of Education.\n\nOn motion of C. H. Keyes, a supplementary report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations was made by the chairman of the committee, J. M. Greenwood:\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\nAND APPROPRIATIONS\n\nON\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nTo the Council:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations begs leave to report as follows relative to the\napplication made to it upon reference from the Board of Directors by a committee of nine appointed by the\nDepartment of Superintendence on February 27, 1902. This committee was appointed \"to formulate, on a\nsound educational basis, contemporary educational doctrines, submit statements covering contemporary educational experience, and indicate the tendencies of contemporary educational methods.\"\nThe committee has asked for an appropriation of $2,500 with which to meet the expenses of its work.\nAfter a full hearing of representatives of the Committee of Nine, your committee begs leave to report\nthat in its judgment the Council should request the Committee of Nine to designate a subcommittee of three of\ntheir own number, which subcommittee shall report to the Council at its next annual meeting :\n1. A detailed and specific statement of the field of the proposed investigation.\n2. A precise indication of the method or methods to be pursued.\n3. A careful estimate of the cost of the proposed investigation and the amount of time it will probably\nconsume.\nIt is further recommended that an appropriation of $750 be placed at the disposal of the chairman of the\nCommittee of Nine for the purpose of defraying the expenses of the subcommittee of three as well as of meeting the cost of the work hitherto prosecuted by the full committee.\nAn appropriate resolution is attached to this report.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\n(Signed)\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nBoston, Mass., July 8, 1903.\n\nChairman\n\nof the Committee.\n\nResolved^ That the Board of Directors be requested to appropriate the sum of $750, or so much thereof\nas may be necessary, in order to defray the expenses of the work of the subcommittee of three on a proposed\ninvestigation of the facts of contemporary educational experience, and the expenses already incurred by the\nCommittee of Nine appointed by the Department of Superintendence on February 27, 1902.\n\nBoth the report and the resolution providing for carrying its provisions into effect\nwere adopted without dissent.\nThe report of the Committee on Membership was presented by its chairman, W. T.\nHarris, and is as follows :\nAt a regular meeting of the Standing Committee on Membership appointed by the Council to nominate\npersons to fill vacancies in the membership thereof occurring from any cause, the following persons were\nduly nominated to succeed themselves, their terms expiring this year :\nAlexander G. Bell, Washington, D. C. ; term to expire in 1909.\nL. H. Jones, YpsilantI, Mich. ; term to expire in igog.\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "3IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nElmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal. ; term to expire in 1909.\nW, H. Black, Marshall, Mo. ; term to expire in 1909.\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y. ; term to expire in 1909.\nThe following persons were nominated to fill the two vacancies due to other cause than expiration of\nterm :\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash., to succeed Reuben S. Bingham, of Tacoma (deceased) ; term to\nexpire in 1905.\nAndrew S. Draper, Champaign, 111., to succeed Edward R. Shaw, New York, N. Y. (deceased) ; term\nto expire in 1907.\n\nJas. M. Greenwood,\n\nW. T. Harris, Chairman,']\n\nI\n\nL. D. Harvey,\n\n> Committee.\n\nJas. H. Van Sickle,\nAugustus S. Downing,\n\nJ\n\nOn motion, the report was received and the nominations confirmed.\nThe memorial session of the Council was opened by Edwin A. Alderman with an\naddress in memory of Dr. J. L. M. Curry.\nIn the absence, on account of illness in his family, of W. F. King, appointed to present an address in commemoration of President William M. Beardshear, a paper prepared\nby H. H. Seerley on the same subject was received and ordered printed in the volume of\nProceedings.\nE. W. Coy addressed the Council upon the \"Life and Educational Services of Dr.\nEmerson E. White.\"\nJames F. Reigart, New York, N. Y,, made an appropriate address in memory of\nDr. Edward R. Shaw.\nFollowing the above formal addresses, brief remarks were made by several members\nof the Council, in order as follows: Thomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I., W. T.\nHarris, Joseph Swain, J. M. Greenwood, W. H. Bartholomew, and J. F. Millspaugh.\nBy consent of the Council, Alexander Hogg, Fort \"Worth, Tex., and Sylvester F.\nScovel, Wooster, O., added their tributes to the memory of Dr. Curry and of Dr. White.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July id, 9:30 a.m.\n\nThe following elections to membership in the Council by the Board of Directors of\nthe General Association were announced :\nW. T. Harris, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1909.\nWilliam R. Harper, to succeed himself ; term to expire in 1909.\nCharles R. Skinner, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1909.\nElla Flagg Young, to succeed C. B. Gilbert ; term to expire in 1909.\nHoward J. Rogers, to succeed George J. Ramsey ; term to expire in 1909.\nLivingston C. Lord, to succeed Emerson E. White; term to expire in 1906.\nE. H. Mark, to succeed R. B. Fulton ; term to expire in 1907.\n\nThe report of the committee appointed to nominate officers of the Council for the\nyear 1903-4 was received, as follows :\nREPORT OF NOMINATING\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nTo the Council:\nThe committee appointed to nominate officers of the Council for the year 1903-4 begs leave to report as\nfollows :\nFor President — Frank A. Fitzpatrick, of Massachusetts.\nFor Vice-President — Joseph Swain, of Pennsylvania.\nFor Secretary — James H. Van Sickle, of Maryland.\nFor Member of the Executive Committee, to succeed Joseph Swain (term expired) — Miss Anna\nTolman Smith, of the District of Columbia.\nFor Members of the Committee on Membership, to serve for three years: to succeed W. T. Harris\n(term expired)— W. T. Harris, of the District of Columbia; to succeed Emerson\nAlbert G, Lane, of Illinois.\n\nE. White (deceased) —\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\nFor Members\n\nTHE\n\nVOLUNTARY\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n3 ^I\n\nof the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, to serve for three years: to\n\nsucceed James M. Greenwood (term expired) — James M. Greenwood, of Missouri; to succeed Frank A.\nFitzpatrick (term expired)— Frank A. Fitzpatrick, of Massachusetts; to fill vacancy by reason of nonelection — Elmer E. Brown, of California ; to fill vacancy by reason of non-election, to serve until 1905 — William\nR. Harper, of Illinois.\nRespectfully submitted,\n(Signed)\n\nNicholas\n\nMurray Butler,\nfor the Committee,\n\nA. S. Downing, of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, on behalf\nof the committee offered the following resolutions :\nResolved, That all applications for appropriations requiring the attention and consideration of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be placed in the hands of the president of the Council at\nleast sixty days piior to the regular meeting of the Council, with a full and detailed statement of the reasons\nfor requesting the appropriation, and the president shall forward a copy of such application to the secretary of\nthe Council, and to each member of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations; and be it further\nResolved, That the names of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, and notice of an hour\nset for the meeting thereof for hearing arguments, be printed as a part of the official program, and that the\nrule be printed in connection with such notice.\n\nAfter discussion by various members of the Council, the resolutions were adopted.\nA roll-call of members showed an attendance at the various sessions of the Council\nof forty-five.\nThe Council adjourned sine die,\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nCHARLES\n\nAND\n\nJ. F. MiLLSPAUGH, Secretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nVOL UN TAR Y ELEMENT\n\nDEGARMO,\n\nLN ED UCA TLON\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF THE\nSCIENCE\nCORNELL UNIVERSITY\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nIt is proposed in this paper to examine in some detail the voluntary\nelement, as it manifests itself in the elementary stage, the secondary or\ncultural stage, and the higher or professional stage of education.\nTho the education of the race has in the past been conducted with\nsmall regard to the mental attitude of the learner, it is, notwithstanding,\na fact that the true teacher has always loved the willing mind. He has\nalways striven to awaken in the learner a zeal for knowledge. Vittorino\nda Feltre could go at early dawn with candle and book in hand to the\nbedroom of his choice scholar, rouse him from his slumbers, and urge him\nto high endeavor. Yet, on the whole, such practice has been rare. Men\nhave relied on the compelling force of circumstances to hold pupils to\ntheir prescribed tasks. The same energy that makes it possible for the\nyouth under economic pressure to slave uncomplainingly at the roughest\nlabor makes it likewise possible for him under the social pressure of\nfamily, caste, or compulsory law to apply himself to mental tasks, even\ntho he has for them neither aptitude nor liking. When, therefore, all\nchildren are compelled to attend school until they are fourteen years of\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNAl^IONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nage, the teacher may think himself not bound to consider whether his pupil\nperforms his tasks with a willing or an unwilling mind ; for perform them\nsomehow he must, whether they appeal to him as medicine or as food.\nSince all things cannot be demonstrated in a twenty-minute paper, I\nprefer to assume that it is desirable to enlist the heart and will of a child\nin the work involved in his early training, and then to devote what time\nI can to showing how this may be done.\nSchoolmasters are usually content when they have made an idea clear,\nbut the active co-operation of the child is not fully secured until the idea\nbecomes also vivid. This is a fundamental distinction. A vivid idea is\none that is psychologically complete, which has passed thru the stages of\ncognition, emotion, and volition. Such an idea, whether its genesis be in\nthe senses or In the intellect, appeals to the pupil as subjectively valuable.\nIt seems to him as worth while; it arouses perhaps his enthusiasm, which\nmay ripen into zeal ; it is suffused with a glow of interest, and it naturally\nleads on to some sort of culmination in action. This action may be\nspontaneous expression in words, or it may lead to some other form of\nmotor expression, as with a pen, a pencil,~a brush, or the effort to mold it\ninto physical form with tools; or it may lead to the effort to express it in\na game or thru dramatic action. A vivid idea is, in short, one that appeals\nto the pupil as connected more or less immediately with productivity in\nthe world of things or in that of events. The modern school is everywhere striving to vivify its ideas. Witness our manual training, cooking,\ndrawing, painting, and molding, nature work with materials, and our\nlaboratory work in the sciences. But we have hardly reached the stage\nwhere we strive to vivify all ideas.\nA clear idea is one that is arrested at the stage of cognition ; it may\nenlighten the understanding, but it does not warm the feelings or stir the\nvolitions. We are inclined to think our work is done when the pupil\napperceives; but this is only the stage of clearness; vividness must be\nadded. The disciple of education by compulsion would force the child\nto comprehend the intellectual boundaries of a proposition, to store his\nmind with facts ; that is, with merely clear or undeveloped ideas. But\nthe teacher who would arouse voluntary effort strives to carry these ideas\nthru their natural development into hospitable feeling and voluntary\nactivity.\nIn elementary education voluntary effort cannot take the form of\nelection of studies, for in large measure what the pupil should learn is\npredetermined. We cannot permit a child to choose whether or not he\nwill learn to read, to spell, to write, to compute, to know the essential\nfacts of geography, grammar, and history. We must, therefore, find the\nscope for voluntary effort in something besides the election of studies. It\nlies in the development of vivid ideas. Such ideas have a threefold origin,\nnamely, (i) in the richness of the subject-matter, (2) in the proper balancing\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nVOLUNTARY\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n3^3\n\nof sensory and motor activity, and (3) in the charm with which the\npersonality and the methods of the teacher can suffuse the subject. The\nsubject-matter may be condensed to the bare requisites of routine drill, or\nit may freely partake of the richness of human experience itself. It is at\nthis point that we shall have to reconstruct, if not revolu^^ionize, the\ncurriculum of the normal school. This institution is now halting between\ntwo tendencies, namely, either to give no instruction in the ordinary\nbranches of knowledge at all, or to apologize for paying even a little\nattention to the academic work of other types of schools. Both these\ntendencies should, I think, be abandoned, and a curriculum formed which\nshall be a complete reorganization of knowledge in accordance with the\nvital needs of elementary education. A medical school organizes knowledge\nin accordance with its own peculiar needs; so does an engineering school;\nso does every other branch of professional training except the normal\nschool. This is not the place to suggest what the new curriculum should\nbe, but it is perhaps safe to assert that it should not consist of foreign\nlanguages and advanced pure mathematics.\nThe second essential in securing the best voluntary effort of the pupil\nis the* proper balance between intellectual and motor activity; but this is\nonly another aspect of the distinction between clear and vivid ideas.\nThe modern school is beginning to learn that the children have other\nmuscles than those involved in talking and in moving the forefinger, and\nis devising ways and means for the whole boy to go to school. This was\nnot so necessary when children lived in the country and attained some\nmuscular dexterity thru work. But now, when most children live in cities,\nthe school must supply the muscular training formerly given by farm\nlabor.\nAs to the charm with which the teacher can invest the work of the\nschool, it may be said that, aside from purely personal qualities, this will\ndepend most upon the richness and compass of her knowledge, as governed by the needs of elementary education, and in her fertility and skill\nin securing the proper balance between intellectual and motor activities.\nIdeas will become vivid when they are truly important, properly presented,\nand duly joined to motor activities.\nThe secondary — or, better, the cultural — stage of knowledge is by\ncommon consent one in which the mind enters a new realm of activities,\nattacking its problems with new comprehension and a new outlook upon\nlife. It is now that the youth recapitulates in brief the knowledge and\nexperience of the race. This stage extends, not only thru the four years\nof the high school, but thru that part of the college work which precedes\nprofessional study; for during this long period there is no essential\nchange in aim.\n•\nIt is possible to make cultural education merely an extension of\nthe fixed curriculum of the elementary school, and to rely only upon\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nthe means used in the latter to secure the voluntary efforts of the student. Such has been the custom of the past; such is the procedure\nof many European schools of today. Not a few men in this country\nwhose opinions are to be respected claim that such is still our true\npolicy.\nWhether the voluntary element in education can be wisely stimulated\nthru the elective principle is a complex question that cannot be finally\nsettled by reference to a single line of arguments, for it involves social\nas well as psychological and educational considerations.\nIn giving a summary of the principles to be kept in mind in the\ndiscussion of this question, I wish to call attention to the recognized\npurposes of cultural education, and then to distinguish between the\nteacher's and the student's conception of the means for reaching these\nends.\nThe aim of cultural education reduces itself finally to the acquisition\nby the student of such knowledge and skill as will best prepare him for\nwhat Herbert Spencer calls \"complete living.\" The problem of the voluntary element, as exemplified in electives, cannot be seriously discussed\nwithout considering what knowledge and skill will best help to realize\nthis purpose. Since there is not time to examine the problem of educational values, let it be assumed that cultural education should include\nsuch knowledge and training as are fairly representative, not only of the\nmeans that conduce to physical survival, but also to those human sciences\nand capacities which conduce to the social survival of men in institutional\nlife. Two methods of reaching these ends are practiced among civilized\nnations. The European method is, in general, to bring all cultural education into a single institution, as the German Gymnasium, making it\nextend over a period of nine or ten years, and then to construct a fixed\ncurriculum to be imposed upon all who undertake this phase of education.\nThe studies, their place in the course, the time to be devoted to each, the\nrelative emphasis to be placed upon them, are all decided by the experience of men who have had a similar training. In such a scheme the\npersonal aptitude or attitude of the learner is not considered. He can\ndo the work as prescribed, or let it alone. Abstractly considered, such a\nplan may provide a representative study for each important department\nof education and for each species of mental and muscular training. Its\nweakness is that it cannot provide for variation in emphasis, since its\nrelative values are' predetermined and fixed. Such courses consider all\nclaims except those of the persons to be educated. It is at this point\nthat the elective system provides a corrective, by allowing the personality\nof the student to assist in determining the kind and quality of his own\neducation.\nThis second system of securing a cultural education that shall con-\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nVOLUNTARY\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nS^S\n\nduce to complete living limits the selective function of experienced adults\nto a specification of the departments of knowledge and skill that are necessary to a fairly complete equipment for life. It permits the student\nto place the emphasis where he will; to select studies within departments\nin accordance with his own desires as determined by taste, ability, and\nprobable calling in life.\nThese personal preferences are not mere caprices, even tho they may\nbe short-sighted and often not for the best; for we must distinguish\nbetween the teacher's and the student's ideal of complete living. The\nfirst has some experience and much tradition behind it; the second is\ncompounded of hereditary and environmental influences. But these are\nprecisely the forces that must be reckoned with if the teacher is to have\nthe whole-souled co-operation of the student. In the first place, election\nof studies conduces powerfully to the development of vivid ideas, for the student elects his studies in accordance with the interests already formed, or for\nthe accomplishment of ends having a high degree of personal valuation.\nA boy bent on mechanical engineering has a far different attitude toward\nhigher algebra than one is likely to have who is trying to meet the\nteacher's ideal of mental training. In the one case the ideas become\nvivi-d, whereas in the other they are at best but clear.\nAgain, all fixed curriculums tend to overemphasize the subjects that\nare easiest to teach, and hence are usually best taught. These subjects are\nby common consent languages and mathematics. The student who studies\nfour foreign languages learns four sets of symbols for one set of ideas;\nhe has repeated three times the grammatical training he obtained from\nhis first language. It is surely superstition to imagine that his four languages have given him a fourfold mental training. For many students,\nperhaps for most young men, this iteration of old ideas under new\nsymbols is destructive to vividness, and tends to make education an\nordeal to be en\\iured, rather than a pursuit of infinite zest, as it should\nbe. With a little skill on the part of parents and teachers, there is no danger that the student will miss altogether any of the necessary types of\ntraining, for they are really few : mathematics, language, history, literature, economics, a physical and an evolutionary science, and some form\nof motor training. In the six or eight years usually devoted to cultural\neducation there is ample time to secure at least enough attention to each\nof these subjects to make the student intelligent in it and to be sure that\nhe does not miss the forms of education for which he has the most ability\nand desire. The right studies, for him, are those that awaken most effectively all his native powers. If education can become a passion with him\nin a few studies, it is easy to arouse in him an associated or induced interest in all needful accessory studies.\nA social reason why we cannot profitably hold to the European plan\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "316\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC I A TION\n\n[National\n\nof a fixed curriculum is that cultural education in our country is democratic in the broadest sense of the term. It is dehiocratic in that all secondary education is, with a few exceptions, given in one type of schools,\nand, further, in that the possibility of such training is open to all who\nfinish the elementary education in the common schools. In other words,\nwe have the educational ladder, which, in general, European schools have\nnot. Again, the fixed curriculum in Europe makes it necessary to multiply types of schools in order to secure the variety in education demanded\nby modern conditions. Each class of occupations has schools peculiar to\nit, thus fixing and extending the caste or undemocratic tendencies of these\ncountries. Europeans, therefore, if they would elect anything, must elect\nschools ; whereas with us, since in general there is but one type of high school,\nvariety must be secured by the election of studies. Even were fixed curriculums always of superior educational quality, which is by no means\nconceded, our democratic conditions make imperative the elective system.\nWe must offer cultural education of all varieties to all classes of our\npopulation ; and, to do this, we must have one high school with many\ntypes of elective studies.\n.\nFor the reasons given above, it is seen that the elective system helps to\npreserve the spirit of our institutions, and conduces more than does a\nrigid system to the best development of each individual.\nBut a word can be said of the third, or professional, realm of education. The voluntary element here enters upon a different phase ; for it is\nno longer studies, but courses of study, that can be elective. The man\nwho elects engineering necessarily elects the studies that naturally belong\nin that course. The same is true of agriculture, forestry, law, or medicine.\nThe nearness of all such professional study to actual life brings about\nspontaneously that vividness which is often so difficult of attainment in\nelementary and secondary education. While the student in the cultural\nstage clamors for variety and light work, the student in professional\ncourses submits cheerfully to large amounts of difficult study.\nIn the way of summary, it may be said that in general the need of\nstimulating the voluntary element in education rests upon the need\nof relating learning to life thru the development of vivid ideas, and\nupon the needs of a democratic society, which seeks to use every influence\nto induce each individual to carry his development to the highest possible\npoint. Furthermore, there are three phases to the application of the voluntary element in education. In the elementary school it is to be awakened thru richness of subject-matter, union of intellectual and motor\ntraining, and charm of teaching; in cultural education it takes the form\nof elective studies in addition to the means already enumerated; while in\nthe professional schools it appears again as the choice of courses.\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSAVING\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nTHE SA VING OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\n3 ^7\n\nSECONDARY\n\nI\nTHOMAS\n\nM. BALLIET,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nWithin the last thirty years our colleges have been steadily raising their\nstandard of admission, and throwing more and more work upon the\nsecondary schools ; and the secondary schools have been obliged in turn\nto make greater demands upon the elementary schools. The colleges,\nmoreover, are attempting, during the last two years of their course, to do\nmore or less of the work usually done in foreign countries by the\nuniversities. Some of our best professional schools have also raised their\nstandards, and now require graduation from a college or a technical\nschool as a condition of admission. These various factors combined,\nbesides raising a number of other questions of fundamental importance,\nwhich it is not the province of this paper to discuss, have made it necessary\nfor the student who desires the best professional training to prolong his\ncourse to an unusual, if not an unreasonable, length. His course is longer\nby nearly two years than that of the student in many foreign countries,\nand is no more thoro. This lengthening of the course below the professional school is due in part to the organization of our elementary and\nsecondary schools, and in part to the somewhat chaotic condition of\nour higher education ; and the question of shortening it is therefore not\nonly one of readjustment of the elementary and secondary schools, but\nalso one of reorganizing higher education. The various efforts in recent\nyears, under the lead of Harvard and Chicago universities, to shorten\nthe college course, show how widely this larger aspect of the problem ,\nis becoming recognized today. Not many years ago its solution was\nsupposed to lie wholly in the abridgment of the course in our grammar\nschools ; there alone the waste was thought to exist. Now it is coming\nto be recognized very generally that there is waste in the college as well,\nand the problem has assumed a less simple form. The question to\nwhich this discussion must confine itself is, therefore, only a part of a\nlarger and a much more complex one : How can the course of study\nin the elementary and secondary schools be shortened ? Before attempting a solution we must make sure that we clearly apprehend all the elements of the problem.\nIn this country all pupils who attend the public schools, whether they\ndesire to fit for college or to enter practicallife at the end of the grammarschool course, attend the same elementary schools and pursue the same\ncourse of study. This involves the necessity of keeping both the gifted\nand the dull in the same schools and largely in the same classes ; as also\nthe keeping in the same classes and schools of those who have so widely\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "31 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndifferent aims as that of entering practical life, perhaps as early as the age\nof fourteen, and that of going thru a university.\nVarious attempts have been made, with greater or less success, to\nshorten the time required to complete the course in the elementary and\nsecondary schools under these conditions. The system of semi-annual\ninstead of annual promotion, by which the more gifted children can skip\na half-year or a year at a time, has in many cases shortened the course for\nsuch children. The abolition of formal examinations as tests of promotion\nand the promotion of children individually have also contributed to the\nsame result. These are devices which greatly facilitate the better classification of pupils and promote their advancement, and should therefore be\nadopted in all schools.\nIt has been proposed to reduce the number of years or grades in the\nelementary schools to seven, in the hope that this would shorten the time\nfor many pupils and enable them to enter the high school at an earlier\nage. But a careful investigation, conducted some years ago by the Association of School Superintendents of New England, brought out the interesting\nfact that where the standard of admission to the high school is about the\nsame the average age of entering it is virtually the same also, whether the\ncourse in the elementary schools is eight years or nine. There is a certain\namount of work to be done in preparation for the high school ; and it is\nto a large extent immaterial whether it is divided into seven, eight, or nine\nsections ; the time required to do it is practically the same. Where the\ncourse is nine years, bright pupils are more readily able to skip a year, or\na half-year, and dull pupils find it somewhat easier to make their promotion from year to year; where the course is seven or eight years, bright\nchildren are less likely to skip grades, and the dull more frequently fail\nof promotion. The theory that by reducing the number of grades in the\nelementary schools without reducing the amount of work required we may\nmaterially shorten the time necessary to complete the course is therefore\nnot borne out by experience, and the solution of our problem does not lie\nin this direction.\nAn attempt has been made in recent years to shorten the course somewhat by the introduction of secondary-school studies into the grammar\nschools. This experiment has been carried farther in New England, and\nmore particularly in Massachusetts, than in other sections of the country,\nand in a number of places there has been sufficient time to test results.\nWhile in many cases it has proved an \"enrichment\" of the course, it has\nfailed to shorten appreciably the time spent in the elementary and\nsecondary schools. It has had the effect rather of making the work of the\nsecondary school somewhat easier for pupils, provided the teaching of\nthese secondary-school studies in the grammar schools was well done,\nwhich in many cases has not been the fact.\nIt has been proposed to incorporate the two upper grades of the grammar\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nS^ V^NG\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCA\n\nTION\n\n319\n\nschools into the high schools, and to reduce the work of the elementary\nschools by this amount. This plan has been found of much advantage,\nespecially in small cities and towns. It makes it possible for pupils to\nbegin the study of modern languages and other secondary-school studies\ntwo years earlier, but it does not materially reduce the time required to\nfit for college. It offers, therefore, only a partial solution of our problem;\nits limitation consists in the fact that children of all grades of intellectual\nability and of the most diverse aims as to their future education are still\nkept together in the elementary schools for six or seven years, pursuing\nthe same course of study.\nA plan was devised some years ago at Cambridge, Mass., by which a\npupil is able, according to his ability, to finish the nine-year course of\nthe elementary schools in seven or eight. This is accomplished by providing above the third year, besides the regular six-year course, two\nabridged courses, one of four years and the other of five years. In this\nway gifted children are able to enter the high schools a year or two earlier\nthan would otherwise be possible, and statistics show that such children\nmaintain a high standing in the high schools.\nOf all the practical attempts at the solution of this problem this socalled \"Cambridge Plan\" has proved the most satisfactory in its workings\nand in its results. The limitation of this scheme lies in the fact that it is\nadapted only to grammar schools of considerable size, where there are\nenough pupils of various degrees of ability to form classes in the different\ncourses sufficiently large to make the plan financially economical. In\nsmall grammar schools such a plan would reduce the size of classes to a\npoint where instruction would be unusually expensive.\nEuropean nations have found a solution of the problem in the peculiar\norganization of their secondary schools. The American secondary school\nis a direct continuation of the elementary school, and is therefore closely\narticulated with it. All pupils finish the course in the elementary school\nbefore they enter the secondary school. Our own secondary school has a\ncourse of only three or four years, and is followed by an institution called\nthe college, which has no existence, except in name, on the continent of\nEurope.\nThe foreign secondary school has a course of eight or nine years, and\nincludes the upper four or five years of our elementary schools, the four\nyears of our high school, and the first two years of our best colleges. It\nfits not for a college, but for the university, and for the technical school,\nwhich is there an institution of university rank. Pupils who wish to prepare for the university and the technical school leave the elementary schools\nat the age of nine, ten, or eleven, and enter the secondary schools, where\nthey are given a course of study in many respects very different from that\nof the elementary schools. A foreign language, either ancient or modern, is at once begun, and in the second or third year, corresponding\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\napproximately to the sixth or seventh of our elementary schools, algebra\nand general history are commenced. Less time is given to the so-called\n\"common branches\" than in the elementary schools, and the teaching is\nas a rule more virile, forceful, and effective. The European secondary\nschool, unlike our own, is not a direct continuation of the elementary\nschool, and pupils who first complete the course in the elementary school\nare unable to enter a secondary school and fit for the university, except\nat such loss of time as they can seldom afford. No foreign language is\ntaught in any elementary public school in Europe, and no mathematics\nbeyond arithmetic, except the mere rudiments of plane geometry. A\npupil who should complete the course in the elementary schools and then\napply for admission to a secondary school will find himself behind other\npupils of the same age by at least four years of study of some foreign\nlanguage, two years of study in history, and about two years in mathematics. This is the undemocratic feature of the European, secondary\nschool which could easily be eliminated — if it were desired by its patrons,\nas it is not — by introducing courses which would connect directly with\nthe elementary school after the fashion of the American high school.\nThe European secondary school differs from the American high\nschool in that it keeps its pupils eight or nine years, receives them at the\nthe age of nine, ten, or eleven, and fits them directly for the university and\nthe professional school. The saving of time in fitting for the university\nis effected : first, by the early separation of pupils who are to fit for the\nhigher institutions of learning from those who are to enter practical life\nat the close of the elementary-school course ; secondly, by the separation\nof the gifted from the dull, as a larger percentage of talented children is\nfound among those who are fitting for the higher schools than among the\nrest; thirdly, by giving the former a course in the secondary school which\ndiffers very considerably from the course of the corresponding grades in\nthe elementary schools; fourthly, by giving pupils of the lower grades in the\nsecondary schools much better trained and much more effective teachers\nthan pupils of the corresponding grades of either the European or American elementary schools.\nAs the American school system is organized, all pupils, whether\ngifted or dull, are left together in the same classes ; those who fit for college, and those who do not, pursue the same course below the high school,\nand have the same teachers.\nThese conditions are radically different from those existing in foreign\ncountries. The fundamental question at issue is whether all pupils,\nregardless of their future aims as to education, should pursue the same\ncourse ; or, in short, whether the best preparation for college is also the\nbest preparation for life, and the reverse. In America we have thus far\nanswered this question in the affirmative in the organization of our publicschool system ; all European nations have answered it in the negative.\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSAVING\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n32 1\n\nIt seems to me that here we may well learn a lesson from the older\ncountries. Surely until college-entrance requirements are changed very\nradically it will be wholly unsafe to allow these requirements to dictate\nthe course of study in the elementary schools. Moreover, there are many\nphases of the so-called *' common branches\" which are essential to the\npupil who is to enter practical life at the end of the elementary-school\ncourse, but which may be omitted without disadvantage by the pupil who\nis to enter college. The course in arithmetic, in geography, and in\nUnited States history can be profitably shortened for pupils who are to\npursue a course in college which will include advanced mathematics, historical geography, and general history. Moreover, such pupils ought to\nbegin the study of one or two modern languages not later than the age of\nten or eleven, and of algebra at the age of twelve. They should be separated from the children \\yho are to end their education in the grammar\nschools, and be given more work than can usually be got from a miscellaneous grammar-school class.\nThis may be accomplished in part by extending the high-school\ncourse downward by two years, and admitting pupils who desire to fit for\ncollege from the sixth or seventh grade, as the case may be. It can be\naccomplished in large part by the \" Cambridge Plan.\"t I believe, however, that the most satisfactory solution will be found, in the end, in the\nestablishment of special grammar schools in which pupils who are to fit\nfor college and higher technical schools may be given an abridged grammar-school course of four years instead of five or six, and be allowed to\nbegin a modern language and the elements of algebra. Such pupils\ncould enter the high school at the age of twelve, or at most thirteen,\nbetter prepared to do the work of the high school than the average\ngrammar-school pupil is at fourteen or fifteen.\nTo such schools should be admitted only pupils who are both gifted\nand physically strong, and who are able to do more work than the average pupil without injury to health.\nEvery city should have at least as many such grammar schools as it\nhas high schools, and they should not take the place of any ward\nschools.\nSuch grammar schools would not be in any sense undemocratic, as\nthe gifted and healthy children of the poor would be admitted as well as\nthe gifted and healthy children of the rich. It is true that many children\nare unable to decide early in their grammar-school course whether they\nwill be able to go to college or not, but a large number can. The former\nwould suffer no disadvantage above what such children now suffer; they\nwould complete the full grammar-school course and enter the high school\n*\nas at present.\nFinally, the establishment of such special grammar schools would be\neconomical, and therefore from an administrative point of view entirely\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "32 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\npracticable. They might be established gradually as the grammar schools\nof various sections of the city become overcrowded. The establishment\nof one such special school would relieve a number of ward schools of\ntheir overcrowded condition, and therefore save, for the time being, the\nexpense of erecting several new ward schools.\nOur American school system is too severely simple; instead of unity,\nwhich implies variety, it has uniformity; and it fails to this extent to\nminister to the needs of all classes of pupils. There is no good reason\nwhy all grammar schools of the same city should pursue exactly the same\ncourse of study. In some grammar schools special emphasis should be\nlaid on industrial education; in others, composed largely of the children\nof foreigners, on the learning of the English language; and in still\nothers, as I have indicated, on the studies which directly and in the shortest\ntime fit for the high school those pupils who are to pursue a prolonged\ncourse of study. Uniformity is not one of the merits of democracy, and\nit is not one of the essential characteristics of a democratic system of education. Itmakes for that kind of blind mechanical justice which is but\nanother name for injustice. Any educational system that would be truly\ndemocratic must provide that variety of educational opportunity which is\nneeded to minister to the wants of all classes, and at the same time preserve that unity which keeps open a direct pathway to the highest institutions of learning for all, both rich and poor.\n\nII\nELLA\n\nFLAGG\n\nYOUNG,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\nEDUCATION,\nCHICAGO\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThis subject refers directly to the time element in education. It does\nnot, however, present a problem in mathematics. Any solution, therefore,\nwhich is obtained by transposition will be a partial one only. There are\ntwo sets of conditions involved, each of which demands careful consideration with little or no emphasis upon the terms in which the desired answer\nwill be stated.\nThe first set refers to the organization and relation of the school sections\nunder consideration. It may be of interest and value in this discussion\nto review the manner in which the colleges and professional schools in\nthis country have handled the questions of organization and relation which\nhave confronted them. The specific aim of the college and of the professional school had been emphasized until it seemed as if college education and preparation for a profession or for specialization in science were\nantagonistic. A man or woman looking forward to becoming a selfsupporting member of society found the beginning of apprenticeship in\npractical affairs deferred too long, if an effort was made to get something\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSAVING\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n323\n\nIrom both the college and professional course. Progress in the solution\nof the time problem was made by the recognition of the fact that its conditions lay in both the common means and special aims of the college and\nthe professional school.\nTo the general public and the conservative educationalists the reorganization of higher education has seemed to be directed largely in\nthe interest of the short-term degree. This is a misconception of a\nmovement which corrects a waste in time and effort, and thereby increases\nthe efficiency of the schools concerned. With a fairly clear idea as to the\ngeneral culture which should be the possession of a man or woman intending\nto specialize, and also of the knowledge essential in preparation for\nspecialization, it was not difficult for the college and the professional\nschool to determine their common means and so organize them that the\nresponsibility in the common territory was properly placed, thus preventing\nrepetition and correcting some tendencies toward indifferent work. On\nthe other hand, with a clear idea as to the special aims of each, their\nrelation to each other was sharply defined so that neither now attempts to\ndo the intensive work that is the special function of the other. This\nconcentration upon the organization and relation of the college and the\nprofessional school has rendered it possible for a student to secure the\nfoundations of general culture, and out of them to develop specialized\nknowledge in less time and with better preparation than formerly, when\nsubject-matter was indiscriminately appropriated by each section.\nTurning to the elementary and secondary schools, we find a situation\nanalogous to that which obtained formerly in the college and the professional\nschool. With the development of the high school, the differentiation\nbetween it and the grammar school has been made sharper and sharper,\nuntil the time, spent upon covering the work offered by the two combined\nhas become excessive. The high school views its work in comparison\nwith that of the grammar school very much as the professional school\nviews its work in comparison with that of the college. The treatment of\nsubjects in the elementary school seems to fit the pupils in a very slight\ndegree for the work planned in the secondary school.\nIt is not unusual for high-school teachers to recommend, with great\nfervor and seriousness, limiting the elementary school to its special subjects,\nnamely, reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, and grammar. The efforts\nto introduce more general culture into the lower grades thru the reading\nof literary classics are often frowned upon by the teachers of literature in\nthe high school. Some teachers of mathematics have an attitude of disapproval toward algebra in the eighth grade. Within the last year there\nhas come under my notice a marked illustration of this general tendency.\nA class of eighth-grade children that had t)een studying Latin two years,\nupon entering a high school was advised and urged to renounce all\npretensions to any acquaintance with Latin, and to begin the subject as if\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nit had never learned a Latin word. The teacher is a college graduate and a\nfine drill mistress. She based her advice upon experience with classes from\nthe same elementary schools in which the members of this class had been\ntaught; and also upon her preconceived ideas as to the impossibility of\nelementary-school teachers successfully and intelligently teaching subjects\nwhich were especially in charge of the high-school faculty. A read] ustment\nin the arrangement of the school necessitated sending this class to another\nbuilding, and to a teacher who had no well-developed ideas about the\nlimitations and weaknesses of elementary-school teachers when instructing\nin a high-school subject. The second teacher had an undoubted standing\nas an excellent instructor. The previous work of the class was accepted\nwithout comment, and the study of Caesar was begun. The class proved\nunusually strong. This instance might be construed as indicating the\ncomplications often introduced into the school situation by personal\npeculiarities. To some extent that construction would be correct, but it\nwould not include all of the conditions.\nIn many cities the marked distinction between the two schools has\ncome to be felt so keenly that within the last few years conferences have\nbeen held, in which the high-school teachers have told the eighth-grade\nteachers wherein their work was poor, and the eighth-grade teachers have\nreciprocated the courtesy by telling the high schools wherein they have\nfailed. As an outcome of these interchanges of opinion, some high-school\nprincipals have expressed a willingness to take the seventh and eighth\ngrades under their care; and, on the other hand, some elementary-school\nprincipals have expressed an equal willingness to keep their pupils a year\nor two longer, and instruct them in the subjects assigned to the ninth and\ntenth grades. These conferences are straws which indicate the general\ntrend of thought.\nIt is usually said that the elementary pupils spend too many years in\nacquiring a slight acquaintance with the school arts; and yet, no one in\ntouch with the best elementary schools believes their work is restricted to\nreading, writing, and ciphering. The facts in the case are that many subjects are taken up, but the heavy stress thruout the eight-year course is\nlaid on rudimentary work which is not so developed as to lead into\nadvance work later on. It is the limitation to short reaches of experience\nin mental development and subject-matter that induces the strong teachers\nin the upper grades to emphasize the traditional in education with such\nstifling thoreness. Those teachers sometimes doubt the efficiency of a\nschool that enables its pupils to fit for the high school in less than eight\nyears. They would be certain that a school which accomplished what I\nsaw done within the last fifteen years was radically wrong. A boy eight\nyears old, unable to read, but with a method of his own in calculating,\nentered a school which covered the field of elementary and secondary\neducation, and in seven years and ten months was admitted to Yale with-\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSAVING\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n325\n\nout a condition. Tho he was not brilliant, he was a lad of good parts.\nAs he was not delayed at any point in Yale, it is evident that his period\nof preparation was not too brief.\nThere are two points in the management of the school just referred to\nwhich are worthy of consideration: (i) the principal's daily experience\nranged from the kindergarten to the college ; (2) each teacher above the\nthird-year classes taught the same subjects thru the course for several years,\nthus giving continuity to those subjects and to the children's efforts with\nthem. It is safe to assume that the arts of reading and writing were\nacquired in order that the children might use them in learning things;\nnot that they might perform on a trapeze, devised for reading and writing\ngymnastics. The principal with valuable subject-matter developing in\nhis higher classes had no interest in playing at the school arts in the lower\nones.\nThe teachers also knew what development of a subject meant.\nIt is doubtless true that many elementary schools enable the more\nhighly endowed boys and girls to prepare for the high school in seven,\nand sometimes six, years. The secondary schools, however, have not\nmade it possible for even the most brilliant children to graduate in less\nthan the four prescribed years, their general attitude being in favor of\ngiving the children entering at twelve or thirteen years of age \"time to\nA young girl who was unusually proficient in arithmetic entered a\ngrow.\"\nhigh-school class in algebra that had finished the fundamental operations,\nfactoring, the greatest common devisor, and the least common multiple.\nShe made up that work in three days, without assistance; and yet,\nneither the teacher nor the principal of the school thought it wrong to\nkeep her sauntering in algebra thru the remainder of the year. Each\ndwelt upon her proficiency in algebra and her having \"time to grow.\"\nThe attitude of both was in no way in advance of that of the strong teachers who devote the eighth grade to reviewing and polishing. The highschool teacher was beating around on a year's horizontal plane in algebra.\nWithout doubt he and the principal supposed they were working on the\ndepartmental plan. The great majority of elementary-school teachers\nand principals are opposed to departmental instruction. They labor\nunder the same delusion that limited the teacher of algebra. They\nthink that teaching five classes a day, in the same subject, and at the same\nstage of advancement, is departmental instruction. It is horizontal repetition. This self-imitation and the general lawlessness met in the many\nclasses are not attractive, are not stimulating to mental activity in a high\ndegree.\nThe elementary and secondary schools should be organized on the vertical departmental plan. Soon after entering school a child should be taught\nmathematics three or four years by the same teacher. If he has marked\nability, the teacher will know what to do, for she will have classes in vari-\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nous stages of advancement in that subject. If he is not specially gifted,\nhis teacher will keep him moving forward. He will not become a repeater.\nThat teacher of algebra would not have thought of keeping the girl sauntering, ifhis daily experience had stretched along thru three years of\nwork in mathematics.\nThe greatest objection to the vertical plan is that it precludes the\npossibility of teaching children in droves or herds of forty, fifty, or sixty.\nAs teachers discover the possibilities in individuals, they develop what\nmight be termed an educational conscience, and are constrained to give\nmind a better opportunity.\nIneffectual approaches to subject-matter, methods of treatment of subjects that are evolved out of nothing and lead nowhere, are useless in\nevery stage of education. Elementary and secondary education cannot\nbe differentiated until the second of the two sets of conditions involved\nin the problem is considered. That set of conditions is named\n\nthe\n\n\"course of study.\" The chaotic situation as regards the course of study\nhas resulted largely from the reaction against the rigid college- preparatory\nrequire/nents that long dominated the ideal of education in the school.\nThe struggle and victory of the scientists in the war against classical\nlearning to the exclusion of scientific investigation have effected elementary education more than secondary. The secondary school snuggled under the wing of the college so long that the college in coming out\nfrom the contest with the scientists has greater flexibility than the secondary school. It is the elementary school, with its nature study, household\narts, manual training, and parents' associations, that has stood for the\nscientific reformation below the college and has for a long time perplexed\nthe secondary school. The latter has, however, taken on some of the arts\nof the common people and has begun to comprehend their significance\nin education.\nThe colleges have broken away from their single list of requirements\nfor admission. Today in the more progressive universities there are\ngroups of required preparatory studies leading to nearly every department of learning known to the modern mind.\nThe college and technological preparatory courses are so arranged\nthat the manual training, household economics, the beginnings of science,\nand the training in art and literature should find thru them an entrance\ninto desired advance work. The time has come when elementary and\nsecondary education must be unified and then differentiated. The great\ncourse of study must be reduced to reasonable proportions, and then\nintelligently apportioned between the grammar and the high school, with\na clear understanding of the relations and responsibilities involved. The\npreparatory courses for college, and those in manual training, household\neconomics, nature study, and school arts, offer abundant material for\ncontinuous lines of w^ork. Every elementary subject should be so planned\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council 1\n\nSAVING\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n327\n\nas to lead naturally and necessarily into advanced study in that same subject in the secondary school; that secondary study should necessarily\nlead into the treatment peculiar to the college.\nThe high-school courses are now arranged in elective groups ; the\ngrammar-school courses should be so arranged in their last three years.\nSomething of the kind obtains in cities in which modern languages and\nLatin are taught in the seventh and eighth grades; excepting that the\nchild taking an extra language is usually forced to take it in addition\nto the rest of the course. If we could break away from the fear of having\nclasses in which all of the members of the grade do not recite in every\nsubject, it would not be difficult to arrange these groups. They would\nsettle the question of the course of study for the children intending to\ngo into practical life at the end of the eighth grade, and for those in\nthe same class intending to go to the high school.\nThe National Council could do nothing greater than to set a body of\ncompetent men and women to working out the course of study for elementary and secondary education. It would accomplish little if the\nelementary-school teachers were left voiceless. Experience in the great\neducational movements of the last quarter of a century, sound scholarship,\nand organizing power should be brought to bear on this problem of saving time, improving the quality of the work, and not overcrowding the\nchildren in the elementary and secondary schools. Whether an effective\nsolution will be soon secured or long delayed is an open question. The\nattitude of this Council will have great influence in the decision.\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor Calvin M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. — I have enjoyed the papers\nexceedingly. They are full of suggestions, and would easily provoke a long discussion.\nI have, however, only three points to make.\nI heartily approve of Mrs. Young's notion of a vertical arrangement of study\nwhereby there is secured a definite relation between the parts of the subject, whether it be\nLatin or Mathematics or any other sequential study. I fancy, however, that this plan\nis much interfered with by superintendents or school authorities who specify just where a\nteacher shall begin and where she shall end in a specified time.\nWhile agreeing with Superintendent Balliet in nearly all he said, I think he classifies\nhigh-school children in two dififerent ways which are inconsistent. He first classifies them\nas \"gifted\" and as \"dull,\" and he gives the gifted a shorter course and the dull ones a\nlonger course. Again he classifies them as \" those proposing to go on to college \" and\n\"those intending to stop at the end of the elementary or secondary course.\" Now, it happens that the gifted people are not always rich, nor are all the poor people dull, and therefore the two classifications are conflicting. In short, I object to classifying pupils with\nreference to any future course. The moment a boy or a girl enters a course of study\nespecially designed for those who are not going to college, literary or technical, then the\nway to a higher education is closed to him. I 4p not believe in that. I believe that\nevery way of advancement should be open at the top, and that a boy is at any time\nand at every time on the way to higher education if it shall turn out to be possible to\nhim.\nI object to any system which virtually closes the door against him.\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "32 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIO.V\n\n[National\n\nJames M. Green. — I have listened with interest to the papers of Dr. Balliet and\nMrs. Young, and have found them very suggestive. I think, however, that it would add\ngreatly to the discussion if they would put their suggestions in terms of subjects of study.\nTo say that the secondary course of study for one who is to enter college must differ from\nthat for one who is not to enter college is not sufficiently definite. We should like to hear\na specific statement of the particulars in which they should differ.\nWe have recently had in college circles a very general discussion on the length of\nthe B.A. course of study — whether or not it should be shortened, and what effect its\ntreatment one way or the other would have on the secondary course. Here again we\nshould be helped if those leading the discussion would speak in terms of subject matter.\nFor instance, how much Latin prepares for the college course, and how much additional\nLatin prepares for the university course ? Paralleling this inquiry in English, mathematics, history, etc., we are better able to understand what would be expected in the different schools and the different courses of study.\nThe term \" liberal education,\" like the term \" culture,\" is very indefinite, and is not a\nsufficient warrant to those who are called upon to ask states for the expenditure of large\nsums of money in carrying out their courses. What we need is to show that a certain\nstudy and a certain amount of that study are necessary to the accomplishment c?f certain\ndefinite ends.\nMrs. YoUiNG. — Some speakers have read their ideas on departmental teaching into\nmy paper. Nowhere did I suggest limiting a teacher to instructing in one subject. It is\ndesirable in the grammar grades that a teacher instruct in more than one subject, but not\nin so many subjects that in the evening she must prepare lessons in geography, history, arithmetic, drawing, music, nature study, English, and readings in literature.\nIt is also desirable that a child's work spread over more than the few subjects that any\none person can teach extremely well. Attention to these two desirable conditions will\ngive a class of children the same teachers in some subjects three or four years. This\narrangement will insure continuity in the work. Power gained by the children will be\nused in attacking new questions with the same teachers year after year, and so be capitalized\ncontinuously. There is all the difference in the world between this continuity and the\nfinishing off of a half-year's or a year's work with one teacher. One speaker says that\ntwenty-five years ago he tried departmental teaching and found it a failure. He seems\nto remember it merely as a right-about- change-of-teachers-every-half-hour. I know a\nschool principal who likes to narrate his one experience with departmental teaching. Two\nweak teachers were assigned to his school. He knew they were incompetent, and so gave\nthem charge of the music and penmanship. Those teachers proved his opinion about the\nfoolishness of dividing the work by departments to be correct. They were failures, and\nhe has not permitted departmental teaching in his school since they were dropped for\nincompetency, thirty years ago.\nThe objection has been raised here that departmental work does not care for the\nchild's moral well-being. Does morality depend upon associating with one person only ?\nI supposed that a sturdy morality was developed by means of intelligence ; that intelligence makes our wishes sane, moral. If the judgment is better developed when\nchildren are studying all day with one teacher who teaches some things well, others\nindifferently, and others badly, than it is when they are working thruout the day with\ndifferent teachers who teach their special subjects well, then there is little connection\nbetween intelligence and morality.\nIn speaking of the reconstruction of the course of study I had the continuity of subjectmatter in mind. I thought of a committee on geography, for instance, consisting of two\nor three teachers of geography from the primary grades, two or three from the grammar\ngrades, some from the high school, and a recognized authority from a college or university.\nSuch a group could never present a course leading at various stages into blind alleys.\n\nf^\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council!\n\nSAVING\n\nOF\n\nTIME\n\nI I^ EDUCATION\n\n329\n\nThe same kind of a com^nittee in making up a course in mathematics would not set children\nof tender years to studying the intricacies of banking, because they are not going to\ncollege. The failure to make conditions such that the child's power gained will be the\nactive factor in conquering the new, and the failure to make conditions such that the\nsubject-matter studied will always lead into something beyond, are the causes of the\nnecessity for discussing this question of saving time.\nI have met the usual difficulty in making suggestions by means of old terms — old\nmeanings have been read into them. Some day continuity will be recognized as the chief\nelement in the solution of the question of the morning.\nThomas M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass. — I agree heartily with Professor Woodward\nin saying that all courses in the elementary and secondary schools should be kept open at\nthe top. No course ought to lead into byways. Every child should have the opportunity,\nwhen he has finished a lower grade of scliool, to enter some course in the next higher, and\nI meant to suggest nothing in my paper which would not be entirely in harmony with this\nfundamental principle. As to the separation of pupils in such a way that the bright and\nthe dull may not be kept together, I would say that such separation must always be\nimperfect; but, as a practical matter, any separation, however crude, is better than none.\nEvery high-school teacher knows that there is a much larger percentage of gifted pupils\nin the classes which fit for college and technical schools than in the classes which do not\nfit for a higher institution. To separate those who fit for college from those who do not\neffects, therefore, altho in a crude way, a separation of the bright from the dull. I say \"in\na crude way,\" because we all know that some of the brightest pupils are, for financial\nreasons, unable to go to college, and some pupils of inferior ability enter the college-fitting\ncourses.\nSo far as the elementary schools are concerned, there is more of dawdling at present\nthan of rushing or of overwork. The brightest pupils in the elementary schools could,\nwithout injury to health and with much profit to their intellectual growth, do fully twice as\nmuch work as they are now doing; and the same is true of a limited number of pupils in\nevery high school. It is intellectually demoralizing tor any pupil to have less to do than\nhe can easily do. It demoralizes his intellectual habits and begets intellectual indolence.\nI am aware that there is considerable complaint on the part of parents of overwork\nin the schools; but what such parents really mean is that their children are given too\nmuch \"home work\" and have to devote to the preparation' of lessons out of school hours\nwhich should be given to exercise and play. In this parents are in most cases entirely\nright, but this is not the same thing as too much work. If children were made to work\nharder in school, they would not be obliged to work as long hours as they do now.\nThere ought to be fewer pupils per teacher in our schools, and we ought to be able\nfo secure more forceful, energetic, and stimulating teaching. Five hours per day of\nearnest, intellectual work, including the necessary intermissions, is enough for any boy or\ngirl below the high school. Our American school system is so organized as to do more\nfor the average and for the dull child than is done in any other country; but it also does\nless for the exceptionally bright child than is done in any other highly civilized country.\nWe sacrifice too much the interests of the brightest to the interests of the average and the\ndull, and we mistake this for true democracy. No nation can afford either to neglect or\nto sacrifice its best talent, and we must organize our system of education in such a way as\nto give brilliant boys and girls an opportunity to advance at the rate at which they are\ncapable of advancing, without being held back by the less gifted who must progress at a\nslower pace.\nI do not believe that we shall effect the saving of time at which we are aiming, except\nthru a separation early in the course of those who are to fit for higher institutions from\nthose who are to end their education in the elementary schools. The question essentially\nresolves itself into the question as to whether all pupils, no matter what their aims may be\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nas to their future training, should, in the elementary schools, purs^ie the same course. It\nis a question as to whether the best preparation for college is also the best preparation\nfor life. The teachers in our colleges in an offhand way assume that there is only an\naffirmative answer possible to this question. I feel strongly convinced that a negative\nanswer is the true one. This is the answer which all foreign nations have given to this\nquestion. There is no nation in Europe which gives the two classes of pupils the same\ncourse of training, It does not follow at. all that those things which are taught in the\nelementary schools and are necessary to the pupil who is to go to college afterward are\nnecessary to the pupil who is to end his education in the elementary school. Indeed, it is\nmy conviction that for pupils who are not to go beyond the grammar schools a very much\nbetter course can be prepared than a course which would be calculated to fit a pupil in\nthe quickest way for admission to college.\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nWILLIAM\n\nDEWITT\n\nPROGRESS\nHYDE,\n\nOF\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nBRUNSWICK,\nME.\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nBOWDOIN\n\niQ02-igo3\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAs the officers of an ocean steamer each day take observations and\nreport the run of the last twenty-four hours, it is my privilege to report\nobservations, kindly made for -me by school and college officers in all\nparts of the country, on the educational progress of the year.\nFirst of all I must record the promotion of Mrs. Alice Freeman\nPalmer from the ranks of our working force to\n\" the choir invisible\nOf those immortal dead who live again\nIn minds made better by their presence.\"\n\nPrincipal of a high school at twenty-two; professor in a college at\ntwenty-four ; college president at twenty-six ; member of a state board of\neducation ; organizer of the women's department of a great university ;\ncounselor and helper of the women's college connected with our oldest\nuniversity; trustee of a seminary for women; advocate and friend of\nevery form of educational progress: she united a delicate, feminine capacity to give herself responsively, devotedly to persons and institutions who\nsought her help, with the energy and determination of a field marshal to\npush to a successful issue every interest intrusted to her hands. She had\nthe tact to carry conservative boards unanimously for progressive measures; the confidence which transforms seeming impossibilities into\naccomplished facts; the courage to say to incompetence, stupidity, or\ninefficiency, when it was blocking the wheels of progress, the hard words:\n*' Thou art the man ! \" yes, the harder words to say and to get understood :\n\"Thou art the woman !\" Thus she has left us the ideal of the educated,\nwoman : scholarship without a particle of pedantry ; optimism with no\nblinking of unpleasant facts; efficiency unsevered from winsomeness;\npower unspoiled by pride; all rooted, as woman's best influence must\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n331\n\never be, in the affections of a loving heart, and radiating from its normal\ncenter in a happy home.\nThruout the South, under the wise guidance of the Southern Education Board, with the judicious aid of the General Education Board, and\nmainly thru the heroic efforts of the southern men and women themselves, a movement is going on which has all the enthusiasm, the diversified agencies, the massing of forces, the raising and expenditure of\nmoney, the distribution of literature, the organization of conferences, the\nutilization of the press, which mark a great political campaign. Out of\nthis united effort are coming increased appropriations by the states, a\ngreat extension of local taxation, improved schoolhouses, consolidated\nschools, great free summer schools for teachers, improved courses, lengthened terms, higher salaries, better teaching, expert supervision. This is\nthe most hopeful feature of the educational progress of the year; and at\nthis meeting of the National Educational Association in New England,\nhere in this city of the Puritans, it is an especial privilege to award the\nwell-earned palm of greatest educational progress during the year to the\nsplendid labors of our brothers and sisters of the South.\nWhere new ideas have been unsupported by adequate teaching or\nequipment, there have been wholesome reactions. Where science in the\nsecondary schools has failed to impart thoro discipline, Latin has been\nrestored to more than its former prominence. Where sentimentalism had\noffered amusement, or utilitarianism had demanded information, there is\na return to substantial drill.\nDidactic teaching is more freely used to supplement\" the laboratory\nmethod in science. The best reaction, however, is from the pedantic\nrefinements of methodology imposed on the country by the normal\nschools of ten or a dozen years ago, to an increasing appreciation of the\nrights of the individual teacher to get results in her own individual way,\nand the demand for accurate, organized, advanced knowledge on the part\nof the teacher as the first and foremost essential of good teaching.\nThe kindergarten has had a steady growth, both in the increase in its\nown numbers and in its influence on the general practice of elementary\neducation, by uniting the home and the school in mutual helpfulness, and\nmaking self-activity the basis of all education. The two-session kindergarten, where the same teachers meet the same children twice a day, has\nproved an excessive drain on the nerves of both teachers and children ;\nand its continuance anywhere is an educational blunder amounting almost\nto a crime. The best compromise yet devised is that in practice in New\nYork, where two sets of children are taught daily in the same room, the\nmorning kindergartner assisting for an hour in the afternoon kindergarten, and the afternoon kindergartner assisting for an hour in the morning\nkindergarten.\nThe\n\nkindergartners, like all\n\nactive\n\nbodies,\n\nare\n\ndividing\n\ninto two\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncamps. One camp would make of the kindergarten a self-sufficient cult,\nregardless of its connection with the school system as a whole, and cling\nso closely to the letter of Froebel that they are in danger of missing his\nspirit altogether. The others are ready and eager to make the transition\nto the primary grades easy and natural, and have enough of the master's\nspirit to discard on occasion, and with more advanced children, pretty\nmuch all the letter of his law.\nManual training is gaining steadily in public estimation, thanks in\npart to the phenomenal success of industrial education at Hampton and\nTuskegee, and the industrial development of the country. .The new\nimanual-training building of the Brookline (Mass.) High School; the new\nTechnical Institute given to Indianapolis; the new science building for\npractical scientific work at Colorado College ; the new foundry at the\nWorcester Polytechnic Institute ; the new research course in engineering\nat the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; the new departure at the\nSheffield Scientific School, by which a part of the work for the degree of\nraining engineer is done in the field rather than at the university — are all\nillustrations of the great wealth that is being expended, and the progressive spirit that animates all grades of manual and technical education.\nThe new Simmons College is an attempt to complete the courses in sewing, cookery, and stenography offered in the schools by what shall be an\ninstitute of technology for highly educated women.\nSchool architecture is receiving more liberal and intelligent consideration than ever; yet the distinctive progress of the year has been in the\nprovision of adequate playgrounds, with their increased use in vacations,\neither in connection with vacation schools or independently. Joliet, 111.,\ntakes the lead in this movement with its eighty acres in school yards —\none of twenty acres, one of seventeen acres, and several of five acres each.\nThe model school to be established in Knox county, Tenn., is to have its\nsix-room building surrounded by twelve acres of land.\nSchool gardens, by bringing a bit of the country into the heart of the\ncity, afford an admirable and inexpensive form of manual training, provide\nbotanical material, foster a respect for weaker forms of life, and develop\nperseverance, fidelity, obedience to natural law, mutual helpfulness, and\nan appreciation of property rights in natural products.\nVacation schools utilize the school plant during the summer, take the\nchildren off the street, and give them valuable social experience, as well\nas manual and physical training. Last summer in New York there were\n56,000 children in school playgrounds, and 1 2,^500 children in vacation\nschools, at a cost per capita for the entire season of 97 cents for playgrounds, and $3.44 for vacation schools. The total cost of these and\nkindred extensions of the use of school property was ^130,000, and this\nsum made of real value for some 400 hours nearly $35,000,000 of municipal\nproperty which otherwise would have been unused.\nThis summer the\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councill\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n333\n\nboard will operate 53 vacation schools, 66 playgrounds, 7 pier kindergartens,\n12 open-air playgrounds, 13 roof playgrounds and kindergartens, 14\nswimming schools, and 11 roof concerts.\nThe use of the school buildings for evening schools, free public lectures,\nchoral clubs, and Shakespeare clubs is an indication of a widening of the\nscope of our idea of education to include the intellectual and social elevation\nof the whole life of the community. The Speyer School in New York, in\nconnection with Teachers College, is one of the first attempts to combine\nthe work of an ordinary school with that of a social settlement. This\nschool occupies two floors of a five-story building, the other floors being\ngiven to libraries, gymnasium, clubs, lectures, and living-rooms for the\nprincipal's family and seven residents who will devote themselves to this\nschool-extension work.\nIncreasing attention is being given to the health of school children,\nthru enlargement of the work of the school physician, the employment of\ndistrict nurses in crowded sections, better teaching of hygiene in the\nschools, better hygienic and sanitary conditions in school buildings, and\npermission to take less than the full amount of school work freely granted\nto those pupils who are unable to take full work without injury to their\nhealth. Some schools, like the Horace Mann School in New York and\nthe High School in Amesbury, Mass., issue a blank, to be filled out by\nparents, covering such points as weaknesses or tendencies to ill-health,\naverage number of hours of sleep, appetite, number of hours out of doors,\naverage time devoted to school work at home, time spent in other work at\nhome, number of evenings spent in recreation away from home, opportunity\nfor outside help in school work, fondness for reading, class of books read,\ntime devoted to music, an^ the like. In these and other ways there is\nevidence of a growing recognition that the home and the school are parts\nof a single life; that the school is made for the health, happiness, and\nusefulness of the children ; and that the breakdown in health of a schoolboy or schoolgirl from preventable causes is murder in the first degree,\nfor which high averages cannot atone, and for which parents and school\nofficers are jointly responsible.\nThe greatest advances of the year in school work are in improved\norganization.\nThe tendency is toward small centralized boards, elected\nwith legislative work only,\nticket or appointedd by the mayor,\nralbeet\ngenethe\nan\nLo\nso that\nmen can affor to serve for long periods. The board of\nnine in Baltimore, appointed by the mayor under the new charter, which\nbecame effective in 1900, besides lifting the schools out of scandalous\nconditions of favoritism and inefficiency, at the end of its first ye^r returned\nto the city's sinking fund $40,000 of the sum that had been appropriated\nfor its use, and in the second year estinmted its requirements as $71,000\nless than the previous year's appropriation.\nNew York city, however, shows the most marked and rapid gain.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATjON\n\n[National\n\nSince February i, 1902, its schools have been under a new system. The\nfour borough school boards, with their local jealousies and political\ninterference, and the rule that inhibited by law the city superintendent\nfrom \" interference with the actual conduct of any school,\" have been\nsuperseded by one board of education, and one board of superintendents\nof which the city superintendent is chairman, and both de jure and de facto\nprofessional head of the city schools. The civil-service system of appointment has been applied to all teachers, those of the evening schools, the\nsummer schools, and the playgrounds included. Promotion to highersalaried grade positions is on the same basis. This, together with the\nyearly increase of salary between fixed limits for meritorious teachers, has\ncompletely divorced the teacher's position from politics. With this\nimprovement has gone an increased pride in the public schools, shown\nby the appropriation for 1903 of $20,000,000 for their support, of which\nover $15,000,000 is for salaries of teachers. Adding liberal appropriations for new schoolhouses, the city has given $50,000,000 for schools\nsince February, 1902. High schools have been introduced ; the elementary\nschools have been reorganized on an eight-year plan ; and promotion and\ngraduation from the grammar schools has been made to depend, not on\npages studied or examinations passed, but on the ability of the pupil to\ndo things which a grammar-school graduate ought to do : write a letter\nor composition, use a dictionary, figure accurately, and have a sufficient\nknowledge of history and geography. The endless grind at arithmetic\ngives place in the seventh year to algebra and geometry; United States\nhistory is supplemented by English history; in the eighth year German,\nFrench, Latin, or phonography may be taken as electives. The high\nschools offer a wide range of subjects from which to select the requisite\nnumber of counts; also a two-year technical course for girls. There\nare special schools for abnormal children, rigid medical inspection,\nand the service of nurses when required. These splendid achievements\nin our largest city are types and prophecies of what is rapidly coming in\nother cities of the country. Departmental teaching in the higher grammar\ngrades, increasing demand for college graduates in all grades of the public\nschools, and the recognition that it is ruinous to appoint all or nearly all\nthe teachers of the primary and grammar schools of a great city from the\ngraduates of a single local institution, but that these positions must be\nopen to the best teachers from every section and from every source, are\nother principles of administration which have gained ground within the\nyear.\nConsolidation is the distinctive step of progress in the rural* schools.\nIt is authorized in twenty states ; is in operation in twenty-eight counties\nin Iowa and forty-eight counties in Indiana. In Ohio twenty-three\ntownships have all their schools centralized, and a hundred or more have\npartial centralization.\nDuval county, Fla., reports a net saving of $237\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n335\n\nper month from the partial consolidation of its forty-five schools. As a\nrule, it reduces expense, wagons and wagoners being cheaper than schoolhouses and teachers. It gives better teachers, better classification of\npupils, easier supervision, larger enrollment, more regular and punctual\nattendance, more competition and stimulus, improved buildings, ventilation, and equipment; affords better protection to children on lonely roads;\nfurnishes a center for the social and intellectual life of a widened neighborhood ;and in general, by enriching rural life, keeps the well to-do farmer\non the farm, instead of driving him to the city to educate his children.\nThe relations between colleges and preparatory schools are becoming\ncloser. The requirements for admission are becoming more varied,\nmusic being the latest addition to the list at Harvard. These requirements are being organized on the system of points, one point usually\nrepresenting five recitations a week for one year. It is at length possible\nfor the small high school to fit for college without maintaining at disproportionate expense a separate preparatory course. The University of\nCalifornia has strengthened its system of accrediting schools by the addition of an officer who is to give his entire time to this work for a half-year.\nCollege-entrance certificate boards in New England, and in connection\nwith the North Central Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools,\nhave been organized to rescue the certificate system in these sections\nfrom the looseness into which it had fallen. The New England plan does\nnot contemplate actual inspection of schools, but does provide for careful\ninquiry into methods, subjects, and equipment in the schools, and a\nrecord of the early college work of all certificated students.\nThere is a dawning consciousness, perhaps more clear at the University of Mississippi than elsewhere, but worthy of cultivation in other\nsections, that the first duty of a college or university is to support, by\nhigh standards of admission faithfully enforced, thoro work for the full\ncourse in the schools immediately below. A university or college which\nby low standards of admission or cheap courses entices young men and\nwomen to leave the secondary schools before their work there has been\nthoroly and completely done is guilty of the folly of killing the goose\nthat lays the golden ^gg, the crime of taking the money of such students\nunder false pretenses, the parasitic vice of sucking the life-blood out of\nthe educational system of which it professes to be the crowning ornament.\nYale and Dartmouth within the year have added their influence to the\nmovement to make the degree of A.B. stand for a liberal education,\nregardless of whether or not it has included a course or two in a particular ancient language. The action of Williams in making the last three\nyears elective, and of Yale in introducing electives into the freshman\nyear, marks the beginning of the end of that long struggle for the elective system in American colleges which the President of this Association\nhas so magnificently led.\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "336\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nYet liberty, tho the first word in all reforms, is never the last. Already\nthe elective principle is passing into its second stage. The group system— not the old rigid group system imposed by authority from above,\nbut a group system in which each student shall choose a major, and perhaps one or two minors, for himself, so as to insure consecutive, cumulative study of one subject leading to an advanced course in the last year —\npreviously established in Yale University, Leland Stanford Junior University, and the University of California, has been adopted this year by two\nNew England colleges, Dartmouth and Williams. This is the logical\ndevelopment of the elective principle, and aims to combine the freedom\nof choice with a requirement that something solid, consecutive, and\nvaluable shall be chosen. It puts into the elective system the backbone\nwhich was the strength of the old requirement of Latin, Greek, and\nmathematics ; but it leaves the individual free to determine what the backbone of his own course shall be. For a college to do this requires a pretty\nlarge staff. It is, however, the most positive step forward taken within\nthe year in college education ; and we may expect to see colleges making\nhaste to adopt it as fast as their resources will permit.\nIf to this requirement of a major we could add a suggestion, made by\nPresident Wilson of Princeton, that examination, in the major subject at\nleast, should be, not on particular courses, but on the subject as a whole,\nwe might to that degree avoid some of the evils growing out of large\ncourses, wholesale methods of instruction, and so-called ''seminar\" devices\nfor passing examinations.\nNo educational proposition ever received such sweeping and emphatic\ncondemnation from school and college, press and platform, private conference and public assembly, as the proposition to grant the degree of\nA.B. at the end of two years of college work. It is a project to vivisect\nour most distinctive educational institution; to cut the college course in\ntwo, and throw the better half away.\nStill, the time must be saved somewhere. Providence, R. I., has\nreduced the grades from nine to eight ; the superintendent of the Boston\nschools recommends the same change; and in the West they have in some\ncases reduced the grades to seven, and even propose to reduce to six,\ntransferring the two upper years to the high school, making that a six-year\ncourse. Semi-annual promotion, with frequent irregular promotion for\nbright and healthy pupils, will save for them another year. Baltimore\nhas in the seventh and eighth grades a preparatory class in which bright\npupils can anticipate some of the 150 credits required in the high\nschool. Admission to college by points enables a bright and vigorous\npupil to offer more than are required, and thus anticipate some portion of\nthe college work required for the degree. The Boston Latin School proposes to prepare its students for three years of college residence. The\nstatement of college requirements for graduation in units of work, rather\ny\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council)\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\n337\n\nthan lapses of time, is another opportunity to gain time by extra work.\nMany universities count the same work for both the last year in college and\nthe first year in the professional school. Western Reserve University\nand the Case School of Applied Science give both the literary ^nd the\nscientific degrees for three years in the university and two in the Case\nSchool. The University of Minnesota gives the bachelor's degree and the\ndegree in medicine for a six-year course, of which the studies of the last\nfour years are chiefly medical. The new college in connection with Clark\nUniversity opens with a three-year course. In these various ways, thru\ngreater elasticity at points of transitioa all thru the system as a whole, and\na little more industry and enterprise on the part of the individual, we\nare working out a plan by which one who goes thru all the stages from the\nkindergarten to the professional school may shorten the period by from\none to three years ; and at the same time graduation from each stage shall\nmean as much as it ever did.\nIn the education of women there is a revival of the old-country seminaries like Wheaton and Bradford. The University of Chicago, in the\nface of bitter local prejudice and in defiance of the whole tradition of the\nWest, has had the courage to ask such questions as these:\nIs the intellectual stimulus which the women receive thru coeducation wholly of a\nsalutary sort ?\nAre there not too many cases of young women who have lost some of the fine attractiveness which closer reserve would have attained ?\n,\nIs it not a pedagogical and social mistake to assume that men and women should be\ntrained as nearly alike as possible?\nIs there not a serious loss to both men and women if the university places too much\nemphasis upon what they have in common, and gives too little weight to the fact that in\nmany respects these essential common interests may be best promoted separately ?\n\nNow, if it is brave to ask th'^ese questions, it is braver still to answer\nthem, as the University of Chicago has done, in a way that on the face of\nit is partial, prudential, tentative, illogical, and inconsistent. \"Consistency,\" as Emerson tells us, \"is the hobgoblin of little minds.\" This\naction of the University of Chicago is a declaration that coeducation is\nnot a matter of merely administrative detail, but involves the profoundest\nsociological and social considerations ; that it is not, to use General Hancock's remark about the tariff, \"a local issue,\" which can be answered\npermanently in one way by the East, and in another way by the West;\nthat* in every section of the country there will always be those who from\ncircumstances or conviction will prefer coeducation, and others who from\nsocial or pedagogical considerations will prefer more or less segregation ;\nand that the determination of the policy of each institution should be\nbased, not on a doctrinaire devotion to an abstract theory, but on an\ninductive study of its own specific situatten, resources, and the preferences\nof its constituency.\nOther important steps of progress must be passed over with a mere\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "33^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nreference: the organization of the Religious Education Association, which\npromises to prosecute this important department of educational work\nwith candor, vigor, and progressiveness ; the tendency to divide professional schools into two groups — those which do, and those which do not,\nrequire the bachelor's degree for admission; the establishment of chairs\ndevoted exclusively or mainly to research ; the splendid gifts of Mr.\nRockefeller, Mr. Morgan, and others to establish the Institute for the\nStudy of Pathology, and place the Harvard Medical School on a basis\nof permanent efficiency ; the raising of the money for the Emerson Hall\nat Harvard, where, in a building named for our greatest seer, and devoted\nto philosophy. Professors Palmer, James, Royce, Miinsterberg, Peabody,\nand Santayana will have the best provision for the study of philosophy\nsince the Athenian lyceum and academy.\nOne thing, however, deserves especial note — the wise policy of the\nCarnegie Institution. By its refusal to compete with other agencies; by\nits impartial constitution of advisory committees ; by its encouragement\nto research ; by its utilization of the immense historical and scientific\nresources accumulated at Washingto'n — the Carnegie Institution has\nalready won the gratitude of the scholars of the country. Incidentally it has\neffectually sidetracked the sentimental agitation for a Washington Memorial University. What might have proved a rival to other institutions has\nbecome a stimulus and ally to all. It was a fortunate thing that this\nmunificent gift of *our great and generous captain of industry, Andrew\nCarnegie, came under the administration of that prince of scholars and\npast-master of educational organization. Dr. Daniel Coit Oilman. Thus\nadministered, the Carnegie Institution is a worthy crown of our national\neducational system.\nAs the golf enthusiast amuses himself at times by figuring up what\nhis score would be if he could count the best he ever did at each hole, we\nmay in conclusion draw a picture of what our educational system would\nbe if it were everywhere as good as the best that anywhere has been\nattained.\nWe should have small boards of education, composed of the best citizens, devoted exclusively to legislation, employing trained experts to\ncarry out their measures. We should have trained teachers, whose attainments are years in advance of the stage at which they are teaching ;\ngranted, after careful selection and adequate probation, permanent tenure\nat salaries proportioned to their efficiency and length of service.\nWe should have in the elementary schools, kindergarten ideas, manual\ntraining, literature, and nature study; yet in all due subordination to the\nold-fashioned idea that the individual must master with the greatest\neconomy of time the symbols of human knowledge and human intercourse.\nWe should have attractive buildings, in spacious and beautiful grounds.\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nYEAR\n\n339\n\nused summer and winter, daytime and evening, by both children and\nadults, in the service, whenever needed, of social as well as intellectual ends.\nWe should have the length of each stage of education determined in\npart by individual performance, instead of by a rigid time-table imposed\non all alike; so that, without lowering the standard of any single stage, a\nbright scholar might pass thru them all in a substantially shorter time.\nWe should teach women as expensively and thoroly as men ; yet not\nnecessarily the same subjects, at the same time and place. The degree of\nA.B. would stand for the knowledge of several important subjects, and the\nthoro knowledge of at least one subject.\nWe should give the exceptional man of proved ability such aid as he\nrequires to make his largest contribution to science and human welfare.\nThe elements of such an educational system are all present at isolated\npoints. It is for us to return to our homes and cultivate our own garden\nplots up to the standard of the best that has been attained elsewhere.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJohn W. Cook. — These are cheering notes to which we have listened. They fill us\nwith hope. One feels rising in his soul the spirit of the hunter when the bugle notes proclaim that the quarry is in sight. I may be permitted to speak of two or three things that\nespecially interest those of us who live in the West. First of all, we may have a growing\nconfidence in the fact that the school is learning to maintain its independence against the\npolitical forces that, in their struggle for mastery, endeavor to use it to its extreme hurt.\nThe schoolmaster must stand for his cause with all the courage and enthusiasm with which\nthe old Greek defended his hearthstone. 1 believe that the people are with us, and, if\nthey can be informed of the perils that lie in wait if the nursery of states is to be administered with an eye to the particular advantage of a political party, the autonomy of the\nschool may be maintained.\nThe decline of the rural school in numbers and in consequent efficiency has not failed\nto attract the attention of the schoolmen of the West.\nPray, what degree of success can\na little group of half a dozen children attain in the development of their genuine social\nlife when they gather from the isolated home on the farm in the little schoolhouse at the\n■^^^^B\n^^B\n^^B\n^^B\n^^B\n^^B\n^^B\n^H\n^^K\n\ncorners?\nThe number of pupils in the average rural school of Illinois does not exceed\neighteen, while there are many with less than half that number; but the consolidated\nschool is on the way.\nIt is true that we are following in the wake of some of the older\nand some of the newer states, but we are willing to be led in matters of such extreme\nimportance.\nThe first consolidated school in Illinois is now an accomplished fact, and the\nman of all men to whom credit is especially due for the inauguration of this important\nreform is Superintendent O. J. Kern, of Winnebago county.\nThat this school will have\nmany imitators I have no doubt, and the time is coming in Illinois when the children\nof the rural districts are to have all of the facilities of the village so far as education is\nconcerned.\nWhat a transformation of the social life of such communities will inevitably\n\n^^K\n^B\n\nA single word more must suffice. The professional school is likewise getting its recognition. In many localities boards of education have had the courage to declare that only\n\n^^K^K\n^^K\n\nthose who have received the discipline of the teachers' academies need apply.\nThe normal schools are waiting for those to come who need their ministry. It rests with the school\nboard, which needs only to insist upon the attainments, and they will be forthcoming.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[National\n\nAnd when the shadows of nepotism and the sordid spirit of mistaken economy shall have\nbecome things of the past, the schools will enter into their own, and become those centers\nof social influence for which they are designed.\nJ. W. Carr. — If this discussion is to be in the nature of a report frojn the field, I\nshould say that the most cheering news from Indiana relates to the increase of the\nsalaries of her teachers. There has been a steady increase in the salaries of the rank and\nfile of the grade teachers in the towns and cities of Indiana for a number of years. In\nsome of the most progressive cities all first-class grade teachers now receive ^600 per\nyear. This is a decided advance.\nBut most progress has been made in reference to the salaries of the country teachers.\nIn 1901 the general assembly of Indiana passed a minimum wage law, which greatly\nincreased the daily wages of a large majority of the teachers in the rural schools. Previous\nto that time a law had been enacted requiring the school term to be at least six months.\nIt was found, however, that in many rural communities the revenues were not sufficient to\ncontinue the schools for that length of time. The last general assembly amended the\nminimum wage law, making provision for successful experienced teachers to receive a\nmuch better salary than ever before. At the same time the law in reference to local taxation was amended so that now almost every rural community in the entire state can have\na six-month term of school, while all successful teachers receive at least $50 per month.\nIt is difficult to estimate the beneficent effect of this law. The teachers are elated, and the\npeople hopeful.\nThe children will be greatly benefited.\nJoseph Swain. — It is very difficult to determine just what is accomplished in any\none year in education in the United States. Doubtless those things which count most are\nmatters of growth from year to year. Certainly this excellent report of President Hyde\nis very encouraging. As a western man, who has been in the East for a single year, I\nhave been impressed with the growing tendency to favor admission to college by the certificate system rather than by examination. It is probable that our educational system\nwill never be sufficiently perfect to do away entirely with the examination for entrance to\ncollege; but, as we more and more perfect our system, the step from secondary school to\ncollege should be as simple and as natural as the step from one of the lower grades to the\nnext higher. The teachers in one grade should determine the fitness of the pupil for the\nnext higher. This system has been in use in part of the West for many years, and I am\npleased to note its extension in the East. The University of Michigan, after several years'\nexperience, finds the character of the work of those entering under the certificate plan\nslightly superior to those entering under the examination system.\nAnother encouraging result of the year is the increased endowments and appropriations for higher education, both in public and private colleges and universities. The University of Illinois received over ^1,300,000 from the last legislature of the state. This is\nthe largest appropriation, so far as I know, that has ever been made to a single educational institution by any state for expenditure in the period of two years.\nC. M. Woodward. — Of course we expect you all to come to the great Louisiana Purchase Exposition next year, when we shall have an opportunity to show you how admirably the management of that exposition and Washington University have co-operated in\norganizing the greatest educational exhibit of the age. But the story of the exposition is\ntoo long for me to tell. I will, therefore, say a few words about this report, which was not\nonly inspiring in its thoroness, but was delightful in the way it was presented.\n1 wish to speak especially oi the action of the state of Missouri in increasing the\nincome of our public schools. The rate of taxation for public-school purposes is fixed by\nthe constitution of the state. It has been four mills on the dollar for thirty years. Last\nNovember, by a popular vote of the people of the whole state, the rate of taxation was\nraised to six mills — an increase of 50 per cent. You can easily imagine the effect of such\na splendid increase in the money at our disposal. I predict that within two years the high-\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTO RELIGION\n\n341\n\nschool attendance in St. Louis will be double what it is now. This result has already been\nreached in Kansas City, without waiting for the amended constitution. While the population ofthe city has increased 50 per cent, in six years, the high-school attendance has\nincreased 100 per cent.\nPresident Hyde omitted entirely all reference to the tremendously important subject\nof athletics. I wish to report that at the recent meeting of the Central Association of\nColleges and Preparatory Schools at Chicago it was unanimously and enthusiastically\nagreed that in the future we should aim to eliminate from our system of school and college athletics the professional coach, with his demoralizing influence, and abolish all gate\nreceipts, which are a source of corruption and infinite evil. I trust that at a subsequent\nmeeting of this Association we may be able to report that this ideal has been actually\nreached.\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\nGEORGE\n\nA.\n\nCOE,\n\nOF MODERN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHILOSOPHY\nIN\nUNIVERSITY;\nEVANSTON,\nILL.\n\nTO RELIGION\nNORTHWESTERN\n\nThe present widespread demand for improvement in religious education renders necessary a re-examination of the relation between religion\nand the principles that underlie general education; for writers, both\nCatholic and Protestant, who complain of defects in existing methods of\nreligious training are seeking relief — at least in part — thru the adoption\nof methods already in use in the so-called \"secular\" schools. It is\napparently assumed that the pedagogical principles upon which these\nschools are working are inherently adapted to promoting the ends of\nreligious nurture also.\nReligious education must certainly be religious in point of process as\nwell as in point of purpose. No real advance can be made by attempting\nto graft into religion methods that are, at their foundation, either irreligious\nor non-religious. What kind of alliance, then, is this which is proposed\nbetween religion and modern pedagogy? Has the educational reform any\ncontribution whatever' to make to religion? Of course, religion lives in its\nown right; it does not depend upon contributions from without.\nNevertheless, it is often helped or hindered by the movements of the\ntime; and in this sense modern pedagogy may conceivably have something to contribute.\nIn a broad sense, religion may be said to include the whole movement\nfor the reform of education. Modern \"secular\" schools are an offshoot\nfrom church schools, and the fundamental ideas of the school reform can\nbe traced back to the mediaeval period. The demand for popular education and for natural methods started within religion. Many of its chief\nprophets, too — notably Pestalo^zi and Froebel — looked upon it as a\ndistinctly religious movement.\nNevertheless, the reform movement, in both its- practical and its\ntheoretical aspects, became independent.\nIt based itself upon psychology\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand child study; not upon Bible or church or creed. It has built up a\nset of principles of its own, without asking what bearing they have upon\nreligion. We have to deal, then, with two apparently independent sets of\nprinciples — the religious and the pedagogical.\nWhat is modern education ? The movement started out and ran a\nconsiderable part of its course under the inspiration of a single idea — that\nof the natural development of the child. This idea became a great tree\nwith many spreading branches. The soil in which it stands is a sense of\nthe worth of man. Hence the demand for universal education. Its trunk\nis the vital principle of growth as contrasted with every mechanical or\nmerely logical process. Its chief branches are the following principles,\nwhich every teacher who is both conscientious and intelligent writes upon\nhis heart : that the mind grows by assimilating mental food, that is, by\napperception; that nothing is fully acquired until it has been expressed;\nthat the proper attitude and habit of the pupil is therefore that of selfactivity; that self-activity is free activity, that is, activity that springs from\nnatural or spontaneous interests ; that therefore, in the work of training,\nthe concrete precedes the abstract, the reality the symbol; finally, that\neducation is the symmetrical development of the entire personality, not\nmerely of the intellect.\nA second great idea has also come to prevail in the educational movement. It is that education is not set for the building of isolated personality,\nbut for the building of society as an ethical organism. We have actually\nreached a point in the educational reform where culture without socialized\nconduct is looked upon as defective culture.\nOf these two basal ideas, the first, that of the child himself, determines the nature of the educational process ; the second, that of the\nsocial destination of the human being, prescribes an end for the process\nand yield;; a principle for the selection of material. Our problem is\nwhether these principles have any essential affinity with religion, and\nwhether, therefore, they are capable of serving as a basis for improved\nreligious education. The solution of the problem can be found only by\nanalysis of the ideas involved. Such analysis will show certain positive\nresults.\nI. Modern education, in its principle of apperception, recognizes the\ninner life as the essential life of a man. It proclaims that things are not\nlife, and that nothing can enlarge us that does not become a part of our\ninner being. The school is not to hang something upon the child, but to\ndevelop something within him. Here, surely, is support for spiritual\nreligion. \"Out of the heart,\" said a wise man of ancient times, **are the\nissues of life.\" The Great Teacher reaffirmed this thought again and\nagain. Not what comes to a man from the outside, but what comes up\nout of the inner being, is the decisive fact of life. At this point, then,\nChrist and modern pedagogy are at one.\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTO RELIGION\n\n343\n\n2. Modern education not only puts emphasis upon the inner life, but\nit also conceives that life broadly. Life is more than knowledge; it is\nalso appreciation of what is lovely and of good report; it is sympathy\nwith other life ; it is righteousness of purpose. To teach is more than to\ntrain the intellect and fill it with information. It is to make men. The\ntransformation in our schools from the idea of mere instruction to that of\nsymmetrical development is not yet fully accomplished, but in principle\nthe victory has been won. This victory is a move in the direction of\nreligion. For, tho religion concerns the intellect, it is most of all a matter\nof the heart and the will. Jesus declared that he is come that we may have\nlife, and that we may have it abundantly. There is a sense in which every\ntrue teacher could say this of himself, for he is to help his pupils, not only\nto know, but also to live. Whatever culture of the feelings and the will\nthe school is able to impart is so much preparation of the soil for the\nreception of religious impressions.\n3. Tho modern education emphasizes the inner life, it demands that\nthis life come to outward expression. \" No impression without expression \"\nis its motto. It declares that a mental act is not complete until it has\nexpressed itself by means of the motor apparatus, and hence that we do\nnot really grasp an idea until we set it at work. Does not this remind us\nof the very words of Jesus when he said that one who hears his words\nwithout doing them is like a man who built his house on shifting sands,\nwhile he who both hears and does is like a man who built upon a rock ?\nEntrance into the kingdom is accorded, not to those who say \"Lord,\nLord !\" but to those who do God's will. In religion and in education\nalike the inner and the outer are indissoluble; they are the concave and\nthe convex sides of the same curve. Hence education, working in its\nown way, enforces the lesson of religion. This lesson is especially significant in this day of practical affairs; for the only kind of faith that is\nconvincing to a modern man is the faith that shows itself in its good\nworks, the faith that spiritualizes conduct, business, and all our human\nrelations.\n4. Another side of the same principle requires that the sensible shall\ncome before the rational, the concrete before the abstract, the reality before\nthe symbol. The word, the rule, the theory, is not to be introduced until\nthe pupil has something to express by means of it. Hence, education\nbegins, tho it does not end, with things of sense. The training of the\nsenses and of the muscles, which has become so prominent in our schools,\nproceeds from no unspiritual view of life, but from the actual structure of\nour minds. In the manual-training class the child learns vastly more than\nmere material things. He learns arithmetic, the laws of nature, selfcontrol ; he cultivates attention, imagin^ion, character. A laboratory, or\na landscape, or a mass of clay for modeling, if only such meanings be\nfound therein, is fully as spiritual as a book.\nModern education busies\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nitself with objects that are visible and tangible because of what they reveal,\nand because of their effect upon the inner life of the child or youth. Is\nnot this principle a principle of religion also? What is the meaning of the\ncentral idea of Christianity, incarnation, unless it be that men come into\nrelation with the invisible God thru a visible person? ''That which we\nhave heard, that which we have seen with our eyes, that which we beheld,\nand our hands handled, concerning the Word of Life\" — this preface of\nSt. John's first letter would serve with equal appropriateness to introduce\na fundamental, conception of modern education. When this principle has\nits perfect work in our schools, it will counteract two tendencies that are\nunfavorable to religion — the tendency to think of religion as abstract\nand speculative, and the opposite tendency to ignore the spiritual aspects\nof the visible world.\n5. The educational principle of free self-expression is equally harmonious with religion. At first sight freedom may seem to clash with all\nauthority, but the apparent conflict disappears when we understand what\npedagogy means by freedom. Freedom certainly does not mean that the\npupil is to do just as he likes; for what one likes may actually repress\nand enslave. Unwholesome food may give pleasure to the palate, tho it\ndepresses our vital powers. Freedom is the active self-expression, not of\nincidental desires, but of the deeper demands of the nature. These deeper\ndemands continually oppose our more superficial impulses, so that the\nattainment of freedom implies the learning of self-restraint and of\nobedience. Capricious indulgence of desire ends in slavery. We cannot\nbe ourselves unless we train our vagrant impulses to bow before the deeper\nand higher things of the spirit. Freedom does not exclude authority,\nthen, but requires it. What pedagogy insists upon under the name of\nfreedom is simply that the teacher shall utilize the deeper currents of life\nso as to help the child from within rather than in any merely external\nfashion. The deeper currents, as well as the superficial ones, will manifest\nthemselves in spontaneous interests which it is the duty of the teacher to\nseize upon. Artificial leverage is to be shunned. Whatsoever is done for\nthe child must include a spontaneous expression of the child. When, for\nexample, restraint must be used, it should be so applied as promptly to\ntransform itself into self-restraint.\nHere, once more, modern education prepares the way for religion;\nfor religion is itself a proclamation of liberty. Its promise is to release\nus from bondage to sins and fears and the pettiness of our merely\nindividual desires. It releases us from the sense of being oppressed by\nthe bigness of the world, and makes us realize that all things are ours,\nwhether things present or things to come, or life or death. But it grants\nus this liberty only thru self-surrender, only thru that losing of our life\nwhereby we gain life. In other words, religion assumes that her commands\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nTO RELIGION\n\n345\n\nare also the commands of our own deepest self. It is thus that the\nobedience that we render to her is our highest freedom. Thus education\nand religion are at one in teaching us freedom thru obedience.\n6. Modern education is likewise working with religion for the adjustment of the individual to society. The demand that every child shall\nhave opportunity for education recognizes the ultimate worth of the\nperson. It is in direct line with Christianity, which looks down thru\nwealth, position, nationality, social circumstance, to the individual heart.\nOn the other hand, both education and religion recognize right relations\nto one's fellows as a necessary pai;t of true life. Christianity sets before\nus the ideal of a divine society in which each citizen loves all the others\nas he loves himself. Something like this is coming to be recognized as\nthe end of education. No longer is it possible to look upon knowledge,\npower, intellectual and aesthetic culture, or anything else that is merely\nindividual, as the aim of the school. The school is to make men, and\nstrong men ; but men strong in regard for one another, strong in their\nloyalty to law, strong in their spirit of co-operation.\nThese are the essential characteristics of modern educational philosophy.\nEvery one of them is not only reconcilable with religion, but actually\nincluded within the Christian view of life. We may therefore say that the\nmodern educational movement as a whole has consisted in the working out of\ncertain pedagogical aspects of Christian belief. It has by no means\nappreciated all the wealth of educational principle that is contained in\nChristianity, nor has it always kept itself free from un-Christian tendencies\nof the times. Educational reformers have often been unconscious of their\nindebtedness to religion ; now and then one of them has been hostile to\nthe church. Doubtless, too, the administration of education has improved\nless rapidly than educational theory. Yet, for all that, the educational\nmovement of modern times has never been really independent of religion. It has builded better than it knew, for its inspiration has come\nfrom the highest source. The separation of church and state, which\nevery citizen is concerned to maintain inviolate, does not signify that\neducation is an unspiritual fact. As far as it goes, the school is essentially a creation of the religious spirit, and its work is essentially religious\nand Christian.\ncational principle is\nbody of modern edu\nire\nent\nthe\nthat\ns\nlow\n.\nfol\nt\ns\nion\nIt contains the spirit\nadapted to the specific work of religiou educat\nLi\nthat modern education received from religion, but enriched by new\nknowledge and wrought into a system. The contribution of modern\neducation to religion, then, is a suitable form and method for religious\neducation, a form which the church and the home must be relied upon to\nfill with the complete. Christian content. •\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nTHE\nREV.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nINFLUENCE\nEDWARD\n\nA.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF RELIGIOUS\nEDUCATION\nMOTIVES OF CONDUCT\nPACE,\n\nCATHOLIC\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\n[National\n\nON\n\nTHE\nD.\n\nC.\n\nThe subject on which I have the honor to address this National Council seems to gather in one concise phrase some of the largest problems\nwhich can be offered either to our private thinking or to our public deliberation. Education, religion, conduct epitomize life. Each suggests the\ndualism of theory and practice. Each may be regarded alternately as\nend and as means. And each is apt to be taken, according to our individual fashion of thought, as the supreme standard by which all other\nvalues are determined.\nIt is significant, therefore, that our program asks us to discuss, not the\nrespective worth of education, religion, and conduct, but rather their\nmutual relation. Our question is not whether religion shall enter into\nour scheme of education ; but, assuming that a particular sort of training\nwhich we call religious education is to be given, we ask what is or may be\nits influence upon the motives of conduct.\nYou have also noted, I am sure, that the question proposed in these\nterms goes to the heart of the moral life; for the implication is, obviously, that the worth of conduct lies chiefly in the motives which prompt\nit, and not merely in the outward form of action. In other words, we are\ngetting away from that plane of ethical theory on which a man's character is judged exclusively by his behavior. We are looking at facts in the\nlight of purpose. And we are trying to determine how far the purposes\nwhich are supplied by religion and woven into the will by religious education avail toward the securing of right conduct.\nThat they are of some avail we are doubtless agreed. From our point\nof view as teachers, religious education is simply religion at work. It is\nthe tangible shape that religion takes alongside of ourselves in the discharge of our professional duties. And since, as intelligent men, we must\nadmit that \"the religious element of human culture is essential,\" likewise,\nas intelligent teachers, we claim that \"it must be presented to every child\nwhose education aims at completeness or proportion.\"\nIt seems, then, that at least two important points are beyond dispute:\nfirst, that conduct should be guided by high motives and even by the\nhighest motives ; second, that religious education does in some measure\ninfluence the motives of conduct. If so much is clear, we are ready for\nthe further question : In what way precisely does religious education exert\nits salutary influence ? Wherein lies its power, if power it really have, for\nuplifting and strengthening and making purer the determination of our\nhuman will ?\nThe answer which the Catholic church gives to this question is found\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF RELIGIOUS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n347\n\nmost clearly in her insistence upon the need of the religious element in\nall forms and grades of education. As to her purpose in holding so tenaciously to this position, it is often said that she seeks thereby to spread\nand perpetuate her beliefs. In her judgment, the school is a nursery of\nfaith and a training-ground for the practical exercises of religion. Its\nchief lesson would therefore be her Credo, and the cardinal virtue of its\npupils would be loyalty to those who wield her authority. That there is\nmuch truth in this appreciation, no Catholic need deny. The church, in\nfact, does maintain that religion must be based on definite beliefs; tho\nshe also teaches that faith without works is dead. She does insist on sacrament and rite, tho she plainly says that the outward sign is worthless\nwithout the inward grace. And if she requires from her members obedience to her laws, it is only what she commands them to yield to all legitimate rule. In a word, the church holds that a large share of our duties\nis toward our Maker, that the discharge of these duties is or should be an\nessential portion of our conduct, and consequently that the motives\nwhich shape our conduct in conformity with these duties can, in the very\nnature of things, be supplied by religious education alone.\nNow, just as we know from the highest source that all the precepts are\nreducible to the one great commandment, so we might say that all our\nduties are included, either explicitly or implicitly, in the duty we owe to\nGod. Religious education in the best sense would therefore be not only\nan education in religion, but an application to all the affairs of life of\nthose principles and motives which religious belief supplies. To \"do all\nthings for the glory of God\" would certainly make us men after the manner of St. Paul himself. And for men of this type \"religious education\"\nwould be a prime necessity.\nBut again, facing actual conditions, we have to admit as a fact the distinction between religious obligations and other obligations, between\nreligious motives and other motives. And it behooves us to inquire in\nwhat way the motives which religion furnishes may be brought to bear\neffectually upon our every -day and every-hour conduct — upon our working and planning, our business dealings and our social relations, our\nexternal behavior and our secret thought.\nIt seems to me that we need to keep steadily in view certain psychological principles respecting the nature of motives; and tho we have not\nat this time to make a thorogoing analysis such as the psychologist might\ndemand, we can assure ourselves at any rate on this point : the efficacy of\nany motive is due chiefly to the habitual attitude of the mind to which\nthat motive is presented. Merely as an idea in which the connection\nbetween a proposed action and our welfare is perceived, a motive may,\nand according to a well-known theory always does, produce some effect.\nIt is, as we say, an \"ideo-motor\" process. But even on this theory,\nit remains true that the motor effect depends, not only on the afferent\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nStimulus, but also on the momentary condition of the centers thru which\nit must pass. And the same is doubtless the case for the whole range of\norganic processes down to the reflex discharge.\nWe cannot, of course, enumerate — much less foresee — the impressions received thru the senses during, let us say, a single day. Similarly,\nit is impossible to predict the motives that will spring up in consciousness as the result of deliberate thought, association, impulse, passion, or\nemotional state. But we can say for a certainty that the selection of any\none motive in preference to all the rest will be determined by the habits\ndeveloped in will and intellect thru the whole course of experience. No\nsystem of religion or of education or of religious education can guarantee\nus against the appearance in consciousness of unworthy motives. The\nsaints have all been tempted. The calmest of the philosophers has his\ninternal storms. And the majority of us, who are neither sages nor\nsaints, know that the best actions, objectively considered, may issue from\nthe meanest motive.\nAny sort of education, therefore, that pretends to impart moral\nstrength must concern itself not so much with laying down precept on\nprecept as with developing in the mind a habit of appreciating, judging,\nand willing in conformity with the rules of upright conduct. \"Automatic righteousness\" is not an acceptable expression; and yet, without\nthe least concession to our determinist friends, I think we would prefer\nwhat it means to the disposition of those who \"always err in their hearts.\"\nNow, it is plain that this moral center, as I will call it, may be organized in many different ways. Its cells may all have the idea of duty for\ntheir nuclei; its fibers may have the sense of honor for their axes; its\nganglia expand with the love of humanity; its whole structure be under\nthe tension of a categorical imperative, strong with the sanction of all the\nmoralists from Aristotle to Kant. Be it so. Let us by every possible\nmeans inculcate these principles, and all other principles that make for\nbetter conduct. There can be no question as to the necessity of making\nmen dutiful, honorable, philanthropic. The function of religion is not to\ndispense with such motives, but to consecrate them ; not to inhibit, but to\nreinforce, the feelipgs and promptings that open up paths of goodness.\nThe impulses that flow down from the cortex are not destructive, but\nregulative with respect to subordinate centers. The brain itself must\natrophy and perish if it fail to quicken and control the organs of nutrition; and religion likewise would tear away its firmest support, were it to\ndeaden the fine growths of volitional power which raise us above the level\nof self.\nWhat we call lower impulses or instincts or tendencies are selfishness\ngone to excess. All attempts, consequently, to educate us out of these\nless worthy motives are attempts to educate us away from self, or to educate\nthat very self to a better sense of its own interests.\nUnselfishness, as we\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF RELIGIOUS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n349\n\nunderstand it, is rational precisely because it is founded upon a clear perception and a vivid realization of the exact value of self. So long as I\ntake a view of myself which makes me the center of the world, neither I\nnor my universe can be of much use except at moments of total eclipse.\nBut when the center begins to displace itself somewhat, then is the beginning of hope for me; and when my conceptual system, by further\ndisplacement and reduction, is brought to coincide with reality, hope gives\nway to the substance of well-ordered action.\nReligious education, properly understood, aims at a just estimate of\nthe self in view of all that is. It locates man in the universe. It gives\nhim his setting in the order of things. If it reminds him that in one\nrespect he is but dust, it also tells him that in another respect he is but a\nlittle below the angels. By teaching him to look upon himself and all\nthings else in the presence of a Supreme Being, it opens up to him a\nperspective in which all values are definitely fixed. It shows him that the\nstarry heavens and the moral law derive their grandeur from the same\ncause. It lays upon him the imperative : So act that thy action may fit\nharmoniously into the universal order of which God is the center and\nsource.\nThe several precepts of morality are simply the more or less detailed\nworking out of this supreme ordinance. The complex system of\nhierarchy, government, dogma, and ritual in the Catholic church represents so many different attempts to arouse and preserve in men's minds\nthe consciousness of membership in this universal order. The \"calmer\npiety\" which enables us to take this comprehensive view is not inborn.\nTo a few gifted minds it may come as the fruit of earnest philosophical\nthought. But mankind in the average needs a methodical training to lift\nthem above the appearances of sense, to differentiate inclination and duty,\nto purify the imagination, and to strengthen the will.\nIt is not to be expected that religious education will enable a man at\nany and every moment to place himself ideally in the universal order and\nregard each of his actions sub specie aeternitatis. It is not even necessary\nthat a man should ever unravel the metaphysics bound up with such\nconcepts. But the habitual attitude of his mind and his habitual way of\nselecting motives should be such that it could be analyzed and, if necessary, restated in terms of the order imperative.\nBriefly, therefore, the view which has been taken may be recapitulated\nas follows :\n1. Where various motives of conduct are suggested, that motive is adopted which\nbest accords with the mental and moral habits of the individuah\n2. The aim of all education, on the ethical side, is the formation of such habits as\nwill insure the selection of good motives and the rejection of evil motives.\n3. The aim of religious education is to secure for this selective habit the greatest\npossible breadth on the highest possible plane by bringing the mind to choose its ends\nconformably to the divine order.\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "350\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. All other criteria and imperatives that have real worth should be regarded as\nmore or less specialized forms which may become clearer and stronger under the influence\nof religious training, and which may in turn facilitate the application of the religious\nstandard to particular motives of conduct.\n\nI need not remind you that we have been dealing all along with a\npriori judgments; in other words, that we have been studying out the\ninfluence which religious education ought to exert and would exert in\nideal conditions. Nor again would it be the part of wisdom to propose\nreligious education as the one infallible remedy for all our ills. But,\nconsidering the amount of work that is done in the interests of religion\nby persons of all denominations, we seem justified in asking ourselves one\nquestion more : How can religious education be made to yield the results,\nor at any rate a larger proportion of the results, which might reasonably\nbe expected ?\nSo far as I can see, the simplest answer is : By giving the religious\nelement its due share in education. The child comes very quickly to\nlook on the school as the place in which everything is taught that is\nworth knowing. The absence of religious instruction has for one of its\neffects ignorance of certain important truths. But its more serious effect\nis the detachment, in the child's appreciation, of religion from practical\nlife. Once we give the impression that religious ideas and duties are\nextras for which the ministers alone are responsible, we make the work of\nthe church in the pulpit and in the Sunday school exceedingly difficult.\nAnd the difficulty increases as we go on adding every other sort of\npractical teaching to our curricula. Physical training is not turned over\nto the professional athlete nor manual training to the expert mechanic.\nWe have brought these and other things into the school, and by so doing\nwe have recognized their value. Whether we intend it or not, we are\nsurely making it quite clear to the people, both young and old, that the\nschool provides or means to provide all the essentials of knowledge. The\nobvious inference as to the value of religion is not likely to overcrowd the\nchurches.\nIt must, of course, be admitted that religious education, from the\npedagogical view-point, leaves much to be desired. In content, method,\nand organization, but above all in the proper training of teachers, there\nis ample room for improvement. Now that these needs are realized, it is\nto be hoped that the experience gained in building up our school system\nwill prove valuable in solving the problems of religious education. In\nthe movements recently initiated there is a promise of success which\nmust be gratifying to all friends of education. The fulfillment must\nbring about that unity of intellectual, moral, and religious development\nwhich is the basis of right conduct. A mind in which all good motives\nand all habitually determinant principles of action are thoroly co-ordinated, so that duty to self, duty to the fellow-man, to society, and to God\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSEPARATION\n\nOF\n\nCHURCH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n351\n\nare merged in one clear imperative, is an ideal worth striving for. It is\nthe ideal of citizenship in each particular order of our human relations,\nand in that universal order which is none other than 'the City of God.\n\nTHE\n\nSEPARATION OF THE CHURCH FROM THE\nSUPPORTED BY PUBLIC TAXES\n\nW.T.HARRIS,\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION,WASHINGTON,D.C.\n\nThe question of religious education in the schools supported by public\ntaxes is not the question of the importance of religion, but the question\nof the most fitting occasion for efficient instruction in religion, on the one\nhand, and, on the other hand, the question of guarding the rights of\nprivate conscience and the separation of church and state. There is a\ngeneral feeling on the part of American citizens that the rights of private\nconscience must be respected, the cause of religion sacredly guarded, and\nthe church and state kept separate. Are all these things compatible one\nwith another?\nIt seems to be an historic tendency, in our time, to separate church and\nstate. We speak of it as a principle of our government ; it is found in our\nnational constitution. Other nations seem to be moving toward this as a\ngoal, and most of them have arrived at the stage of universal toleration\nof dissenting faiths, altho retaining an established church. But it may be\nheld that this toleration, which amounts to indifference almost, is only an\nincidental stage in the growth of civilization, and that it is not a permanent\nsettlement of the matter. It may be possible that it is necessary only\nwhile the church is divided by schism, and that it will disappear when the\nhigher degrees of enlightenment arrive and men come to see alike on\nreligious questions. At all events it is well to glance at the grounds on\nwhich is based a claim that the church and the state are each more efficient\nwhen completely separate in their functions; that religion without an\nestablished church is more spiritual, more devoted to the highest interests\nof the soul ; that the state which does not permit itself to interfere in\nreligious matters administers justice in a more efficient manner; and that\nthe school supported by the state teaches the secular branches of instruction with greater success.\nThe state is the highest of secular institutions, and its function is to\nsecure justice in such a manner that the citizen reaps the fruits of his\ndeeds. Any attack that he makes upon the welfare of his fellow-men\nshould be returned upon him by the state; and, on the other hand, he\nshould reap the fruits of his righteous* deeds. The deed that injures\nsociety is a crime, and the state sees to it that crimes are punished. As\nnearly as possible the state returns upon the criminal the symbolical\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nequivalent of his deed. If he takes life, he shall forfeit his own life; if\nhe takes property by violence or stealth, he shall be deprived of his liberty.\nWhatever attacks the bond that unites men into society shall be requited\nby deprivation of life or liberty, or loss of property by fines.\nOn the other hand, religion does not consider the external act so much\nas the inward state of the soul, the heart. While the state calls the overt\nact which attacks the bond of society a crime, the church looks behind\nthe overt act to the disposition of the soul and defines what is. opposed to\nan ideal state of holiness as sin. Sin and crime must not be confounded.\nThe crime, being an overt act, may be measured and a just penalty awarded ;\nan equivalent of the evil deed may be returned upon the doer; but sin,\nwhich may exist all the same without an overt act, cannot be measured.\nOnly sincere repentance on the part of the sinner, and utter renunciation\nof the sin and its consequences, will be forgiven. Repentance does not\nand ought not to save one from punishment of crime ; and, on the other\nhand, a finite punishment — a penance, in other words — does not and\nought not to suffice to wash away a sin and make the soul clean again.\nWe see that the categories of sin and crime indicate a very important difference in the attitude of the soul toward them. It is true that most crimes\nare to be regarded also as sins, but the state cannot take a deed into consideration for punishment except in so far as it is a crime. In the case of\nsin in the heart without overt act the department of justice cannot inflict\npunishment. It would be improper for a court to punish a disposition\nwhich had not yet become a volition.\nWe may see this more clearly if we consider what would happen if the\nchurch administered the affairs of the state. If it held firmly its standard\nof religion and looked to the disposition of the heart, it would forgive\novert acts in all cases where repentance is supposed to be sincere; and, on\nthe other hand, it would punish malignant intention even when there was\nno attempt on the part of the will to make it an overt act. This would\ndestroy justice and undermine the state; no citizen would know what to\nexpect; there would be no sure protection of person and property.\nIf, on the other hand, the church adopted the standard of justice,\nborrowing it from the state, it would destroy religion. For if the church\nwere to look only to the overt act, it would neglect the disposition of the\nheart, and give to its penances a meaning entirely unorthodox. It would\nmake its penance ct)ndone for sin, just as the penalty of the law condones\nfor crime. Corruption would come into the church, and its members\nwould be led to believe that they could make up for sin by good acts;\nthey would lose the sense of the infinitude of sin, thinking that it is only\na temporary affair which may be made up by future good conduct. If\nthe state undertook to regulate religious matters, the same confusion\nwould occur, and the interests of justice as well as those of religion would\nsuffer.\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSEPARATION\n\nOF\n\nCHURCH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n353\n\nApplying this distinction, on which the separation of the church and\nstate is based, to education in the school, we shall see that a somewhat\nsimilar confusion will arise in respect to secular knowledge as contrasted\nwith sacred doctrine. The principle of religious instruction is authority ;\nthat of secular instruction is demonstration and verification. It is obvious\nthat these two principles should not be brought into the same school, but\nseparated as widely as possible. Religious truth is revealed in allegoric\nand symbolic form, and is to be apprehended, not merely by the intellect,\nbut also by the imagination and the heart. The analytic understanding\nis necessarily hostile and skeptical in its attitude toward religious truth.\nThe pupil is taught in mathematics to love demonstration and logical\nproof, and he is taught in history to verify its sources and to submit all\ntradition to probabilities of common experience. The facts of common\nexperience dealing with the ordinary operations of causality are not\nsufficient to serve as symbols of what is spiritual. They are opaque facts\nand do not serve for symbols — symbols are facts which serve as lenses\nwith which to see divine things. On themes so elevated as religious faith\ndeals with, the habit of thinking cultivated\" in secular instruction is out of\nplace. Even the attitude of mind cultivated in secular instruction is\nunfitted for the approach to religious truth. Religious instruction should\n'be surrounded with solemnity. It should be approached with ceremonial\npreparation, so as to lift up the mind to the dignity of the lesson received.\nChristianity is, indeed, the religion of the revealed God, but there is no\nrevelation possible to the mind immersed in. trivialities and self-conceit.\nIn religious lessons wherein the divine is taught, as revealed to humanity,\nit is right that the raw, immature intellect of youth shall not be called\nupon to exercise a critical judgment; for the youth at his best cannot\ngrasp the rationality of the dogmas which contain the deepest insights of\nthe religious consciousness of the race.\nBut the advocate of the parochial school often urges, by way of\nrejoinder, his view that the secular branches ought to be taught in the\nsame manner as the catechism which teaches the dogmas of the church by\nauthority; and it is a fact that in parochial schools the influence of the\ndogmatic tone sometimes creeps into the secular recitations, and too much\nauthority in secular studies prevents the pupil from getting at the vital\npoints. He cultivates memory at the expense of thought and insight; for\nthe best teaching of the secular branches requires the utmost exercise of\nalertness and critical acuteness of the intellect. The spirit of authority\nloves dogmatic assertion and the memorizing of the exact words of the\ntext-book. It represses the investigating spirit and stifles independent\nthinking. Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry cannot be learned by authority. Geography and history can be leaned properly only by the mind\nthat carefully observes facts and verifies the statements of others. Grammar requires severe application of definitions and logical distinctions.\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe church has thru long ages learned the proper method of religious\ninstruction. It elevates sense-perception thru solemn music addressed to\nthe ear, and works of art which represent to the eye the divine self-sacrifice\nfor the salvation of man. It clothes its doctrine in the language of the\nBible — a book sacredly kept apart from other literature and held in such\nexceptional reverence that it is taken entirely out of the natural order of\nexperience. The symbolic language of the psalms, the prophets, and the\ngospels has come to possess a maximum power of suggestiveness, a mighty\ninfluence to induce what is called the religious frame of mind. The\nhighest wisdom of the race is expounded before the people of the congregation in such language and such significant acts of worship as to touch\nthe hearts of young and old with like effect.\nIn view of these differences between religious instruction and secular\ninstruction, and in view of the contrast between the spirit of the school and\nthe spirit of the church, it is clear that the school cannot successfully\nundertake religious instruction. In fact, experience goes to show that the\nschool fails to achieve success when intrusted with religious instruction ;\nand it is certain that the church becomes less efficient when it abates in\nany way the impressiveness of its ceremonial in its art and music, and in\nits use of the language of the Bible in its ritual.\nThe boarding school, whether of elementary character or of college'\ngrade, assumes in addition to the school the relation of the family to the\npupil. The principle of the family is authority like the principle of the\nchurch ; and the boarding school can, and in fact must, assume the care\nof the religious interests of the child; and the religion taught cannot be\nof the kind known as unsectarian religion ; it must be the religion of a\nparticular denomination. Unsectarian religious instruction is recommended for the schools supported by public taxes, but such unsectarian\nreligion is of a character far from satisfactory, and it is impossible to have\nany such unsectarian religion that is not regarded as sectarian by the\nmore earnest religious denominations. The reading of the Bible, the\noffering of prayers, the teaching of some simple catechism are devices\nborrowed from some particular forms of Protestantism, namely, from those\nforms which do not use the ceremonial of the church in the most impressive manner to create a spiritual sense in the pupils who are receiving\nreligious instruction.\nIn the meanwhile it is claimed by the serious-minded people who see\ngood citizenship as the foundation of what is valuable in civilization that\nthe separation of pupils in parochial schools and the division of the community into religious classes do a positive injury to the state. It is better\nfor the state to have the children of the community mingle in the common\nschool, and the barriers of religious caste should be broken down so that\na universal spirit of toleration shall come to exist. Children of all confessions should mingle in the common school and learn to know and\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSEPARATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n355\n\nto respect and love one another. This is necessary to moral education.\nThe parochial school runs the risk of creating a feeling of caste that is not\ntruly religious. There lies the possibility of fanaticism and bigotry in the\nfact of isolation which is necessary in the church, but it should not be\ncarried over into the school. There is danger of making the child think\nthat he and his family belong to the sheep, while his neighbor who\nattends a different parochial school or some public school is one of the\ngoats. If he comes to believe that God hates his neighbor, he will next\nconclude that it is wrong for him to love that neighbor. Toleration thus\nbecomes a sin. And yet the good citizen will nearly always quote approvingly the words of President Eliot, in which he claims that toleration is\nthe most precious fruit of human development in the past three hundred\nyears.\nIt is this danger which has been seen very clearly by those who wish\nto retain in the school only an \"unsectarian \" instruction in religion.\nThere are certain essential things in religion — such as the being of\nGod, his revelation of his will in the Bible — which they think all\npeople in modern civilization should desire to have made a part of\nschool instruction. The difficulty with this view, however, as I have\nalready indicated, lies in the fact that it amounts only to the setting up\nof a new religious sect and adding one more to the many denominations of religious beliefs. It is impossible to make a generalization of\nChristianity without depriving it of something that is necessary to the\nform of religion, namely, an appeal to the senses and the imagination.\nFor it is essential to the nature of religion that it shall not only be an\nabstract theological theory addressed to the highest intellect of man, but\nthat it shall also present those highest truths clothed in symbols addressed\npartly to the imagination, partly to the understanding, and wholly to the\nreligious sense.\n\nQuoting from Tennyson, one would say*:\nAnd truth embodied in a tale\nShall enter in at lowly doors.\n\nA religion is not religion if it cannot arouse the spiritual sense in\nchildren and uneducated people as well as in learned and deep-thinking\npeople. Herein lies the occasion for denominational differences among\nChristians, which arise oftener in the method of appeal to the spiritual\nc dogmas.\nte theolo,gi\nma\nti\nul\ne\nth\nw\no\nd truly said, that Christianity of all\nat\nll\nid\nn\nin\nan\nsa\nbe\nwi\nit\nth\nk\nI\nsense thsan\nl\nL\nreligion requires a subtle theology demanding the highest philosophica\ninsight as well as these other vehicles carrying the truth to the senses and\nn\nthe imaginatio in the form of a solemn ceremonial; for Christianity is\nons\nin holding that God is not a hidden God,\nalone among world-religi\nbut a revealed God whose will is known* The theoretical part of Christian theology exhibits the most striking difference between the religion\nions\nwhich are found in\nof the highest civilization and the nature-relig\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nvarious degrees of development among the lower civilizations. A general\nstatement of its view of the world in the language of philosophy rather\nthan in the language of theology will show us the impossibility of attempting an unsectarian instruction in religion in the schools supported by public\ntaxes. Religious instruction based on Christianity teaches first the nature\nof the true God as opposed to the gods of the heathen. The true God\ncreates the world of nature, not for its own sake, but for the sake of the\nhuman creatures which are to exist in and thru it. Nature is the method\nof creating and educating human souls. They are to subordinate nature\nto their uses. These souls are placed over all lower forms of existence.\nIt is their privilege and duty to recognize God as personal and as divinehuman-personal, having will and intellect. God loves men and has sent\nhis divine Son to die for humanity lost in sin and worldliness, in order\nthat men may be saved, altho not without their co-operation.\nThis doctrine of the divine human nature of the true God contains in\nit as a germ all of 'Christian civilization. All of the good things which\nform the power and the glory of civilization flow as a result from this\ndoctrine, viz.: science, the useful arts by which nature is conquered for the\nservice of man; literature, history, and philosophy — all these have a\nparticular endowment derived from the religious doctrine of Christianity;\nand you cannot successfully teach them to a people that is bound to a\nheathen creed.\nA mere nature-religion does not admit of science, free thought, and\nthe control of matter and force by machinery ; for these are the elements\nthat the heathen mind worships, or dreads with a mortal fear as evil\ndemons; and the savage man spends his whole life in trying to propitiate\nthem with ceremonies and sacrifices. Christianity was the first of all\nreligions which taught that God transcends nature, that he created it by\nthe divine Word, and that he did this for the sake of man. All time and\nspace is therefore the cradle of man, and the processes of nature exist\nfor the purpose of nurture — the nurture of individuality — individuality\nas a basis of personality; first the crystal, next the plant, next the animal,\nfinally man. God is absolute Personal Reason, desiring to share his\nindependence of thought and will with other beings whom he creates\nthru nature and raises above nature, to be immortal persons and to live in\nhis kingdom forever; not as mere beholders of the spectacle of infinite\ngrace that gives life and freedom to creatures, but to be active workers in\nthat kingdom, participators in the missionary activity that continually\nworks in the universe to make over the evil into good, and the good into\nthe better.\nAccording to this .doctrine, God is love and grace, and the nearest'\napproach to the divine life that man can make is to be filled with the\nmissionary spirit — the spirit that strives with all its might to aid others to\nsee the light and persuade them to become active in helping their fellows.\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSEPARATION\n\nOF\n\nCHURCH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n357\n\nThis theological doctrine is the beginning of religion in its truest\nand highest sense, as Christ taught it, and as all denominations of Christians agree in professing it, however much they disagree in the manner of\ncelebrating it by ecclesiastical ceremonies — i. e., forms of worship — and\nhowever much they differ as to claims of authority or as to application\nof this doctrine to human life existing on the earth or in other worlds in\nspace.\nIn nature-religions — religions that conceive the divine to be some\nform of being in time and space — superstition has had and must have so\nlarge a sway in the human soul as to make impossible the free development of science and the invention of arts which are needed to conquer\nnature. Only with the advent of a doctrine that nature is not a god nor\na demon, nor a collection of demons, but only a vast process of creating\nand nurturing individuality — only with the arrival of this view of nature,\nthis theory of the world as a theological doctrine, science and free thought\nbecome possible.\nWith the doctrine of the transcendence of the human soul, its separation from nature even while in the body, and in its immortal individual\nand social life beyond the grave, man attains a free attitude toward nature\nand may explore it, not only without fear, but with a confidence that it\nought to be made of service to man in every one of its processes. Human\ninvention may freely discover combinations thru which the elemental\nforces — wind, water, fire, electricity, and gravitation — may be harnessed\nfor the use of man — nay, even for his comfort and for his amusement ;\nthat is to say, for his bodily wants of food, clothing, shelter, and recreation ;for his bodily wants as well as for his spiritual wants, such as intercom unication ofall men with all men, sharing in all experience of life,\nsharing in all discoveries in science, in the use of all discoveries and\ninventions — sharing in all insights into the divine conduct of the world\nor into the ultimate ends of nature and man, participating in all the great\ndeeds that tend to benefit the race.\nSuperstition sets up on all hands some opposing powers in nature of a\ndemonic sort that are jealous of man's dominion, and revengeful against\nhis intrusion into their realms by scientific investigations or by mechanical\ninventions.\nIt took long centuries to arrive, under Christianity, at the stage of conviction and insight which dispossessed nature of its demons, and reached\nthe doctrine of a divine Reason acting thru beneficial laws. The earlier\nview was that of a divine power which could manifest its transcendence\nover nature only by occasional arbitrary interventions that set aside those\nbeneficent laws. The opposition to science on the part of the superstition which is inseparable from nature-i^ligions took a new form in the\nHebrew religion, the religion of the Old Testament. The great doctrine\nof God's transcendence, on which depends man's freedom and immortal-\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nity, was revealed first in the form of miraculous interference with the course\nof nature. God in the Old Testament was seen, not so much as a Providence creating and nurturing individuality into freedom and responsibility thru nature, as a God manifesting his independence of the world\nand of its laws by interference for occasional reasons with the order of\nnature. Hence, too, death, and its causes thru pestilence, famine, floods,\nstorms, conflagrations, accidents by sea and land, have been dwelt upon\nin the past by religious teachers with more emphasis as revelations of\ndivine power than the far deeper revelation of the divine in nature as\ncreative and nurturing power. The Son of God as the divine archetype\nof the missionary spirit in the church has been preached from the day of\nPentecost, but it has not been so fully realized in thought as have those\nother important dogmas of sin and redemption, and the transcendence\nover nature, until the advent of modern natural science with its doctrine\nof evolution. It is ail-inclusively stated in the doctrine of the Trinity,\nwhich especially names the work of the Logos as that of creation and\nsalvation.\nThe bare enumeration of Christian doctrines in language partly secular is sufficient to show the impossibility of their introduction into the\ncurriculum of schools supported by public taxes. The necessity of considering the rights of conscience of all citizens alike in the state schools\nrenders it impossible to bring in religious ceremonial or teach doctrines\nthat are distinctively religious. An undenominational religion is not to be\nfound. Even the doctrine of the existence of God implies a specific conception of him, and the conception of the divine varies from that of the\nfinite deities of animism to the infinite deity of East Indian pantheism\nand the holy Bible. It varies from the pantheistic Brahma, whose concept\nis that of negation of all attributes, to the Jehovah of the Bible, who is\nself-determined and personal, but elevated entirely above nature. Mere\ndeism is opposed to all of the creeds of Christendom. When we come to\nteaching a live religion in the schools, we see that it must take a denominational form, and, moreover, it must take on the form of authority, and\naddress itself to the religious sense and not to the mere intellect. All the\nstudies of the school, addressed as they are to the intellect, are opposed\nto the healthful action of the religious sense. We are forced, therefore,\nto conclude that the proper place for instruction in religion is the church.\nOnly as propounded from the sacred desk and clothed in the consecrated\ntext of the Bible can the dogmas of Christianity be made to edify the\npeople of the congregation, young and old alike.\nReligion has two elements, worship and sacrifice. Worship is the\naction of the intellect and emotion, and sacrifice is the action of the will.\nThe church provides for both of these things, and for ages it has been at\nwork elaborating its means of instruction. The church pedagogy is far\nmore difficult than the pedagogy of the schools, because it has been\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSEPARATION\n\nOF\n\nCHURCH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n359\n\nobliged to take most pains with the instruction of the senses and the\nimagination, while the school has done little in this respect. The church\nhas been obliged to educate the senses into a habit of interpreting its\nimpressions symbolically. In the act of perceiving the sensuous objects\nof religion the mind is trained into neglecting the particular concrete\nmeaning of what is before it, and preferring- in its place a symbolic or\nallegoric interpretation, putting a spiritual reality in the place of a\nmaterial reality. The things of sense are subordinated, and the realities\nof the spiritual world are made to take their place ; and one cannot lay\ntoo great stress on the part which the archaic style and figurative modes\nof expression of the Bible have in appealing directly to the spiritual\nsense.\nIt is difficult for most people to comprehend how important the isolation of the Bible from all other books, and the consecration of it as a.\ndivine book that has come to us direct from God and not thru the authorship of man, is to the effectiveness of religious instruction. If the higher\ncriticism should destroy entirely the theory of the special inspiration of\nthe Bible and make it like other ancient literature, so long as it was not\nread much in the way that a secular book is read and studied, the language\nof the Scriptures would retain its peculiar force as addressed to the\nspiritual sense — a force which no other literature possesses or is likely to\npossess, for these Scriptures were written by people in whom the spiritual\nsense was more pronounced than in any other people among the nations\nof mankind. Just as the Roman mind was sharpened to observe and\nrecord the ordinances by which the individual will can embarrass or\nreinforce the will of the state, and thereby was enabled to contribute the\npriceless gift of Roman law to future civilizations; and just as the Greek\nmind discovered the aesthetic forms, which constitute what may be called\nthe piety of the senses — the discovery of gracefulness as the perfect\nrevelation of the beautiful — in the art of sculpture; and, on the other\nhand, in poetry discovered how to use the forms of all nature as tropes\nand images of the mind, and in the later or prosaic form of philosophy\nthe Greek mind discovers the scientific point of view — so the Hebrew\nmind seizes the transcendent cause, self-subsistent, omnipotent, and\nomniscient as the absolute being — divine-human in the sense that the\ndivine personality, having will and intellect and affections, creates the\nhuman being with intelligence and will and affections, and with the high\nprivilege of communication with God. In the course of its long centuries\nof checkered experience the Hebrew mind elaborates and ripens its\nspiritual theory and unfolds the doctrine of a messiahship, which in the\nfullness of time becomes the Logos doctrine as the theory of a second\ndivine person, and the doctrine of the Holy Spirit as a third divine\npersonality, an institutional personality which presides over the infinite\ninvisible church.\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "360 .\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWe may thus get a partial glimpse into the significance of the Bible as\nan instrument of religious education ; but it is in the nature of things\nthat what is symbolic has not merely two meanings, the one literal and\nthe other symbolic, but there is an infinite series of meanings possible\nto each symbol ; and it requires, therefore, the authoritative interpretation\nof the church to settle the orthodox meaning. The spiritual sense is otherworldly, and when its insights are translated into what is secular it may\nbe made to contravene the moral world-order; and this has happened in\na myriad cases.\nWe must conclude, therefore, that the prerogative of religious instruction is in the church, that it must remain in the church, and that, in the\nnature of things, it cannot be farmed out to the secular school without\ndegenerating into mere deism bereft of a living Providence, or else\nchanging the school into a parochial school and destroying the efficiency\nof secular instruction.\nThe church ceremonial that is the most elaborate will suffer least injury\nfrom the disenchantment produced by the higher criticism of the Scriptures\nand by the mechanical and atheistic interpretation of scientific discoveries.\nThe great hymns of the church, such as the Dies Irae, the Stabat Mater, and\nthe entire galaxy of Latin hymns which express all the phases of Christian\nfeeling and thought and will, rendered by fitting music that is religious to\nthe core, furnish a perennial vehicle for religious instruction. One is thankful to remember that religious music of the highest order is in process of\ncomposition in our time, altho painting and sculpture have not discovered\nhow to retain religion in the realistic forms of art. Music and poetry\nyield themselves to religion ; and the highest poetry and music have done\nthis for hundreds of years. The true aesthetic is the vestibule and forecourt of religion. One feels sure that the church must not relax whatever\nof strict theological teaching it has in operation, and its theological\nseminaries must recover from the blighting effect of Kant's Third\nAntinomy. And I for one must think that those denominations which\nhave least ceremonial should consider carefully the use and function of\nceremonial, such as it is and has existed, in reaching the spiritual sense\nthru its transformation of imagination and sense-perception. Above all,\nthe church management must not rest in security on the belief that the\ntime is coming when it may safely rely on an unsectarian instruction in\nthe elementary schools for the spread of true religion, nor rely upon the\nre-establishment of parochial schools in place of free schools under\ngovernment control and supported by public taxes.\nDISCUSSION\nNathan C. ScHAEFFER.— The value of Bible-reading depends upon the spirit in\nwhich the book is read. I have seen instances in which the irreverence of teacher and\npupils made the opening exercises worse than a farce.\n\nIn such instances I sympathize\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSEPARATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n3^1\n\nand agree with Dr. Harris that it were better to separate the methods of the Sunday school\nfrom those of the public school. On the other hand, a favorite word of Jesus is the word\n\"truth.\" \"Truth\" is a word of the intellect, and a teacher who is continually using this\nword as Jesus did certainly does not demand the sacrifice of intellect which Dr. Harris\nseems to demand in his paper. The methods of arriving at truth in the domain of science\nand philosophy need not be cast aside when we take up the study of the Bible and give\nreligious instruction.\nJ. W. Carr. — I wish to express a faith rather than to submit a plan — a faith in the\npossibility and the practicability of religious instruction being given in the public schools\nwithout reasonable ground of offense to anyone. I believe that the public schools are\ntoo great an enginery not to be used by God for the promotion and extension of his\nkingdom.\nI am as much opposed to the teaching of dogmatic theology of any kind in the public\nschools as Dr. Harris or anyone else. 1 believe that even an attempt to introduce such\nreligious teaching in the schools would be hazardous, if not disastrous. The public school\ncan never take the place of the church and the home in giving religious training, but I\nbelieve it can and should supplement both in the religious training of children. There is\nno time for elaboration, yet I believe that the following fundamental religious truths should\nbe taught in every public school: (i) the belief in God as the Creator and Ruler of the\nuniverse; (2) the brotherhood of man; (3) the dignity and value of life; (4) the moral\norder of the universe. Children should be taught even in the public school that there is\nmoral order in this world, and that all rational beings are held responsible for their\ndeeds. However secret may be the act, be assured \"our sins will find us out,\" and that\n\"even-handed justice will commend the ingredients of our poisoned chalice to our own\nlips.\"I had hoped, Mr. President, that Dr. Harris would have given the weight of his great\nname to help on what I believe is destined to be the greatest movement in education of\nthe last half -century — the introduction of a workable form of religious instruction in the\npublic schools. But if I understand his paper aright — and I hope I do not — he would\ncompletely divorce the public schools from all religious instruction. Nevertheless, it seems\nto me to be our plain duty as teachers to use our influence to secure the religious as well\nas the intellectual development of the children intrusted to our care. Public education\nmust be Christian, not pagan.\nMiss Lucia Stickney. — It is possible to accept all that Dr. Harris has said and yet\nfeel a keen disappointment at what he has left unsaid ; for the impression that he seems\nto leave with us is that we are not responsible for any definite religious teacfiing in the\nschoolroom. I believe there is such a responsibility resting upon us, which we are too\nprone to forget. Dr. Pace has made an appeal in behalf of the boys and girls who are\ndestitute of any religious instruction in church or home. I wish to plead for those who\nhear the Word, but are in danger of doubting its authority, because of the careless or\nstudied- negligence of the teacher to recognize the value and importance of the church\nservice and the Sunday-school lesson. The text for a sermon comes often to the watchful\nteacher, and the attention is arrested by the utterance of religious truth in the schoolroom\nwhich delivered in its accustomed place would pass unnoticed. The letters I. H. S. on\nthe cookies which Dolly Winthrop carried to Silas Marner call for an explanation. I am\nregularly told by some child of the Catholic church that they stand for \"I have suffered.\"\nCorrect the mistake by a reverent explanation of the Latin words, Jesu Salvator\nHominum, and unawares the gospel has been preached. It is but natural when we come\nto the song of the little maid in Launcelot and Elaine, \" Too late — ye cannot enter now,\"\nto call upon some one who goes to Sunday school for the parable of the Wise and Foolish\nVirgins in such a way as to imply that the lessons learned there are to be remembered and\ncherished for weekday use. Hamlet is a story of the struggle of a soul under the conflict-\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "3^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ning influences of Norse paganism and Christianity, a struggle evidently going on in the\nsoul of Shakespeare while he was living the great drama that he wrote. The metaphysical problems that Hamlet presents to the mature scholar are beyond the reach of our\npupils, but this lesson they grasp at and never forget. Many of us, it is likely, are unfamiliar with the details of the creation as it is told in Genesis; but after the Greek and\nNorse myths of the creation have been studied, the effect of reading in the class the first\nchapter, with an outline hastily sketched upon the board, is thrilling. Its majesty and\nsimplicity, when compared with those other accounts, impress the children with such\npower that they cannot forget them.\nWe must remember that the school is not neutral in regard to religious influence.\nThe careless and frivolous allusions to church and creed and minister, which often find\nexpression on the school platform in such a way as to imply a sneer, need to be counteracted in the class-room by the earnest teacher. The restrictions and prohibitions with\nregard to religious instruction are so much emphasized with many of us that we are\nto forget our opportunity or think we have it not. Yet under all these restrictions it is\nlikely our right and privilege to indorse and enforce the religious teaching of Catholic,\nProtestant, and Jew in such a way as to show our sympathy with the best in the creeds\nof all.\nJames M. Greenwood. — There are certain fundamental ideas which enter into the\ndiscussion of this subject which lie at the foundation of our form of government. When\nthe colonists came from Europe to America, they were entirely familiar with the religious\nquestions which had involved the different countries of Europe in bloody and expensive\nwars. The colonists came to Massachusetts, to New York, to Virginia, to South Carolina, as\nwell as to Maryland, with deep and settled convictions. They believed that the governments founded in America should recognize the entire separation of church and state, and\nthis conception was so strongly fixed in the minds of our forefathers that they did not\nbelieve in state religion.\nIt is a cardinal doctrine held in this country that true religion flourishes best when it\nis left to individual effort. For instance, in nearly all of the newer states of the American\nUnion, the constitutions contain an express provision that no public money shall be\nappropriated for the support or maintenance of any sectarian or denominational school ;\nand this is as it should be.\nI believe that the position of entire separation of church and state is the correct one,\nbecause if we admit that the state and church in this country should be united, with our\nfreedom of speech and liberality of opinions, it would be only a short time until great\ncomplications would arise. There are so many great religions in the world, it would be\nonly a short time until we should have to get a council to decide what particular religion\nshould be selected for our people to practice.\nI freely admit that the instruction the children received a generation or two ago from\nBible literature has been greatly weakened of recent years. Formerly the parents and\ngrandparents told the little children the stories of the Bible, and then our reading books\nalso contained many extracts — both from the Old and New Testament Scriptures. But\nthese extracts have been largely eliminated from all our modern readers. The children\nwho attend Sunday school are turned over frequently to young and inexperienced Sunday\nschool teachers, so that they receive little instruction of any value. In fact, the average\nSunday-school class, as conducted, is about the poorest makeshift in the matter of\ninstruction and discipline that I have ever witnessed.\nIn my opinion it is sound statesmanship to maintain with firmness and decision the\nplan our forefathers outlined in all matters of religion. Let the parents look well to the\nreligious instruction of their children in Bible history, and teach them those lessons which\nthey ought to know. Bible literature is of a higher spiritual order than the literature of\nGreece and Rome, and more of it should be put into our reading books.\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSEPARATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n3^3\n\nWith the proper teaching at home, in the church, and in the Sunday school, supplemented bythe great truths of morality inculcated in our public schools by our teachers,\nthe religious training of the young will not suffer.\nCarroll G. Pearse. — The scene here this morning has made a great impression\nupon me. The interest displayed has been intense, and, during much of this discussion,\nmany of the members of this Council, and of devout women not a few who have come\nin to hear the proceedings, have been standing all about in the back part of the hall,\nleaning forward to catch every word of the papers and the discussion upon them. As I\nhave watched the scene I have wondered if we have not let the Boston atmosphere,\ncharged as it has been for centuries with intenseness of religious interest and controversy,\nget into our heads a little ; if we have not been somewhat influenced by the spirit of\nthe environment.\nIn that beautiful literature which has been referred to by more than one speaker this\nmorning, the literature of the Hebrews, there is an account of a goat which, upon a stated\noccasion, was led to the edge of the wilderness, and, before he departed into loneliness\nand solitude, had laid upon him the sins and burdens of the whole people. I have\nwondered if this move for religious teaching in the schools, if successful, would not result\nin making more perfect the likeness between the Hebrew scapegoat and the modern\npublic-school system.\nThis system has now laid upon it the intellectual instruction of the children of the\nland. We begin to fear that the schools must bear the burden of their instruction in\nmorals and manners. I am certain, so far at least as town children are concerned, that\nupon the schools must be laid the burden of the physical education of the children as well\nas the education of that side of their natures which proper hand eniployment alone can\ngive. All these may, perhaps, legitimately be laid upon the schools, since they have to\ndo with the life of today — the temporal, material, life of here and now; but are we to\nhave added to these the burden of responsibility for instruction in the things of the soul\n— that side of life which has to do with the future, the hereafter ? I fear the home and the\nchurch abdicate too much when they desire to divest themselves of this responsibility for\nreligious education and to lay it upon the public schools.\nAnother point should be considered also. We have in the schools children from\nhomes where every kind of religious belief exists, and from homes where no religious\nfaith is found ; We have in the schools teachers of every shade of religious faith and\nunfaith. What religious teaching shall these be required to give ? Shall it be that which\nyou approve, or shall it be that which I approve ? Shall the teacher who professes no\nbelief in any religion be asked to teach, in the public schools, some religion in which she\nhas no belief ?\nHave we not been swayed, some of us, in this discussion, by our general altruistic\nwish that all children might enjoy the benefit of religious training ? Have we not, seeing\nin the public schools an engine ready-made to our hands and of such potentiality, rather\nimpulsively cried, \"Let us use this great institution to teach these children the religious\ntruths which most of us believe ? \"\nRev. Edward A. Pace. — From the interesting discussion, in the course of which so\nmany aspects of this subject have been presented, it seems clear that, on one hand, the\nneed of religious education in some form is recognized, and that, on the other hand, our\ndifferences of religious belief and our political philosophy stand in the way of teaching\nreligion in the public school. It is well that these difficulties should be frankly stated and\nfully realized. But it would be neither logical ^or in keeping with our national character\nto regard them as insuperable. • If religious education is a vital element in the development of the moral life, sind if morality is the root of healthy political growth, a way must\nbe found to get rid of the difficulties, whatever be their source.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn other countries whose educational system is certainly not inferior to our own this\nproblem has been brought to a happy solution. In our own country far more difficult\nproblems have been settled. It may be that just now this question of religious education\nis the hardest with which we have to deal. It is also possible that by postponing it, or by\nfinally setting it aside as hopeless, we are simply clearing the ground for problems, or\nrather for very definite movements, the results of which will leave us little of our political\nphilosophy and less of our social organization.\nP'or my part, I prefer to believe that the common-sense and the energy of the\nAmerican people will keep them steadily at work on this important issue ; and I am\ntherefore free t6 say, at the close of this meeting, that the outlook for religious education\nis more hopeful now that we have made some beginning of a calmer discussion on the\nlarge basis of our national welfare.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "fIDemorial a&bre^ee?\n3» %. /ID- Currp\nBY\n\nEDWIN\n\nA.\n\nALDERMAN,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nTULANE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nJabez Lamar Munroe Curry was born in Lincoln county, Ga., on June\n5, 1825, and died in Asheville, N. C, on February 12, 1903. This long\nlife was a purposeful life, rich in experience of men and governments, and\nfull of devotion, of service, of struggle and achievement. There was never\na pause in its unceasing, virile activities, and when the end came I know of\nno man of whom it could be more truthfully said that he had drunk honorable life to its lees. Dr. Curry had been a soldier in two wars, a maker of\nlaws in state and nation, a teacher and preacher, a writer of useful books,\ntwice a representative of his government at the court of Spain, and a\nstatesman of that truest sort whose faith in the perfectibility of men was\nunfailing, and whose ambition was to give to all men a chance to inherit\nthe power, the beauty, and the richness of life.\nThe intense, rich life of Dr. Curry covered an equally rich period of\nhis country's history. Thomas\n\nJefferson was still alive when he entered\n\nthe world. The scene of his. youthful activity was* the isolated lower\nSouth ; for, tho born in Georgia, Alabama was the state which he served\nfrom his entrance into the Alabama legislature in 1847 ^o ^js presidency\nof Howard College in 1868. He was well born and well educated, and he\ninherited a certain distinction of manner and presence that commended\nhim well to the genius of his age and region. His young manhood was\npassed amid the storm of a great argument, made necessary by the silence\nand indecision of the constitution as to the nature of this Union. To our\nminds, cleared of the hot temper of the time, that age seems an unhappy,\ngroping age ; but it was a good age in which to be born, for men were in\nearnest about deep, vital things. It was, indeed, an age of passion, but of\npassion based on principles and enthusiasm and deep loyalties. The cynic,\nthe political idler, the self-seeker, fled before these fiery-eyed men who\nwere probing into governmental theories and constitutional interpretations, and who counted their ideas as of more value than their lives. The\ntime had its obvious faults, and was doomed to fall before the Avatar of\nprogress; but there lived in it beauty and force, and a great central note\nof exaltation of personality above social progress. Around the fireside the\ntalk did not fall so much upon the kind of man who forms the syndicate or\ncorners the stock market, or who wagtfs the warfare of trade around the\nworld, but, rather, simple, old questions were asked which might have been\n365\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nasked in the Homeric age : Is he free from sordidness or stain ? Has he\nborne himself bravely in battle? Has he suffered somewhere with courage and dignity ? Has he kept faith with ideals ?\nDr. Curry had reached his prime when the great drama, fate-driven\nand fate-deterhiined, passed from argument into war, and he himself,\ncaught in the grip of that same fate, notwithstanding all his gentleness\nand tenderness, played the part of a man and a soldier. He had reached\nthe heights of middle age when the storm had passed and pain and\ndespair had smitten so many souls. What is there for a strong man to\ndo — a man of heart and courage, with a spirit unspoiled by hate or\nbitter memories, with a purpose unshaken by any doubt? This was the\ngreat interrogatory that faced him in the silence of his soul. There could\nbe no bickerings for such men as he. There could be no crude racial\nscorn, no pettiness, no puerile obstinacy. His passion was for constructiveness. His supreme genius was for adaptability to environment. He\nsaw his task lying before him like a sunlit road that stretches straight\nbefore the traveler's feet. He was to walk in that path for all his remaining days. The quality of his mind, the sum of his gifts and graces, the\nideals of contemporary civilization suggested forensic preferment, but no\nconsideration of fortune or of self could swerve him from his course.\nThe quiet man at Lexington who had borne the greatest burden of all\nsaw the same vision that appeared to Curry. It was a vision of many\nmillions of children standing impoverished and untaught amid new\nduties, new occasions, new needs ; appealing to the grown-up strength\nof their generation to know why they should not have a country to love,\nan age to serve, a work to do, and training for that work. The vision\nwas life — unconquered, tumultuous, renewing, regenerative young life.\nThe elders had had their day. Here stood undefeated youth asking a\nchance to live worthily in its world and time. George Peabody away\noff in Massachusetts saw the same, vision. It did not matter to him\nthat these youths were the sons of men who had been enemies to his\ncause. It did matter to him that youth which the nation needed was\nspringing up untrained ; and, rising clear above small passions, he poured\nhis great fortune into the stricken states. Our amazing democracy has\nnothing finer to show than the spectacle of these three men acting thus\nlargely in a time of national passion and headiness.\nThe general agency of the Peabody and Slater Boards came to Dr.\nCurry in 1881 as the opportunity of his life, and his last years were to be\nyears of splendid youth wherein he was able to work resolutely for high\nnational ends. The task that confronted him, in its larger lines, was to\ndemocratize the point of view of an aristocratic society, to re-nationalize\nits ideals and its impulses, to preach the gospel of national unity to both\nsections, to stimulate the habit of community effort for public ends, to\nincarnate in young men the ideal of social service, and to set the public\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIlSr MEMORIAM\n\nJ. L. M. CURRY\n\n367\n\nschool, in its proper correlation to all other educational agencies, in the\nfront of the public mind as the chief concern of educational statesmanship. His task, in its more technical aspect, was to reveal the public\nschool as it should be — actually at work in a democratic form of society,\nwith all of its necessities, with trained and cultured teachers, varied curricula, industrial training, and worthy surroundings. From 1881 to 1895\nhis work was to be a battle for public opinion. Slowly that public\nopinion got born, and many earnest men gathered around this splendid\npower, and under its influence young scholars had their creative instincts\nawakened and public men felt its stirrings in the air. Above it all and\nenergizing it all stood this genuinely gifted man — I had thought to say\nold man, but there was never any suggestion of age about Dr. Curry. He\nmet youth on its own grounds and asked no odds. As the things of sense\nfaded from his sight, there was vouchsafed to him that supremest good of\nlife — an honest bit of creative work well done and bearing fruit.\nAt the beginning of his work not a single southern state had a system\nof free public scljools. At his death there existed in every one of the\nsouthern states a system of public schools more or less complete, and a\nwonderful activity in university, normal, technical, and industrial education. And, greater than all this, a generous and triumphant public sentiment had been aroused that will never stop short of efficiency and\nperfection. It was given to him to see southern governors from Montagu\nto Heard turned into educational statesmen, and to behold the best brain\nand heart of the North and the South united in a common and intelligent\npurpose, to get at this great task rightly and heartily.\nHis was the first voice to declare that the strategic point of this whole\nbattle was the untaught white man and his child. He was among the first\nto declare that there was no place for a helot in our system, and that the\nnegro should be properly trained for life in the republic. He was among\nthe first to urge common-sense as against sentimentality in the education\nof the negro. He caused the world to know something of the courage\nand patience and self-reliance of the southern struggle for self-realization, and he made the world believe that there was strength and purpose\nenough in this people to solve their own problems with justice and wisdom. In the discharge of all these duties of the pioneer and propagandist no man who has lived in America since Horace Mann has shown\nsuch energy and enthusiasm as J, L. M. Curry.\nPersonally, Dr. Curry was a man to enjoy and to love. He had the\ngrand manner and the social instincts of the old order. He moved in a\nfine, lordly way among his fellows. But at his heart he was a democrat\nto the core, and an individualist in tl\\f structure of his mind, and in his\nsublime belief in the unfailing rectitude of public impulse. He had the\ngenius for giving himself out, and the equipment of intellect and temperament necessary for his many-sided duties.\nIt did not matter to him\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhether he spoke before this learned body or in some little country\nvillage — he was all there, heart and soul. The real genius of the man,\nas I have said, was for adaptability to his time, and for sympathy and\nservice on the. side of its better forces.\nThe most vivid characteristic of the man was his intense and complete\nAmericanism. He had believed in his youth in the ethics, at least, of\nsecession. He did not change that belief in his old age. Calhoun was\nsecond only to Aristotle in his regard; and yet I have never seen a man\nto whom the flag made such an appeal, or to whom the great unrended\nnation was so dear.\nThe unforgettable service of J. L. M. Curry was the development of\nan irresistible public opinion for the education of all the people in the\nsouthern states. The great lesson of his life is the joyous fruitfulness of\nunselfish striving for high impersonal aims.\nHis fame is secure, for it is the persistent fame of the teacher and\nreformer. Is it not our task — the task of the living — to press forward\nwith patience and quiet resolve not to be deterred, not to despair nor\nfret nor doubt? Surely this work we are in is the nation's work, and this\nnation is a great spiritual adventure, worth living for and working for, as\nwell as dying for.\n\nTimiUiam /iDtller 3Beart)0beat\nBY\n\nHOMER\n\nH.\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nCEDAR\nRAPIDS,\n\nTHE\nlA.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWilliam Miller Beardshear was of Scotch-Welsh ancestry. He was\nborn at Dayton, O., November 7, 1850, and died at Ames. la., August 5,\n1902. He received his elementary education in the public schools of\nOhio. At the age of fourteen he enlisted as a private in the volunteer\nservice of the United States army and served until the close of the war in\nthe One Hundred and Eighty-fourth Ohio Infantry, which was assigned to\nthe Fourth Army Corps, Army of the Cumberland. At the close of the war\nhe turned his attention to securing an education, and graduated from the\nclassical course at Otterbein University in 1876. He was given the M.A.\ndegree in 1879 ^^^^ ^^^ LL.D. degree in 1885. I\" his early manhood he\nwas drawn very strongly to the ministry. He attended the Theological\nSeminary of Yale University for two ye^rs, accepting finally a pastorate\nin Ohio. But his cai;eer was to be educational rather than ministerial,\nand in 1881 he was called to the presidency of Western College, at\nToledo, la. This was an institution that had been located originally at\nWestern, la., but the changes brought by railroads necessitated a change\nin location, and Toledo was selected.\nGreat results came at once in the progress and development of the\ncollege under the able administration of the new president.\nFor eight\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council 1\n\nIN MEMORIAM\n\nEMERSON\n\nELBRIDGE\n\nWHITE\n\n369\n\nyears he was active in getting the endowment and the building funds\nnecessary to take care of the rapidly growing college, but at the same\ntime he gave equivalent attention to securing a competent faculty, excellent equipment, and a large attendance of promising students. At the\nclose of the eight years he was so well known and appreciated that he was\ncalled to the city superintendency of the West Des Moines public schools,\nthe most important public-school work in Iowa. Here he remained for\ntwo years, the honored and admired leader of a large and successful corps\nof superior workers in elementary and secondary education.\nIn 1 89 1 he was elected president of the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, at Ames, la. At once he put his time,\nstrength, and judgment into the service of the state to advance the interests of industrial education, and in a decade accomplished such great\nresults that the college at Ames is known at home and abroad as one of\nthe most progressive and successful institutions of its kind in the United\nStates.\nHe was always active in every line that contributed to the development and the advancement of public interests. His influence was recognized in Iowa by his being given every prominent official position in the\nIowa State Teachers* Association, being president in 1894. He was also\nactive in* the National Educational Association, being director for Iowa\nand state manager for a number of years, and also being for one\nyear president of the Department of Manual .Training. He became\nPresident of the National Educational Association for 1902-3, but was\nnot permitted to preside at a single session, his last illness beginning at\nMinneapolis the evening before the opening session.\nAs an institute worker among teachers and farmers he enjoyed special\npopularity, giving many public lectures and addresses. He was recognized by President McKinley, who appointed him one of the Indian\ncommissioners. His entire career was noted for its rapid progress and\nefficiency. His funeral occurred on the campus at the State College at\nAmes, being largely attended by prominent officials, educators, and people\nof Iowa. His last resting-place is in the college cemetery, where a monument will be erected to commemorate his public services, his private\ncharacter, and his noble life.\n\nBmerson 3£lbrt^ae Wbtte\nBY\n\nE.\n\nW.\n\nCOY,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nHUGHES\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCINCINNATI,\n\nO.\n\nEmerson Elbridge White was one of a notable group of Ohio men\nwho in their day were a recognized power in the educational affairs of\ntheir state and of the nation. Among them niay be mentioned Andrew\nJ. Rickoff, John Hancock, Eli T. Tappan, Israel W. Andrews, W. D.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nHenkle, and R A. Hinsdale. He was contemporary with these men,\nlabored with them in the cause of education, and lived to see them all pass\noff the stage of action.\nDr. White was born in the little town of Mantua, in northeastern\nOhio, January lo, 1829, and died after a few weeks' illness, at his home\nin Columbus, O., October 21, 1902, in his seventy-fourth year. He was\npresent at the meeting of this Association last summer in Minneapolis,\nand took an active part, as usual, in the proceedings. In the memorial\nexercises before this Council he paid his tribute to Colonel Parker and\nDr. C. C. Rounds, deceased during the year, with even more than his\ncustomary feeling and eloquence. He spent the summer, as had been his\nwont for several years, in lecturing before teachers' institutes, and\nreturned to his home in September with a feeling of exhaustion from his\nlabors. Rest failed to bring relief, and his ailment soon developed into\nthe malady that terminated fatally.\nDr. White's early education was obtained in a country school, in\nTwinsburg Academy, not far from his home, a famous school in those\ndays, and in what was then known as Cleveland University. A part of the\ntime he was both student and teacher in the same school. After serving\nfor a time as principal' of Mt. Union Academy, he was appointed to take\ncharge of one of the Cleveland grammar* schools. He showed such efficiency here that he was promoted to the principalship of the Central\nHigh School of that city. In 1856, at the age of twenty-seven, he resigned\nthis position to accept the superintendency of the schools of Portsmouth,\nO. He remained here five years, and in 186 1 removed to Columbus, and\npurchased the Ohio Educational Monthly, of which he was editor and proprietor for more than thirteen years. It was in this period that he served\nfor three years as state school commissioner. While holding this important office he was instrumental in securing many modifications and\nimprovements in the school laws of the state.\nJust after the close of the Civil War he was a candidate for Congress\non the Republican ticket for the Columbus district, but was defeated by a\nsmall majority.\nIn 1876 he was chosen president of Purdue University, Lafayette,\nInd., an institution for mechanical and technical training, where he rendered efficient service for the following seven years, when he resigned and\ntook up his residence in Cincinnati. During the few years in which he\nheld no public office he was engaged in lecturing, in general literary\nwork, and especially in the preparation of his series of text-books.\nIn 1887 he was called to the superintendency of the Cincinnati schools,\nwhich position he held for a term of three years. This was a field of labor\nfor which he was eminently fitted, and he came to the office admirably\nequipped for its duties. He rendered most valuable service to the schools\nof the city, winning the friendship and esteem of the teachers in an\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN- MEMOR/AM\n\nEME/^SON\n\nELBA'/DGE\n\nWHITE\n\n37 I\n\nunusual degree and the respect of all with whom he came in contact. He\nwas a thoughtful and sympathetic counselor, always generous and just in\nhis judgment of those under his supervision. Under his administration\nthe morale of the teaching force was improved and the methods of the\nschoolroom rendered more rational. His retirement from the superintendency was deeply regretted by all who had at heart the best interests\nof the schools of Cincinnati.\nSoon after the close of his term of service as superintendent of the\nCincinnati schools he removed to Columbus, where he continued to reside\nuntil the time of his death. Tho occupying no public position, he abated\nnot a jot his interest in everything relating to education. While he still\nspent a part of every year in lecturing to teachers, the greater part of his\ntime was occupied in preparing for the press his educational publications.\nIt was during these years that the following volumes of his works\nappeared : Elements of Pedagogy, School Management, Elements of Geometry, and The Art of Teaching.\nHis active life covered a period of more than fifty-five years — years\nfilled with efficient service as teacher, city superintendent, state superintendent, college president, editor, lecturer, and author. In whatever\nposition he held he bore himself with a dignity, a courtesy, and a\nstraightforward honesty of purpose that command respect and admiration.\nHis life was a busy one. He was a man of profound convictions that did\nnot allow him to rest. But he had no disposition to be the leader of an\neducational crusade. He was ill fitted by nature for such a task. He was\nnot a fanatical, root-and-branch reformer, so called, nor a stolid, immovable conservative. He chose rather that middle course which, while less\npicturesque, is not only the safest but the surest to lead to wholesome and\nabiding results. He was wise enough to see that some of the revolutionary ideas in education which, in the last twenty-five years of his life, found\nso many zealous advocates, were visionary and ephemeral. His works on\neducation, however, furnish evidence that he was wisely progressive, and\nwas always ready to accept whatever innovation commended itself to\nsound judgment.\nHis writings are characterized by clearness, force, and directness —\nqualities that have commended them to the members of the teaching profession. They have been widely read and have exerted a healthy influence wherever they are known.\nAs a public speaker Dr. White had few superiors in the profession.\nHis tall, erect figure, his dignified demeanor, and his graceful manner\nlent added force and attractiveness to his message. He spoke because he\nhad something to say, and he said it in a way that was calculated to carry\nconviction. He was a welcome speaker at educational gatherings, and\nprobably no man in the country ever met and addressed as many teachers\nas did Dr. White.\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "372\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn the associations of teachers, state and national, he was a conspicuous figure. He was regular in his attendance upon these meetings, and\ntook a prominent part in their deliberations. He received due recognition from them in the honors that were conferred upon him. He served\nas president of th6 Ohio State Association, of the National Educational\nAssociation, of the Department of Superintendence, and of this Council.\nHe was one of the founders of the National Council of Education, and\nwas one of the earliest and foremost advocates of the establish-ment of the\nBureau of Education. He drafted the bill for its organization and was\ninfluential in securing its passage thru Congress.\nHe received the honorary degree of A.M. from Western Reserve\nUniversity, and the degree of LL.D. from Marietta College and from\nMiami University.\nDr. White came of pure Puritan stock, his ancestry running back to\nthe early settlement of New England. It is said that one of his ancestors\nwas a member of the Long Parliament. From his Puritan ancestry he\ninherited some of his most striking characteristics — his high sense of\nduty, his moral earnestness, his fidelity to conscience, and his religious\nconvictions. In religious faith he was a- Presbyterian. For many years\nhe was a ruling elder in that church and a member of the board of\ntrustees of Lane Seminary, a theological school of that denomination in\nCincinnati.\nAt the time of his death he was president of that board.\nDr. White was married in 1853 to Mary Ann Sabin, who died one\nyear and three months before him. There were born to them five children. Of the three who survive him, one is at the present time governor\nof the state of West Virginia, and another holds an important ofificial\nposition in the United States revenue service. In his domestic relations\nDr. White was true and tender and gentle. On this subject I cannot do\nbetter than quote from a letter of Governor White found in Education for\nJanuary, 1903. \"My father,\" he says, \"was the truest, kindest, and\ngentlest of husbands and fathers. I never knew him to do an unkind or\nan unjust act, or to permit anger to master him. His ideals were high,\nand his thoughts pure, and his influence uplifting. He exemplified in\nhis daily life those Christian graces and virtues which adorn and are the\nfruitage of a noble nature. If his public life was uplifting and inspiring,\nhis private life was even more so. He used the Bible daily in his home\nlife, and the family devotions were never omitted. His greatest pleasure\nwas in doing something for others.\"\nThose who knew him slightly and saw him but seldom sometimes\nthought him cold and distant, but those who enjoyed his intimate\nacquaintance knew that he had a warm heart and a quick sympathy. He\nwas ever ready to speak a word of encouragement or to extend a helping\nhand.\nHe will long be missed by this Council and by the general Associa-\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nEMERSON\n\nELBRIDGE\n\nWHITE\n\n373\n\ntion where for so many years he bore a conspicuous part and in the work\nof which he always felt so lively an interest. We shall remember him as\na dignified, courtly, Christian gentleman — one whose motives were pure,\nwhose path was straight, and who did the work given him to do with\nearnestness, fidelity, and singleness of purpose. The world is better that\nsuch men have lived. They cannot wholly die. Their life, their character, and their work will survive and serve as an inspiration and a benediction to all of us who remain.'\nREMARKS\nJoseph Swain. — It gives me pleasure to testify to the very excellent and discriminating\npaper of Principal Coy on the lamented leader, Dr. E. E. White, whose loss we mourn.\nAs one who knew Dr. White intimately for many years, I should like to say a few\nwords. While he was president of Purdue University in Indiana he was known very\nwidely and valued very greatly by the common-school teachers of the state. Along with\nhis work as president of a technical and agricultural college he found much time to lecture\nbefore county institutes and other educational gatherings. Wherever he went to these\neducational meetings he was a central figure, and always had something to say of benefit\nand encouragement to the common-school teacher. He used excellent language, and he\nspoke with force and ease. He was blessed with a good voice and a commanding presence\nand commanding manners. I remember well the first time I heard him speak. He gave\nan evening lecture at Anderson, Ind., before a teacher's institute. His first words were :\n\"Childhood is a constant warfare — a warfare between its lower and higher nature.\" He\ncommanded the attention at once, and did not lose it during a lecture of an hour and a\nhalf in length on the subject of the child. He had at that time recently published his\narithmetic, which was widely used by the schools. This book was very clearly written\nand revealed his analytic mind. This latter characteristic we have often seen in this Council. He was a clear thinker, entirely honest, and was quick to recognize merit or error\nin others. In Dr. White the Council loses one of its ablest leaders, and American education loses one of its best friends and defenders;\nJames M. Greenwood. — I wish to add a thought or two in regard to Dr. Emerson\nE. White's habits of mind and social characteristics. His mind was of the John Calvin\ntype — legal and moral in every aspect. He always held to the original views entertained\nby those who founded the Council, and he adhered to these opinions with a fidelity that\nnever wavered. He remembered what ideas were expressed originally in reference to\neach line of work or investigation, and from these he never varied. He was always closely\nin touch with all the rules and regulations governing the entire scope of the National\nEducational Association and all its departments, and no change was ever proposed in his\npresence that he failed to scrutinize most carefully.\nSome, because he did not upbosom himself fully in social converse, looked upon him\nas a di§tant, reserved man. I have spent many hours with him in the most familiar\nconversation, and I know him to have been one of the most sympathetic and tenderhearted ofmen. His thoughts were always high and serious, yet they were simple, pure,\nand noble. His questions always showed the breadth of his mind, and his answers its\ndelicacy.\nWilliam H. Bartholomew. — In addition to what has been said by members of the\nCouncil, the following incident, which occurral during the summer of 1893, when the\nSouthern Educational Association met in the city of Louisville, Ky., is given as an\naccurate picture which portrays the lovable disposition and splendid character of Dr.\nEmerson E. White.\nYour speaker had just assumed the gavel as president of that body.\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nOne of the series of entertainments provided for the members was an excursion up the\nOhio River on one of those beautiful steamers for which that locality is noted. There\nwas an abundance of refreshments and music, but the most interesting and inspiring item\non the program for that evening was the address of Dr. White.\nHis topic was \"The Little Child,\" suggested, as he said, by that stirring scene in the\nlife of the Great Teacher when he placed a little child in the midst of his disciples and\nsaid : \"Except ye be converted, and become as little children, ye shall not enter into the\nkingdom of heaven.\" Dr. White immediately entered into the spirit of his subject, and\nthe inimitable description which he gave of thaf memorable scene in which his great\nModel was the central figure will never be forgotten by those who heard him. He lovingly and pathetically disclosed the fact that his power and usefulness came from a trustful faith in Him who is the embodiment of all wisdom and all power. He also disclosed\nhis faith in the possibilities of the child ; how that, under the inspiration and training of\nthe faithful teacher, it might become stalwart in intelligence and virtue, a positive factor\nfor good in the community in whi\\;h it lived and moved. He stirred his audience with\nhis masterful effort, and the helpful influence of his burning words has reached the remotest corners of the beautiful Southland. Dr. White possessed a tall and imposing physical\nform, but upon this occasion it seemed to be charged with supernatural splendor and\npower. He was not only a man goodly to look upon, but he was a n»an whom one could\nconfidently trust.\nYour speaker has enjoyed the friendship of Dr. White for more than a quarter of a\ncentury, and he always found him to be the courteous gentleman, the loyal friend, and the\nfaithful Christian.\n\"He rests from his labors, but his works do follow him.\"\n\n]E^warD 1R. Sbaw\nBY\n\nJ. F. REIGART,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF PEDAGOGY,\nUNIVERSITY\nCINCINNATI, O.\n\nOF\n\nCINCINNATI,\n\nEdward Richard Shaw, an active member of the National Educational\nAssociation since 1893, and a member of the Council, died February 11,\n1903, in Yonkers, N. Y. He was born at Bellport, Long Island, January\n13, 1850. He was graduated from Delaware college in 1878, having made\nhis preparation for college while teaching in the schools of Long Island.\nAfter a brief return to teaching, he resumed his studies and was graduated\nfrom Lafayette college in 1881 with the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy.\nAfter graduation he taught at Greenport, Long Island, and in 1883 he\nwent to Yonkers, N. Y., as principal of the Central School, which, within\ntwo years, developed into a high school. While principal of the Yonkers\nHigh School he carried on graduate work in New York University, and\nreceived in 1890 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, In the fall, after\nreceiving this degree, he was appointed lecturer on educational classics in\nthe New York University School of Pedagogy. In 1892 he was made\nprofessor of the Institutes of Pedagogy, and in 1895 dean of the school.\nDr. Shaw's connection with the School of Pedagogy terminated February I, 1903, o\"^. account of his election to the superintendency of the\nschools of Rochester, N. Y.\nThe new field of work, however, was never\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nEDWARD\n\nR, SHAW\n\n375\n\nentered upon, and, as it proved, the last as well as the most important\nperiod of his life was given to the School of Pedagogy and devoted\nto the professional training of teachers. Appropriately enough, while\nheartfelt tribute from friends and associates has been paid to the memory of\none who was recognized as a leader in the educational world, it was reserved\nfor the students and graduates of the School of Pedagogy to give to this\nappreciation the most appropriate and practical expression, in the foundation of a permanent scholarship in the School of Pedagogy to be known\nas the \"Edward R. Sha>y scholarship.\" A memorial meeting at which\nthis plan was announced offered occasion for the expression of estimates\nof Dr. Shaw's work and influence by means of letters from educators of\nprominence, and addresses by Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, Chancellor McCracken, and other representatives of\nthe New York University, and by graduates and students of the School of\nPedagogy.\nThe briefest account of Dr. Shaw's life should include an estimate of\nhis writings, his administration, and his teaching. In authorship, the\nmost important as well as his latest completed work is the School Hygiene,\npublished in 1901 and already generally recognized as authoritative. He\nalso wrote several books on method, edited for school reading a number\nof classics, and contributed to the magazines many studies in educational\nprinciples and methods. All of his writings bear the marks of scholarship, clearness, and practical suggestiveness.\nHere follows a list of Dr. Shaw's books and more important articles :\nSelections for Written Reproduction (New York, 1899); National Question\nBook (1887); '* Inventional Geometry\" (in Popular Science Monthly,\nJanuary, 1889); School Devices (in collaboration, New York, 1891) ;\nPhysics by Experiment (New York, 1892) ; English Composition by Practice\n(New York, 1892) ; Legends of Eire Island Beach and the South Side (New\nYork, 1895); \"The Employment of the Motor Activities in Teaching\" (in\nPopular Science Monthly, November, 1896); \"Some Observations upon\nTeaching Children to Write\" (in Child-Study Monthly, February, 1896);\n\"A Comparative Study on Children's Interests\" {ibid., July, 1896); Two\nYears Before the Mast, w'lih. Introduction and Notes (New York, 1897);\nRobinson Crusoe, with Introduction and Notes (New York, 1897); Black\nBeauty, with Introduction and Notes (New York, 1898); Eairy Tales for\nthe Second School Year (New York, 1 899) ; The Peasant and the Prince, with\nIntroduction and Notes (New York, 1899); Three Studies in Education\n(New York, 1899); Interest in Relation to Pedagogy, a translation of\nWilliam Osterman's Das Interesse (New York, 1899) ; Big People and Little\nPeople of Other Lands (New York, 1900) ; Discoverers and Explorers (New\nYork, 1900); School Hygiene (New York, 1901); \"Outline for a Course\nof Study for Elementary Schools\" {\\xi Journal of Pedagogy, March, 1903).\nDr. Shaw's ability as an administrator was demonstrated in his super-\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nvision of village schools during his early experience in Long Island, in\nhis organization of the Yonkers High School, and in his direction of the\nSchool of Pedagogy. The public schools which came under his influence\ngained in more systematic grading, enriched and advanced courses of\nstudy, and higher standards of efficiency. In the university training of\nteachers there were few precedents to follow. The New York University\nSchool of Pedagogy was in its infancy when Dr. Shaw became dean, and\nits form and later growth were chiefly due to his earnest efforts to develop\na high type of professional training characterized by thoroness, breadth\nof view, and serviceableness.\nYet, however creditable Dr. Shaw's work was in the field of educational\nliterature and in administration, it was in the class-room that his full\nstrength manifested itself. He was, above all, a teacher.\nA broad and exact practical experience constituted the foundation of\nhis power in dealing with the problems of teaching. New meaning was\ninfused into psychological terms and into educational doctrines. Theory\nwas explained in terms of practice. Yet Dr. Shaw's teaching was in no\nsense empiric. No school problem was considered to be adequately\ntreated without careful research in all its important relations, psychological, physiological, and historical ; witness the scientific treatment of such\nsubjects as motor ability, vertical writing, or school hygiene. Even more\nimportant than the results of research was the influence upon the students\nof the spirit and method of investigation and of the most conscientious\nexactness. Dr. Shaw's class work was an exemplification of the doctrines\ntaught. To appreciate the great secret of his influence over his pupils one\nneed but compare the insistence upon the principle of self-activity and\nthe method of discovery with the plan actually followed in class work, in\nutilizing individuality, and in stimulating to highest endeavors.\nThis harmony of thought and practice, and the power resulting therefrom, were due in great measure to a firmness of conviction united to a\nsympathetic attitude of mind,- a strong faith in the value of a scientific\nmethod, and a personal interest in the professional career of every member\nof his classes. As an exponent of sound doctrine and a master of method,\nas well as by force of his personality. Dr. Shaw not only made a deep\nimpression upon those who were privileged to be associated with him, but\nalso accomplished much in elevating the standard of the profession to\nwhich he devoted his life.\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9, 1903\n\nThe department met in South Congregational Church at 9 : 30 a. m., and was called\nto order by President Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University, who announced that th€\npresident of the department, Mrs. Pauline Agassiz Shaw, owing to ill-health, was unable\nto be present. He then introduced the vice-president. Miss Stella L. Wood, Minneapolis, Minn., who took the chair.\nAnnouncement was made that an overflow meeting would be held in the lectureroom of the church. At this point word was received ttat Mechanics' Hall was available\nfor the sessions of the Kindergarten Department. Both meetings at once adjourned to\nthat place.\nThe number present was estimated at three thousand.\nMiss Wood, presiding, introduced Mr. Joseph Lee, vice-president of the Massachusetts Civic League, Boston, Mass., who presented the subject : \"Kindergarten Principles in Social Work.\" *•\nMiss Sarah Louise Arnold, dean of Simmons College, Boston, Mass., then gave an\naddress on \" Kindergarten Principles in General Education.\"\nThe following took part in the discussion of these subjects: Charles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University; Michael Anagno?, director of Perkins Institution for the\nBlind, Boston, Mass.; James J. Greenough, master of Noble & Greenough's School,\nBoston, Mass.; F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nThe following committees were appointed :\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nMiss Caroline T. Haven, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Mary C. McCullough, St. Louis, Mo.\nMiss Evelyn Holmes, Charleston, S. C.\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nMiss Fanniebelle Curtis, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nMiss Ella C. Elder, Buffalo, N. Y.\nMiss Mary A. Birch, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nThe department then adjourned to meet on Friday morning at 9 : 30 A. M.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July id\n\nThe department met in Mechanics' Hall, the vice-president. Miss Wood, presiding.\nCentury magazine. New York\nMr. Richard Watson Gilder, editor of the\ne\nspeaker,\nh\nLTfirst\nen\ncity, presented \"The Kindergart\nan Uplifting Social Influence in the Home and\nDistrict.\"\nMiss Caroline M. C. Hart, of the Kindergarten Association, Baltimore, Md., gave an\naddress on \" The Power of the Kindergarten Training School in the Education of Young\nWomen.\"\nMiss Elizabeth Harrison, principal of the Kindergarten College, Chicago, 111., read a\npaper on \"The Scope and Results of Mothers' Classes.\"\n\n377\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe following speakers took part in the general discussion : Mrs. Marion M. B.\nLangzettel, New York, N. Y., and Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, professor of education, University of Chicago.\nMiss Stella L. Wood, superintendent of the Kindergarten Normal School, Minneapolis, Minn., and corresponding secretary of the International Kindergarten Union,\njgave a brief history of the International Kindergarten Union and its work.\nThe nominating committee presented the following names :\nFor President— T>r. Jenny B. Merrill,, New York, N. Y.\nFor Vice-President — Mrs. Margaret J. Stannard, Boston, Mass.\nFor Secretary — Mrs. O. S. Chittenden, Omaha, Neb.\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the nominees were declared elected as\nofficers of the department for the ensuing year.\nThe chairman then presented the department gavel to the incoming president, who\naccepted it with a brief and appropriate response.\nUpon motion, the meeting adjourned.\nClara Wheeler, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS 'AND\nKINDERGARTEN\nJOSEPH\n\nLEE,\n\nVICE-PRESIDENT\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nCF\nTHE\nMASSACHUSETTS\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nWORK\nCIVIC\n\nLEAGUE,\n\n\" That ye may have life and that ye may have it more abundantly.^''\n[an abstract]\n\nIn tracing the application of kindergarten principles' in social work, I\ndo not claim that such application has in every case been the result of\nFroebel's teaching. Indeed, some of the applications of which I shall\nspeak were made before Froebel's time. What I do claim is : first, that\nthe principles, as I shall show them at work, are the same as Froebel's ;\nand, secondly, that Froebel by his writing, and more especially by his\ndetailed and concrete embodiment of these principles in the kindergarten\nand in his Mother Play, has made them peculiarly his own; that he has\nbeen their clearest expositor, the teacher of them who is most easily\nunderstood and most inspiring to follow.\n''Happy is the man who finds the word.\" It was a happy day for\nFroebel and for all of us when the word \"kindergarten\" was applied to\nthe great institution that he founded ; for Froebel's central principle,\nwhich is embodied in every line he wrote, in every educational means\nthat he suggested, is that education consists in the cultivation of the\nchild as a living and growing organism — in the fostering of life. We\nare now all of us convinced that educating is not simply imparting information. Froebel teaches the further truth that neither is it merely the\ncultivation of powers.\nThe thing we are trying to educate is that which\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n379\n\nacquires information, by the exercise of its powers. It is not a question of\nthe development of the muscles or of the mind, but of the cultivation of that\nwhich uses the muscles and the mind, the central and vital essence, the\nchild himself. The purpose and test of a school are not more knowledge\nor more power, but more boy, for all purposes. Every true lesson leaves\na residuum of character ; if your arithmetic has reached him, he will play\nbetter football; if his football has been the real thing, he will do better\nat arithmetic.\nSuch being the aim of education, what is Froebel's idea of the\nmethod? He believes, first, that the soul, like the muscles and the\nfaculties, grows by action; that it creates itself by self-assertion, by putting itself forth into overt deeds and into concrete form. A truly educational experience is one in which, not merely the powers and faculties,\nbut the heart, is engaged. In proportion as you put your whole self\ninto a piece of work shall you receive a larger self in return : the way to\nwin life is by living.\nSecondly, the direction in which life is to be sought is determined by\nthe nature of the living thing. The question of the sort of thing in\nwhich the child shall find his true work and expression is not a matter of\nwhim or of arbitrary choice; is not a matter of choice at all, on our part,\nor on the part of the child, but of discovery. What the main elements of\nhis life shall be, so far as he is to attain to life at all, is a question that has\nnot been left for us or for him to determine. The vital force within him\nis not indefinite, undetermined, without specific direction and specific\nneeds. The soul as well as the body has its appropriate food. It is open\nto a rnan to choose what he shall put into his mouth, but he cannot\nchoose whether it shall nourish him or not. A man can eat grass or fill\nhis belly with the east wind, but he cannot make his body grow and be\nstrong except by supplying it with the food that belongs to it. You can\nfood he needs, or you\nl as physically, the\nas wel\nly\nual\ne\nrit\nspi\nld\nld,\nhho\nnot\nv\nid\nher\ne\nchi\ncan\nwit\nit\n;\nyou\ncan\nin\neit\ncas\navo\nthe\nnatural consequences\nthe\nLgi\nof your choice.\nAnd, finally, Froebel believed that the relation of the vital principle in\nman to its appropriate objects is something more than a mechanical relation of means to ends. It is not merely that the soul is a definite sort of\nthing, and therefore must of necessity be definite in its needs, so that some\nthings must be more conducive to its development than others. It is a\nquestion, not of being adapted to our use, but of belonging to us ; not of\ncoming in handy, but of being already our own. Study of a fish's body\nor of a bird's wings would have enabled us to infer the existence of water\nfrom the one and of air from the other. It is plain that the nature of\neach of these creatures calls for its appropriate element. We could in a\nlarge measure reconstruct the tiger's world from its claws, the heron's\nfrom its beak.\nSo fitted is the animal to its surroundings that we are not\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "38o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nsurprised to learn that in the long run it is the surroundings that have in\nlarge measure made the animal. The resulting need is absolute and exclusive. It is not that a fish can swim better in the water than on dry land, but\nthat water is a part of him ; that he cannot exist, or even be conceived of,\nwithout it ; that fish and water are, in a certain true sense, two sides of\nthe same fact.\nConsider the relation of a man to the family and to the country.\nWhether such relation be the result of selection or of the transmission\nof acquired adaptation to our surroundings, or however it was created\nor brought about, it is a fact that today man is a family man and a\ncitizen. Whatever one may encounter at an afternoon tea in the way of\npetulant send semi-humorous protest, it remains true that neither protestor\nnor defender of the existing order can imagine what human beings would\nbe like without these two relations. The children of the man who, in the\neons before the invention of charitable relief, would not work for his\nfamily are not with us. The man who did not feel the passion of patriotism, the sense of team play, who would not work with the tribe for mutual\ndefense, belongs to some distant geological period, and his strain has\nlong since been worked out of our inheritance; we could no more\nunderstand him, if we were to meet him, than we can enter with sympathy into the purposes and pursuits of a tiger or a rattlesnake. Among\nmen, as we know them, the man without a home, the man without a\ncountry — whether he be the inhabitant of a Mills Hotel or one of those\ngilded products of materialism who is too busy or too rich to vote — is\na sick man, an outcast, incomplete, necessarily falling short of the standard of humanity.\nIt is the same with man's relation to manual labor. The story of our\nrise above our competitors among the brute creation has been mainly the\nstory of the hand, the story of tools, of materials, the history of handiwork.\nA snake has a mouth and a stomach ; other creatures add flippers, feet,\nor wings; the hand is man's great means of power and expression, of\nimpressing his will and personality on the outside world. The hand\nimplies the tool and the material to work in as clearly and inevitably as\nthe fin implies the water. If it were possible to bring up a child wholly\nwithout manual training, his development would be like that of a fish on\ndry land.\nYou find your little girl playing with her doll, your boy whittling out\na boat. You say to them: \"Come, let us study Latin grammar.\" You\ncan by the exercise of sufficient force make the small child go thru the\nmotions of studying Latin, and with a certain apparent and tangible result ;\nbut do'you think you can make their life prematurely reach out toward a\ndead language in the way in which the nature of the little girl reaches out\nin obedience to the maternal instinct, or the nature of the boy in obedience\nto the instinct of workmanship ? A growing plant will choose from the\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n381\n\nsoil and the rain and the air that which belongs to it, and it can by its\nnature make use of nothing else. It js the same with a growing child ;\nand this is as true of the growth of the spirit as it is of the growth of the\nbody. The three relations I have used for illustration — family, country,\nmanual occupation — are typical of all. The need and hunger of a\ngrowing thing are ever toward its own completion ; its thirst and longing\nare the prophecy of possession of that for which it longs, and constitute\nits title to it. It is always seeking, questioning the universe, looking for\nits own, for its home, for its mate. It is looking for the other half of\nitself, seeking its complement. It is this other half — ^.our home, our\nmate, the tools for which our hands were made — to which God has given\nthe key that can liberate the force that is within us.\n\"In proportion to our relatedness we are strong.\" Emerson, prophet\nof the soul, has put Froebel's whole philosophy of education into a single\nphrase. Live to your deepest relations: deepen them by the heartiest\nand most accurate expression you can give. Take possession of them\nwith all your strength, that they may possess you. The relation of mother\nand child is typical of all vital relations.\nI believe that, as almost all social work is in its aim purely educational, our best social work is a conscious or unconscious application of\nthis one central kindergarten principle of attaining life thru living\ntoward our deepest relations ; for this I take to be the central principle\nof all true education. I will cite three instances of fostering the vital\nrelations to the home, to play, and to work, respectively. My first is the\ninstance of the child-helpers, of those who make a profession of caring for\nchildren separated from their natural homes by reason of the poverty or\ndepravity of their parents. Nothing has been more striking in the recent\ndevelopment of child-helping work than the growing conviction that the\nhome is the only true children's institution, the only soil in which a child\ncan grow. An average death-rate of something like 90 per cent, a year\nin infant asylums in this country has taught its lesson as regards the\nphysical life, and today the state of Massachusetts, for instance, keeps\neven the sickly waif and foundling only a few days in a small temporary nursery — time enough merely to get it clean — before boarding it\nout in some country or suburban home. If separation from the home\nmeans physical death to the infant, what does it mean to the growing\nboy or girl ? We have learned that in a great majority of cases the\nbest treatment, even for semi-criminal children, requires their return,\nsooner ot later, to the family, their natural habitat.\nThe playgrounds springing up so rapidly thruout the country in\nthe last ten years are a recognition of the vital relation of the child\nto play. At the age of eleven or thereabouts, in obedience to an instinct\nthat he neither questions nor understands, the boy forms the gang\nand begins taking part in a series of combined and strenuous exploits,\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nsometimes purely athletic, sometimes such as to become of special and\nimmediate interest to the police. Some people — with a mighty array\nof facts upon their side, it must be confessed — say the boy is becoming lawless ; but the educator, tracing the gang impulse to its source,\nfinds it, on the contrary, about the most lawful thing there is. It is\nnot lawlessness, but law, that has come into the boy's life. What is\ndawning in him is the political spirit — the spirit of citizenship in its\nfirst form, that of loyalty to the tribe; and the expression of this spirit\nin hard game or daring exploit is merely the reflection, in the boy of\ntoday, of the centuries of tribal war in which the instinct of citizenship\nreceived its first fierce training. The gang, in short, means the coming of\nthe citizen ; it is the budding in the boy's life of the instinct of which\nlaws and social institutions are the expression. This new need of his\nnature is calling aloud for its own. Give it its own in the hard team game,\nlead it on from the team to a larger loyalty to the school, the playground,\nthe city, and it will do its work of making a citizen of him. Deny it its\nproper fulfillment, and stunting and perversion result.\nGreat institutions like the Pratt Institute, the Armour Institute, the\nDrexel Institute, have been founded by philanthropists in order that culture\nshould be placed within the reach of those who cannot go to college. It\nis characteristic of these institutions that their whole teaching tends toward\nthe acquiring of a trade. They constitute a notable recognition of the fact\nthat culture consists in the promotion of vital relations to vital things ;\nthat it is to be sought, not in the ornaments and adjuncts of life, but in\nlife itself; that it is in proportion to the depth and reality of living that\nit exists. These great philanthropists have recognized that to a great\nextent the man's work is his life — the source from which his spiritual\nincome must be derived ; and that the essence of this relation of the worker\nto his work is expression. That the man may be master of his craft, that\nit may be plastic to him and afford some little utterance to his soul, is\nthe aim of all our trade-teaching ; and that the trade may be such as can\nafford some sort of expression must be the chief aim of all philanthropy\nas applied to industrial affairs. The need of artistic or creative expression\nas the essential element in all constructive work is one of the great\nsecondary principles of the kindergarten. Froebel was the prophet in\neducation, not only of man the foreordained, to whom certain great\nrelations are necessities of the spiritual life, but also of man the creator.\nThe great relations in which we must look for the fulfillment of our life\nare fixed ; our way of fulfilling them is left for each of us to shape. Here\nis the field for the expression of individual character. And — because the\nnature of every man partakes of the infinite nature, because human\ncharacter can never be stated in prose — the manner of such expression\nmust in the end, in some one line at least, be made a fine art.\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nWORK\n\nZ^Z\n\nDISCUSSION\nCharles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University. — Tho I have had less personal\nobservation of kindergarten work than of the secondary and higher work, 1 am sure that\nthe fundamental ideas of the kindergarten are just what are needed in all grades of\nschools. The best principles and practices of the kindergarten are that the children\nshould learn by doing things, and should be happy while they learn; and that they learn\nbetter while interested, and therefore happy. The older view was that there could be no\nreal work or valuable discipline in school except thru processes which were disagreeable,\npainful, or repulsive to the children. This idea received support from the kindred\ntheological doctrine that solid good can come to poor humanity only thru pain, deprivation, and unhappiness. Against this hideous error in education the kindergarten has\nsuccessfully contended. For generations, systematic education had been looked on by\nthe young as a mysterious interference with the natural joys of life, a hostile regime to be\nresisted, an affliction to be endured, if escape were impossible. The kindergarten brought\nthe antidote for this poison in the mind of youth.\nIt is not the children only who need deliverance from this view of life. How many\nadults still regard labor as a curse and the earning of a livelihood as an obstacle to\nhappiness ! Yet labor creates the home and civilized society. It is always the interest in\nlabor and in the product of labor that makes it happy. Every intelligent person today\nseeks his fundamental satisfactions thru labor — labor with a motive of service. For\ninstance, the hard work done to prepare for this convention called for patience with\ndetails and persistence in overcoming obstacles, under no little anxiety about the outcome ;but there are no better-satisfied men at this moment than the local executive committee for this convention. They are happy in their legitimate reward — these profitable\nmeetings, these glad thousands.\nAt school the child should work with hope of achievement and with the sense of\nhaving achieved; and that child only is to be pitied who is unable to win this satisfaction.\nAre not these the inducements to hard work which satisfy and profit grown-up people ?\nThe kindergarten sets them before little children.\nThe motive of the kindergarten, \"Joy in doing,\" should be the motive in all education, and the inspiring, the happy motive at every stage of human life.\nMichael Anagnos, director of Perkins Institution for the Blind, Boston, Mass. —\nThere is no clearer evidence of the value and significance of the kindergarten than the\nfact that its methods, as systematized and put into practice by Froebel, are the basis in all\neducation at the present day. They are definite in their purpose and universal in their\nscope. They form the foundation of rational pedagogy, and have infused new life and\nvitality into this science. They run parallel with the entire educational career of the\nchild, the youth, and the man. They contain within themselves the elements of that\nidealistic philosophy which aims to unfold the mental faculties, cultivate the heart, promote\nself-activity, plant the seeds of altruism, transform thought, and sweeten life. The educational fires fed by them burn so steadily that their glow not only illumines and brightens\nthe horizon of the kindergarten, but penetrates into the rooms of the different grades\nof public schools, from the lowest to the highest, whence it is banishing the prevalence of\nmechanical modes of teaching and learning, and the gloom which these are likely to\nproduce.\nThese methods apply with even greater force to the training of the little blind boys\nand girls than they do to that of normal children. Bereft of one of the royal avenues of\nsense, and born for the most part to poverty an* misery, these hapless children live in\never-enduring darkness, and are terribly hampered in their movements and greatly circumscribed intheir opportunities for bodily exercise. Their infirmity exerts a baneful\ninfluence upon all sides of their being, and impedes the harmonious development of their\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nphysical, intellectual, and moral powers. It deprives them of all incentives to locomotion\nand cuts them off from the ordinary ways of play. It weakens the springs of activity, and\nengenders timidity, irresolution, and habits of indolence and idleness. Pale faces, flaccid\nmuscles, enervated constitutions, stamina far below the normal standard, unsightly bodily\nidiosyncrasies and peculiarities, aversion to steady exertion, erroneous or imperfect conceptions and mental pictures of the outer world, undeveloped and unregulated powers of\nimagination, narrow and incorrect views of things, strong tendencies to selfishness — these\nare some of the undesirable effects which are inherent m the loss of sight, and which beset\nthe path of education of the victims of this calamity with serious obstructions and peculiar\nhindrances.\nOwing to the low state of his organic constitution, the life of a blind child is set in\nthat minor key which produces what Wordsworth calls the \"still, sad music of humanity.\"\nWhen he enters school he is burdened with all the disabilities which have just been\nenumerated, and the problem how to unfold his mental faculties and foster his native\ncapacities is rendered thereby greatly perplexed and very hard to solve satisfactorily. His\ndevelopment must of necessity be chiefly gained thru his fingers; but the inevitable\ndifficulties which in the natural order of things are to be encountered in his training\nare enormously increased by the feeble condition of his nerveless little hands, which are\ndestined to interpret the universe to his mind, and upon which he must depend for a great\npart of his objective knowledge.\nNow, of all the instrumentalities which can be successfully employed with a fair\nprospect of overcoming these obstacles and of producing results of a superior character,\nthe kindergarten is the most promising. This system is admirably suited for the training\nof little blind boys and girls, containing, as it does, within itself that principle of organic\nlife manifested in gradual development and the power of counteracting the undesirable\neffects produced by the destruction of the visual sense, and by the weakening and degrading\ninfluences to which sightless children are exposed. It supplies the air, the sunlight, and\nthe showers which make them grow strong and healthy, and which are needed to secure\nthe germination of the seed of their faculties planted in the soil of a parched and imperfect physical organization. Thru the gifts and occupations it provides the best and most\neffective means of training the tiny fingers to ordinary uses, and of inducing that muscular\ncontrol of the hand which renders it an intelligent executor of the decrees of the will and\na faithful servant to the mental faculties. It stimulates the inventive powers of the\nchildren and promotes their love of construction. It sets the wheel of their observation\nin motion, and gives to them correct mental images of objects and of representative processes in the world of nature and of industry. It teaches them to perceive distinctly, to\nspeak plainly, and to reason rightly. It affords them unequaled facilities for gaining an\nadequate conception of forms of various kinds, and rare opportunities for the cultivation\nand refinement of their remaining senses. It enables them to acquire patience, perseverance, manual dexterity, self-control, and force of will. Finally, by its daily exercises in\nright thinking and doing, it infuses into them a spirit of uprightness and truthfulness, and\nencourages them to deeds of honesty, helpfulness, self-reliance, and courtesy, until these\nlittle periodical acts become habitual.\nOf the numerous beneficent results obtained from the methods and processes of the\nkindergarten, supplemented by the simple exercises in the gymnasium, the following are\nthe most noticeable : good physical development ; muscular strength and suppleness ;\nhabits of attention and order ; freedom and grace of movement ; quickness of invention\nand sanity of imagination; manual dexterity, together with love of construction and\nappreciation of utility ; an elementary idea of symmetry and harmony ; and initiation into\nthe conventionalities of polite society, as shown in the demeanor of one child toward\nanother, and in matters of eating, drinking, and personal cleanliness.\nThe methods of the kindergarten are as beneficial to many older blind persons as\nthey are to children of tender age. Indeed, without their aid there is no possibility of\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n. KINDERGARTEN\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n385\n\nsatisfactory development in the case of a large number of grown-up pupils whose minds\nare immature and untrained, and whose muscles have become rigid on account of the lack\nof use. The excellent work which Ramabai, the high-caste widow, is doing in India\naffords a striking proof of this necessity. She begins all her educational efforts in behalf of\ngirls and young women from the age of four to twenty years by employing the methods\nof the kindergarten, with all its gifts, occupations, games, and songs ; and a great deal of\nthe remarkable success of her plan is attributable to this procedure.\nCertain blind young men and women are in a similar condition, and they should be\ntreated in the same way precisely. They should have a thoro preliminary training in the\nelementary occupations of the kindergarten, such as card-pricking and sewing, weaving,\nand the use of various gifts, so that they may develop constructive and creative power\nbefore they are taught to read and write, and before they learn a trade. Thus, besides\nreceiving the advantage of the ethical and intuitional training, which is the main power\nof the kindergarten system, they will at the same time gain an idea of industry, thrift, and\ncitizenship.\nFroebel's methods of education are no less valuable for the harmonious development\nof deaf and dumb persons than they are for the blind. In addition to the numerous\nessential benefits which the kindergarten confers upon all classes of children, defective as\nwell as normal, it bestows special ones upon those bereft of hearing who have no means\nof communication with those around them, and who live in entire isolation from their\nenvironment and in perfect ignorance of what is going on in the world. Thru the\nactivity of their fingers and the exertion of their attention, it opens fhe portals of the\nvacant mind, which seems to be a veritable tabula rasa, and creates in it certain simple\nand elementary ideas, together with the necessity of using some kind of symbols or signs\nfor their expression. These are valuable steps toward awakening the intellect from its\ndormant condition to consciousness, and, by being steadily followed in a rational way,\nlead to the constant development of thought and the acquisition of adequate language\nfor its interpretation.\nSo far as backward and feeble-minded children are concerned, there are no better or\nmore fruitful methods for their training than those afforded by the gifts and occcupations\nof the kindergarten. These can be most successfully employed in kindling the sparks of\nintelligence which may be found buried in the convolutions of weak and imperfect, if not\ndistorted, brains.\nThus it is evident that the principles underlying the kindergarten are fundamental in\nall education, from the nursery to the university, and that, by adapting their application\nto all classes of children and to different stages of growth, they will produce such results\nas cannot be obtained thru any other system of training.\nFor these, and much more, Froebel deserves to be honored as one of the most eminent\neducators of the world, and his name is to be be praised and blessed as that of a great\napostle of humanity.\nJames J. Greenough, master of Noble and Greenough's School, Boston, Mass.—\nBecause I recognize the debt which all education owes to the principles of the kindergarten, Iwish to point out some dangerous tendencies in the application of these principles\nwhich I have noticed in my work with older children.\nTo children of parents whose environment has cut them off either wholly or partially\nfrom the aesthetic side of life, from literature and art, from the truth and beauty of life,\nthe kindergarten has opened a new world of thought. It has uplifted them and increased\ntheir powers of enjoyment a hundredfold. Into lives of monotonous dullness it has\nbrought its message of sweetness and light. Upon such children the effects of the kindergarten must be good.\nBut it has some serious dangers for children of more fortunate parents, unless applied\nwith great care. I have prepared boys for Harvard College for twenty years in Boston\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n— boys whose parents are well-to-do. Their fathers and grandfathers have generally had\na college education. Their surroundings from infancy have been such as to stimulate the\nmental processes. In their first dozen years they have often lived thru experiences which\nwould have sufficed our ancestors for a lifetime. They had horses and boats, spent their\nsummers in the country and their winters in the city. They have had everything in their\nlives except the struggle to obtain, and the development and enjoyment which come\nfrom this struggle. Their needs are very different from those of the children I first mentioned. They do not need the widening of their horizon — it seems sometimes far too wide\nalready. They do need the training in manual dexterity and the unselfish ideals of the kindergarten. They do not need sentimentality, such as I heard of in a private kindergarten\nthis winter, to which a child took a favorite doll, named by the child herself Mary Jane\nO'Reilly, after a very dear nurse, only to come back in tears because the name had been\nchanged to Bluebell on the ground that the old name was not a pretty one. They do\nneed to have impressed upon them, more than anything else, the lesson, which the other\nchildren learn from their daily lives, that man must work.\nThese boys form a small proportion of the total number of schoolboys, but in all our\nlarge cities there are two or more private schools for them, besides the large boarding\nschools which fit for college, so that their needs are at least worth consideration. Many\nof these boys will have large responsibilities of wealth and position. They must be\ntrained to meet these responsibilities. They must learn to be industrious and persistent.\nIt is easy to learn the lesson of industry and persistence if our daily bread depends upon\nour own exertions; \\.i we must struggle to obtain. *' Needs, must when the devil drives.\" It\nis hard to learn it if the bread is put into our mouths; if we obtain without a struggle. It\nis absolutely necessary in the education of this type of boy to make him realize that work\nis worth while, to form in him a habit of doing his work without stopping to question\nwhether it is interesting or not. He has so much in his surroundings to interest and distract him, and so little to make him work, that school must above all teach him application and persistence. Anything in his education which tends to weaken his sense of duty\nand his self-dependence unfits him for the burdens he is to bear. It has been my experience that kindergarten training with this type of boy has this dangerous tendency, altho\nnothing in the principles of Froebel ought to produce this result, if rightly applied.\nIt had been my general impression for many years, in common with many secondary\nfitting-school teachers, that boys who had received kindergarten training were for some\nreason less successful in preparing for college than those who had not had it ; but, distrusting a mere impression, I consulted my school records for evidence to support or contradict\nmy previous impression. The list of kindergarten-trained boys was startling from the similarity of the characteristics of the boys whose names appeared in it. This similarity was\nso pronounced that one teacher in the school, after hearing the first ten or a dozen names\non the list, named a dozen more without a single mistake, merely because he recognized\nin them these same characteristics. Almost all of these boys were deficient in just those\nqualities which I have said are particularly necessary for this type of boy — application\nand persistence. They make mistakes in translations from foreign languages and the classics because they have only half-learned the paradigms of inflection. English suffers from\nbad spelling and inaccurate use of syntax. They understand the theory of mathematical\nprocesses, but somehow fail to reach correct results. In history their conclusions are\nvitiated by inaccurate data about actual events. They are not thoro. They are weak\nthruout on facts and details which are hard to master and offer very little excitement or interest in themselves. These facts and details are drudgery to us all, unless we have formed\na habit of doing what we set out to do, whether we find it interesting or not ; unless we\nfind our excitement and interest in the successful accomplishment of a difficult task ;\nunless we do our duty, either consciously or unconsciously, because it is our duty. These\nboys are weak in this particular kind of knowledge, because things have been made too\neasy in their early training and they have become accustomed to have someone supply an\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nIN SOCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n387\n\nadventitious interest to hold their attention. They are easily interested as long as a\nteacher can work with them, but when they study by themselves their interest soon flags\nand comparatively little is accomplished. Their attention is easily diverted from the\nsubject in hand. They have a scattering versatility, a wide, but too superficial, interest, a\nquickness revolting against hard work, a dependence upon others, and too little ability to\nwork by themselves.\nThe principles of Froebel, if properly applied, can and should strengthen them just\nwhere they need it, in the realization of the need of work and the power to work; but an\nabuse of these principles, co-operating with their environment in which there is no incentive to work, is bound to weaken them. Such an abuse of kindergarten principles is only\ntoo easy. Mawkish sentimentality, constant help by the teacher, allowing a child to abandon work which he has once begun before it is finished, and continuance of methods\nadapted to the infant minds after the child is old enough to need stronger mental food,\nwere never contemplated by Froebel, and are directly contrary to his ideas, but do exist\nin many private kindergartens today, especially in the intermediate and advanced classes\nconducted on kindergarten principles thru which most of my pupils have passed.\nAn average of the year's record in both recitations and examinations by classes still\nfurther supported my general impression. The average of kindergarten boys was\nlower in every class from the first class, which had already passed the Harvard preliminary examination, down to the seventh class of boys from ten to eleven years old.\nThere is, of course, nothing conclusive in statistics from only one hundred and fifty boys\nof whom one-third had received kindergarten training ; but the uniformity of marked\ncharacteristics in the kindergarten-trained boys and their lower standing certainly sound\na note of warning and point to possible dangers to this type of child. The kindergarten\nseems to have tended to make these boys less industrious, less persistent, and less able to\nendure drudgery, which cannot be eliminated from life, either at school or in the world\noutside. It seems to have failed to arouse in them a sense of duty, which ought, above\nall things, to be fostered in this particular type. Either my experience has been peculiarly unfortunate, or kindergarten principles have dangerous possibilities, if wrongly\napplied.\nIf rightly applied, I know that kindergarten principles will not produce these\neffects, from my experience of my own children, all three of whom have attended an\nexcellent kindergarten and profited immensely therefrom.\nA second danger in the extension of kindergarten principles to older children is\nclosely allied to this — that of weakening a growing mind by allowing a child to develop\nalong the line of least resistance by permitting him to choose his own course of study.\nFroebel rightly lays down the principle that no education is of value which is impressed\nupon a child from without ; that interest must be aroused in every subject, so that the\ndesire for information and instruction shall come from within. This is very different, however, from following the lead of the child and teaching him only those subjects which he\nwishes to pursue or for which he shows a particular taste.\nIt is, of course, preposterous to say that a child who does not wish to study mathemathics should be allowed to choose some other subject in its place and abandon mathematics entirely. Is it not true that the clear, logical mind which takes naturally to\ngeometry needs it far less than the illogical mind which turns away from it ? Natural\naptitudes, of course, differ. One man's meat is another man's poison ; but can we decide\nfor a child, or can we let him decide, that he shall not take a certain study before we have\ntried to arouse his interest in it ? It is our duty to lead as intelligently as we can. It is\nhis duty to follow. It is so difficult to arouse interest in some subjects, and so easy to take\nadvantage of the child's momentary desires, that the importance of leading is frequently\nlost sight of in the ease of following. Such a course is fatal to the best development of\nboth mind and character. It is weakening to both, and bound to exaggerate still more\nthe failings I have previously mentioned.\nEvery man must do many things which are\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ndisagreeable in the doing. His education must not unfit him to do this or make it more\ndifficult for him to do it. Heaven help the child who has always followed his own\ninclinations !\nIn applying kindergarten principles, then, to education, to secure their innumerable\nbenefits, let us remember that man must be persistent and self-dependent, ready to meet\nand overcome obstacles in order to reach his best development. Let us beware of\nsmoothing the child's road, helping him over all the rough places, or of following his lead\nso that he becomes desultory, dependent upon others, and ready to turn aside at any obstacle because too weak to surmount or remove it.\nThe poor or bad kindergarten may do infinite harm to mind and character. The good\nkindergarten is invaluable.\nF. Louis SoLDAN, superintendent of public schools, St. Louis, Mo. — The appliances\nof the kindergarten — the occupations, games, plays, building blocks, and toys — appertain\nto the earliest stage of the child's education, and cannot wisely be carried beyond. But\nthere are principles involved in kindergarten training which are generally valid and apply\nto general education as well as to the kindergarten.\nOne of these principles is that which lays stress on the self-activity of the child.\nThere is a twofold process in education. Froebel describes it by saying that education\nmust make the external internal and the internal external. The one process is that the child\nshould learn the facts of life. Information is conveyed to him from without, thru parent,\nteacher, and school. The facts of life, history, geography, etc., become part of his store\nof information. External facts are converted, as it were, into ideas of the mind. This\nwas largely the old idea of education, in which the pupil was made the recipient of\nknowledge conveyed from without. There is another and still more important process in\neducation. To be a scholar is not man's highest destiny. He must be a worker. He\nlearns in order that he may use his knowledge in life. The work which his mind conceives\nand plans his hand must be able to execute; that is to say, he must learn how to translate\nthought into deeds. The ideas of the mind create the external fact. These two processes.\nin education, that of learning and that of doing, are the important principles which the\nkindergarten emphasizes; they admit of general application to the education of every age.\nEducation is but too often looked upon as the activity of teachers and schools. Its\nproper purpose is the reaction which the educator, thru his influence, calls forth in the\nchild. It is the child's action, rather than the teacher's, which is the vital point in education, and it is this feature of education on which the kindergarten lays stress.\n\nTFIE KINDERGARTEN: AN UPLIFTING SOCIAL INFL UENCE\nIN THE HOME AND THE DISTRICT\nRICHARD\n\nWATSON\n\nGILDER,\n\nEDITOR\nOF THE\nNEW\nYORK, N. Y.\n\n\" CENTURY \" MAGAZINE,\n\nThe attempt to support the above proposition with detailed and exact\nevidence seems to us in New York somewhat like going about to prove\ncircumstantially that light and air, sunshine and happiness, are wholesome elements in the life of the people.\nIn 1889 an associated effort was begun by men and women who\ndesired to extend the kindergarten system in the metropolis. The kindergarten established in 1877 in connection with the Normal College, and\nthat established in 1878 in connection with the Society of Ethical Cul-\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n389\n\nture, and two or three other, either charitable or private, institutions,\nrepresented the movement at the beginning of the last decade of the nineteenth century in the then city of New York. The idea of the founders\nof the new association was to establish some model kindergartens\nunder charge of the association and to prevail upon the city to establish\nkindergartens in connection with the public-school system. The things\naccomplished within the past fourteen years have been extraordinary.\nThe association has now twenty-three kindergartens; twenty-two have\nbeen established in the borough of Brooklyn by the Free Kindergarten\nSociety there; and the public-school kindergartens number in Greater\nNew York about 362. In addition, there are about 55 public kindergartens of a charitable character, and some 51 private, making in all about\n513 kindergartens.\nOur population in New York is rushing up toward the four million\nline (Board of Health estimate for 1902: 3,640,693). We are trying to\nAmericanize this great mass in the best sense of the word. As an example\nof the obstacles in the way, look at a single element of our population.\nOne of our best Hebrew authorities estimates that there are not less than\nhalf a million Jews among us — he is inclined to think that the number\napproaches 600,000 — a number which is said to be greater than that of\nany other Jewish community that has ever existed. Then again you\nknow how the Italians are pouring in upon us; we have more than one\nLittle Italy in New York. Dante's and Michelangelo's countrymen ought\nto be worth working over into Americans, no matter how troublesome\nthe fresh -material offered. Over one million two hundred and seventy\nthousand of us (1,270,080) were actually born in other countries, of whom\nless than one-third are from English-speaking countries. Furthermore,\nthere are two millions three hundred and forty thousand (2,339,895) of\nus both of whose parents are foreign born.\nAs to the individual condition of the children, take one or two illustrations. Ihad heard of the custom of sewing up, but it was hard to\nbelieve except on the personal testimony of the superintendent of one of\nour public schools, which is full of enchanting Raphael faces, who told me\nthat he had made it his duty himself to rip open at times the sewed-on\nclothes of his pupils. The kindergartner in this school has also come\ninto contact with the custom more than once. The mothers sometimes\nactually sew the little creatures up for the whole winter. A boy of eleven\nhad everything sewed on him but his trousers. Sometimes the garment\nis a sort of unremovable \"altogether;\" sometimes it consists of six-inch\nstrips of cloth wound around the child and sewed. A kindergartner in\nthe same school, which I visited in a recent warm spell, said that one of\nthe children came every day in a nke, clean skirt — put on over the two,\nthree, four, five, or more other skirts! As the heat of the weather\nincreased, so increased the clothing.\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nAs to the manners with which the little ones are often familiar at home,\nJacob Riis, when I, asked him for a hint, said that the remark of the boy\nto Miss Addams at the Chicago Hull House was typical. There was a\npicture of a harvest scene — the woman reclining, the man standing by\nquietly mopping his brow. After looking at it attentively the boy said:\n\"Well, he knocked her down, didn't he?\"\nYou cannot catch your citizen too early in order to make him a good\ncitizen. The kindergarten age marks our earliest opportunity to catch\nthe little Russian, the little Italian, the little German, Pole, Syrian, and\nthe regt and begin to make good American citizens of them. And your\nlittle American-born citizen is often in quite as much need of early catching and training.\nThe direct effect of the kindergarten upon the children it is easy to\ngrasp. The teachers will tell you that not only surly young ones soon\nsuccumb to the amiable environment, but that the difference in the average\nchild is quickly perceived. The children are brought into a new social\norder ; they are taught to have regard for one another, and they do acquire\nsuch regard — along with a new and highly valuable respect for law and order.\nNo one can speak of the kindergarten without including the work of\nthe mothers' meeting and club, with library annex; the teaching there of\ngames and of handiwork, along with practical discussions on food, cooking,\nsleep, play, open air, cleanliness, health ; on manners, housework, overstimulating of young children, and the like ; sometimes with talks by\nphysicians of incalculable benefit to uninstructed parents. A vital element\nof the kindergarten, too, is the visitation by the teachers in the homes of\nthe children. Then there are the mothers' and fathers' visits to the\nkindergartens, and occasionally there are fathers' meetings also. Perhaps\nhitherto the father has been regarded too much as a negligible quantity\nin kindergarten work.\nHome visitation, mothers' meetings, and social work are an integral\npart of the system, and with us are being constantly pressed farther and\nfarther. Special efforts are made,, too, to bring the children more into\ntouch with nature ; seeds are distributed and flowers raised ; there are\nindoor gardens and outdoor gardens, visits to the parks, and play festivals\nin the parks. There is a loan collection of animals, and a movement is\non foot to have a few animals kept for kindergarten purposes in some, at\nleast, of the small parks of the city; this is, in fact, already done in one\nof our minor parks. The kindergarten work is by no means limited to\nthe daily routine of exercises.\nThere is a very close bond between the kindergarten and the home ;\nand the closest of all is, of course, the child itself. The first thing learned,\nperhaps, is cleanliness. Both the child and the mother soon learn that.\nIn the case of the mother lack of hygiene means lack of knowledge; she\nis quick to learn and to profit by her new knowledge.\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n391\n\nAgain, the success of the kindergarten method in the management of\nthe child is a revelation to the parents. They naturally come to acquire\nnew parental manners. One philosophical observer of the good effects of\nthe kindergarten said lately : \" I used to hit my Josie something awful,\nand now I don't.\"\nThe whole family comes under the influence of what I may call the\nkindergarten charm. A change comes over the little children. The\nkindergarten songs and games are introduced into the home. The father\noften is deeply interested, learns the songs, supplements the handiwork of\nthe children. One father said to the mother: \"Be sure and go to the\nmeeting; when you get home you always act lively, as you did before we\nwere married.\" Two mothers said to the same teacher, lately, that they,\ndreaded promotion for their children, as they would \" rather they would\nbe trained than taught.\" \" Many mothers laughingly infornied me,\" one\nof the teachers says, \"that no one of the various members of the family\nwas exempt from the criticism of the table manners .\" This reversal as to\nthe uSual source of home instruction is, in the circumstances, necessary and\nhelpful, and tends powerfully to social improvement. It often leads also,\nto be sure, to the inevitable tragedy, later in life, that comes from separation in sentiment, such as is depicted in Tourgueneff's Fathers and Sons;\nbut in the case of a new national environment this cannot be helped ; it\nis, in fact, wholesomely evolutionary. Kindergarten children are more\nwilling and better assistants to their mothers than the older children who\nhave not been in kindergarten. Tidiness in the home with regard to the\nchildren's playthings is the direct effect of the \" putting away \" in the\nkindergarten. Personal cleanliness, as intimated, is the first note struck\nby the kindergarten — and it reverberates promptly in the home.\nThe influence of the kindergarten upon the child's home is unescapable.\nAnd if the individual child and the child's family are influenced, there is\nthe beginning, at least, of an influence upon the district. We find that\nparents become so deeply interested in the kindergarten that they send\none child there after another; and that, when the child grows up, the\nsecond generation is sure to be sent also. The growing-up and grown-up\nkindergarten children are apt to revisit the kindergarten, and keep up an\nintelligent interest in its work and sympathy with its spirit. The spell of\nthe kindergarten remains upon them.\nThe social uplift is felt — first, by the child; second, by the family;\nand, third, by the neighborhood. This is the contemporaneous influence ;\nbut if the direct influence upon the child is good, if certain social principles\nare deeply implanted in it at a highly susceptible age, surely the social\nuplift will not be confined to the few years that the child remains in the\nkindergarten ; the training will naturally tend to good manners, good\nmorals, and good citizenship in the years to come.\nIn the matter of immediate social benefits must be counted the awakened\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nspirit of helpfulness and neighborliness among mothers. It is no little\nthing to find a strong common interest that binds together socially many\nantipathetfc nationalities.\nAlong with this spirit of friendliness and co-operation among the\nmothers is the aroused sentiment of independence and self-respect and\nself-help. One factor in the social uplift is the great advantage to the\nmother, as one of the mothers herself puts it, \"of contact with the trained\nmind of the teacher.\" The mothers do not always drop out of the meetings\nwhen their children leave the kindergarten. The relation between the\nkindergarten teacher and the mother is decidedly to be reckoned with in\nthis question of social uplift. Courtesy is of the essence of the kindergarten, and the home and neighborhood are uplifted, among other things,\nby the respect and regard of the mothers and the fathers for the teachers.\nWhen one thinks wha! the streets of a crowded city are as schools for\nunsocial manners and morals, the influence there of the kindergarten is\nsomething hard to overvalue. Kindergarten children are constantly\nplaying their games in the streets. In the cramped space between front\nand rear tenements you might at one time have seen a dozen children\nplaying every afternoon. Says a teacher : \" I have never seen one of my\nbig boys going to fight with a younger child or tormenting him.\"\nAnother of my witnesses gives me this pretty picture: \"During this\nlast winter one of the mothers came to me and said: *You know that\nfive of my children have been in your kindergarten these last seven years.\nMy neighbors in the tenement houses want to know why my older children\nare so nice to the little ones; they play and sing together every day and\nmake the whole house happy with their laughter. Not alone that; they\ntake other children, who cannot find room in the few kindergartens of the\nEast Side, and teach them their songs and their games. The younger\nones teach the older ones the new songs, too, and so the entire neighborhood is one happy kindergarten.' \"\nOccasionally, in our own and other cities, the kindergarten has been\ncredited with being the means of spreading a decenter sentiment\nthruout a limited district, more respect for ownership, less noisy quarreling.\nA correspondent in Boston sends word about the way that, in some cases,\nthe older boys have guarded from depredation the gardens of the little\nones, \" because they were the kids;\" constituting themselves \"a police\nforce where they were once a part of the robber band.\"\nIt is significant that more and more have our social settlements and\nchurches found the kindergarten a necessary means of access to the\ndarkened home and neighborhood. The kindergarten and the kindergarten idea have been actively useful in the relief of crippled and variously\ndefective children. To the inspiration of the kindergarten the summer\nplayground may be largely credited; and kindergartners are sought after\nas directors in these playgrounds and on the recreation piers.\nTo the\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOCIAL\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n393\n\nkindergarten may be credited also the practice of giving children\nattractive, artistic, and useful handiwork in the vacation schools. A\nleading physician, by the way, said recently that he was astonished at the\nchange for the better in the spirit of the teachers toward the children in\nthe primary grades; that it was more gentle, friendly, and natural than\nbefore. The kindergarten is at least one of the factors in this happy\nchange.\nSo, to summarize, we have the direct effect of the kindergarten. upon\nthe child, teaching it an interest in nature, observation, gentleness, helpfulness, cleanliness, order, law; substituting mutual service for cunning\nand selfish violence — besides bringing the child good cheer and clean\nand natural joy. In the immediate home the \"ideal of nurture\" is, thru\nthis instrumentality, communicated to the brutal or ignorant parent;\ngentleness, patience, respect for the child, and a knowledge of a better\nway with it, are substituted for force and fury. Thru the individual and\nthe home the contemporaneous district is reached, and the natural result\nof the training upon the child and upon the district is to build up a lasting\nsentiment in the little ones and in the community that will elevate future\nhomes and future districts.\nThere is a further element in the kindergarten of which I have not\nspoken, and that is the education in understanding and sympathy it\naffords to the long roll of its own teachers — the direct effect upon them,\nand upon all those who are promoting these institutions, or who for any\nreason come into contact with them.\nIn all these ways we in New York are constant witnesses of the kindergarten's *' uplifting social influence in the home and the district.\" We\nhave a right to say: It is doing this work; if you should think that\nFroebel was mistaken, and that the kindergarten is founded upon a wrong\nprinciple, and if you should take it from us, what have you to offer in its\nplace that'will do this work better ?\nNo excessive claim should be put forth for any single one of the\nvarious successful and co-ordinated means of social uplift. In New York\nthere are many mighty agencies at work in the field of secular and religious\neducation, and social and political reform ; benevolences of various kinds,\nsome of them voluntary, some governmental. There is a quickening in\nour whole public-sdiool system, in which system the courses of lectures\nfor the people constitute a new and striking feature, very favorably affecting the home and the district, fiut it may be claimed for the kindergarten,\nwithout exaggeration, that, while impressing the mind and morals of the\nchild at the earliest age it is possible for outside influences to lay a strong\nhand upon it — the institution forms a social. center of a very compelling\nnature. It is a great event, not only t^ the child, but to the parents, when\nthe little one first goes out from the home; an event that naturally draws\nthe mothers\nof a neighborhood to a focus of information and of effort\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nED UCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[ Kindergarten\n\nin behalf of their tender offspring. It is not strange that such an institution, with its accompaniments, should prove to be socially so great a\nforce, and so great a force for good.\nSpeaking of all our kindergartens together — those of the public\nschools and those conducted by voluntary organizations, and leaving\naside the question whether or not there might be improvement in this or\nthat group — thus, broadly speaking, I venture the opinion that this work\nis so delicate and intimate, so vast in aggregate and so admirably effective,\nthat in no community in the world is there a social force in operation\ngreater in interest, in its constantly extending field more powerful, or, on\nthe whole, better adapted to a beneficent purpose, than is the kindergarten\nin New York.\nWe must not be oblivious of the claim made for the kindergarten by\nan authority as high as Commissioner Harris, that the children of the very\nrich, who are apt early to become willful and self-indulgent, no less than\nthe children of the very poor, are in special need of the civilizing influence\nof the kindergarten. But with the masses of our people the salutary effect\nof the kindergarten is seen on an imposing scale; and the future of our\ncountry depends upon the molding of these masses.\nAmerica is bravely attempting to be a true democracy, and the\nAmerican kindergarten is forever strengthening the foundations of that\ndemocracy in its influence upon the children, and thru them upon the\npeople at large. In our social life of today there are influences that\nstrongly militate against what have hitherto been thought to be the\nfundamental principles of this democracy of ours, namely, fair dealing between men, and the protection and preservation of rights thru\npublic and established agencies of law, open to all citizens. But today\nthere is a reign of illegal procedure and ghastly brutality in connection\nwith the suppression of crime. There is,, too, an increase of selfish\nviolence, not only as between the supposedly opposing interests of labor\nand capital, but also as between the interests of various groups of labor;\nand there is an alarming extension of the violence of venality in the\ndomain of local and other government. Along with this there is a brutal\ndisplay of unsocial luxury — the semi-insanity of irresponsible wealth.\nThe teachings of the kindergarten are all devoted to the correction of the\ntemper that brings these evils upon society. Its influence may not actually\nprevent them ; but in its nature its work tends to be preventive of them.\nIn such a time as ours, amid such conditions as these — some local,\nsuch as I have described as existing in New York and other large cities,\nand some general, existing to a certain degree in almost every division of\nour enormous commonwealth — in such a time, I ask, applying an old\nquestion to a present situation, if there were no such thing as the kindergarten, would it not be necessary to invent it ?\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOWER\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n395\n\nTHE POWER OF THE KINDERGARTEN TRAINING SCHOOL\nIN THE EDUCATION OF YOUNG WOMEN\nCAROLINE\n\nM.\n\nC.\n\nHART,\n\nBALTIMORE\nBALTIMORE,\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nMD.\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\nWhat does the kindergarten training school offer? That the study\nof the kindergarten arouses enthusiasm no one can dispute, and enthusiasm has been defined as the \"genius of sincerity ;\" that is, it springs from\nsome inward conviction, and action following that conviction is elevated,\nbecause it is action moved by the soul.\nThe kindergarten arouses enthusiasm in its advocates, because there is\nthis inner conviction of its truth. There is something within us, something elementary, that shapes our spirits, and the influence of which is felt\nlong before we are capable of defining it. It is the voice of the kindergartner's spirit, calling for truth ; and the spirit of the kindergarten answers\nit. It is \" spirit witnessing of spirit,\" and this awakening becomes the element of a mighty power. But this very fact of strong conviction founded\nupon faith alone, this \" genius of sincerity,\" has too often proved disastrous\nto the general welfare, and now it is proving disastrous to the kindergarten.\nWe are confronted today by an army of \"enthusiastic kindergartners,\"\nwhose sentimental, and therefore false, ideals, because founded upon\nfeeling alone, are bringing disaster to the system.\nI do not underrate this first enthusiasm of the kindergartner. It makes\na great beginning. It is the inward stimulus toward the great aims which\nthe kindergarten proposes. We can all attest to the joy and reverence\nand love with which the first gleams of kindergarten light filled our souls ;\nbut if these first gleams are not kindled into stronger light, the kindergartner becomes, not only useless and incompetent, but dangerous. This\njoy and reverence and love has a source deep and powerful and lasting\nwithin her own nature ; but if she knows nothing of this source, if it is\nsimply some unknown correspondence to her feelings, her enthusiasm\nwill fasten itself upon half-truths, and she will drift about at the mercy\nof every kindergarten fad.\nNow, the strength of the training school lies here — that it justifies to\nthe kindergartner the existence of the power from which her enthusiasm\nsprings, giving it clear, distinct expression, developing this feeling of\ntruth into knowledge of the truth; changing the wavering conviction of\nfeeling into the unwavering conviction of reason, as the first enthusiasm\nof feeling grows into the deeper enthusiasm of insight.\nTo understand how this change can be effected, we must recognize\nthe kindergart-en, not as a principle limited to itself, but as the application to education of the highest and qjost sublime thought yet reached by\nthe human mind. It has taken thousands of years to reach it, and it is\nthe culmination of all the efforts of the soul to understand itself. The\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nmovement by which this thought has been reached stands out clear and\nvivid to the student of history; and this is what she. sees : Planted deep\nin the earliest intuitions of primitive men, moving on slowly thru\nthe ages to its last and highest insight, there has been but one thought\n— to understand the relationship between God, the world, and the\nhuman soul. Because this is no dead universe, because the light and the\nsea and the mountains and the stars hint to us of spiritual things, the\nthought of spirit is uppermost. So moving from nature to spirit, from\none extreme to the other, separating and combining, this is the swing\nof history — the unaided search of the human soul to realize its own\nintuitions. And so this thought has moved on, forced by its own logic\nto ever higher conceptions of itself, until its final recognition is of God\nas the heart and soul of all life.\nThe whole kindergarten is an appeal to this intuition of unity; and\nwhen Froebel counsels, **Seek ye first the kingdom of God within^- it is\nhis recognition of a complete ethical — yes, more than ethical, of an\ninfinite — principle existing from the first in the child's soul — a dim,\nvague feeling that all life — not only human life, but all life — mingles\nwith his own. That feeling of the oneness of all life is the child's soul,\nthe divine part of him. It is reason, or the soul, in its first form of feeling, saying to the child: \"All things are one — nature, man, and God.\"\nKnowledge, which means relation to the physical world, and love, which\nmeans relation to the world of man, in their final analysis are one: Both\nare implied in the first intuition of the child. To understand one's relationship to the physical world is to know, and complete understanding\nwould be complete knowing ; and to understand one's relationship to the\nworld of man is to love, and complete understanding would be complete\nloving; and these two, even partially realized, prove identity with God,\nwho is all-knowing and all-loving, and in their completeness man as the\nimage of God, in perfect identity with him, would be realized. Now,\nwe see how the two things meet — the intuition of the child (the intuition,\ntoo, of men in the childhood of the race) and the insight of the developed\nman. The Qh\\\\A feels that all things are one; the x^d^Ti knows it. \"There\nare no barriers between God, the world, and the human soul,\" is the last\nand highest proved insight.\nAs science teaches that in the universe exerything is united — the smallest atom to the star, and star to star, in interaction or physical force — its\none aim being to prove a connected world thru all the changing forms, so\nethics teaches us the solidarity of mankind — the least and lowest linked\nto the highest by interaction of spiritual force — the whole aim of ethics\nbeing to demonstrate the spiritual world as one. But this great insight\nis more than scientific, more than ethical ; it holds them both ; it is\ninfinite, linking low and high, matter and spirit — God, the world, and\nthe human soul.\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOWER\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n397\n\nThis insight has been reached by the soul's growing consciousness\nof itself, and it grows into this higher consciousness by looking long\nand steadily within. Thru introspection mind reads its own history.\nThe most general deductions from this introspective view are these : It\nknows that within itself there is an allurement to right, to what fs true\nand good ; or, in other words, to knowledge and love. It knows that\nsomething within itself allures to these two things. It reads the struggle,\nthe inevitable conflict; but it reads, too, the free will to carry out tHis\naspiration toward knowledge and love — knowledge which binds the\nphysical universe into one, and love which binds the spiritual influence\ninto one. Its own freedom it has discovered. The soul knows that it is\nfree; that no environment can bind, no circumstances enslave, the free\nsoul; that it alone is the creator, the author, the originator of all its\nactions. Looking within, we become conscious of a power that tells us\nof things without any help from without, in which the senses and the\nworld of experience are not; we become conscious of an inner force\nwithin ourselves which can go on forever, with changing centers and everwidening circumference, toward infinite knowledge and infinite love;\nand we recognize this power as so infinite, so limitless, that the very best\nwe can say of the God of knowledge and of love arises out of our own conceptions ofwhat we may make ourselves : \"There is something within me\nthat draws me to the right; I have the free will to do it.\" This is the\nhighest revelation the human soul has made of itself; it is read from the\nhuman breast, and there is no other source of its knowledge.\n\" Once read thy breast aright\nAnd thou hast done with fears,\nMan finds no other light\nSearch he a thousand years.\"\n\nThis means identity with God.\n\nIn finding how free and infinite it is,\n\nthe soul has found its source. This proves \"what may be known of the\ninvisible God through the things he has made, even his power and divinity.\" Inspired words come to corroborate the inspiration of the soul,\nand the boundary line which separated man and God is blotted out. Our\ntrue relationship, as the child felt, is oneness with God.\nScience still separates God and man, God and nature, nature and\nman. \"The myth-makers confused the human and divine, and poets and\nphilosophers still keep up the confusion ; but it is all a mistake,\" says\nscience; \"nature bears no relation to God or the human soul.\" But a\nhigher seeing interprets the life of the universe by the soul's consciousness of itself. If mountains and rocks could know anything of themselves,\nthey would say the principle of the universe is \" force;\" and if plants\ncould know, they would say \"life;\" ^ut spirit says \"spirit.\" We know\nwhat nature is, not from the mountains or the sea, or the tides, but from\nwithin\n\nourselves.\n\nWe\n\nknow that\n\nGod is behind force, creating every-\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nwhere beauty and harmony, guiding all nature to its flowering, because\nwe know of the free, purposeful power in ourselves — free to create beauty\nand harmony in our lives, free to guide life to perfection. Nature is the\nrevelation of God's intellect and the condition of ours; it is bound up\nwith our whole spiritual life; with our intellects, as we build them up thru\ncontact with God's intellect in nature; with our hearts, as they are stirred\nthru contact with God's heart in the symbols of nature. A flying bird\ncan thrill us with a sense of freedom, we can feel the power of our wills\nin the wind, and we can feel in the light a premonition of all that truth\ndoes for the soul. Thus there is kinship everywhere, and nature, man,\nand God are one.\nThis is the substance of that wonderful first chapter in the Education\nof Man on \" Life Unity as the Groundwork of the Whole.\" \"I have\nwithin me the aspiration towards the right; I have free will to carry out\nthat aspiration.\" Freedom is the result of these two — not either alone,\nfor aspiration without action is valueless, and free will without its exertion\nupon the things the soul aspires to is valueless; in their combination, the\nfree human soul is the result. This insight reached calls for are-creation\nof everything that the mind does. Therefore religion, government, art,\nliterature, and education have made a new confession of belief, and the\nresult is in government, the free republic, the great types of character in\nart and literature, and the free developing method in education. The\neducational problem then becomes: \" How can I lead the child's free will\nto act upon the intuitions that God has planted in his soul,\" or, \" How can\nI generate spontaneity?\" The Mother Play is the answer to this, and\nbecause it solves the problem it is one of the greatest of educational works.\nThis is its method: to stir into stronger life the seed principle of\nknowledge and love, the feeling that all life is one, and bring forth out\nof it, by its own energy, all that it holds. Every organism generates its\nown differences. The seed sends forth, by its own energy, its differences.\nIt is all spontaneous growth. And under all these differences the flower\nis working, trying to realize its own perfection. Reason is the flower of\nthe soul, working even thru the child's intuitions toward its perfections.\nEvery song of the Mother Play is an appeal to the intuitions of unity by\nmaking an outward picture of the solidarity of life, thus stirring and\nstrengthening the dim feeling and generating out of it some act that was\nhidden away, coiled up in the germ feeling. We will take but one\nexample out of the fifty-two that the Mother Play furnishes. The grass mowing is a story in song of human dependence upon nature, man, and\nGod. The child sees so many people working for him, so many animals\nworking for him, the grain working to grow, God sending rain and sunshine to help it — all for him. This stirs and vitalizes the dim feeling that\nall life is bound together, until spontaneously, out of the aroused feeling,\nsprings gratitude\nOne of the possibilities hidden away in the seed has\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPOWER\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\n399\n\ncome to light, one of the steps in the development of reason has been\ntaken ; for reason has reached its fullest meaning when a person is\ncapable of performing all the acts that, gathered under the name of\nlove, bind humanity together. Gratitude is one of these acts, voiced by\nthe \"Thank you\" of the grateful child. No other \"Thank you\" but one\ngenerated in this way will avail. Education fails absolutely if results are\nsought in any other way. The free will is carrying out an aspiration of\nthe soul. That is spontaneity, that is freedom, because the true nature is\nruling. No doctrine of interest, no hope of reward, no fear of punishment, not even a sense of \" I ought,\" can become a motive. If these outward things become the moving principle of action, there is no freedom.\n\"All things are bondage until the heart goes with them.\"\nThe \"gifts\" furnish a similar appeal. Knowledge and love are the\ntwo forms of the soul — really but one. As we generate by means of\nthe Mother Play songs the different forms of love, in the same way,\nwith the \"gifts\" we generate knowledge, so that each step from known\nto unknown becomes a new discovery, the mind's own true, loving act.\nThese balls and blocks are types, as you know, which unify all the\napparent differences in things. The Mother Play makes a picture of\nhuman dependencies, and with this picture stirs the sense of human\nsolidarity, so that out of it spontaneously flow its own differences,\nand reason as love begins to actualize itself. The \"gifts\" make a picture\nof the dependencies of things, and this reflection stirs the sense of the\nsolidarity of things, \\^hich is the knowledge sense, and reason as knowledge\nbegins to actualize itself. Work that is useful, but not useful in the highest sense, does not offer material that answers to this unfolding of knowledge out of itself ; and to occupy children in this way is going back to the\nPestalozzian idea of work and ignoring the profound principle that\nFroebel illustrates.\nThis ^eat insight becomes the possession of the kindergartner, and\nits power over her life is immeasurable. It is not the principle of the\nkindergarten nor of education, altho it seems to belong to the kindergarten more than to any other grade of education, because of the unrivaled\nadaptability of \\\\iq Mother Play and \"gifts\" to the development of the\nprinciple. But it belongs to none of them. It is the principle, universal\nin its sweep, by which to measure the right and wrong, the truth and\nfalsity, of everything in life. In her first and second year the study of the\nMother Play and \"gifts\" begin to awaken this new and commanding\nprinciple within the heart of the kindergartner. But this is not enough;\nthe insight must be. deepened, she must see it in everything that touches\nhuman life. She must see in history, not separated nations — Persia\nhere, Greece there — but a great collective life, marching toward freedom\nby working out its intuitions, and reaching its goal by the development\nof knowledge and love that bind the worlds.\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nLiterature views life from the standpoint of history. The great worldpoets tell the same story, that out of the potential life given to man he\nmust create his own destiny. Ulysses' wanderings and struggles are the\nstory of the battle of life to be won by subordination of the senses and\nlistening to the voice of reason; Dante takes the fearful journey that we\nmay see in the stern logic of events the fate of those who strike at the\nsacred bond of fellowship; Shakespeare's kings uncrown themselves\nbecause they fail to see that the principle that binds king to people is\nthe same principle that binds the moral universe into one; and\n\" Woe, woe, thou hast destroyed it,\nThe beautiful world,\"\n\nis the lament of Faust's own heart. \"I am no nearer the Infinite,\" he\ncries, because he has denied that infinite power which allies man to God\nand is the condition of knowledge and love. He will build up again the\nbeautiful world in his own breast, out of its shattered fragments, and he\nwill learn, what all the great world-poets tell us, that freedom can be won\nonly in the service of love.\nThru all the variety of illustration the kindergartner reaches a definite\nprinciple at the root of knowledge and character. She, sees the universal\nsweep of the principle; and it becomes far more than an intellectual conviction; itouches the deepest springs of feeling and thought, going out\nin vital action, fitting her for the work of the kindergarten, fitting her for\nlife's most sacred duties and for the immortal life to come. For whereever we go in this infinite universe we shall still be in God's worlds, and\nwherever he is there is knowledge and love. For these are his attributes.\nEverything else passes, our thoughts are outgrown, our standards change;\nbut these remain, and the things that will make life beautiful for the kindergartner and for all with whom she comes in contact, will be as fresh in\nthose new worlds as when the first breath of their inspiration roused her\nenthusiasm in her happy kindergarten days.\n\nTHE\n\nSCOPE\n\nMISS ELIZABETH\n\nAND\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF MOTHERS'\n\nHARRISON, CO-PRINCIPAL OF THE CHICAGO\nCOLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nCLASSES\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nThere is a homely old adage which says : \"You must first catch your\nfish before you can fry them.\" But its meaning is of especial value to the\nkindergartner who is about to organize \"a mothers' class.\" The time has\npassed for educated mothers, in intelligent communities, to lift their eyebrows when told that a mothers' class is about to be started in the neighborhood, and that it is to be conducted by a kindergartner who is an unmarried\nwoman.\n\nEducational conventions, child-study clubs, scientific magazines,\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCOPE\n\nAND\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF MOTHERS'\n\nCLASSES\n\nand sometimes the pulpit have brought to such a class of women\n\n401\n\nthe facts\n\nthat chemistry, biology, psychology, and sociology, all of them comparatively recent sciences, have revealed many things which will be of value\nto them in the bringing up of their children.\nIn such communities the kindergartner needs only to have tact, a\ncertain amount of polish of manner, a due sense of her own limitations,\nand \"a divine enthusiasm\" for the cause which she has, at least partially,\nmastered, and she wins the day. The mothers themselves will teach her\nmany things and give her flashes of insight far deeper than they realize.\nShe has only to hold to the few eternal verities which have made the\nkindergarten a power in the land, and the mothers will supply illustration\nafter illustration of the genuineness of the truth she has proclaimed, and\nwill astonish her with its applicability to the details of ordinary home life.\nThe intelligent mother is always willing to listen to anything which\nmay help her to rationalize her efforts in her child's behalf, if she can be\nconvinced that this is the case.\nIn ignorant, or even in half-informed, neighborhoods much tact and\ningenuity have to be exercised, first to bring the mothers together, and\nthen to continue the class long enough to enable them to realize that there\nare certain inborn instincts in ^//children which should be understood;\nthat there are certain laws of child-nature which cannot be violated without\nbringing inevitable punishment. This is not an easy task. Yet the\nmother-heart is there waiting to be touched. '\nOne of the most successful devices for getting these mothers interested\nin mothers' classes is visiting in the homes of the children. Another\nefficient method of getting into the hearts of the mothers to whom you\nwould teach the better way is to invite them to the birthday celebration,\nChristmas and Easter festivals, valentine parties, and similar red-letter\ndays of the kindergarten. Every mother enjoys seeing her child made\nhappy, and the sight brings her a step nearer to the woman who has given\nthis joy to her child.\nNext in importance, in this socializing process, comes a cup of good,\nwarm coffee, with perhaps a bit of coffee bread. It is well known in social\ncircles that the click of the cup breaks the ice of reserve, and it is just as\ntrue among these shy, oftentimes tired, mothers in the lower walks of life\nas it is among the rich. It warms them up in more senses of the word\nthan one.\nExperience from all over the land shows that, except in the neighborhoods of the abjectly poor, the mothers soon offer to provide these simple\nrefreshments and enjoy dividing themselves into groups of entertainment\ncommittees, each serving in turn. The mothers' class thus becomes their\nsocial club. Any real activity in which all can take part is as valuable in\na mothers' class as in a kindergarten. Music is always a help; finger\nsongs may be learned, or ball games for the baby.\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nAnother common device has been to have kindergarten songs and\ngames with the children and mothers together, and then to send the\nchildren with an assistant to the park or to another room, and explain in\nsimple fashion to the mothers the value of the exercise.\nSome\n\neasily accomplished hand-work may be brought in, such as\n\ncutting out of patterns for children's garments. In such cases a readymade garment should always be shown to encourage the class to try to\nmake one like it. A lesson on the construction of simple toys with which\nto amuse the younger children on rainy days leads naturally into a talk\nabout the value of keeping children employed as the best preventive of\nmischief. The making of Christmas cards and childish valentines have\nstarted many a mother of limited means in the right way to cultivate her\nchildren's self-activities.\nAmong foreign-born populations an eager interest has been awakened\nby showing pictures of famous places in the \"old country\" and by means\nof someone of them who speaks English calling from them reminiscences\nof their own early days or their trip across the Atlantic, thus giving them\nan opportunity to describe what is the great event byVhich they record\ntime. It is well to follow such an afternoon by one in which the famous\nand beautiful places and buildings of America are shown and explained,\nin order that they may realize that this country also has a history and a\nfuture of which they may be proud.\nA whole volume could be filled with such suggestions as these. Yet\neach live kindergartner creates her own methods of winning the interest\nand confidence of her mothers. It must always be kept in mind that such\nmeetings, however, are introductory merely to the real aim of a kindergarten class for mothers. It must never descend into a gossip club. Nor\nmust the kindergartner rest satisfied to have it continue an amusement\nhour, much as such hours may be needed in some neighborhoods.\nA mothers' class, to be a real, vital power in a community, must lead its\nmembers, first, to realize the tremendous significance of their work as\nmothers. The divine-right-of-kings idea has worked untold mischief in\nthe past. A man born a king must do kingly deeds. But where is the\nunwritten history of the wrongs and crimes that have been committed\nunder the equally erroneous idea that because a woman has borne a child\nher treatment of it must be motherly? I could cause your blood to curdle\nwith harrowing details of the treatment by mothers from which our humane\nsociety rescues children. But we need not turn to the debased element\nof society to see a mother who is injuring her child even while loving\nhim. Who does not know the weak mother who yields to her child's\ncaprice, the vain mother who overdresses her child, the ambitious mother\nwho pushes her child's studies at the sacrifice of his health and character,\nthe preoccupied mother who never plays with her child, the fault-finding\nmother who never praises her child's honest efforts, the unsympathetic\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nSCOPE\n\nAND\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF MOTHERS'\n\nCLASSES\n\n403\n\nmother who never sees the child's point of view? But I need not add to\nthe list to convince you that, great as is the power of mother-love, it\nneeds to be rationalized to be made conscious of its power, or else it may\nwork untold evil as well as immeasurable good,\nA direct appeal must be made to the nurture element which lies in the\nbreast of every woman who is worthy of the name of woman. From the\ndawn of recorded history wherever women have been found nurture has\nbeen found. The old myth of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus\nis but the primitive way of asserting what the experience of the race had\nalready proved, namely, that even the mother who has not risen beyond\nthe brute instincts has the nurture element within her. A belief in this\nnurture element is the keynote to the truly successful mothers' class. It\nis the highest element in woman, and, if rightly developed, leads her into\nthe highest form of womanhood. I do not mean sentimental gush, nor do\nI refer to the morbid love of self-renunciation which is sometimes called\nunselfishness; but rather that deep spiritual element in woman which\nmakes her intuitively feel the weakness or need or discouragement of\nanother when her more outward-looking brother has not yet perceived it,\nand that makes her rejoice in serving, rejoice in growing, that she may\nserve the more and the better. This spontaneous unconscious nurturing\nelement in her must be rationalized and made a conscious power. This\nis the aim and scope of mothers' classes.\nWhen you ask me what are the results, a vision comes before my eyes,\nthe richest vision that all my work has left me, of class after class which\nhave grown in such a thought-atmosphere as this ; and I see their faces\ngrow luminous as little by little they learn to think of their work, not\nmerely as an individual work of love which concerns their own children,\nbut as a great world-work whose influence will go on for generation after\ngeneration.\nThe first great result of rationalizing mother-love is that it dignifies the\noffice of mother. With this dignifying of the office comes the dignifying\nof its every detail for the sake of the end in view — the giving to the world\nof one more man or woman, strong in body, clear in intellect, warm in\nheart, and deep in that spiritual life which feels the God-presence every\nhour. This trained mother knows that sending her child out into the\nworld without a strong body is sending him to his life-task with broken\ntools. Aye, more, she knows that his body reacts on his mind and soul ;\nthat the health of the three is inseparable. It is the inner life of her child\nthat she has learned to w^ch and to nourish as well as the outer. So she\nprepares his food, or sees that it is prepared, in the most wholesome manner possible, not merely that he may have good digestion and grow in\nstature and in size, but with his feeding comes her guardian care that he\nmay learn to eat to live, not live to eat. She watches over his sleep and\nhis quiet waking hours, not merely because she has learned that diseased\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nnerves are generally the result of too much excitement during childhood,\nand that fatigue poisons the blood, and poisoned blood unbalances the\n.mind, but also that the peace which pas^eth all understanding comes only\nfrom quiet, serene communing with nature and with self. The too\n\"strenuous\" life that is being forced upon our American children is\npreparing a generation that will fear not God nor keep his commandments. Isay this from both a physiological and psychological standpoint.\nThe child that hears not ''the God-voice\" in his childhood will not be\nable unhesitatingly to distinguish its words of command in later life. I do\nnot mean by this that each child should not have active life — an abundance of it ; that, whenever it is possible, there should be allowed perfect\nfreedom for the \"motor nerves\" to respond to the \"sensor nerves.\"\nThis nature will see to, if we will permit her. But I had reference to the\noverstimulation of the sense-perception in childhood — a common fault of\ntoday.\nLet us return to the rationally trained mother. She has learned that\nshe cannot too early begin her child's social training in gratitude,\ncourtesy, and compensation toward the world-workers by whom he is\nsurrounded and sustained. Even in the nursery she begins to help him\nplay that he is a carpenter, a blacksmith, a cab driver, or other server of\nmankind; for unless he can enter into the consciousness of the solidarity\nof the race, she knows he will never comprehend the height nor the\ndepth nor the true meaning of living. Nothing that affects the life of her\nchild is uninteresting or unimportant to such a mother ; for she has learned\nto see it in its bearing on the inmost life, by which all outer life is made\nrich and beautiful, or mean and poor.\nAgain, such a study leads the mother to look upon her work from the\nstandpoint of a universal work. She learns that most of her problems are\nthe problems of all mothers. I have held possil)ly a hundred mothers'\nclasses. Some have been large, containing many mothers, and some\nsmall, with not more than a score of members. Yet when \" Questions\nand Answers\" day came, I have never failed to have asked in some form\nthe question: \"What would you do with a child who lies?\" \"How\nshould I manage a boy of ten who teases his little brother ? \" \" What\nwould you do with a girl of thirteen who is disrespectful ? \" \" How can a\nslow child be cured of dallying ? \" etc., etc. A little book written for a\nsmall circle of Chicago mothers and dealing with these universal characteristics of children has already leaped the boundary of five foreign\nlanguages.\nDoes not this short outline show where the stress of mothers' class\nwork should be placed ? Not until a mother has learned to look upon\nher child, not as her child, but as a life given to the world that she is\nallowed to unfold and develop for humanity's service ; not until she has\nlearned to look upon her newborn infant as one more effort of the divine\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCOPE\n\nAND\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF MOTHERS'\n\nCLASSES\n\n405\n\nlife trying to manifest itself in concrete form, is she ready for the highest\nwork of motherhood, the real spiritual motherhood of her child. When\nthis day comes there will be such a religious awakening as the world has\nnever dreamed of.\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Marion B. B. Langzettel, New York city. — The subject assigned me for discussion today is the influence of the private kindergarten upon the family and the home.\nThe private kindergarten, as distinguished from the public and philanthropic kindergarten, has greater dangers as well as greater opportunities. It is without the supervision\nand inspiration which come from being associated with a large educational system, and\nhence often lacks a standard for comparison and becomes a mere caterer to the whims\nand caprices of its patrons. On the other hand, there may be greater freedom of spirit,\nbetter selection of rooms and sanitary arrangements, and less pressure from conditions\nartificial to an ideal environment for children of kindergarten age. In many states the\nage limit prevents children of four from entering our public kindergartens. In other\ncases the adoption of school methods thwarts the very spirit of play for which the kindergarten stands, and forces a child too early out of that waking period of unconsciousness\nwhich, properly enjoyed, makes a richer foundation for all later life.\nAgain, there is often lacking the real spirit of fellowship between the parents of the\nchildren and the kindergartner which is coming to be so large a factor in our mission\nkindergartens. There are many interests for women, maay clubs and lectures, social\nduties and opportunities for self-culture and self-expression, and the average mother does\nnot stop to realize the importance of the first few years of babyhood, beyond providing a\ngood doctor, a good nurse, and possibly a good kindergarten for her child. Or the socalled intelligent mother, realizing the importance of training in early childhood, overcrowds his life with numerous classes and engagements.\nShort hours, lack of punctuality, and irregularity of attendance, an insistence upon\nsmall numbers and those the children of. intimate friends, all tend to weaken the work of\nprivate kindergartens. The cure for this is the organization of parents' classes among\nits patrons and the education of the community.\nThe private kindergarten belongs largely to the child of the rich, and it is here perhaps that it is to do its most important work. And by \" rich \" I mean not only the\nmoneyed rich, but people rich in inheritance and in intelligence.\nThe following estimate, gathered from many years of experience with the children of\nprivate kindergartens, may prove of interest. These children are often one-third larger in\nsize than the children of our mission kindergartens. This may be accounted for by the\nfact that science has done much to foster intelligence in the feeding and physical care of\nchildren. Roughly speaking, they are one-third more developed intellectually, owing\ndoubtless to the wide variety of experiences open to them and to the response of cultured\nminds to childish inquiries. But they are one-third behind in dramatic expression and\ncreative power. They fall short in symbolic games and original handwork, showing that\nincreased perception has not been balanced by deepened feeling. A child may know the\nnames of fifty birds and yet his bird game lack all suggestion of a mother's nurturing love.\nHe may have a fund of facts, but not the inner feeling which makes these facts live.\nThe constant stimulus of city conditions and the many sources of amusement give\nkeen sense-impressions without corresponding opportunities for expression. With many\nattendants the child fails to exert his own force, and hence does not feel the joy of action,\nnor gain control of his own desires. One littft girl, who was asked to bring something\nto kindergarten to match a yellow ball, returned the next morning with the excuse: \"I\nasked the butler for it, but he was too busy to find anything.\"\nIt had not occurred to\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "406\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthat small child of four that she might have hunted up something herself, and why?\nBecause she was washed, dressed, fed, walked with, and played with by some older\nattendant. Often children either stay out of kindergarten twice a week or are excused\nearly, that they may attend dancing school in the afternoon. Another child of my\nacquaintance, when asked what she wanted most for a birthday present, said : ** Oh, a\nwhole half-day to do exactly what I please.\"\nSurely Fiske's theory of the value of the lengthened period of infancy has been eagerly\ngrasped by many mothers, and they are mistakenly using these early years to train children for the social life which is to be theirs later. Dancing school, riding lessons, military\ndrills, children's parties, and missionary meetings, while each may be valuable in itself,\nare all crowded too closely together in the lives of young children. There is a tendency\nto do too much, and consequently it is done superficially.\nMuch of this may be counteracted by private kindergartens. Here is provided a\nnatural place where minds and hearts as well as bodies may be trained. The child is\ngiven few experiences, and these fundamental ones. He has time and opportunity to\nenjoy and digest them, because they are touched from many points. He comes into a\ncommunity of his equals under the law of the whole, and takes his place as one of many,\nas well as the one to whom many attend. But, perhaps best of all, he is given a task in\nproportion to his ability, and is encouraged and expected to give, create, and share, as\nwell as receive, control, and demand.\n\nTHE\nMISS\n\nSTELLA\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nUNION\n\nL.\nWOOD,\nCORRESPONDING\nSECRETARY,\nINTERNATIONAL\nKINDERGARTEN\nUNION,\nMINNEAPOLIS,\nMINN.\n\nThe kindergartners first organized at the Saratoga Springs meeting of\nthe National Educational Association in 1892 to prepare for the Columbian\nExposition of 1893. Thirty signed at Saratoga as charter members.\nThirty-nine more joined before the meeting at Chicago in 1893. There\nwere nine branches and two life members. Later the crowded condition\nof the National Educational Association programs, owing to its large number of departments, made it seem necessary to appoint a separate time and\nplace of meeting, just as the Department of Superintendence had done.\nIn 1903 the International Kindergarten Union held its tenth meeting\nat Pittsburg, Pa., April 14-17. At that time it reported five life members,\ntwo honorary life members, ninety-six associate members, eighty-one\nbranches, representing eight thousand members. There are represented\nin the union twenty-seven different states, besides Canada and South\nAmerica. At the Pittsburg meeting among the most important things\ndone was the appointment of a committee of fifteen to formulate a restatement of kindergarten principles and belief, and a revision of the constitution to fit the needs of our rapidly growing institution.\nThe question of meeting on alternate years with the National Educational Association has been discussed, but is not yet decided.\nThe committee named will report at the next annual meeting, to be\nheld in Rochester, 1904.\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Tuesday, July 7,. 1903\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in the South Congregational Church,\nand was called to order at 9.30 A. M., by the president, Miss M. Adelaide Holton, of\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nThe following program was carried out :\nN.J. 1. \" The Lock-Step in the Public Schools,\" by William J. Shearer, superintendent of schools, Elizabeth,\nDiscussion by Richard G. Boone, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O. ; Isaac Freeman\nsuperintendent of schools, North Adams, Mass.\n\nHall,\n\n2. \" Nature Study True to Life,\" by Clifton F, Hodge, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nDiscussion by Wilbur S. Jackman, dean of School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. ;\nMiss Emma G. Olmstead, principal of Training School, Scranton, Pa.\n3. \"The Child's Favorite Study in the Elementary Curriculum,\" by Earl Barnes, lecturer for the\nAmerican Society for Extension of University Teaching, Philadelphia, Pa.\nDiscussed by J. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. ; Miss Ada Van Stone\nHarris, supervisor of kindergartens and primary schools, Rochester, N. Y.\n\nThe church auditorium proved inadequate to accommodate the numbers seeking\nadmission, and an overflow meeting was held in the lecture-room in the basement.\nAt this meeting Dr. Richard G. Boone presided, and the papers of Mr. Shearer, Mr.\nHodge, Mr. Jackman, and Mr. Barnes were repeated to a second large audience.\nOn motion of Superintendent F. W. Cooley, of Indiana, the president was authorized\nto appoint a committee of three to nominate officers for the ensuing year. The following\nwere so appointed :\nSuperintendent F. W. Cooley, of Indiana.\nMrs. Mary R. Davis, of Connecticut.\nSuperintendent J. H. Van Sickle, of Maryland.\n\nThe department adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 8\n\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in the Old South Church in joint\nsession with the Art and Manual Training Departments ; for program, see minutes of the\nDepartment of Manual Training.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9\n\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in the Old South Church in joint\nsession with the Departments of Indian Education and Manual Training ; for program,\nsee minutes of the Department of Manual Training.\nAt the close of the session the Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President — Miss Ada Van Stone Harris, Rochester, N, Y.\nFor Vice-President — Superintendent Calvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind.\nFor Secretary — Miss Emma G. Olmstead, Scranton, Pa.\n\nThe report was received and adopted, a«d the officers nominated were declared\nelected for the ensuing year.\nThe department then adjourned.\nAdda P. Wertz, Secretary.\n407\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "4o8\n\nTHE\nRICHARD\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nLOCK-STEP\n\nIN\n\nG. BOONE, EDITOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nTHE\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\n\"EDUCATION,\"\n\nSCHOOLS'\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\n1. Some grouping of pupils for class work is essential to the organization ofa school. This proposition implies that a school is more than\na number of individuals working at learning, in one place. In a school,\nas in any other society, there is necessary co-operation, and mutual reactions, and forbearance, and conventional prohibitions and privileges, and\nthe give-and-take that goes along with any congregate life. To constitute\na school, these individuals must submit, as elsewhere in social groups, to\nmore or less subordination to others, and to mutual reinforcement. This\nalso is a wholesome lesson. Real preparation for adult life requires\nsome such preparatory training. The term' \" school \" implies organization, a recognition of and planning for some common good. In certain affairs the several children are considered as a whole, the individuals\norganically related in a larger unit. Equally also, the proposition\nimplies that certain work of this school may be conducted as class work;\ni. e., a smaller or larger number of the individuals may be dealt\nwith as one group. This is done in games, in singing, in floor or openair exercises for physical training, in a common program for school\nattendance, in hearing or telling the same stories, in the assignment of a\ndefinite number of children to each teacher, in directions concerning\ndeportment and moving about the house, and, generally, in more or less\nuniform rules concerning behavior.\nThe conservative teacher may well ask : If children may be safely\ngrouped for all or a part of these requirements, why not for the more narrowly academic lessons ? Are children less unlike in these matters than\nin their understanding of history, the forces and phenomena of nature,\nthe formal lessons of reading, and the relations of number ?\nI conclude that much of the work of the school, in any grade, may be\nwell done with children taken in groups, and that only so can the school do\nits legitimate service, and the child receive the training its future demands.\n2. But this grouping must be determined, manifestly, by the needs of\nthe pupils, not the conveniences of the teacher. I think it is not unfair\nto say that most of the arguments for close grading, or for any fixed\nclassification for a considerable period, for holding pupils together because\nthey have once been put together, and requiring of all the same lessons,\n^ A paper on \" The Lock-Step in Education\" by Superintendent William J. Shearer,\nof Elizabeth, N. J., was sent to the author for necessary abridgment and was not returned\nin time.\n[Editor.]\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLOCK-STEP\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n409\n\ntake their meaning from the conveniences of the system in administration.\nIt is easier for the teacher to keep track of the children ; it simplifies the\nwork of examination and teaching; it makes class work possible; fewer\nteachers are needed for the same number of pupils ; the teacher has fewer\nlessons to prepare; such mass work shows to better advantage — these are\nsome of the pleas made. It must be apparent that none of these are valid\nreasons for any classification, certainly not the determining conditions.\nWhat the individual child can do with any assignment, and what the\neffort will do for him, should decide the matter. Lack of funds, lack of\nteachers, or adverse public sentiment, may make another course expedient; but we should not make the mistake of thinking that these are\nideal conditions. In any classification those pupils are placed in the\nsame group who can work together, for more or less of their assignment,\nto advantage, the connection for any individual pupil, or any number of\nthem, being held so loosely as to allow of change, when change is a\nbenefit to them.\n3. This suggests a third statement : that any grouping must obviously\nbe subject to frequent readjustments. If a child has mastered books so as\nto be able to use them for his own purposes, and expression fairly adequate\nto his experience, and has acquired or native alertness suited to his years,\nthere is almost no sequence of lessons or production that may not safely\nbe exchanged for some other series, not only with no harm to the child,\nbut often with actual profit. Teachers — often successful teachers, sometimes very superior teachers — work upon the assumption that the purpose\nof the school is to fix and communicate set lessons; whereas it would seem\nrather to be to cultivate, by some exercise or other, preferably of the child's\nown setting, certain habits of mind, and worthy interests, and personal\ninitiative, indifferent as to the particular lesson learned.\n4. \" Promotion \" is a much misused term. Primarilj^ it means\nadvancement, ^ going or sending forward. In the school it goes on\nconstantly, as pupils make daily advances in their work and grow in\nmaturity. Growing in power to correspond with the increasing difficulties\nof arithmetic, or earth -knowledge, or the literary meanings of the reading\nlessons, or the complexities of nature, is the essence of promotion. The\nchild is promoted whenever he takes up, with others or alone, a new and\nsubsequent phase of th'e old subject. Promotion is a constant process.\nIt has come to mean, technically, the separation of the strong from the\nless advanced, and periodically putting the former forward into what is\ncharacterized as a new stage of learning. As a matter of fact, there is no\nmore marked difference in either the difficulty or the quality of the work\nbetween the fifth and sixth grades in most schools than between certain\nstages of any important subject within either grade.\nWe make much of the arbitrary division of elementary instruction into\nyears or half-years, as if there were some virtue in spreading a certain\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\namount of lesson matter over just so much time, or in holding all the\nmembers of a class the same number of days on the same number of exercises. Superficially it does seem to be convenient to chop up the elementary course into eight steps to equal the eight years which tradition\nhas fixed as essential for this work. Without doubt some children will\nacquire more maturity, and experience, and resourcefulness, and initiative\nin six years than others will in eight. Some may require nine years.\nAnd it is obviously well-furnished maturity and power to use one's\nexperience that is purposed by the school, not an arbitrarily fixed time\nin getting them.\n5. So that, if \"promotion\" be taken in the current sense as meaning\nthe periodical advancement of some and the withholding of others, it\nshould come to a child, not merely when he has completed the assignments to his group, nor when he can probably keep along with the next\nhigher class in their more difficult exercises, but whenever the effort to do\nthe work of the more advanced group will be more profitable to him personally than that of the lower class.\nOrdinarily he will have fairly mastered the requirements of one grade\nbefore he would ^be benefited by being transferred to another. Ordinarily the assurance that he could and would do satisfactory work in a\nhigher class would be a factor in suggesting his promotion ; but the\nanswers to these questions, whether affirmative or negative, cannot be\ntaken as final in determining his classification or reclassification. The\neffect or influence of the work upon the pupil, as incentive, or mental\nfurnishing, or self-reliance, or quality of interest — not his learning of so\nmany lessons, or acquisition of so much knowledge, or attendance at\nschool so many days — must be taken as vital.\nThis is not a plea for pushing the child on thru the grades. It is not\nmeant as an encouragement of hothouse methods. It is simply intended\nto urge that children be placed as individuals where their individual\nneeds will best be met ; in higher or lower classes, with only incidental\nreference to whether a given assignment has been finished. Of course,\nthe answer is made that such a procedure would destroy the organization ;\nit would make class work impossible ; it would make ragged and unattractive recitations. But the school does not exist for the organization,\nfor the class, for the recitation, but for the individual pupil.\n6. The viciousness of the current system of examinations and promotions lies in the fact that they rest upon the measuring of one pupil by\nanother by a more or less arbitrary standard ; while, in the process of\neducation, simple justice would seem to require that each be measured\nby himself — his attainments and maturity at a given time compared\nwith those of a former date.\nIt will be objected that when the boy leaves school and begins his\nadult service in business or profession, he will be judged by what he can\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nLOCK-STEP\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n4t 1\n\ndo as compared with others. But this non-school life exists not primarily for education, tho it is incidentally educative, but for other\npurposes, economic and human. It is a primary principle of life, and\nmust be more true of the immature than of men and women, that each\nmay be fairly judged only \"according to that he hath, not according to\nthat he hath not,\" tho someone else have it. The child particularly, in\nconduct, understanding, personal biases, and constitutional temperament,\nhas a right to treatment as a distinct individual, and to have his actions\nand purposes measured by the standard of his possibilities, not by what\nmay be possible or easy for someone else. Both abstractly and as a means\nof education, what is good for one child may be poor for another. On\na scale of loo, a rapidly growing, improving child may show poor marks,\nand the brilliant boy of fine answers be mentally loitering. No examination is worth much that does not reveal the conditions and character of\nhis growth, just as if he were the only member of his class.\n7. Other vicious conditions result from the prevalent notion that all\nchildren of the same grade in different rooms, or in the same room, must\nlearn the same lessons and be judged by the same exercises and products.\nAll the children of any group may reasonably be required, while they\nare kept in the same group, to do work of practically the same grade of\ndifficulty ; but not necessarily the same assignments. To many teachers\nthis seems to be a \"hard saying.\" Better the \"lock-step.'' Children of\nthe same \"grade\" are very much alike; the same lessons can be used for\nall, and with profit to all. It conserves the class; if one is held back a\nlittle, it will not hurt him ; and if another is urged to keep pace with the\nstronger ones, he probably needs the stimulus. So it is argued. But the\nargument, again, is altogether from the side of convenience to the\nteacher or respect for the organization. We easily forget that the child's\nparticular need should determine the matter. Besides, in every recitation\n(if there must be formal recitations) the specific contribution of each from\nhis own point of view greatly enriches the experience of all. Less and\nless is a course of study regarded as a prescription to be filled, or an\ninventory to be memorized, or an exclusive series of tasks to be done.\nRather a course of study is a suggestive grading of material suitable for\neducational purposes, with many exercises for each stage or grade, any\nor several or all of which may be used as individual conditions may\nrequire. , All the children of any group may reasonably be held, while\nthey remain members of the same group, to do work of the same grade\nof difficulty, but not necessarily the same assignments.\n8. It is what the pupil is able to do, and tries to do, and does do\nwith his knowledge as the work progresses, not what he remembers of it\nupon a set occasion, that must stand \\.& the teacher as a mark of his\nprogress and of his fitness for advancement from his group. The reproducing of knowledge does not necessarily carry along with it the power or\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNA 770 NAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe disposition to use it; nor does a discrimination of truth insure truthtelling; nor does acquaintance with the forms of conventional courtesy\nguarantee considerateness. Knowledge and feeling and purpose worked\ninto life-behavior cannot be tested by the traditional examination, under\nwhatever name it may go. Besides, the examination, as properly known\nand used, is meaningless unless there be behind it some form or degree\nof the lock-step martinetism. This is in no sense a condemnation of the\nlegitimate tests imposed upon ,each child to determine what he knows\nand what he can do with it; what he likes and with what sincerity; what\nare his plans, and how he is adjusting the means at his command for\ntheir realization.\n9. Finally, let it be summarized : Some grouping of pupils is essential to the organization of the school as a school ; but as all acquisition\nand maturing are individual processes, the work of the school is good to\nthe degree that it habitually takes the individual into account in its several exercises.\n\nNATURE\n• C.\n\nF.\n\nHODGE,\n\nSTUDY\n\nCLARK\n\nTRUE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nTO LIFE\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nLife on one side, nature on the other. Life, as we know it, impossible\nwithout nature to support it; nature, meaningless without life to interpret\nit. The bond of harmony or adjustment between life and nature —\nknowledge. Nature is poweful, overflowing with resource, and true to\nthe core; life must play true to the nature in which it exists, for to play\nfalse means failure and invites the penalty of death. These conceptions\nare imbedded in the very foundations of human thought, as evidenced\nby the words used to express them. The<jreek word (3los — from which\nwe derive \" biology,\" the science of life — denoted a player true to the\nlife. The Aryan roots ca», \"to be able,\" and ^eri, \"to know,\" kennen\nand konnen — are the same in origin.\nIn truth, so fundamental is this relation between life and nature that\nour best definition of life itself — given us as long ago as Aristotle and in\nmodern form by Brooks — is simply this: \"Life is response to the order\nof nature;\" and since, as Brooks follows out the thought, the essential\nelement is the knowledge of how to respond in such wise as to preserve\nlife, he is enabled to say: \"Life is that which, when joined to mind, is\nknowledge — .knowledge in use.\" Life is knowledge in use. To know\nis to live; to ken is to can.\nThese ideas, it seems to me, are the bed-rock of every true philosophy\nof education and of every true philosophy of life. I think we shall find\nthat every animal which educates its young ones at all — except some men\n— educates them on this basis.\nAll the plays of young animals with one\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nTRUE\n\nTO\n\nLIFE\n\n413\n\nanother and with their parents are calculated to fit them for their life with\nnature.\n\nI once overheard two little boys of five or six talking this over as they\nwalked along the street. One said: \"It's easy enough to do it, if you\nonly know how; everything is easy if you only know how.\" Here we\nhave our problem in a nutshell. Contrast the delight there is in doing\nsomething which we know how to do perfectly, with the distress of trying\nto do something which we do not know how to do. Nature is infinite\nand powerful, and buoys up and makes easy, and at the same time most\neffective, the life that knows how to use its forces. Conversely, the life\nthat does not know how is hard and futile.\nIt is a matter of frequent remark how perfectly animal life is adjusted\nto the natural environment ; how well, in general, animals know how to\ndo the things upon which their lives depend. Are we not sometimes\ninclined to think that- their lives in this respect are more perfect than\nour own, that within their narrow lines of interest they have learned their\nnature-study lessons better than we ? They seem to live so easily and\nknow how to live so well. No doubt we have all stood speechless before\nthis problem many times; or if, like George Ade's ''Gabby Will,\" we\nare able to articulate at all times, we may have said \"instinct,\" \"animal\ninstinct;\" but such words give us no light, they explain nothing. Many\nanimal species are much older in the world than man, and have thus had\nmore time to perfect their education. If we knew more about how they\ncon their lessons, we might gain some valuable hints for human nature\nstudy. We can say at least this much : animals learn solely by direct\nobservation and first-hand experience with nature. Their language lessons are not arduous, and, for the most part, each must learn for himself\nby original investigation. The child learns practically in the same way\nduring the first years of life; and we may say that this method of nature\nstudy is fundamentally and universally true to nature and true to life.\nAgain animals — and generally children — do not try to learn too much.\nEach one learns just what he can use, and is content. There is not\nmuch nervous prostration or weariness of the flesh among animals from\ntoo. much study.\nMay we not herein find gentle admonition ?\nNature gives room for practically unlimited evolution. No species,\nman included, has developed responses to more than a small part of the\norder of nature. Each species fits its little niche — molds itself and is\nmolded by nature in shell or feather, muscle and nerve, heart and brain,\nuntil it fits like the bolt its nut. The psychic process within the organism,\nwhich impels it to learn those elements in the environment essential to\nits life, we may call interest. On the purely physical plane the analogue\nof interest is hunger. Who ever saw a*vild bird or other wild animal,\nnot asleep, that was not interested in something ? And certainly each\nspecies has developed its own peculiar lines of interest, woven into the\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nwarp and woof of its organization thruout the entire history of its evolution.\nA chick and duckling from the same nest soon part company, as their\ndiffering interests dictate. To the duckling water is intensely interesting.\nWith the first touch, it finds that it fits : the feathers shed water ; the body\nis buoyed up; the feet are excellent paddles ; the bill is adapted to straining out the worms from the soft mud, and they taste good ; every organ\nand faculty is brought into full play of wholesome activity, and the duckling is supremely happy. The teacher of a brood of ducklings, if she\nhappen to be a hen, has a trying task.\nNot to multiply illustrations, we must clearly recognize that interests\nare as much matters of organization as are brains or bones. The fact that\ncertain elements in nature satisfy the needs of an organism makes these\nelements interesting to the organism. The problem becomes much complicated when we enter the sphere of human life, where we find so many\ndifferent interests interwoven in endless ways, and each true to some\nspecial occupation or field of human life and effort. But is there\nnot a central core of human interest in nature so true to life, so deep\nand universal, so intimately linked with human evolution, that everyone everywhere shall say: \"This is good, this fits my need\" ? If there\nis such a central core of nature interests, it must retain its place in\neducation. That there is such a body of knowledge is as certain as the\nfact that man depends on nature for his life, mental and moral as well as\nphysical.\nThe circus draws the crowd, and fads attract attention ; but fads pass\nby, and the circus is only for the hour. Life may be stimulated, but\ncannot be fed on such things. The nature study that is true to life must\nbe like wholesome daily bread. It must lie close to the daily life. It\nmust be so wholesome as never to cloy the mental appetite, but rather be\nperennially a source of refreshment and strength.\nIf you have followed me thus far, you will agree that such a body of\nnature knowledge must be, like folklore or religion, something permanent and real, determined in the organization of the human body and\nmind, and in the solid constitution of natural forces. As such it must\nbe sought out and discovered. It is not a scheme to be devised or\ninvented by any degree of human ingenuity. We might as well try to\ninvent a hen's ^gg that would hatch or a milk to rear babies on that\nwould be as good as the genuine article.\nClearly the place to seek for the nature study that is true to human\nlife is first of all in the historic development of man's relations toward\nnature. Here we may find the results of thousands of years of nature\nstudy wrought into the very life of the race ; and when we discover a relation to nature that has raised the tone of life, that has developed a higher\nresponse, we must see to it that it retain its place in a rational system of\neducation.\nStill we shall need to check constantly our findings in this\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nTRUE\n\nTO LIFE\n\n4^5\n\nfield by a study of the modern problems of human life as they touch the\nindividual and the social order; especially, of course, as they are related\nto the child and his real educational needs, the teacher and the school.\nThe obverse of this human side is, of course, nature itself as it supports\nlife at every point. Nature is not a series of dead museum specimens, but\na living process, and we must find a nature study that is true to the great\nlife of nature; for no species, man included, -can continue to do violence\nto nature without injuring itself.\nI have so often, in season and out of season, insisted upon the historic\ndevelopment of human nature study that I may be pardoned for slighting\nthis side of the subject under my present limitations of time. This, however, remains as the beaten pathway of the race which every child that\ncomes out into civilized relations to nature must tread. It is our record\nof the accumulated experience and wisdom of mankind, and gives us our\ndeepest insights into the process of becoming civilized.\nWe find in this three great streams of human effort, beginning with\nthe dawn of legend and myth and flowing down thru history to the\npresent ; and, if progress is to continue, they must flow out into the future.\n\"Subdue the earth; \" \"have dominion over every living thing;\" \"make\nthe earth a garden\" — these are all logical steps in a rational process, and\nthey represent thousands of years of human nature study before any of\nour special sciences were so much as dreamed of. I am at a loss to conceive how, or by the use of what other materials than the living animals\nand plants about us, we can get so much real and valuable education. I\ncannot see how any amount of astronomy or chemistry, physics or mineralogy, botany, zoology, or comparative anatomy, can in any degree take\nthe place in the life of the child o.f this practical acquaintanceship with his\nliving fellow-beings on the earth. I cannot imagine how the race could\nhave risen to the level of civilized life along the lines of any other relations toward nature; nor how society is to retain its present level —\nespecially how the home is to hold its place against the encroachments of\nthe tenement system — if these fundamental relations to nature are permitted to fall away.\nWhen we discover the fundamental lines of nature study that have\nstood the test of time and experience and have proved true to the life of\nthe race, we shall find, I think, that they give us equally true solutions to\nmany of the special problems of our modern school life. We shall find\nthem true to the life of the child, and true to the life of the teacher as\nwell. True to the life of the home, they will unite the home and school\nby natural bonds.\nThe first law of child-life — and of education as well — is commonly\nrecognized to be that of self-activijy. In other words, the child learns\neverything that he really knows by doing things or trying to do things.\nAs Carlyle says :\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nKnowledge ? The knowledge that will hold good in working, cleave thou to that;\nfor Nature herself accredits that, says yes to that. Properly thou hast no other knowledge\nbut what thou hast got by working ; the rest is yet all a hypothesis of knowledge; a thing\nto be argued of in schools, a thing floating in the clouds, in endless logic-vortices, till we\ntry it and fix it. Doubt of whatever kind can be ended by action alone.\n\nTo be true to child-life, nature study must first of all give the widest\npossible scope for spontaneous activity, and its distinctive function should\nbe to lead this activity out toward human good and into harmony with\nthe creative forces of nature. We all know what the immortal George did\nwith his little hatchet, and many are inclined to descant upon the instmctive destructiveness and the inborn cruelty of children. I hope your own\nexperience with children, as mine certainly does, leads you to repudiate\nthis. Any child who has not been ill-taught or maltreated will choose to\ndo good rather than evil, if he knows how, and if the good affords his\npassion for activity equal scope.\nSuppose we set down in a garden a ten-year-old boy who does not\nknow beans from burdocks, and we at once begin to realize the truth of\nGoethe's aphorism : \" Nichts ist schrecklicher alsunwissende Thatigkeit\"\n(nothing is more terrible than ignorant activity). Contrast the result with\nthe actions of a child who knows the garden plants and weeds. How\neasily his feet keep in the paths and between the r©ws, and how efficiently\nhis knowledge enables him to work ! Contrast, too, the relative degrees\nof satisfaction the two get from their experience. The one finds nothing\nof special interest, while the other works with motive and purpose. Contrast the satisfaction that the youthful George Washington had in hacking\ndown the cherry tree with that he might have had from the same amount\nof effort in planting a tree. The one act yields a painful memory, the\nother a lifelong delight. This homely illustration applies to the entire\nrange of a child's activities in relation to nature. In nature study the\nteacher has unlimited opportunity, with the gardens, the flowers, and the\ntrees, the birds* and insects and all the rest, to open up endless vistas of\nwholesome activity for the child. And every step in such work will\nestablish the child more firmly on the side of law and order in the community.\nWith the child normally interested, and consequently happy, in the\nwork, the battle of the teacher is more than half won. I have sincere\nrespect for the teacher of young children. I have taught a grade school,\nand am free to confess that it was the hardest work 1 ever did; but we\nhad no nature study then. No plan of nature study can make good its\nclaim of being true to the life of the teacher which does not lighten rather\nthan weigh down the load he already carries.\nAs I have looked teachers, often weary and hard pressed, squarely in\nthe face, and have asked myself what we can do to break the dead lockstep and infuse fresh life and spontaneity into the school task, it has\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nTRUE\n\nTO LIFE\n\n41?\n\nseemed to me that there is a knowledge of nature which lies so close to\neveryday life that it will buoy it up, make it easier and more cheerful, and\ncontinually more and more worth the living. It is just this, and no more,\nwhich will constitute the nature study true to the life of the teacher.\nWhen it comes, the nature-study lesson will be a period of genuine refreshment and delight for teacher and pupil alike.\nIt is a wise saying that wherever there is difference of opinion there\nlies a problem to be solved. In matters of elementary science teaching,\nobject-lessons, and finally nature study, we have certainly had differences\nof opinion enough. The problem remains to discover the nature study\nthat is fundamentally true to human life. Experiments may be tried and\nbe discarded, fads may come and go, books maybe written and forgotten.\nThe nature study that is true to life must and will come ; and this will live\nas long as mankind and nature endure.\n\nDISCUSSION\nWilbur S. Jackman, dean of the College of Education, University of Chicago. —\nNature study true to life ! There is no other. If there is anything abroad imposing itself\nupon childhood that is not true to life, it is not nature study; it is its caricature ; it is an\nimpostor and a cheat. Nature study true to life has existed with children before they\nentered school since the creation of man. In their early years they learn because they love\nnature; if in after years they fail to learn of her, it is because they hate science. They\nsurrender themselves unconditionally to nature, but with science they barter and make\nterms.\nA few years ago someone, in Boston I believe, sought by a questionnaire to find out\nwhether children loved nature or spelling the more ; and spelling won the votes. But\nthe decision was not against nature, but against the teacher and the teaching. If it were\na question of either the spelling-book or a day in the wood, the groves would surely\nwin.\nNature's methods with the young learner are strictly scientific and rational. She\noffers herself to the child as a coherent and well-ordered whole. This whole appeals to\nthe child thru its function and purpose, which are primarily to him its beauty, then its use.\nThe young learner meets these overtures of nature with an intellectual attitude that is\nideally scientific. He is not blinded by prejudice, nor enslaved by creeds, nor frightened\nnor coerced by authority. He is immersed in nature, and it thrills in him. Nature study\nhere is true to life.\nIn the schools nature study becomes false for many reasons. The school usually\nfails to estimate properly the value and the thoroness of the lessons already learned.\nMany of nature's teachings have misled the child, but the lessons have been well taught\nand thoroly learned. For this incomparable study of nature the teacher too often substitutes that of definitions, and the study then becomes false to life.\nThe picture of nature which the child gradually built up for himself is shattered to\nfragments by the methods of the schools. This is accomplished by picking out bits here\nand there for special study, to the exclusion of much that is necessary to a clear understanding ofwhat is presented. This false specialization renders nature study untrue\nto the life of the child. The function of the school should be to preserve the original\npicture and to further develop it in breadth and in detail. The school, as now usually\nconstituted, cuts him off from his original sources of material ; it limits his contact with\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "41 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nnature to the occasional excursion; and thus nature study becomes a discordant note in\nhis life.\nThe schools should leave nothing undone that will make the pupils skillful in the\nvarious forms of expression. Children are stifled in their growth by the average school\nthru a lack of proper and adequate means whereby they may express themselves. Left\nto himself, the child exhausts every resource in his attempt to do this. Nothing creates a\ngreater demand for variety and amount of expression than the study of nature. He\nlives, as do we all, in a world of color, and nothing makes nature study seem more untrue\nto life than the fact that in the schools there is as yet almost no means whereby he may\nexpress his mind -pictures of color.\nSo, too, his images of force, the questions of how much and how strong, receive\nalmost no help in their further development thru the study of mathematics. The study\nof form and proportion is yet hardly applied to the centers of the pupil's interests, and\nhis artistic taste in form is not stimulated because he has little or no opportunity for\ntraining thru the use of plastic materials. From lack of adequate opportunity to express\nhimself in these various ways, a large part of the energies that are started and dimly\noutlined by his early contact with nature are never further developed at all. They shrivel\nup and pass out of consciousness, nevermore to return, because the methods of study\nand teaching are not true to life.\nThere is another aspect of nature study of the utmost importance that teachers\ndo not yet fully appreciate. It is the relation of nature study to moral development.\nThe center of all human interests lies in human conduct, and it must be shown that the\nstudy of nature directly affects this, if it is to hold a permanent place in the curriculum.\nIt is not the final aim of nature study to make man comfortable thru the clothes, the food,\nand the shelter it provides, important as these are ; its ultimate effect must be shown to\nbe to make him good. Because it has not yet been fully accepted as being capable of\ndoing this, nature study and scientific study have always been compelled to stand in an\nunfortunate relationship with the so-called humanistic studies. We may study man and\nthe tree^ but we must study man; whereas the fact is that all studies are or should be\nhumanistic, and all studies are or should be scientific. As long as man, the carnal being,\nis set over against man, the spiritual being, the house will be divided against itself.\nWhen at last our study shall be no longer man and nature, but man in nature, then it will\nbe possible for the first time to have nature study entirely true to life.\nMiss Emma G. Olmstead, principal of Training School, Scranton, Pa. — One error\nalmost universal is to interpret nature study as nature teaching. Nature study must be\nby the child, not by the teacher. The unfolding and the growth must come from the\nchild's own efforts. The teacher may quicken and warm it into life, but she cannot do\nthe child's work ; that is the child's privilege.\nNature study must be natural. With all due regard to the wisdom of the gentlemen who have spoken, both of whom have been greatly enjoyed this morning, and\nhave done so much to give life to this subject, yet the final word has not been said.\nThe common error is to give the child too much, to give it to him too early and too\nfast. There can be nothing unnatural in nature study, nothing perfunctory, and nothing\nstilted. Unless the study of nature can be rational, it would better be learned about\nfrom books.\nWho of us has not seen children painting \"from nature\" in an unnatural\nway? Placed upon the wall is a branch of cherries. Childern are allowed, if not\nactively encouraged, to begin by painting the brilliant cherries, and then put in the\nleaves, and finally the branch. Such treatment of nature is demoralizing. There is\na study about nature from the printed books that is heaven-high above such travesty.\nEducation, to be true, does not draw away from nature, but takes us to her to know her\nas she is.\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nTRUE\n\nTO\n\nLIFE\n\n419\n\nThe problems multiply when we try to decide what to study. If we are willing to\nbe led by little children — which is one of nature's ways of guiding — their interests will\nbe shown first in living things about them. Later, as they develop, they will lead us to\nthe inanimate in life.\nThere are many helpful books for this study now, but the bookshops are full of\nso-called nature books ; some a compilation of facts and some of fancy. It is evident\nthat the authors up to the time of writing have gone thru life with the windows to their\nsouls closed, the shades drawn, the shutters tightly fastened, and a sign out, \"Wanted —\nMaterial for a Nature Book.\" Why were these books published ? Is it a case of supply\nand demand ? Do the teachers choose these books, or do the publishers choose to give\nthe teachers these books? However, let us hope that even the effort of compilation will\narouse an interest in nature, and react on the writers, so that the books will not have been\nwritten in vain. There are some excellent books, but how are you to choose ? Go to\nnature for the truths as to the what and the how.\nThe method in nature study must be natural in three essentials. First, it must be the\nnatural method of the child. He is first of all interested in the ungrown and the undeveloped. It is the baby dolls, kittens, puppies, bunnies, chickens, and lambs, and not\n,the large doll, cat, dog, rabbit, hen, and sheep that attract him most. He studies for a long\ntime animals of size and action that are attractive and substantial — that he can get hold\nof by using the larger muscles. He does not naturally take kindly to worms and caterpillars, toflies and bugs. Many of the animals selected for school study are those that a\nchild would never study if left to himself. He may chase a butterfly, but he cares nothing\nfor it after he has it. Moralizing may not be harmful ; but teach it as ethics, and do not\ncall it nature study.\nIn the second place, the method in nature study must be natural in that a child deals\nwith but one thing at a time and that he enjoys it for its own sake. When a boy plays\nwith jacks he has no use for marbles ; when he rolls the hoop he cares not for mud pies.\nHe has but one love, one fad, at a time, and you do violence to his whole nature when\nyou make him go with a hop, skip, and a jump from bugs to buds, from pebbles to cherry\nstones, and from cotton to snow.\nIn the third place, the method must be natural in that nature is studied out of doors.\nThe arbutus is not natural unless it is trailing, nor clematis unless it is climbing ; the\nviolets must be in the field and the lilies in the pond. Nothing outrages a child more than\nto make him think he is studying nature when he is handling grasshoppers or crickets by\nthe pint or quart that have been preserved in alcohol, or pulling apart wilted violets,\nhepaticas, and forget-me-nots.\nThere is no more noble mission for a teacher than to follow the child in his nature\nstudy of the works of God, out into God's sunshine, thru fresh fields and forests. There\nis no more ignoble work done by a well-intentioned teacher than to dismantle God's works\nand try to make a child think that the wreckage which she shows him represents creative\nd\nies ty. re nly hen nd here ou ead im, ou ave one o\nn\nd\nh h.y h\nye l\nw\na\nw\no\nIf the chil studd beaunatu\nlems\nn\nd\ne\nslat\nnc\nn\nFiel dalys and\nhis Fre\nor tran\nmore l for him nitnwhgearn, wahe youble,solv his prob\nt\no\n,\na\no\ne\nd\nde po\nno doub ; but if ther saer,e no fiel days but scholy days\nare valu\ngaorm,\nscho\nol xerci\nce\nwo isdulling p f eeds xcept s\ne\no\nn\nr\nu\nv\nh\ne\nd\nt\na\no\na\nc\nh\nn\nu\nc\np a\ns\nh\ny\nt\ne\na a s\ne\nu o ssw\na rn p\ne\ne\nless ature.\nn\nlife and soul\nuponncehis aiml\nvene\nL\ne\ns\nr\ng\n,\ng\nm\nr\n.\ne\nt\nlive, move ty;and have thei bein s mus be\nthin\nall .\nfor Him entiin alwho\nRev\ni\nr\nn\nral,\nr\nts\nhe srocks in their solid\nin thei\nthe frui and grai\nTs\nnatu ivinogr; it is not resv,e\nals n heir eauty; he eavens n heir ajesty\n-g\ner\ns,ne\nm\ne\nw\nd\nd\ni\nf\no\ne\nr\nn\nn\ni\nl\nh\ni\nm\ni t\nh\nt\nb\ni t\na\na\nb\nt f\nl\nod\nk\ns\n•\n— all spea God' go\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nTHE\nEARL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCHILUS\nBARNES,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFAVORITE STUDY IN THE\nCURRICULUM\n\n[Elementary\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nLECTURER FOR THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THE\nOF UNIVERSITY TEACHING, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nEXTENSION\n\nDuring the past fifty years the boundaries of knowledge have been\nvastly extended. The perfecting of our means of transportation has carried\nmen into evefy corner of the earth; while the perfecting of the scientific\nmethod has led men to exploit all living and all inanimate things at\nhome and abroad. This extensive and intensive study has accumulated\nknowledge until we stand appalled in the presence of the mass of facts we\nhave brought together. To facilitate our work of assimilation and classification we have split up old subjects of knowledge, such as history and\ngeography, into dozens of new subjects; and since 1870 we have been\nbusily at work extending and enriching the elementary-school curriculum\nwith all this new and untried knowledge.\nSince the child is to be cultivated by his studies, it is obvious that\nhe is one of the factors to be considered in selecting them; we must know\nthe child's reaction upon a subject of study if we are to estimate its culture value iipon him. And let us recognize that this knowledge of the\nchild's reaction upon a subject of study is equally imiportant, whether our\nphilosophy of education seeks development thru opposing a child's interests or thru following them. Whether one is paddling up or down a\nstream, it is equally important for him to know its currents, its shallows,\nand its falls.\nJust now the tendency to introduce some measure of election into the\nhigh schoo], and even into the higher grades of the elementary school,\nand the attempts on every side to formulate an ideal course of study,\nmake an inquiry iilto children's attitude toward the various subjects of\nthe curriculum of immediate practical value.\nIn 1897 Superintendent H. E. Kratz, then of Sioux City, published\n\"A Study of Pupils' Preferences\" in the September number of the North\nWestern Monthly. This study still remains the most important contribution to the subject. In 1899 Miss Kate Stevens made an extended study\non the children of her owii school in North London, and published the\nresults in five numbers of Child Life, beginning with July. In the same\nyear, 1899, M. Chabot made a study on four hundred children in Lyons,\nand published the results in \\\\\\e Revue pedagogique for April, under the title\n\"Une enqu6te pedagogique dans les ecoles primaires de Lyon.\" So far\nas I know, these are the only quantitative studies so far made covering the\ngeneral field of the elementary curriculum.\nIn making the present study I have used Superintendent Kratz's questions :\"What school study do you like best ? Why ? Which one do you\nlike least? Why?\"\nThese questions were given as a composition subject\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE\n\nDepartment]\n\nCHILD'S\n\nFAVORITE\n\nSTUDY\n\nin three different cities of Pennsylvania. While I shall draw material\nfrom all these cities, I shall base this study primarily upon 1,150 papers\nwritten by boys and 1,200 by girls in a progressive manufacturing city of\nabout 50,000 inhabitants. The city has a rather large foreign population, 421\nbut, from the point of view of superintendence, teaching force, and actual\nschool work, I know of no more progressive or effective school work in\nPennsylvania. Some of the conclusions that I shall reach may seem like\ncriticisms on the school where the papers were collected, but they are\ninstead criticisms on our general course of study in America, for I doubt\nif many other cities could make a better showing.\nIn such a study as this much will depend upon the course of study in\nuse where the investigation is made. In the city under examination provision is made thru all the nine grades of the primary and elementary\ndepartments for all the subjects which we shall discuss. Subjects like\nhistory, geography, and physiology appear in the lower grades in\nelementary forms of story and conversation, and physiology is superseded by algebra in the ninth grade. Ages can be changed to grades\npretty accurately by counting the children of the first grade as\nsix years\n15\nold. The distribution of the subjects liked and disliked is represented in\n1914\n19\nthe following table:\n24\nLike\nSubject\n\nReading\nSpelling\nLanguage\nNumber\nGeography\nHistory\nPhysiology\nWriting\nDrawing\nMusic\nManual training\nNo answer ....\n\nBoys\n24%\n2.5\n\n25^\n\nDislike\nBoys\n\nGirls\n\nGirls\n\nH\n12\n7\n8\n\n7\n13\n\n0.5\n0\nI\nI\n30\n\n7\n4\n2\nI\n2\n0\n\n5\n9\n2\n2\n20\n5\n0\n\nThe boys' favorite subjects, as one sees, are number, 30 per cent., and\nreading, 24 per cent., with spelling third, 12 per cent. Penmanship, with\nthe newer subjects, physiology, music, and drawing, are none of them\nchosen by more than one boy in a hundred. If we turn to the girls, we\nfind that they, too, choose reading, 25 per cent., and number, 24 per\ncent. As with the boys, the newer subjects of physiology, music, and\ndrawing play an utterly unimportant part in the girls' choices, except that\nphysiology is greatly disliked. *\nIs it not surprising that in the most advanced schools of the state,\nafter all our attempts to enrich the curriculum with agreeable subjects, we\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n422\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nhave not made the children care for them, but instead they cling to reading and arithmetic? Is it possible that we have not found the right subjects, or have we failed to make the children feel their intrinsic charm?\nThat this choice is not due entirely to habit is shown by the fact that\nwriting, one of the oldest and best-established subjects, is neglected. If\nit is said that children like to learn what teachers like to teach, then we\nmust still account for the teachers' choices, for they were also educated in\nthe public schools.\nIf from these general considerations we turn to an examination of the\nseparate subjects of study, we find interesting conditions. Reading in the\nelementary school has two purposes: to teach the child the mechanics of\nreading, and then so to store his mind with good literature and so practice him in using it that he will go out into life an intelligent reader of\n13\nbooks and periodicals. If, as the first aim is gradually accomplished,\nthe\nmechanics could be subordinated to the right content, our libraries should\nbe well used and bad periodicals should atrophy away. The following\ntable shows how strongly reading appeals to children in the earlier,\nmechanical stages:\nAges\n\nBoys like\nBoys dislike\nGirls like\nGirls dislike\n\n-\n\n8\n\n9\n\n10\n39^\n\n38^\n\n39\n22\n\n2%%\n\n22^\n\nlO\n\n11\n\n11^\nM\n\n12\n\n6\n\n12\n\n12\n\ni6\n\n33\n\n33\n\n21^\n\nII\n\n7\n\n7\ni6\n3\n\n5\n122\n\n5\n5\n4\n\n0\n4^\n0\n0\n\nBut what about the reading for content which should gradually take\nthe place of the more mechanical drill ? The provision in the published\ncourse of study for the city examined is admirable, and it is as well executed as anywhere else in the state. Judging from the31 children's response,\nhowever, it is not very attractive; nor can I find developments in the\nchildren's attitude toward language and history which would indicate that\ninterest in the content of reading had been transferred to these subjects.\nIn all the cities examined I find children of twelve and thirteen frequently\nsaying: **I like least reading because it's so dry;\" \"Reading because it\nisn't any good.\" \"Reading, it's sometimes simple.\" Has not the content of our reading suffered in all parts of the country from the great\nattention that has been given to the mechanics of the subject? And is\nnot the aim of reading content, or is the aim of reading to read ?\nSpelling is attractive to the little children and it is also disliked, lo to\n2o per cent, of both boys and girls declaring themselves both for and\nagainst it at all ages. Judging from the answers given, spelling is liked\nmainly because of the definiteness of the lesson.\nAs a boy of eleven\n\nIS\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "423\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD'S\n\nFAVORITE\n\nSTUDY\n\nsays: *'I like spelling because it's write thereto study.\" At the same\ntime the irregularity of the forms is the cause generally assigned for dislike. \"I like spelling least,\" says a boy of eleven, \"because the least little\n14\n13\nthing makes it wrong.\"\nIf reading is the key to what man has done and thought, language is\nthe key to what man is thinking and doing. As here used, the term 23\n1%\ncovers oral expression, composition, and grammar. The provision made\n\n15\n\n•17\n\n13\n\n19\n\nin the city's course of study is m6st excellent;\n2% but nevertheless, the chil15\ndren dislike it more than any other subject\nexcept physiology.\n2 14\n%\n\n2%\n\n8\n\n17\n9\n\n10\n\nAges\nII\n12\n\nBoys like\nBoys dislike\nGirls like\nGirls dislike\n\n6\nI\nII\n\n106\n\n21\n\n9\n\n83^\n\n18\n\n9\n\n6\n7\n\n4^\n6\n\nNo more than 4 per cent, of the boys at any age select language as\ntheir favorite, and the girls do not rise above 10 per cent, of liking at any\nage before fifteen. But if the quantitative results are eloquent of dislike,\nthe papers themselves are still more so. Here are some representative\nexpressions : Boy of eleven : \" I like language least because I do not\nknow what it means;\" girl of eleven: ''language because it is always\ntelling us something we know;\" girl of eleven : \"I don't like it because\nit don't tell you about anything.\" The utter emptiness and weariness of\nthe subject is beaten into one's mind as he goes thru these hundreds IS of\npapers, until he feels that a recognition of the wickedness of \"It is me\"\n13\nmay be bought at too great a price.\nNumber in this study includes the primary exercises generally classed\nunder that name, and arithmetic. Algebra is unimportant, being brought\ninto the course of study only in the ninth grade. The lines of like and\n15\ndislike with nuipber sustain a relation to each other not\nin any other\n14 found\n15\n25\nsubject of the curriculum :\n13\n17^\n\nBoys like.. .\nBoys dislike\nGirls like.. .\nGirls dislike\n\n9^\n28\n7\n22\n\n21\n\n28\n\nAges\n\n23^\n\n21\n\n34^\n\n33^\n\n41^\n\n338\n\n4\n35\n\n22\n\n12\n\n12\n\n12\n\no\n44^\n\n34\n\nWhat is the cause of this early repugnance for number and the later\nintense liking for it ? Personally I have no doubt that number, being\nnecessarily abstract, is unfitted for young children.\nAfter ten or eleven,\n31\n\n32\n\n36\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n424\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe children naturally like it. That this change cannot be produced\nby merely sticking to an abstraction is proved by the case of language,\nwhere the hatred grows with the years. Studies in all parts of the world\n14\nbear out the conclusions of these charts. When shall we cease wasting\ntime on number with little children ?\n13\nNo formal provision is made for nature work in the schools under\nexamination, but physiology is taught thru the eight earlier grades. The\nsuggestions in the course of study are most progressive and intelligent,\n17\nbut the children detest physiology, and, as this table shows, the more they\n13\n0%\nhave of it, the less they like it:\n0%\n0%\n\nAges\n\n8\n\n9\n\nlO\n\n0\n\n2\nI\n2\n\n11\n\nBoys\nBoys\nGirls\nGirls\n\nlike\ndislike\nlike\ndislike\n\n0\n0\n0\n\n4\n2\n\n12\n\n6\n4^\n\n22\n\ni84^\n6\n\n6\n\n22\n\nThe reasons given for this dislike are as striking and as vivid as those\nfor the dislike of language. *'I do not like it,\" they say, \"because I do not\nlike to hear about different parts of the body\" (girl of eleven); \" I am so\ntired about hearing about the bones\" (girl of eleven); \"It fairly.makes\nme sick when I think of it\" (girl of fifteen); \" There is too much alcohol\nin it\" (girl of eleven); \" I do not like it because it tells you how you look\ninside\" (girl of thirteen).\nSeveral deeper reasons for this hatred for physiology will occur to\nevery teacher. In the first place, the subject has not grown up in response\nto a real need of the schools, but it has been forced into the schools by\nreformers; hence it fails to command the sympathy of the teaching\nforce. In the second place, all the functions of mind and body come\ninto existence without our thinking about them ; and for a long time they\ntend- to remain unconscious. No amount of forcing will make a. Zulu\nthink about the way he thinks, nor about the way he digests his food.\nThe charm of 'life consists in filling his stomach ; he is not yet ready for\nthe joy of watching the food after he has swallowed it. This wise unconsciousnes ofunctions demands respect.\nMusic and drawing have hardly any warm friends or violent enemies.\nThey are ignored, tho they are taught in all the nine grades of the schools.\nThe study seems to justify the following generalizations for the cities\n■studied:\n1. The old-established subjects of reading and number are today the\nfavorite studies in schools.\n2. The broadening and enriching of the curriculum has given us subjects that, under existing conditions, do not appeal strongly to children.\n\n\\%\n\n25\n\n29\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD'S\n\nFAVORITE\n\nSTUDY\n\n3. We handle the preliminary work in reading so as to command\n\n425\n\nthe\n\nchildren's interest; but when technicalities have been mastered, interest\ndies out.\nReading for content, or to cultivate taste, seems ineffective.\n4. Young children like definiteness and concrete content. Our present\nlanguage and grammar work annoys them thru its indefiniteness and its\nemptiness.\n5. Number is strongly disliked at the beginning of the elementary\ncourse and greatly liked at the end.\nWe begin it too early.\n6. Physiology is cordially disliked, and there seems little prospect that\nwe shall make it liked in the elementary grades.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. — Professor Barnes has\nrendered a service to the schools by compelling attention to considerations too often\noverlooked, namely, how our teaching appeals to children. The quantitative studies on\nchildren which he has carried on for many years have interested progressive teachers\neverywhere, and in many instances there has resulted a radical change in the school\natmosphere. Professor Barnes comes to Baltimore sometimes. He was with us a few\nmonths ago. It was then my privilege to note the effect which a quantitative study of\nthis kind produced upon the minds of some ninety students in our training school for\nteachers, as they worked with material which, when tabulated, showed the tremendous\ninfluence of environment in education. They had a revelation which no book work or\nany other kind of study that I can think of could so effectively have given them. It was\nthe finest sort of introduction to the important work for which they were preparing.\nBut there are studies and studies. If the aim be limited to infusing into the teaching force the proper attitude, the study presented today must be counted highly successful.\nI am sure no one can go away without a deeper sense of the importance of knowing the\nchild's attitude toward the subject-matter of instruction, if the teaching is to be of any\nvalue. But if it is expected that thru such studies we shall gain a body of exact knowledge concerning the development of mind and character comparable to that possessed by\nthe physician of the development and care of the body, then this study seems to me faulty\nin a number of particulars.\nProfessor Barnes sent me a copy of his paper some weeks ago. Since then, with the\naid of two of my associates, I have gained some data the study of which compels me\nto question the method used by Professor Barnes and to dissent from several of his\nfindings.\n1. The questions do not give the child liberty to express his real attitude toward all\nof his school studies. He is allowed to mention but two — the one best liked and the\none least liked. If you want the true attitude of the child toward the several studies, you\nought not thus to limit his choice. Many children have difficulty in choosing one study\nfrom among the number which they like. Some say they like them all. This attitude\nwas most pronounced in the rooms of the best teachers.\n2. Under such circumstances, the answers do not appear to me to have any great\nscientific value, since by using these questions you can on different days get a radically\ndifferent set of answers in the same room.\n3. The effect of the teacher as a factor in the result is not and cannot be taken into\nconsideration in a study like this, conductecf at long range. The personality of the\nteacher and his skill in using methods that call into play all of the activities of the child\nare factors that make a vast difference in the quantitative results obtained. An especially\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ninteresting lesson upon any topic will materially change the result. We took physiology,\nwhich Professor Barnes says is not liked at all. In a fifth -grade room this subject was\nnot mentioned at all. The children disclosed no attitude toward it either of like or\ndislike. A week later, after oral lessons had been given in which there was some experimentation inwhich the children had an active part, seven pupils out of forty liked physiology best of all studies. Method is, therefore, seen to be a most important factor. I find\nsixth-grade rooms in which even grammar is much liked ; yet this fact does not prove that\ngrammar belongs in that part of the course. Under good teaching votes could be had\nfor Choctaw as well.\n4. While it is true that we ought to be influenced very greatly in our opinion of the\nexisting course of study by the attitude of the child toward it, unless we select for our\ntests classes skillfully taught, we get no results that can be taken as a fair criticism of\nthe subject-matter of the curriculum. Is not what we do get, if properly interpreted, a\ncriticism of the teaching as shown in the selection of material, and the method Used in\nits presentation ? In the study before us undue emphasis seems to me to be placed upon\nthe children's preference and dislike for studies as taught, since how and by whom they\nare taught are modifying factors unknown to the speaker. Even without any elaborate\nquantitative studies most of us readily agree to four of the six generalizations which Professor Barnes makes ; but let us look for a moment at the fifth. Professor Barnes' statement is that \"number is strongly disliked at the beginning of the elementary course.\"\nIn two third-grade classes well taught the following results were obtained : On June 22\n41 per cent, of the children chose arithmetic, while reading, which was second in popularity, was chosen by only 8 per cent, of the pupils. In three other third-grade classes\nresults were as follows :\nIn class No. I, 29 out of 35 present chose arithmetic — 83 per cent.\nIn class No. 2, 24 out of 39 present chose arithmetic — 62 per cent.\nIn class No. 3, 16 out of 34 present chose arithmetic — 47 per cent.\n5. It seems to me that we are not justified in saying that \"the broadening and\nenriching of the curriculum has given us subjects that do not appeal strongly to children,\"\nwhen we base our judgment upon a questionnaire that does not allow the child to say\nwhat his attitude toward them is. We force him to select one of them either as his first\nchoice or as least liked. They may be liked very well indeed without getting into the\nquantitative study. The phrase \"under existing conditions\" is the saving clause in this\nstatement. Shall we throw the new subjects out or change existing conditions ? Conditions are changing. Those now entering the service as teachers have been taught to\ndraw and to sing ; as pupils in the grades they have had sewing and industrial work of\nvarious kinds. They will teach these subjects as naturally and as readily as they teach\nany others. The teacher likes subjects which he can teach well, and as a rule children\nlike what the teacher likes, if they like the teacher. Broadening and enriching the curriculum has not been long enough in evidence to produce its due effect upon the teaching\nforce the country over. P'ully one-half of the teachers now in the service have had to take\nup drawing and music after becoming teachers. In ten or fifteen years more this period\nof adaptation will have passed.\nThe study that has been presented to us is extremely suggestive. It is highly\ndesirable that teachers should find out the attitude of children toward what they are\nrequired to study, but it does not seem to me scientific to make such generalizations as\nhave been made today from the data used. In my judgment, no amount of material thus\nselected would settle the question of the course of study. Social needs must largely\ncontrol. Within the range of social needs the child's interest is an important factor, but\nwe must guard against the error of thinking that a topic is not intrinsically interesting\nwhen, for all we know, the seeming lack of interest may be the result of indifferent\nteaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD 'S FA VORITE\n\nS TUD\n\nY\n\n427\n\nSuch studies as \"The Growth of Personality,\" \"Intellectual Accuracy,\" \"The\nProperty Sense,\" \" Rewards and Punishments,\" and a score of others made by Professor\nBarnes, have in many a schoolroom given the teacher an entirely new point of view.\nExpectation has become more reasonable, procedure more rational, sympathy and patience\ngreater, and there has been a more energetic and cheerful response. This is a sufficient\njustification of such studies, entirely aside from the disputed question of absolute scientific\nvalue.\nMiss Ada Van Stone Harris, supervisor of kindergartens and primary schools,\nRochester, N. Y. — -We are given certain data in Dr. BarneS' paper from which anyone can draw any kind of a conclusion according to his or her experience. To draw\nconclusions with reference to the course of study in America from data collected from one\nor two states, or from several cities in one state, seems to me to indicate a lack of knowledge of the working results of educational methods in general.\nAccording to the figures given, we must conclude one of three things : that reading\nand number are vastly more important than any other subject ; that all the others disliked\nare unimportant ; or that the subjects disliked reflect on the teaching. To the first and\nsecond we cannot agree.\nTo the latter, yes.\nI cordially indorse the statement that we begin number work too early, and that\nphysiology, as required by law, has no right to the forced place it occupies, and brings not\na shadow of the desired results expected from it.\nReading and number are favorite subjects; they should be; they are utilitarian.\nThey can both be taught mechanically with better results relatively than can geography,\nhistory, language, and other -subjects. It takes more of an artist to teach the latter than\nthe former with corresponding results.\nI agree also \" that the preliminary work in reading is so handled as to command the\nchildren's interest, but when technicalities have been mastered the interest dies out.\"\nThe reason for this is that after the children have masteced the mechanics of reading the\nteacher has other subjects to occupy her attention ; therefore she pays less attention than\nformerly to her preparation for instruction in this subject.\nTeachers of children at this stage do not put the vitality into a reading lesson that a\nteacher of beginners does. The teacher of the beginners has to embellish her instruction\nin order to make the mechanics attractive. With older children the recitation is unfortunately inclined to consist mainly of the mere act of reading. The teacher's part is a\ndirection to \" read the next paragraph, and so on, around the class,\" rather than to\nclothe the subject-matter with life. Teachers themselves, as a rule, do not see and feel\nthe beauties of the reading matter given to the children. They fail to recognize that a\nhigher interest is implied in the upper grades than when teaching the mechanics of\nreading.\n\" Our present language and grammar work annoys them thru its indefiniteness and\nemptiness.\" This generalization is, of course, based upon the old way of teaching language— that is, the teaching of technicalities, the glib use of certain terms, and the\nconstruction of meaningless sentences, rather than cultivating the power of beauty and\nelegance of expression by utilizing interest as a basis and the great thought subjects as\nmaterial, thus making it more of a culture subject than formerly. It is because of the\nformer being taught first that it is \"indefinite and empty,\" and the young child sees \"no\nvalue in it.\" •\n,\nAs regards the statement that \" the broadening and enriching of the curriculum has\ngiven us subjects that under existing conditions do not appeal strongly to children,\" I\nwish to say that enriching the curriculum doe^ not mean simply the affixing of certain\nsubjects to a list already existing; it does mean, in .addition to appending these subjects,\nan infusion and a vitalizing of interest, a quickening of the blood, and a reanimation of\nthe spirit and attitude of the teacher toward these subjects, toward her work, and toward\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "42 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe child. In our teaching of the subjects of the curriculum we have failed in the true\ninterpretation, because so many of us fall short of the highest conception of what teaching\nand education mean.\nHaving had the opportunity to study school systems in different parts of the country,\nI am convinced, from observation and actual contact with the children, that the results in\nany subject depend upon the way it is 'presented. If one subject is better liked than\nanother, it is because it is better taught. If any school system excels in a certain subject,\nit is because that subject is well taught in those schools and the teachers excel in the\nteaching of it.\nI have known school systems which might reflect, in whole or part, the generalizations made, providing these questions had been presented to the children where the\ncurriculum had been enriched in name only. I have also known school systems that have\nbeen enriched in spirit and in the interpretation of the letter. The results in answer to\nthe questions in the latter case would widely differ from those in the former; hence the\nphrase \"existing conditions\" with which Mr. Barnes has modified his statement seems to\nme to center wholly upon weaknesses in the quality of the teaching.\nP'rom personal investigations made at different times, under different conditions, I\nhave found it is that subject which last held the atteiition under an all-around skillful\nteacher that was most liked by the children; e. g., on one occasion, at the close of a very\ninteresting water-color lesson, in answer to the same questions which Mr. Barnes has used,\nit was found that 75 per cent, of the children liked the drawing hour the best. On\nanother occasion, in questioning the children of the several class-rooms of a thoroly progressive school — one where the principal and teachers had caught the real spirit of the\nenriched curriculum and had power so to relate the culture subjects as to lead the children\nto an equalization of interest in them — it was found that the subject which last held\ntheir attention was the favorite one. In another school of like character the children had\nbeen given, with other stories, the classic tales of Beowulf and Sigfried. The stories had\nbeen told and retold, and discussed again and again. The teachers loved these old tales\nwere inspired by their beauty and significance. The children had caught their spirit and\nenthusiasm, until they were as familiar with Beowulf and his fourteen men, with Alberick,\nMime, Brunhilde, and Sigfried, as with the members of their own family. They were\ngiven opportunities for oral and written reproduction, and for representations upon the\nsand table. In this school, the children liked the story, literature, or language hour the\nbest of all. In another school, where the interest and success of the teacher centered upon\narithmetic, the majority of the children liked arithmetic best.\nThere are children who would not like a certain kind of manual training, but in all\nof my observations I have found children so delighted with the hour that they would\nhasten to complete other tasks in order to have more time to devote to the making of some\nuseful article.\nThe fault in the educational system of today lies, not in the fact that there are too\nmany subjects, but in the lack of preparation and lack of knowledge of the subjects on\nthe part of the teacher. The trouble lies, not in a congestion of the course of study, but\nin a congestion of teachers illy prepared for the work they are supposed to undertake.\nThe multiplicity of subjects grows out of the fact that teachers fail to interpret the work\nlaid down for them.\nThey are not prepared to correlate the various branches.\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Thursday, July 9, 1903\nThe first session of this department was called to order in the Central Congregational\nChurch, Boston, at 9 : 35 A. M., by the president, Charles F. Wheelock, Albany, N. Y., who\ndelivered the opening address.\nReuben Post Halleck, principal of the Boys' High School, Louisville, Ky., read a\npaper on \" Tendencies as to the Enlargement of the Secondary Field.\"\nThe paper was discussed by George D. Pettee, principal of the University School,\nCleveland ; Wilson Farrand, head master of Newark Academy, Newark, N. J. ; and Isaac\nThomas, principal of Edmunds High School, Burlington, Vt.\nThe president then appointed the following Committee on Nominations :\nE. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y.\nC. W. Irish, Lowell, Mass.\nEdwin Twitmyer, Seattle, Wash.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned to the different conferences, as follows :\nI. Round Table of Teachers of Classics, in the assembly room of the Central Congregational Church. Leader, Henry White Callahan, head master of the State Preparatory\nSchool, Boulder, Colo.\nII. Round Table of Teachers of English, tn the First Church in Boston. Leader,\nCharles Swain Thomas, English department, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis,\nInd.\nIII. Round Table of Principals, in the chapel of the Central Congregational Church.\nLeader, William J. S. Bryan, principal of Normal and High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nThe topic for discussion was \" The Formation of a Federation of Secondary School\nAssociations.\"\nSECOND SESSION.— Friday, July 10\nThe meeting was called to order in the Central Congregational Church by President\nWheelock at 9 : 30 A. M.\nG. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., addressed the\nmeeting on \"Coeducation in the High School.\"\nThe paper was discussed by Frank Fosdick, principal of Masten Park High School,\nBuffalo, N. Y.; J. Remsen Bishop, principal of Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O.;\nand J. A. Bivins, principal of High School, Charlotte, N. C.\nG. P. Baker, assistant professor of English, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.,\nread a paper on \"The Teaching of Argumentative Discourse in High Schools.\"\nThe paper was discussed by J. A. Tufts, professor in Phillips Academy, Exeter,\nN. H.; and Charles S. Hartwell, teacher of English in the Boys' High School, Brooklyn,\nN. Y.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President— R&uhen Post Halleck, Louisvill^ Ky.\nFor First Vice-President — \"^Whur Fisk Gordy, Hartford, Conn.\nFor Second Vice-President— WWWam H. Smiley, Denver, Colo.\nFor Secretary —^iWiaxa Schuyler, St. Louis, Mo.\n429\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe meeting then adjourned to the different conferences, as follows :\nRound\n\nTable of Teachers of Mathematics, in th€ assembly room of the Central Congregational Church. Leader, David Eugene Smith, professor of mathematics, Columbia\nUniversity, Nevir York city.\nRound Table of Teachers of History, in the chapel. Leader, James Sullivan, head\nteacher of history in the High School of Commerce, Nevi^ York city.\nRound Table of Teachers of Modern Languages, in the First Church in Boston.\nLeader, Miss Augusta Prescott, teacher of French and German in the Edward Little High\nSchool, Auburn, Me.\nWilbur Fisk Gordy, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nOPENING\nCHARLES\n\nF. WHEELOCK,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nREMARKS\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF THE\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nAs a brief preface tp the important work that is planned for us today,I wish to occupy five minutes of your time in stating what seems to me to\nbe the two most pressing problems of secondary education — problems to\nwhich no reference has been made in the program that is before us.\nWithin recent times the secondary school has advanced from a position of questioned utility and of doubtful propriety into a firmly established place as an essential part of our system of public education. Most\nof us remember the time when a common-school education, limited by the\nthree R's, was generally considered a sufficient preparation for the lifework of those who were not intending to enter the learned professions,\nand it was simply desirable, but not essential, for the latter class to have\na more advanced training before beginning their professional studies.\nOnly recently the secondary school was an institution specially intended\nfor the well-to-do, for the more aristocratic portion of the community,\nand there was no thought of its being opened or required for the masses.\nThe question of the justice of the maintenance of a public high school by\npublic taxation has been openly discussed and frequently decided in the\nnegative within our recollection ; but, happily, all questions of this character have been transferred from the list of problems into the list of\naxioms. There is now no further question as to whether there shall be a\nhigh school or whether all our children should attend it. We are now\noccupying ourselves mainly in seeking to determine what kind of high\nschool will best satisfy our needs. We have reached decisions regarding\nmany of the important phases of this general question. We no longer\ninsist that all students shall pursue the same course of study. The value\nof manual training is universally recognized. The commercial course is\nan established fact for those who wish to pursue it. But there are still\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOPENING\n\nREMARKS\n\n43 1\n\nsome questions unanswered, and to me the most serious of them is the\nEnglish question.\nThere has never been any question as to the supreme importance to\nevery person of the ability to express himself clearly, accurately, and\nreadily in his vernacular. The universal recognition of this fact has led\nto the placing of great emphasis on the study of English in recent times.\nColleges are requiring of candidates for admission an acquaintance with\nEnglish that their graduates of ten years ago did not possess. Many of\nour high schools are makfng the study of English a required subject for\nall students thru the greater part of the course. The demagog as well as\nthe pedagog is abroad in the land, and the former is proclaiming to large\naudiences the failure of our high schools because some of them still teach\nsome foreign language before the students have attained a full mastery of\nEnglish. If any of you have doubts regarding the seriousness or the\nurgency of the English problem, read the symposium on the conflicting\nideals in the teaching of English published in the Educatio?ial Review for\nMarch of this year, and I believe you will be convinced that we have not\nyet reached any generally accepted conclusions as to what ideals should\nguide us or what methods we should pursue in this most important subject. The question of what to do, how much to do, and how to do it is\na question of such supreme importance that it should occupy the attention of every secondary teacher until more light is obtained. It has been\nleft off the program of this meeting purposely, because there seemed to\nbe no new light available, not because we have thought it settled.\nThe problem which seems to me second in importance is that of estimating educational results. While the English problem is among the\nnewest questions, this problem of estimating results is among the oldest;\nbut recent developments have given it a new importance. Twenty years\nago we discussed this question simply as a question of admission to college. Then, as now, each college determined, as was its proper function,\nwhich candidates should be received and which rejected ; but in recent\nyears there has grown up a body of statutory educational requirements\ngoverning admission, not only to the teaching profession, but to the study\nof law, of medicine, of dentistry, of veterinary medicine, and governing\nalso adraissjon to the service of the state. On this account the measurement of educational results has become a matter of greater importance\nthan ever before. If we are to administer these laws justly, we must\nestablish correct standards that may be justly applied. That we have not\nyet reached such standards that are generally satisfactory is evident from\nthe vacillating nature of our practice for the past twenty years. We have\nmeasured by examinations alone, by tj^e certificates of teachers alone, and\nby the actual trial of the candidate to do the work required ; and we have\nfound defects in all the methods. Examinations were charged with leading to the awful sin of cramming.\nCertification alone has been found\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nunsatisfactory by many, because principals, in their zeal to help pupils\nalong, have sometimes certified the unworthy, or, in their zeal to establish reputations for thoroness, have sometimes held back the worthy.\nInspection sufficiently thoro to be of value in measuring results in individual cases has been found impracticable.\nExpressions of opinion that come to me from a wide field indicate\nthat we have made small progress toward a final solution. Recent events\nin this section of the Union, especially the establishment of the College\nEntrance Examination Board of the Middle States and Maryland Association, and the establishment of a system of examinations conducted by\npersons other than teachers in the schools of Greater New York, seem to\nindicate a growing tendency in the East to return to the written examination as the best available means of determining the success or the failure\nof school work in individual cases. But the number of those who object to\nexaminations is so great that we cannot consider this as a final solution.\nIt may be possible that we shall find the true solution in a system of\nexaminations supplemented by inspection and by certification — something after the manner in which these three teachers are now employed\nby the University of the State of New York. Certainly, the importance\nof the subject is so great that every secondary teacher in the Union should\ndevote at least a portion of hisenergies to its study. This problem has\nalso been purposely omitted from the program of this department for the\nsame reason that the English problem has been omitted.\nThe two problems that I have mentioned are not the only important\nones; neither are all the great questions that confront us to be discussed\nin the two sessions of this department at this meeting. But we sincerely\nhope and expect that much valuable light will be thrown on important\nquestions in the discussions in which we are about to participate.\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nREUBEN\n\nPOST\n\nAS TO THE ENLARGEMENT\nSECONDARY FIELD\n\nHALLECK,\n\nPRINCIPAL\nLOUISVILLE,\n\nOF\n\nKY.\n\nTHE\n\nBOYS'\n\nHIGH\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nAH fields are enlarging, and of course secondary education is no\nexception to the rule. We are getting three times as much steam power\nfrom a pound of coal as we did a half-century ago. We are also obtaining nearly three times as much result from the same mental effort as\nwe did then. A boy was then put to learning a dozen pages of Latin\ngrammar in advance of any actual use for either rule or exception. Today,\nwith the aid of machinery, the workman can make in three hours a day all\nthe absolutely necessary things of life — in fact, more than he could have\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nFIELD\n\n433\n\nproduced by working all his time a century ago. Today, with skilled\nteachers who know how to quicken intellect with sympathy, how to join\nfacts together with hoops of logical steel, how to avoid the waste of marking time and of mere unintellectual repetition that adds nothing, we can\naccomplish in one-third the time all that we achieved a half-century ago.\nJust as the workmen go out into new fields to employ their added increment\nof time, so the secondary school must enlarge its field of operation to use\nup the time gained. The secondary school has already enlarged so much,\ndue to the pressure of the colleges without and to its own needs within, that\nit finds that it requires more time than it has at its disposal. Th's time\nmust be gained both by having pupils come to the high school earlier\nand also by reducing the amount of time and energy now misspent in the\nsecondary school. A consideration of the second factor is left to one of\nthe papers following this.\nThe grades are so much better taught than they were a half-century\nago that they spend a part of the time thus gained in marking time, in\nthe mere mechanics of repetition that does not instruct, and in advancing\ninto jungles that might better be left for high-school exploration. The\nsecondary school wants at least one, and perhaps two, years of this time.\nThe secondary school would like to begin two years earlier to teach such\nsubjects as Latin, the modern languages, and the relation of common\nthings sometimes known as science. Instruction in these branches without a skilled specialist is a hundred fold more damaging than no instruction. The secondary school alone can afford such specialists.\nSome would say that the subject of this discussion is a misnomer ;\nthat we cannot speak of enlarging primary or secondary or college or\nuniversity education ; that, since education is a continuous process, each\nstep depending on foregoing steps, we can speak only of enlarging education. Probably no one who has given the subject any thought doubts\nthe continuity of education. Probably no one not entangled in metaphysical argument would contend that there is no difference between\nprimary and university education. It is true that water goes thru a continuous orderly process to become ice, and even then it does not change\nits essential nature ; but you and I would hardly care to trust ourselves to\nany captain of an Atlantic liner who in the vicinity of icebergs paid too\nmuch attention to arguments about the essential unity of water. We\nshould expect such a captain to wreck his vessel. Those who introduce\nprimary methods and discipline into a high school will wreck the school.\nProfessor Stratton D. Brooks, in his discussion of the reasons for withdrawing from school, shows that some pupils in the upper grades leave\nbecause they require different treatment from that of younger pupils. He\nemphasizes the fact that high-school ideals and management should differ\nfrom those of the grades. Commenting on cases where they do not, he\nsays — and I quote him word for word: \"This accounts for the fact that\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ngrade teachers when transferred to high-school work ahnost always fail.\"\nI myself believe that grade teachers frequently succeed, but only in cases\nwhere they have the power of adapting themselves to the changed needs\nof the high-school pupils. Secondary schools need enlarged ideals, more\nfreedom, and methods that drop the plummet deeper. Dispose of your\napron strings faster and faster as you advance in the seventh grade is\nsound advice in the economics of education. I hope to live to hear\nmore high-school economists say: ''There's husbandry in my school.\nMy stock of apron strings is nearly all closed out.\"\nThis paper intentionally leaves to those that follow the exact statement of enlarged secondary programs. It endeavors to indicate some\ngeneral ways in which secondary education must be enlarged if it is to\nfit for life.\nThe secondary school must be so enlarged as to give more scope to\nprobable reasoning, as opposed to mathematical reasoning. Few things in\nlife are certain except death and taxes. One reason why the farm proved\nsuch a magnificent school for our ancestors was because it gave them so much\npractice in probable reasoning. This type of reasoning is the one always\nemployed to deal with new and untried emergencies, with changing conditions; in fact, with the vast majority of issues that confront us in life.\nA country youth one March night hitched his horse to an old buggy and\nstarted to see his sweetheart. In the darkness he drove into a mud hole.\nThe whiffletree began to crack when he urged the horse forward. Another\npull and it would break. He would then have to get out in the mud, ruin\nthe polish on his shoes, and be compelled to return home. With hardly\na second's hesitation, he seized the ends of the whiffletree, and with his\nown muscular arms he relieved the strain, as he called \"Go-long\" to the\nhorse. The buggy came out all right. That country boy deserved his\ngirl, and we hope that he won her. The city boy has received from athletics and from dealing with his fellows on the playground his best training in probable reasoning.\nWhen a farmer plants a crop, or when a business man makes an investment, he can look at the end of no arithmetic to find out his certain\nprofit. No teacher can give a mathematical answer to the question :\n\" What degree of success will my pupils have reached five years after\ngraduation?'-' Life never points to more than probable success. In\nschool the tyranny of mathematics has been as great as that of the classics.\nPresident Eliot has complained that from one-sixth to one--third of the\nwhole time of Ameripan children is given to arithmetic, and he has\nimpeached it because, as he says, \" it has nothing to do with observing\ncorrectly, or with recording accurately the results of observation, or with\ncollating facts and drawing just inferences therefrom, or with expressing\nclearly and forcibly logical thought.\"\nMuch of the mathematical reasoning taught in our high schools, as\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nFIELD\n\n435\n\nwell as in our grammar schools, is necessary for experts only. It has not\nthe excuse of affording exercise in the probable reasoning necessary to\ndeal with the changing conditions of life. In developing rule-of-thumb\nreasoners our schools have already done fairly good work.\nThere cannot be the usual uniformity in courses that are best for\ndeveloping probable reasoning. Those ages which advanced the world\nmost were the least uniform. The world took a mighty stride ahead in\nElizabethan times, but there was less uniformity in belief and action than\nin the preceding reigns. When Drake met the Spanish Armada, he\nfought against captains of whom Philip of Spain had required absolute\nsubmission and sameness of opinion in all matters pertaining to church\nand state. This uniformity had produced an uninventive frame of mind.\nThe individuality and skill of the English won the battle for them in\nspite of the small size of their ships. If scientific investigation of the\nnineteenth century has proved any one thing, it is that progress comes\nonly from those who vary from the common type.\nThe secondary course must be so enlarged that no one pupil can take\nit all. Life is so complex that no one person can live it in all its phases.\nAll of us are constrained to omit something that we should like to do.\nAs the pupil grows older and has mastered those foundation studies on\nwhich advancement in all depends, he should be given increasing opportunity to select studies in terras of his own individuality. Division of\nlabor has added so much to life because it has allowed individuals to be\nclassified according to their capacity and natural tastes. Foreigners have\nsaid that the success of American manufacturers is largely due to their\n\"scrap heaps\" on which they throw an old machine as soon as a better\none appears. Optional courses may serve as a stepping-stone to relegating\nto the \"scrap heap\" many unnecessary branches and inferior teachers.\nThe tendency toward secondary enlargement has been felt for a long\ntime. The English course has been so enlarged and improved during\nthe past twenty years that we are justified in saying that a new English\ncourse has been added. During this period manual training has been\nintroduced. Right here critics are saying that this tendency to enlargement results in expensive mistakes; that it fails to hold pupils in school\nas well as the older regime. They are quoting, in answer to those who\nclaimed that manual-training enlargement would furnish the secondary\nbliss for which we sighed, the testimony of one of the great superintendents of the country, who at the superintendents' meeting in February,\n1903, said :\nWith the largest city manual-training school in this country, after several years of\nexperience, we have found thus far that it neither holds pupils in school so well as do the\nother high schools, nor do they pursue their smdies so persistently; that is, they do not\nstick to what they start in with so continuously, especially in mathematics, Latin, German, French, English, and natural science.\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe trouble here is not entirely with the manual-training enlargement,\nbut with the fact that much of it is put in the wrong place. In manual\ntraining many schools have reversed the correct order of things, for the\nyoung child should be busy getting control of his body. Later, at highschool age, it is the proper time for him to lay the main stress on getting\ncontrol of the field of ideas. There is much time wasted for the majority\nin passing over the long stretch between the intellectual element in\nmanual work and the acquisition of machine expertness thru uninstructive\nrepetition, such expertness as is in evidence in many of the \"show\" products of the schools. The pupil has a sort of blind consciousness of what\nshould be his work in the high school, and if he is too much diverted from\nthis end, he grows uneasy and leaves. Much of the manual-training work\ngiven is fit only for the grades. The fact that a mistake has been made\nis not in itself an argument against secondary enlargement. But before\nwe proceed further we ought to feel that additions to the secondary course\nare not to be made on mere theory. The chances of mistakes are many.\nWe cannot recall the youth of our pupils to remedy those mistakes. It is\nthe business of educational organizations to recommend a change only\nafter careful deliberation. But our hesitation must not be so pronounced\nas to preclude growth. The enlarged English course is of itself sufficient\nto justify attendance at the secondary schools.\nWe come now to the point of transcendent importance. Secondary\neducation stands most in need of enlargement on its moral side ; in its\naims and ideals. How shall the high school fit its pupils better for life ?\nis a question often asked. Even its friends would hardly contend that\nvast improvment is not necessary in this direction. To fit for life requires\ntwo things. The first essential is ready adaptation to varying needs and\nemergencies. This is the intellectual element, and progress in this direction has been more marked than in the second requisite, which is moral\ndevelopment. Of course, the intellectual cannot be entirely divorced\nfrom the moral. But intellectual progress for the past fifty years has been\nmuch more pronounced than moral development. The secondary school\nhas not played the part in moral advancement that the nation has a right\nto demand. There must be enlargement along moral lines. The highschool graduate must be so fashioned that he can become his own master\nat the day of graduation. He must order intelligently the use of his own\nspare time. This is as important as to harness Niagara's waters. He\nmust have sufficient power of moral resistance to enable him to walk\nby the gambling house, to avoid spirituous liquors, to spurn ''get rich\nquick\" methods, to battle for civic and social righteousness, to be content\nto stand entirely alone during some of life's bitter hours, not joining the\ncrowd to deny the right ere the cock has crowed thrice.\nIs it true that an old Grecian Stoic would notice that almost all our\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nFIELD\n\n437\n\nhigh-school examinations are examinations of the intellect, in so far as it\nis in our power to make them so? If this is true, it is a severe impeachment. We often give the pupil who has copied his problem a high\nintellectual mark. The one who after two hours' work failed to solve that\nproblem and who refused to copy it receives zero, altho his moral mark\nshould be one hundred. In practice the schools are stressing the intellectual\nmore than the moral. Can knowledge without character ever furnish\nmaximum results to either the individual or the world, no matter whether\nit is knowledge of bookkeeping, of how to run a bank, or of a city government? Moral backbone alone will secure a hundred-fold yield from\nindividual, social, and commercial life. If the high-school graduate\ncontinues his intellectual development on the right plane, it will be\nbecause moral development furnishes the incentive. Character will apply\nthe spur, and the individual, like Milton, will feel that he is ever in his\ngreat Taskmaster's eye. We can train our pupils to say: \"What matter\nif the winter is long at Valley Forge, if the opposing forces are strong, if\nthe craven calls in our ear to sign a truce, if the enemy offers us bribes?\nYou need never doubt us. There are no Arnolds here. We have been\nchosen to perpetuate this republic, to tend its hearth fires and keep them\nbrightly burning.\"\nI would not have the high school pay less attention to the things of\nintellect, but I would have it heed more that moral development which\nshould be as all-enveloping as the summer air and sunshine which enwrap\nthe earth and ripen fruit and grain. Every time that teachers aid a pupil\nin doing something for another, and in recognizing that all commerce is\nbased on doing something for others ; every time they aid him in inhibiting\nthe expression of an undesirable emotion, in repressing the tendency to\nwaste his time when left to himself, in suppressing an inclination toward\nirregularity, in reacting rightly toward the small duties of life ; every time\nthey teach him to form intelligent moral judgments on the acts of his\nclassmates, teachers, the citizens and public officials of his town; every\ntime that they cause him to feel deeper sympathy with others from noticing\nhis own lack of perfection; every time that they give him a glimpse of\nthe laws of life and show him that anything immoral is necessarily in\nimmutable conflict with them; every time they lead him to recognize the\nfact that he himself naturally dislikes what is wrong in others, and, as they\nteach, call to their aid the force of human gravity toward what is joyous\nand noble and self-sacrificing and divine, by throwing on the screen of\nschool life a well-ordered change of pictures embodying such traits ; every\ntime the teachers recognize that they themselves must be the fountain\nwhence the moral waters flow, and that the pupils of an enthusiastic moral\nteacher, moral every time in small things as well as in great, will themselves\nas naturally tend to be moral as the buds tend to unfold when the warm\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "43^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nSpring sun shines ; every time that education advances on lines like these,\nit is enlarging in the noblest sense. I think that the tendency in this\ndirection today should be the most pronounced of all.\nNo matter if the intellectual element apparently lags behind, time must\nbe taken to secure more certain moral results and to add to the world of\nself-governing republics every graduate of the secondary school. Those\ngraduates who have had developed in them moral sinews of steel are\nalready fitted to grapple with the most of life's emergencies.\n\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge D. Pettee, principal of the University School, Cleveland, O.^ — The last\ndecade of the closing century brought profitable discussions of topic-values in the curriculum. The present decade finds us measuring the time-values of our courses. In a\ncomparatively new country and a rapidly expanding civilization, the order could scarcely\nbe reversed.\nAs a result of awakened and widened interest, and by virtue of specific reports by\ncommittees originating in this Association, we have a clearer conception today of the\nessential value and the educational significance of certain studies than was possible twenty\nyears ago.\nWe have exalted the study of English, our mother-tongue, not so much for discipline\nin linguistics, as for itself, in choice literature, and as tending to liberal culture. The\nhistory of the world and of its peoples, of its institutions and of its gradual conquest by\nman, has demanded and received its larger place. The beginnings of science and the\nelements of manual training fulfill a legitimate function in the curriculum. We are\nimitating the old world in correlating our mathematical studies, and in finding their\naffiliations to each other and their numerous applications in the physical world.\nLatin, more and more, holds commanding position, both as master-tool in discipline\nstudy and as foundation stone for language-building. Per contra, we are probably\nwitnessing the passing of Greek, at least from our secondary schools. It does not reflect\nupon language-study as a key to knowledge to admit that the double course in the dead\nlanguages brought into peril the so-called classical course, making, as it did, Greek the\nsupreme test of scholarly ambition, but closing the doors of culture training to many\nwho should and would otherwise have entered.\nIn recent years we are more thoroly cultivating the entire secondary field, and we are\nnot appreciably increasing our acreage. We begin to see that practically all boys should\ncover the whole field, that specialization in the early years is dangerous to character and\nto intellect-buildmg. A high-school boy must have his doors to life kept open for him\nas late as possible and as wide as possible. The tendency is to open a boy's mind by a\nwider curriculum, not by a lengthened curriculum.\nThis fragmentary comment upon a few of the newer topic-values may modestly\njustify the statement that in these later days we are trying to study and to teach in our\nschools the elements of wisdom, rather than of learning. A little learning is said to be\na dangerous thing, but first steps in wisdom are always safe. Wisdom is the correlation\nof truth, and the acquisition of wisdom must not be deferred until school days are over.\nIn estimating topic-values, I believe we are judging branches of study in truer proportion, and our educational structure is, therefore, assuming fairer lines.\nEvery teacher will think of his own illustrations.\nI may be excused for dwelling\nI By request of the author, the amended spellings adopted by the Board of Directors do not appear in\ntills discussion (see resolutions adopted by the Board of Directors July 12, 1899).\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nFIELD\n\n439\n\nbriefly upon a single topic wherein new assessments of subject-value have been made,\nwherein a little wisdom is comjng to take the place of very doubtful learning. Correlated\ngeometry may be the practical name for the theme. Many of us recall two or three textbooks of demonstrative geometry reasonably mastered by us in school and college days.\nI believe I knew personally some four or five hundred young men who at the same time\nwere gaining their geometric conceptions by the same processes. Since those days I am\nsure I have met some thirteen or fourteen hundred boys in classroom in this and kindred\ntopics. Only within recent years, however, have I felt urgently impelled practically to\nreject the elaborated form of logical deduction — of major premise, minor premise, and\nconclusion, of restricted axioms, of enforced abstractions. All this should come, and I\nwould not minimize the rigorous analyses and testing of relations for boys at the right\nage; but I frankly lament the fact that boys of twelve or fourteen are not mastering the\nessential relations of geometry in correlation with their first bench and laboratory work,\nand I wielcome the signs of the better day when this is to be possible. What Perry is doing\nin England, what some of our teachers at Chicago and elsewhere are beginning among\nus, constitute one of the hopeful tendencies of today.\nCorrelated geometry is so designated because the pupil is shown true relations, and\nby drawing and model, preferably of his own making, he finds the relations, never to lose\nthem ; he senses the form, the equality, the inequality, the regularity, the similarity, the\nparallelism, the difference in direction ; he may measure lines and may also measure\nphysical forces. He must know the number of ounces or pounds which will break a\nstring, and he will then know the breaking strength of the big cable. He may find by\nexperiment the relative capacij:y of small water-pipes, and he will readily determine the\ncapacity of large city water-mains. By time measurements on his stop-watch he must\ncompute the heights of falling bodies. The solution of the 30° and 60° right triangle\nwill readily open up problems in the inclined plane, and at an early age he may safely be\nshown that the trigonometric sine of an angle of 30° is %.\n\\n brief, geometry, disassociated from elementary physics and experimental mechanics,\nis not geometry at all, but a refined form of logic, couched in mathematical terms. It\nwould have been quite as possible to develop a physical logic as a geometric logic.\nAlgebra must, of course, find itself included in the correlated geometry, i. e., the\nelements of the subject, in equations and factors. When these modifications are made,\nthe bugbear of mathematical study will go from every normal boy.\nThese and similar steps have been taken in assigning new topic-values. One by one,\nand in the aggregate, they point to new time-values within the curriculum.\nFor two parallel, but wholly different, reasons, we may strongly favor the early\nexpansion of our high-school curriculum into a six-year course. The proposition is not a\nnew one, but it is still somewhat a suggestion of novelty, not wholly digested or worked\nout, but surely worthy of careful discussion. The two great facts which justify the six-year\nhigh-school course are, first, the economic waste below the high school ; and, secondly,\nthe pressure within the secondary curriculum.\nSome fifteen years ago he who is now the honored President of this Association\nwrote papers and delivered addresses looking to condensation within the primary and\ngrammar grades; little, if anything, seemed to be left unproved. Yet conservatism has\nbeen slow to yield the points at issue, and probably only as the legitimate demands of the\nhigh school are made clear, will downward pressure carry conviction to the teachers who\nbear the educational burden of the lower grades.\nFor my own gratification, several months ago I sent some seven or eight hundred\ncircular letters to grammar and high-school principals, endeavoring to secure something\nlike a composite opinion, if not a consensus of opinion, upon the familiar topics of\nreading, writing, arithmetic, English, and geography.\nThe responses were more than a gratification — they were almost a surprise. We\nmay feel much surer today than ever of our ground in the following propositions :\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n1. The ambitious grammar-school teacher of today believes that a boy can and should\nmaster the essentials of arithmetic in five or six years, and that the balance of his training\nin number work should be met in elementary algebra and geometry and in the commercial\narithmetic of the later high school.\n2. That geography should soon merge into history and natural and physical science,\nand that its study should never cease.\n3. That intelligent reading and accurate, forceful writing should be cultivated and\nmagnified ; that grammatical, technical linguistic study may be reduced to lowest terms ;\nthat a still larger percentage of pupils may properly pursue the elements of Latin, and\nthat in this study the inflection and more minute syntax may find their elaboration.\n4. That much of the repetition of the earlier years does not lead to thoroughness\nin mastery, but often to staleness of ambition and to destructive apathy.\nFortunately, these categorical statements are still open to some dispute and surely to\nrevision of form, but they will serve as postulates in the problem of getting pupils ready\nfor a modified high school at twelve years of age. I reme'mber that a large percentage of\nour young people leave school at fourteen or fifteen years, and it is partly in the interest\nof such pupils that I would hasten the day of the six-year high-school course.\nSuch a course naturally divides into the lower high school — say, for boys of twelve\nto fifteen — and the upper high school, for boys fifteen to eighteen. Through the lower high\nschool it should be hoped or required that all pupils pass. Into this lower high school\nalso should be put those studies which are general rather than technical — those which\nmagnify the facts of life, just as the physical life of the boy takes on new vigor; studies\nwhich postpone the abstract analysis, but cultivate the concrete expression of topics which\nteach the boy to appreciate, to the highest possible degree, the world in which he lives,\nphysical, intellectual, and moral ; its men, and something of its books. If into these\nyears may come other language study than that of the mother-tongue, his Latin, French,\nor German should be begun.\nEvery boy should be given more than at present of botany, physical geography,\ngeology, physiology, current history ; something of manual training in clay, w^ood and\nmetal ; here should come his correlated geometry, with its mensuration, its construction,\nits laboratory experiments ; his field excursions, his visits to great industrial plants, to the\nrare and wonderful in nature. Here should the reading habit and an intelligent relish for\ngood books be cultivated.\nWith such a course, wisely handled, the boy who leaves school at fifteen is vastly\nbetter fitted for his little place in the world than the boys we see quitting school days at the\n^end of the grammar grade.\nIn the upper high schools will be found the boys who are ambitious to reach out to\nthe best. More should be drawn into this upper school, through the tastes which they have\nalready acquired of studies broad and inspiring. Better fitted by far will every boy be to\ndecide what his future school days shall hold. If the so-called classical course is selected,\nwith far more reason is the choice made, far less narrow will be his vision as he goes on\ntoward college.\nSay what we will of Greek and Latin being the surest tests of ambition — and after\nknowing intimately and well several thousand boys, ambitious and otherwise, I frankly\nsay I know of no surer tests — the fact remains that our quickest, brightest boys are pitifully\nnarrowed and starved on important sides of their being, by being forced directly from\ntheir grammar-school subjects into college-preparatory subjects. Only in the upper high\nschool should the differentiation begin, and I would gladly see the course practically the\nsame for all boys until they are eighteen. Once again, the wise boy is better than the\nlearned boy, and it is well for a young man to know his nature on all its sides, with its\nbroad possibilities, before he has to close the doors of his choice.\nSome of our colleges are taking a great step forward from the free elective system.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nFIELD\n\n441\n\nin saying that a student shall touch several of the great departments of human knowledge\nby choosing within several well-defined groups.\nThe new three-year consistency in the curriculum may finally come to have numerical\nbeauty of its own, equal to that of the old four-year courses. We may profitably assume a\nprimary course above the kindergarten of six years, subdivided into the upper primary\nand the lower primary, of three years each. Following comes the secondary course, the\nlower high school from twelve to fifteen, and the upper high school from fifteen to eighteen.\nI may exceed the bounds of my paper and of my experience if I should suggest that the\nthird stage, or university period, of our system shows at least in its lower half, or the\nstrictly college course, a tendency toward a three-year course. I believe that the tendency of the present day is wholly toward a three-year college course.\nI believe that the broadest field in which a man by personal worth can influence\nyounger lives is in the secondary school, and, if my experience has given me insight, the\nfuily complete college man is a better teacher of boys than the university graduate, with\nhis greater learning. We still need the college course, as an integral thing, for its own\nsake, and we do not want it cut up into an aggregation of courses with vague beginning\nand indeterminate ending. We do not want our boys to go to college at sixteen and seventeen simply because they are quick to learn. We rightly hold them back until they are\neighteen, broadening their preparation that we may more surely enrich their lives. The\nsix-year high-school and academic course permits the largest thoughts of character-building\nand of rounding out a boy's nature.\nThe four-year period is proved too short.\nIn conclusion, one must consider briefly the ways and means. Apparently, in buildings and equipment, a transition to the extended high-school course would not be an\nexpensive step. Except for a rather natural increase in the number of pupils who would\nbe kept in school, it would cost not very much more to teach boys of twelve to fourteen highschool subjects tlian grammar-school subjects, though there would be some advance.\nIn the teaching department, in which every valuable plan has its last and best testing, Ibelieve the newer naming of the years will finally give satisfaction and the teacher's powers will be stimulated. I can think of no kinder thing to say to our grammarschool teachers than this: \" We must ask you in some way to give our boys, prior to twelve\nyears of age, their elementary training. We believe you can do it better in six years,\nabove the kindergarten, than you can do it in eight. Six years' work spread over eight\nyears breeds the same intellectual apathy that a three-year college course breeds when\nspread over what is only vaguely called the traditional four years ; and in the primary\nschool the apathy is more pernicious and more contagious.\"\nIn the exact middle of the sixth grade of an eight-year elementary course I asked a\nsuperior teacher of arithmetic if she would try to finish the two and a half years of number work in one and a half years, and if she would do the best she could, safely and discreetly, incondensing the work of the seventh grade also, so that eventually some time\nmight there be saved. In four and a half months of special stimulus, and attended by\neager response on the part of the pupils, the teacher had not only accomplished all .she\nwas urged to with her sixth grade, but found, almost to her amazement, that she was finishing with her seventh grade in a half-year nearly the entire schedule for a year and a\nhalf. That class deserved and received its first introduction to algebra and geometry\nin the following September.\nIn general, our universities must develop in their education departments young men\nand women who are competent to correlate truth; to foster zeal through association of topics,\nto set purpose and power above mere technical accomplishments — broad-minded, warmhearted teachers, to whom the task of educating a boy is a delight in spite of its exactions for\n; whom there is no drudgery, because he or she creates no drudgery. When\nthese teachers are ours in increasing numbers, when we teach things in right proportion\nbecause we /?(?/the correlation of truth, then we shall'not hesitate to claim the boys in\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n442\n\nthe Strictly secondary course for six full years; we shall then be seeking the wisdom\nwhich outranketh learning.\nThe appended outline is supplied chiefly to illustrate the significance of the six-year\nperiods,'each subdivided into two three-year periods:\nTHE SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL COURSE\nAS\n\nA\n\nEducational\nOrders\n\nPART\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMPLETE\n\nSchools\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n9\n\nLower Primary\nSchool\nPrimary\nUpper Primary\nSchool\n\n9 to 12\n12 to 15\n\nLower High School\nSecondary\n\nUniversity\n(Tertiary)\n\nUpper High School\n\n15 to 18\n\nCollege or Technical\nSchool\n\n18 to 21\n\nProfessional or\nGraduate School\n\nWITH\n\nGrades\n\nAges\n6 to\n\nAND\n\n21 to 24\n\nA THREE-YEAR\n\nPERIOD\n\nAS\n\nA\n\nUNIT\n\nCharacteristics\n\nReading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, drawing, music.\nThe same, with language forms, geography,\nand elementary science. Object-lessons 'vith\nfamiliar animals and plants, metals, rain,\nsnow, brooks, etc. Making of collections.\nGeneral studies, aiming at the true appreciation of nature, men, and books. Major half\nof curriculum devoted to facts and to processes rather than to abstractions and forms.\nSimilar studies, in more technical form. Processes more exhaustive. College preparatory courses.\nGreek begun only in college and forming the\nbasis of the classical collegiate course. The\ncollege and technical courses largely free\nfrom professional studies.\nThe age of admission, for average students,\ntwo years lower than at present.\n\n^YILSON Farrand, master of Newark Academy, N. J.— There are visible at the\npresent time three distinct tendencies as to enlargement of the secondary field — to\nextend it downward, to extend it outward, and to extend it upward. The tendency to\nextend it downward, by lopping off the last two years of the grammar school and establishing asix-year secondary course, or by beginning secondary studies earlier, is good and\nshould be encouraged, altho the saving in time will not be as great as is sometimes fancied.\nStill there will be some saving of time and a distinct gain in relieving the pressure that\nnow exists in the secondary course. The second tendency, to broaden the field by the\nintroduction of new subjects, has about reached its limit. The movement was inevitable,\nand on the whole wise, altho there are some attendant evils that need to be guarded\nagainst. The third tendency, to extend the secondary course upward so as to include\npart of the present college work, is perhaps not so clearly formulated as the other two,\nbut it is none the less real, and it is a movement that, if it advances, will affect profoundly our whole school and college system. I say college system advisedly, for the\nmatter is not one that concerns the school alone, and the question is inextricably bound\nup with that of shortening the college course.\nThe assumption of college work by the schools has been fostered in the past by two\nforces — the natural desire of the colleges, on the pne hand, to have their students as far\nadvanced as possible before undertaking college work, and the equally natural desire of\nthe schools, on the other hand, to increase the scope and dignity of their own sphere. The\nmovement has been so gradual that its extent has not always been fully realized, but it\nis a safe statement that the best schools in the country now take their pupils to a point\nformerly reached only at the end of the sophomore year.\nHarvard illustrates the extreme to which this has been carried. The Harvard admission requirements are now greater, I believe, than those of any other American college,\nand the pushing up of these requirements is one of the forces that have been operating to\nextend upward the secondary field. A student can complete the Harvard course in three\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nFIELD\n\n443\n\nyears; work done in the schools in excess of the regular admission requirements counts\ntoward securing the degree, and a considerable number of the students who go thru in\nthree years have done part of their college work before entrance. If the Harvard course\nis shortened to three years, the result will have been gained largely, if not mainly, by\nadding to the work of the secondary schools.\nThis is one of the strongest points in the argument for shortening the college course.\nIf pupils now reach college two years later than formerly, and if at that time they have\naccomplished two years more of work than before, why should they not shorten the college\ncourse by that amount and leave at the same point as their grandfathers? I am not now\nconcerned with answering this question either in the affirmative or in the negative, but I\nam concerned to show what effect this movement will have upon the question of enlarging\nthe secondary field. Would the result not be inevitably to throw on the school the burden\nof compensating, in part at least, for the shortened course ? That there would be such a\ntendency is certain, and it is a question whether it could be successfully resisted.\nAnother element that enters into the case is the advanced age at which young men,\non account of the increased college requirements and the steadily growing demands of the\nprofessional schools, are compelled to begin their life-work, and the consequent tendency\nto skip the college altogether. Now the ordinary school course does not afford satisfactory foundation for professional study, and there is beginning to be heard a demand for\nmore extended work in the schools that will supply an adequate preparation. The establishment ofa one- or two-year course supplementary to the ordinary secondary-school work\nwould today meet a genuine demand. It is precisely to meet this situation that the\nproposal is made to shorten the college course, so that here is another point at which these\ntwo questions touch.\nThese are the forces that are today operating to extend upward the secondary field.\nI have said that the tendency is perhaps not yet fully formulated, but it is real, and the\ndemand is formulated in no uncertain tones. Two days ago, from this platform. President\nEliot and President Harper calmly spoke of turning over still more of the college work to\nthe schools. These men are high authorities ; they do not speak idly, and their words\ncarry weight; but I wish to take this opportunity, calmly, deliberately, and with all of the\nemphasis at my command, to utter a distinct and unqualified protest.\nI protest against transferring any more work from the college to the school, because\nit means the turning of our colleges into universities and the sacrifice of one of the strongest factors in our educational scheme. The American college is an institution peculiar\nto this country, and has no counterpart in other educational systems. It has been developed to suit our needs, and it has proved itsrighttoexistby the results that it has achieved.\nIt is more than a course of study, and it is doing a work that can never be accomplished\nby any system of schools, however exalted. It will be a sad day for American education\nif students ever come to pass directly from the schools to university work.\nI protest, in the second place, against transferring any more work from the college to\nthe school because the beast is already sinking beneath the burden. We are now doing more\ncollege work than is wise or best. The secondary field has been extended outward,\nand at the same time forced upward, until one of the most serious evils that exist in our\neducational system today is the overloaded school. President Harper said on Tuesday\nthat we could expect methods of secondary education to be greatly improved in the near\nfuture, and that because of the saving of time involved more college work could then be\nunloaded on the school. President Harper was right. There has been great improvement in secondary instruction in the immediate past, and we may expect more in the\nimmediate future. But I protest against compensating for this gain by piling more work\nupon us, thus leaving our condition as bad as it i* at present.\nPersonally 1 believe — I have no thought that it can ever be carried out, but I believe\n— that it would be better if college requirements were distinctly less in quantity than at\npresent.\nWe could do better work, and we could send better students to college, if\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe amount exacted of us were less, and we had the opportunity to do the smaller quantity\nin the best possible manner, without cramming and without undue pressure. Time will\nnot allow me to enlarge on this point, but I believe that the curse of secondary education\ntoday is the unreasonable pressure that now exists. Let the secondary field be extended\ndownward, with the resultant saving of time and relief from strain; let the field be extended\noutward, with the consequent gain in breadth and richness; but let what is thus gained be\napplied to making more efficient the work that rightly belongs to us, not to making room\nfor more work from above. Thus we shall do a double service: we shall preserve the\nAmerican college to fill its rightful place between the school and the university; and we\nshall make it possible for the American school to become an even more efficient educational instrument than it is at present.\nIsaac ThomasJ principal of Edmunds High School, Burlington, Vt. — Whether the\ntendencies we are discussing are real or speculative, widespread or not, is not now the\nquestion. Of course, it would be interesting, and perhaps important, if we could determine how widespread they are, but even that knowledge would not enable us to know\ntheir character definitely. They exist in one or the other form or in both, and probably owe\ntheir existence to three causes at least: (i) the knowledge that the secondary field is not\nwell occupied at present; (2) a feeling that it is not definitely occupied; (3) a desire —\nsometimes sincere, sometimes simply ambitious — to give the secondary school a larger\nplace in our educational system. This paper discusses the tendency to the enlargement of the secondary field that owes its existence to the first cause assigned above :\nthe knowledge that the secondary field is not well occupied at present.\nHowever highly we may think of the work now done by the secondary school, we\nare compelled to admit that the demands made upon it by both the public and the college\nare not only not well met, but cannot be so met under existing educational conditions.\nWe may complain, with justice too, that the college demands too much ; we may say, not\nunjustly, that the lower schools are not meeting our demands upon them ; we may cry\nout, with good show of reason, against an impatient and unreasonable public demand\nupon us ; yet there the fact of our insufficiency stubbornly stands. What is to be done\nabout it ? The remedy commonly and almost universally suggested is an extension of\ntime to the secondary school for its work, an enlargement of the secondary field in time.\nAn extension of time can be made in only two directions — backward into the grammar school or forward into college. Let me consider these two alternatives in their order.\nTo extend the time of secondary work backward would shorten the school life, except as\nhindered by compulsory laws, of all those who now end that life with the grammar school.\nCan we afford to do that ? Again, the average age of entrance into the high school is\nnow between fourteen and fifteen years, or, roughly speaking, the time of transition from\nchildhood to youth ; and so the boy passes naturally, at the end of his childhood, out of\nthe grammar school into the high school, where, because of its larger and freer ways, he\nfinds a place in which he may better begin to realize himself.\nIf, on the other hand, we push the time limit forward into college, we make a similar\ndisturbance at the other end of the line; for the average age of graduation from high\nschool and of entrance into college and life is now between eighteen and nineteen years\n— an age at which the boy has come out of his youth and must begin to put on the man.\nThe high school is no longer the place for him, needing, as he does, a place for the larger\ndevelopment of his better-realized self. It seems to me, therefore, that here are two time\nlimits set in nature and good sense for secondary work, beyond which we may not pass\nfar in either direction.\nBut raising objections to the remedy suggested — extension of time — removes neither\nthe cause nor the manifestation of the cause. I have thus far spoken of what may not be\ndone. In the brief time left I shall speak of what may be done ; for I believe that the\ndemands, both of the college and of the public, upon the secondary school can be ade-\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "445\nDepartment]\n\nENLARGEMENT\n\nOF THE SECONDARY\n\nFIELD\n\nquately met without any extension of time, without an enlargement of our field in that\ndirection. How ? In reply I make two suggestions : First, by insisting that the quantity\nrequirement for the individual pupil be lessened, and the quality requirement be correspondingly raised. I mean by this, not that the secondary curriculum shall be made less\nfull, sliall have anything cut out of it, nor that the pupil shall work less hard than at present,\nbut that he shall not only study fewer subjects, but cover less ground. In a word, that\nhe shall learn how to do and do well all he undertakes ; capability and quality first, with\nas great quantity as possible. Secondly — and I believe the two suggestions must go\ntogether for a right solution of our problem — by insisting upon and working for such an\narrangement and division of work, from the kindergarten to the college, as will give to\neach department, in turn, that which is fitted for it and for which it is fitted. This means,\nof course, that such an arrangement of work does not now exist, and is merely the statement\nof a fact; it means that the grades are doing many things badly because unfittingly, and\nleaving undone many things they might do well because fittingly; it means that many\nthings which the grades ought to have done the secondary schools are doing, and doing\nbadly because unfittingly, and that they are also doing foolishly and ambitiously some\nthings they ought not to t)e doing ; it means that, wherever the blame- may lie, those who\nare rightly held responsible for an intelligent and sane arrangement of school work have\nnot yet brought to their task that thought for the public welfare and that harmony of\naction which the people, whose servants they are, have a right to expect. Their just\nexpectations will be fulfilled only when as much time and thought are given to the practical and local problem as are now given to the abstract and general one, and when we\nfully realize that we constantly face a condition and not a theory.\nDr. Julius Sachs, New York city. — The discussion this morning supplements that\nof Tuesday. The three-year college course definitely affects the high school. Secondary\nschools do not wish to invade the college field, because they wish to do thoroly and\nintensively what they have now to do. It is quality rather than quantity that should receive\nemphasis. Method and methods have not been made sufficiently prominent. We need\nto strive, as teachers, for intellectual equipment. Here the college can greatly help the\nwork of secondary schools. The colleges can do more in this respect than they do now.\nThey should give special training for teaching.\nE. V. Robinson, principal of Central High School, St, Paul, Minn. — College\nrequirements do not primarily affect the high school, because the majority of pupils in\nthe high school do not go to college. The present system is a historical development.\nOurs is the only country in the world that has a fifth wheel in its educational system.\nGoing thru all the departments of our educational course brings a young man to his\ntwenty-seventh or twenty-eighth year before he can enter upon his life-woric. This is an\nabsurdity, which the people are not likely to allow much longer to exist.\nJ. H. PiLLSBUR-Y, principal of Waban School, Newton, Mass. — Let us extend our\nwork downward. We can teach our geometry much better by beginning it in connection\nwith arithmetic in the higher grades of the grammar school. So of modern languages\nand of Latin. Il^ may not be profitable to take college work in secondary schools, but\nwe have had no difficulty in our own school.\nFrancis Burke Brandt, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. — There are two\ndistinct tendencies in extending the field of secondary work. One is downward and the\nother upward. The high school stands for the second tendency. This school is asking\nfor two more years. The additional work asked for is not to be done in the same time\nas now. Of 700,000 students doing secondary work in the United States 500,000 are in\npublic high schools.\nWe must multiply colleges.* We have not enough now.\nWilliam Schuyler, High School, St. Louis, Mo. — In our western high schools\nmost of the pupils finish education for life. We have gradually changed the curriculum\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto an omnium gatherum. How are we going to do it all ? The public will have it.\nThat is why we do it. We of the public high school must look out for what the public\nwants.\nOliver S. Westcott, principal of Robert A. Waller High School, Chicago, 111. —\nThe people will not vote all the taxes we need to satisfy the fulminations of various\nspeakers.\nGeorge W. Rollins, master, of Public Latin School, Boston, Mass. — For at least\ntwenty -five years the high school has been dipping down into the grammar school. We\ntake pupils at the close of the sixth grade.\nWe may, by this process, save one year.\nWilliam H. Black, president of Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo. — We are\nin danger of making an unnecessary ado about two things. It is very dangerous for a\nyoung man to get out of school before the age of twenty-five. Many people have done\ntheir best work after forty. A well-mastered life is the all-important thing. That takes\ntime. Quality is important. The quality of the student makes for ability to do qualitative work in the course. It makes no difference so far as the Republic and its great mission are concerned whether we conform to foreign systems or not.\n\nG.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nHALL,\n\nOF\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nTHE\nCLARK\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nMen and women differ in their dimension, sense, tissue, organ, in their\nabilities, in crime, disease ; and these differences, which science is now\nmultiplying and emphasizing, increase with advancing civilization. In\nsavagery women and men are more alike in their physical structure and in\ntheir occupations, but with real progress the sexes diverge and draw apart,\nand the diversities always present are multiplied and accentuated. Intersexual differences culminate during the sexual period. Little boys and\ngirls play together, do the same things, in many respects have the same\ntastes, are unconscious of sex, as too in senescence there is reapproximation. Old men and women become more like each other and are again\nin a sense sexless.\n.Divergence is most marked and sudden in the pubescent period — in\nthe early teens. At this time, by almost world-wide consent, boys and\ngirls separate, and lead their lives during this most critical period of\ninception more or less apart, at least for a few years, until the ferment of\nmind and body which results in maturity of functions then born and culminating in nubility has done its work. The family and the home abundantly recognize this tendency. At twelve or fourteen brothers and sisters\ndevelop a life more independent of each other than before. Their\nhome occupations differ, as do their plays, games, tastes. This is normal\nand biological. What our school and other institutions should do is to\npush distinctions to their uttermost, to make boys more manly and girls\nmore womanly. We should respect the law of sexual differences, and not\nforget that motherhood is a very different thing from fatherhood.\nNeither\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n447\n\nsex should copy or set patterns to the other, but all parts should be played\nharmoniously and clearly in the great sex symphony.\nI have here nothing to say against coeducation in college, still less in\nuniversity grades after the maturity which comes at eighteen or twenty has\nbeen achieved; but it is high time to ask ourselves whether the theory and\npractice of identical coeducation, which has lately been carried to a greater\nextreme in this country than the rest of the world recognizes, has not\nbrought certain grave dangers ; whether it does not interfere with the\nnatural differentiations everywhere seen in home and society. I recognize, of course, the great argument of economy. We should save money\nand effort, could we unite churches of not too diverse creeds; could give\nbetter preaching, music, improve the edifice, etc. I am by no means ready\nto advocate the abolition of coeducation, but my purpose today is to sum\nup in a rough, brief way our account of profit and loss with it.\nOn the one hand, I believe that each sex best develops some of its\nown best qualities in the presence of the other; but the question still\nremains : How much ? when ? and in what way ? Association secures\nthis end. I think that girls and boys are often 'interested in different\naspects of the same topic, and this may have a tendency to broaden the\nview-point of each and bring it into sympathy with that of the other; but\nthe question still remains whether one be not too much attracted to the\nsphere of the other. No doubt some girls become a little less gushy and\nsentimental, their conduct more thoughtful; their sense of responsibility\nfor one of woman's great functions, which is bestowing praise, is increased.\nThere is much evidence that certain boys' vices are mitigated ; they are\nmade more urbane ; thoughts of sex are made more healthful. In some\nrespects boys are stimulated to good scholarship by girls, who in many\nschools and topics excel them. We should ask, however, what nature's\nway is at this stage of life; whether boys, in order to be well verified later,\nought to be so boisterous and even rough as to be at times unfit companions for girls; or whether, on the other hand, girls, to be best matured,\nought not to have their sentimental periods of instability, especially when\nwe venture to raise the question, whether for a girl in the early teens, when\nher health for her whole life depends upon normalizing the lunar month,\nthere is not something unhygienic, unnatural, not to say a little monstrous,\nin school associations with boys when she must suppress and conceal her\ninstincts, feelings, and instinctive promptings,, and these times which\nsuggest withdrawing, stepping aside to let Lord Nature do its beautiful,\nmagnificent work of efflorescence. It is a sacred time of reverent exemption from the hard struggle of existence in the world, mental effort in the\nschool. Medical specialists, many of the best of whom now insist that she\nthru this should be, as it were, ** turned (Tut to grass,\" or should lie fallow\nso far as intellectual efforts go, one-fourth the time no doubt, often go too\nfar; but their unanimous voice should not entirely be disregarded.\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIt is not of this, however, that I would speak, but of the effects of too\nfamiliar relations, and especially of the identical work, treatment, and\nenvironment of the modern school.\nWe have now at least eight good and independent statistical studies\nwhich show that the ideals of boys from ten years on are almost always\nthose of their own sex, while girls' ideals are increasingly of the opposite\nsex, or also of men. That the ideals of pubescent girls are not found in\ngreat and noble women of the world, or in their literature, but more and\nmore in men, suggests a diversity \" between the ideals adopted and the\nline of life best suited to the interests of the race,\" and also that we are not\nfurnished in our public schools with adequate womanly ideals in history\nor literature. The new love of freedom and fame which women have\nlately felt has produced a reaction toward the other extreme, which\ninclines girls to abandon the home for the office. \" It surely can hardly\nbe called an ideal education for women that permits eighteen out of one\nhundred college girls to state boldly that they would rather be men than\nwomen.\" More than one-half of the schoolgirls in these censuses choose\nmale ideals, as if those of femininity are disintegrating. A recent\nwriter, in view of this fact, states that \" unless there is a change of trend\nwe shall soon have a female sex without a female character.\" In the progressive feminization of our schools most teachers, perhaps naturally and\nnecessarily, have more or less masculine ideals, and this does not encourage\nthe development of those that constitute the glory of womanhood. \"At\nevery age from eight to sixteen girls named from three to twenty more\nideals than boys.\" All these facts indicate a condition of diffused interests\nand lack of clear-cut purposes, and a need of integration.\nWhen we turn to boys, the case is different. In most public high\nschools girls preponderate, especially in the upper classes ; and in many of\nthem the boys that remain are practically in a girls' school, sometimes\ntaught chiefly, if not solely, by women teachers, at an age when strong\nmen should be in control more than at any other period of life. Boys\nneed a different discipline and moral regimen and atmosphere. They\nalso need a different method of work. Girls excel them in learning,\nmemorization, excepting studies upon suggestion or authority, but are\noften quite at sea when set to make tests and experiments that give\nindividuality, which is one of the best things in boyhood, a chance to\nexpress itself. Girls preponderate in high-school Latin and algebra,\nbecause custom and tradition, and perhaps advice, incline them to it.\nThey preponderate in English and history classes more often, let us say,\nfrom inner inclination. The boy sooner grows restless in a curriculum\nwhere form takes precedence over content. He revolts at much method\nwith meager matter. He craves utility; and when all these instincts are\ndenied, without knowing what is the matter, he drops out of school ; when\nif a robust tone and a true boy life prevailed, such as is found at Harrow,\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n449\n\nEton, and Rugby, he would have fought it thru and done well. This\nfeminization of the school spirit, discipline, and personnel is bad for boys.\nOf course, on the whole perhaps they are made more gentlemanly, at ease,\ntheir manners improved; and all this to a woman teacher seems excellent ;\nbut something is the matter with the boy in the early teens who can be\ntruly called *' a perfect gentleman.\" That should come later, when the\nbrute and animal element have had opportunity to work themselves off in\na healthful normal way. They still have football to themselves, and are\nthe majority perhaps in chemistry, and sometimes in physics; but there\nis danger of a settled eviration.\nThe segregation which even our schools are now attempting is always\nin some degree necessary for full and complete development. Just as the\nboys' language is apt to creep in and to roughen that of the girls, so girls'\ninterests, ways, standards, and tastes, which are crude at this age, often\nattract boys out of their orbit. While some differences are emphasized\nby contact, others are compromised. Boys tend to grow content with\nmechanical memorata work, and, excelling on the lines of girls' qualities,\nfail to develop those of their own. There is a little charm and bloom\nrubbed off the ideal of girlhood by close contact, and boyhood seems less\nideal to the. girls at close range. In place of the mystic attraction of the\nother sex that has inspired so much that is best in the world, familiar\ncomradery brings a little disenchantment. The impulse to be at one's\nbest in the presence of the other sex grows lax, and each comes to feel\nitself seen thru, so that there is less motive to indulge in the ideal conduct which such contact inspires, because the call for it is incessant.\nThis disillusioning weakens the motivation to marriage, sometimes on\nboth sides. When girls grow careless in their dress and too negligent of\ntheir manners — the best school of morals — and when boys lose all\nrestraint which the presence of girls usually enforces, there is a subtle\ndeterioration. Thus I believe, altho of course it is impossible to prove,\nthat this is one of the factors of a decreasing percentage of marriage\namong educated young men and women.\nAt eighteen or twenty the girl normally reaches this maturity, when\nher ideas of life are amazingly keen and true; when, if her body is\ndeveloped, she can endure a great deal; when she is nearest, perhaps, the\nideal of feminine beauty and perfection. We have lately in this country\nand Europe had a dozen books, of a more or leSs naive or else confessional\ncharacter, written by girls of this age, showing the first glorious inflorescence of womanly genius and power. In our environment, however,\nthere is little danger that, this age once well past, there will slowly arise a\nslight sense of aimlessness or lassitude, unrest, uneasiness, as if one were\nalmost unconsciously feeling along th^ wall for a door to which the\nkey was not at hand. Thus some lose their bloom and, yielding to the\ngreat danger of young womanhood, slowly lapse to an anxious state\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "45©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof expectancy, or they desire something not within reach; and so the\ndiathesis of anxiety slowly supervenes. The best thing about college life\nfor girls is, perhaps, that it postpones this incipient disappointment; but\nit is a little pathetic to read, as I have lately done, the class letters\nof hundreds of girl graduates, out of college one, two, or three years,\nturning a little to art, music, travel, teaching, charity work, or trying to\nfind something to which they can devote themselves — some cause, movement, occupation, w^here their glorious capacity for altruism and selfsacrifice can find a field. The tension is almost imperceptible, perhaps\nquite unconscious. It is everywhere overborne by a keen interest in life,\nby a desire to know the world at first hand, while susceptibilities are at\ntheir height. The apple of intelligence has been plucked at perhaps a\nlittle too great a cost of health. The purely mental has not been quite\nsufficiently kept back. They wish to know a good deal more of the world\nand to perfect their own personalities, and they would not marry, altho\nevery cell of their bodies and every unconscious impulse point to just\nthat end. Soon — it may be in five or ten years or more — the complexion of ill-health is seen in these notes ; or else life has been adjusted\nto independence and self-support.\nBut I must be brief. What should be done? We can, at least, enlarge\nthe elective system and wait for spontaneous interest and needs to declare\nthemselves even yet more fully; but we must not forget that this has\nits limits. Already we have the complaint that where one sex preponderates in a subject it tends to be avoided by the other. Again, we can\nmultiply high schools for girls, and study and utilize their conclusions\nand experiences to fit them to their nature and needs, as boys' schools have\nbeen adjusted to theirs. Already we have suggestions of a girls' botany,\nbiology, and chemistry, emphasizing different methods and topics from\nthose that prevail today. Again, we can investigate the suggestion of\ntwo kinds of schools for girls: one for those who wish to folfow the\nprinciple of training for a support, leaving motherhood, if it comes, to\ntake care of itself; and the other, for those who would be trained first for\nmotherhood and home life, which come to the vast majority of women,\ndeveloping a curriculum on this basis, which is as different from the\nagenic and agamic principle as one sex is from the other. At all events,\nwe must utterly eradicate the now prevalent idea of intersexual competition. There is no war of sex against sex, and by imagining one, woman\nhas brought great hardship upon us.\nLastly, we must pass beyond the purely personal type of discussion of\nthis topic to which men, and especially women, are too prone. If statistics show that the majority of college women do not marry, and that\nthose who do marry have few children, it is irrelevant to detail the case of\nMrs. A. who bore twelve children, reared them all to maturity, and died\nherself at the age of eighty-six.\nIf anthropology shows that in general\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n451\n\nwomen less often specialize, and, where they do so, later by several years\nthan men, it is not necessary to point to the brilliant women who have\nshown precocious signs of genius and have had great careers. If in every\nrace, and by the concurrent testimony of biology and medicine, women\nneed periods of rest, it is no refutation to sight the women who declare\nthat they have never known pain, ill-health, or remission of a strenuous\nlife at these times.\nIn fine, my conviction is that woman needs the best. She has won, by\nalmost universal consent, the battle of equal opportunities and privileges.\nThe world and posterity now wait with growing concern to see whether\nshe will be able to face the next and far higher problem of selecting from\nall the fields now open which interest decrees to be her own, or be content with a second best, with man-made methods, and, lapsing to a cheap\nidolatry of intellect, forget that she better than man represents the feeling instincts which are higher, deeper, and broader than mere mental\nculture; that she is a generic being, nearer to the race; that every individual of her sex is a better representative of it; and that the real solution of\nher problem is in the future.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrank Sheldon Fosdick, principal of Masten Park High School, Buffalo, N. Y. —\nIt is very difficult to engage in a discussion upon a subject that needs no demonstration.\nSome things are so axiomatic in their very nature that they require neither proof norj\ndefense. Such a one is \"coeducation in the high school,\" which has so commended itself\nto the people of our country that 98 per cent, of the public high schools reporting to the\nUnited States Commissioner of Education are coeducational, and 93,6 per cent, of all the\npupils in all our secondary schools are receiving their education where boys and girls meet\non a common level. If there had been any great defects in the scheme, if the finished\nproducts of these schools had not been well equipped for the duties of life, it would not\nhave been long before we should have heard unmistakable expressions of dissatisfaction,\nand the segregation of the sexes in the high schools would have gained great momentum.\nOn the contrary, during the past twenty-five years the trend of puplic opinion has been\ntoward coeducation ; the current of the best thought is still flowing steadily in that direction, notwithstanding the fact that some of the largest dealers in educational theories have\nmaximized all the fancied defects in the system and minimized its advantages. In such\na condition of affairs it is impossible to do more in this paper than to accentuate again\nthe benefits that obtain to this plan and to answer any objections that may be discovered.\nI. Coeducation tends to give our boys and girls' proper conceptions of the amenities\nof life. It was gratifying to hear this commended in no uncertain terms in the scholarly\npaper to which we have just listened. When so eminent an authority as President Hall\nspeaks of coeducation with approval and avers that \"each sex develops some of its best\nqualities in the presence of the other,\" it is needless to spend any time in argument to\nprove the assertion. But he has handled the topic mainly from a psycho-physiological\nstandpoint, and into that sphere it is not my purpose to enter save incidentally. It may\nbe interesting, however, to bring out with some detail the situation that confronts the\nworkers in a large city high school. We draw our pupils from every stratum of society.\nThere assemble together the rich and the poor, the children of native-born Americans and\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthose whose parents came from across the sea. With different ideals, in many cases without any well-defined standard of perfection, they flock to us for instruction and guidance.\nIh short, we have just the condition that those who believe in segregation insist is most\nunsuitable for coeducation. And yet, as the result of observation and of a practical\nexperience extending over more than a quarter of a century, 1 affirm that the greatest\npower in softening the asperities of the average boy's manners, in teaching the observance\nof those courtesies that mark the true gentleman, in implanting in his very soul pure and\nlofty thoughts ; the most efficient means of effacing from the mind of the average girl the\ntendency to fictitious romance that grows apace when she associates with only those of her\nown sex, of instilling into her life a virility that ennobles, while it takes nothing from the\nsweetness that is a natural element of the female character, of creating the ability to\nform correct judgments — is found in coeducation, in the coming together of our boys and\ngirls in frank, open comradeship. I have to see the first intimation of \" feminization of\nthe school spirit\" or a tendency toward masculinity. The charm of tenderness that is\ninborn in the girls, balancing the strength of true manliness that is imminent in the boys,\nconduces to the production of a complete, perfect manhood and womanhood.\nPermit me to digress for a moment and call attention to a statement in the previous\npaper.\n\" There is a little charm and bloom rubbed off the ideal of girlhood by close\ncontact, and boyhood seems less ideal to girls at close range\nThis is one of the\nfactors of a decreasing percentage of marriage among educated young men and women.\"\nDr. Hall is right when he says that such a statement cannot be proved. Experience and\nobservation have shown that the ties of friendship, not to say affection, that are formed\nduring the high-school period are not, in a majority of cases, lasting, and are prone to\npass away when maturity succeeds adolescence. It is not the familiar comradery so much\nas the natural change that comes to the boy and girl when the activities of life and the\nduties of the home circle have strengthened their judgment and made keener their ideas.\nBut if it were other\\^se and the statement of Dr. Hall could be absolutely proved, it would\nadd an invicible argument in favor of coeducation. Better, far better, fewer marriages\nthan some we wot of. Better a still greater diminution than the present congested condition of the divorce market. If it could be substantiated beyond a doubt that coeducation\nin the high school had even a little influence in making men and women less hasty in\nentering upon that most sacred of all human ties, causing them to use most scrupulous\ncare in the choice of a husband or wife, righteous men and women all over this country\nwould rise up and insist that this system of education be extended still further until it\nincluded every institution of learning in the land.\n2. Coeducation in our high schools is of immense value in furnishing a well-rounded\nintellectual development to our boys and girls. On this point we begin a real separation\nfrom the views of those who believe in segregation. We all agree, however, that competition along any line, whether of business or intellectual pursuits, is productive of the best\nresults. \" No rivalry, no improvement,\" is a proverb as old as civilization, and nowhere\nis this more apparent than in our secondary schools. Eliminate the healthy emulation that\nexists between our classes, our pupils, our boys and girls if you will, and one great element\nof success has been taken away, and there ensues a dead level of mediocre effort. Now,\nit is urged that competition between boys alone or girls alone will accomplish the desired\nend without any of the disadvantages that are attributed to coeducation. I grant that in\ncollege life, where the added years have increased the mental powers, the argument is one\nof weight. But in the formative period of boy and girl life, as we meet it in our high\nschools, there is needed just the stimulus that comes from the meeting of the sexes in the\nclass-room, where the quicker intuitive faculties of the girl are offset by the slower judgment of the boy ; where both, animated with a commendable desire of doing well before\nthose of the opposite sex — of making a good appearance, if you wish to term it so —\nwill strive with renewed energy and the zest that comes from a healthy rivalry to\naccomplish with correctness the tasks set before them. It is an inspiration to stand before\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n453\n\na class of boys and girls and watch the play of intelligence as it appears in the different\ntypes of mind. In comparison with this, a class made up of one sex — I care not how\nbright, how eager it may be — is dull, spiritless, indeed, lacking that incentive to persevering work that is found in coeducation.\nBut it is urged that we do wrong to the boy by feeding him a girl's intellectual\nrations, and vice versa; that the former becomes effeminate, and the latter, if she retains\nher health after so much strenuous effort, becomes mannish, with masculine ideals, etc.\nThen follows what to many is a decided reductio ad absurdum — a plea for female\nalgebra, female botany, female physics, etc., ad infinitum; and many are the so-called\nproofs of injury that are cited to reinforce this appeal. I presume that it can be proved by a\ncourse of physiological reasoning that such things are necessary to save the coming woman\nfrom practical annihilation, but to a practical man a request for female bread, female salad,\nand female pickles would be equally forceful. That there are mental dissimilarities no one\nwill deny, but almost equal divergences are noted when girls are compared with girls or\nboys with boys. That the differences, however, are so great as to demand a different\neducation is a question that has not yet been proved in the affirmative. A prominent\neducator summed up the whole matter very correctly and pithily when he said: \"The\nmere fact of mental diversity no more necessitates a diversity of education than physical\ndiversity necessitates a diversity of food and air. What must be shown is that the mental\ndifference of the two sexes is such as to necessitate a difference of education ; and this\nnecessity must be proved, it cannot be inferred.\"\nBut many of the arguments urged against coeducation have lost their force by the\nadoption in recent years by the majority of high schools of a more flexible course of study,\nwith a wide choice of options. This was done, not to bolster up coeducation, but because\nit was believed that our boys and girls would be greatly benefited if, while pursuing those\nsubjects that are believed to be essential to any education, they might be given an opportunity of differentiating into channels where the natural bent of mind would find full\nplay. Our boys are interested in physics ; so are our girls. Our girls are interested in\ndrawing and history ; so are the boys. And side by side in these optional studies we find\nthem adding zest to the work, because they look at the subjects from different mental\nview-points, and because each in the presence of the other aims to do the best.\n3. Coeducation adds much to the moral tone of the school, gives it an uplift that it\ncannot get when there is but one sex represented.\nIt was a trite saying that the poet\nsang:\nMore human, more divine than we.\nIn fact, half human, half divine, is woman.\n\nYet, I must say, I believe there is nothing on earth that surpasses a clean-souled, manly\nboy. But in the daily contact with those to whom we of the sterner sex look for examples in matters moral and spiritual there is breathed into the school life a spirit of purity\nthat is uplifting and ennobling. There is also inculcated in the minds of our girls and\nboys the thought that wrong is wrong, no matter who shelters or defends it ; that the same\nthe world is entirely awry\nbe accorded a boy as a girl ; that\nin justi\nmust upon\njudgment\none cecode of ethics for manhood and another for womanhood ; that\nit insist\ntwhen\nimmorality is immorality, whether seen in man or woman. Nowhere else than in a coeducational school can these principles be so firmly rooted.\nTwenty centuries ago this world was honored by the presence of One who spent his\nwhole life in ministry for others and spake as never man spake before. Altho he did not\noriginate all the sayings that are attributed to him, he placed upon them the stamp of\napproval that partook of divinity. \"By their fruits ye shall know them.\" Coeducation\nis distinctively the American idea. Ever sinc^he founding of the high schools the men\nand women of this great country have opened them to both sexes. Side by side the boys\nand girls have learned the lessons of life ; the great thoughts of the centuries have found\na resting-place in their minds as they studied together; they have grown strong under the\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmoral influences thai came from their endeavors to be at their best at all times ; and as\nthey have gone out into broader responsibilities and have taken up the burdens that\nbelong to more mature years, they have made this government vi'hat it is —the home of\nmanly men and noble women.\nJ. Remsen Bishop, principal of Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O.— P^ew human\nproblems are simple. Analysis usually discloses the fact that variable factors so complicate the problem as to make one definite solution impossible. We must perforce be content with a series of solutions that satisfy the conditions, or, making use of judgment,\nrange ourselves for the solution that seems to be most generally true.\nEducational problems are eminently human problems. Among these problems, that\nof how to combine the sexes in our educational institutions, or whether there should be\nany such combination beyond the primary grades, has somewhat suddenly presented\nitself for discussion.\nNo enlightened person in Europe or America denies the right of the female of our\nrace to the fullest opportunity for intellectual development that her parents can give her\nor the community in which she lives provide for her. This much of women's rights has\nbecome a principle of western civilization. If there were any question of limiting a\nwoman's opportunity to learn what she craves to learn, of cutting her off from any training for which she may demonstrate her fitness, there would be no need to add one more\nto the myriad protests that would be heard.\nIf, then, there can be, under certain financial conditions, but one accessible high\nschool, it must admit both boys and girls. No disadvantages that could be shown would\nweigh in the balance against the wrong of depriving all girls dependent upon public\nschools for their education of the privileges of the public secondary school. Such conditions actually exist in many communities. The stern arbitrament of necessity settles the\nquestion there, and the school authorities need pay no attention to such discussions as\nthis in progress here today, except as it may help them determine a future policy, or turn\ntheir attention to remediable defects in the coeducational high schools.\nBefore entering the public high school boys and girls, as a rule, have received their\nschool training together. Sex, in certain of its manifestations, has not yet asserted itself\nin the normal boy and girl of thirteen to a degree that causes sex influence to be greatly\nfelt by either the boy or the girl. If instruction in home knowledge is provided for the\ngirls in the primary school, this, with what is learned in helping the mother, is all that\nthey need in the way of special training. The girl as well as the boy, up to this age,\nshould be largely occupied with childish pastimes. Boys and girls of the primary grades\nare, and should be, merely children together.\nThat there is any sudden change in all boys and girls just at the age of fourteen is\nnot true; there is a radical change somewhere in their early \"teens.\" The transference\nfrom the regimen of the primary grades to the regimen of the high school at approximately the age of fourteen seems to be based upon the observed fact that a fairly complete primary education can be finished by that time, and parents needing their children's\nservices can be forced by law or custom to leave their children thus long in school. There\nare many who believe that the high school, in the interests of secondary education, should\nreceive pupils two years earlier. Differentiation on the score of sex alone might be\ndeferred to the age of fifteen. At any rate, individuality grows apace in the boy and girl\nof the high-school age; more slowly in the boy, more swiftly in the girl.\nIt is especially the girl that needs, at the age when she is most susceptible to formative influence, protection from a confusion of ideals. The boy roams almost at will and\nwidens his horizon; the life of the girl is comparatively circumscribed, and the influences\nbrought to bear upon her are, because fewer, more potent.\nThe coeducational high school should so arrange its elective system that much training in home knowledge would characterize the work plan for girls, while the work plan\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n455\n\nfor boys would be adapted to their probable future scheme of life. In practice this proves\ndifficult. When so-called domestic science is found in the coeducational high school, it\noften has a position in the course in time allowance, equipment, and quality of instruction\nthat makes it a mere appendage, properly classed, when thus treated, among fads. The\ndaughters of the well-to-do elect il:, for the fun of it, or to acquire a genteel accomplishment. The daughters of the poor shun it, because they conscientiously devote themselves\nto what school opinion declares the solid work of the school. The basis of this school\nopinion is not far to seek; to train the boy for a man's part in life or to prepare him for a\nhigher institution is tacitly accepted by the pupils in general as the dominating aim of\nthe school.\nThe best that can be hoped for by those who feel that the high-school girl needs\nmore care than the high-school boy is that the departments of home knowledge in the\ncoeducational schools may by their growing excellence attract more of the female pupils.\nThe coeducational high schools have done fine work. No disparagement is intended\nin pointing out their drawbacks. \"Nothing,\" says Cardinal Newman, \"carried on by\nhuman instruments but has its irregularities, and affords ground ^or criticism, when\nminutely scrutinized in matters of detail.\" That this scheme has succeeded where another\nsucceeds more easily and better redounds to the hoflbr of all concerned. The difficulty in\nestablishing upon a useful scale the home-knowledge work for girls in the coeducational\nschools has been mentioned. Social distractions directly traceable to the association of\nthe sexes also present a problem of increasing gravity. The high-school, authorities can\ncurtail within due bounds social meetings held in the school building, but they are wellnigh powerless to control the social gatherings of their pupils in private dwellings and\nrented halls, altho the basis of attendance at these excessively frequent functions is openly\nadvertised to be membership in the school. The unnecessarily elaborate and expensive\nentertainments of the commencement season are the natural outcome of action and reaction\nof the sexes. And all this social excess leads to a precocity and premature satiety that\nmust be, in the end, harmful.\nA word here, too, for the boy in the coeducational high school, especially for the\nawkward, semi-articulate fellow. The girl of nimble intellect and glib tongue discourages\nthis boy. In general, the girl is more of a plodder. The boy who can be made to plod\nonly by an aroused interest suffers in the mixed class. The teacher gets such satisfactory\n\"results\" from the girls that she is not compelled to stimulate the boys; she simply \"marks\nthem down\" (Heaven save the mark !). What the awkward fellow needs is self-confidence,\nwhich he has a right to gain, can only perhaps gain, amid more sympathetic surroundings.\nThe lazy boys must be spurred by quickened interest, and the teacher must supply the\ninspiration; this she does not always do if she has in her class a preponderance of girls\nss\ned\nene\ns\nnit\nness.s\npanes\nh chotoel or oysion. nly as\ni\ne\nd\ne\ng\nf\nn\nn\nh\ne\ni\nf aim tuetxipor\nin prerto\nh a o er a nidng\nf breat tos\nsdia\nh\nT\nr\ne\ni\nv\nh\ne\nk\nn\nr\nh\nt\n,\na\ni\no\ni\nt\nf\nm\nr\ng\ntp tme wo\nins\ntra erce in hi\nor for fiucrs,\nancso\nration inmotably\nng, Its dep ply\nm\nual\nle i adr.\ns\n, y\nini\narye sim .\nand man ent tra\ncom\nof hpehrys\nmetntiysentl d tlhiett ndiezpe\ne\nl\na\nic neeh\nal\nhe man\nre meethner only and pres\ntes r teac\nh\nide\nt\na\nI\nogresg\nand nuoeufsf\np\nos\nd.\nr\ne\nog\ns.\nm\no\nd\na\nr\nt\nn\ns\nt\no\nn\nh\nl\nt\ns\nt\no\ng\ni a\ni sa\nS\nwc\ns a\nti\nntol\nd itu\n'\nare\ner\nve ge\nhe ,girls highartsmceho\nrep\nor acwtlied life and for theely high aniiznest\nAt otlhye\nf\np\nT\ne\ne\ne\nt\nrg ific and so thorion\nre so wis\nf hom aktneos\ny\no\na\no\nsam ppetdim its dep\nt\ni\nl\nt\ne\ni\ndu\ndy or cien\nor\nect\nve choo\nt\nhom d dir\nf s\nrea\ns\nlea\nof its gra\ntdha et.he maj\nequ\ne\ng\nr\nc\nl\n;\nc\nt\nar ty in\ne de vi\ns'\nh\noo\nli\ns\ncan al do inftthi way towmuni mak\ngirl ehsig sch\nWha pierthe pube\nor heorm-or ser\nt\ni\ni\nnd ap\nthte\nupl inesosf the comtics\nfor theen soc\nhom life ,ema.k\nbetere\nt a ehn\ni\nme\nl\ntgoe wha\nor pol\nbe in bus\nLet wom\nsph t sof mos wom lledwil be the cihpaot\na\nm\ne\nti\nen c y\nst now\nl\nthe\nhow to man\nk\nbut 1^ the at lea\nto par\nextonomi the fee meimp e.\nlif d\nof ho\nec\ne\nive .\nus\ns\ning ut\nh\nfin\ness ion\nool\nord o timul\nst\no\nto excttract \"go\nn s ise\ntoureone sex lyat lea stsaff\ncon\nHiegs,\" sch\nng\nch he leas\nrc\nge\nti\nsi\n-a\nYou\nof sex\nof the exe\ncon\nlar\nt p\nin whi\nto par\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "456\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfSecondaiy\n\ngirlhood, now almost a curiosity in some of our communities, might to some extent be\nrestored by co-operation of girls' high schools and parents. Parents often deplore the\nprecocity of their daughters and lay the blame upon the schools, while the schools plead\nwant of jurisdiction and inability thru moral influence alone to accomplish what belongs\nto the domain of authority.\nAnother matter worthy of consideration : Many girls have been injured by the\nnervous strain due to their ambition to do all the work of the high school at a period of\ntheir physical development when strains are dangerous. In the school for girls alone,\nsagacious teachers can so arrange the work as to remove all stigma from those pupils who\nare doing all they should, but not all that others are doing. In the coeducational school\nan easy course for girls only would be contrary to theory.\nSeveral notices to the effect that this paper must not exceed seven minutes have terrified it into even smaller compass, and into a sententiousness excusable only on the score\nof extreme brevity. It merely contends that coeducational high schools are good, but\nthat separate high schools, if they can be maintained in accessible proximity to pupils'\nhomes, are better. The boy and the girl are different, with different natural interests,\nthru the agency of which they can be best developed. If the girl grows to womanhood\namid womanly activities, and the bo^ hammers out 'his much more toilsome process of\ngrowth toward manhood among boys and men, it is thought that both will emerge from\npuberty with a better contribution to society. So short a paper does not venture to hint\nthat separate high schools might slightly counteract the strange feminization of employments, which is, indeed, chiefly an economic phenomenon.\nJ. A. BiviNS, principal of High School, Charlotte, N. C. — In treating the subject of\ncoeducation in the high school, I should like to place some limitations on the term \" high\nschool.\" By it I do not mean the boarding school, which, for various reasons, should be\nrestricted to one sex or the other. It is rather of the public high school that I wish to\ntreat. Being irresponsible for the home life, and to a large extent for the social life, of\nthe pupils, such a school is exempt from some of the drawbacks attending coeducation,\nwhile it affords a field for the display of many of its advantages.\nIn the consideration of this subject we are not at a loss for statistics. The Commissioner of Education recently sent a circular letter to the leading high schools thruout the\ncountry asking for definite information regarding separate and mixed schools. An\nexamination of the replies shows that coeducation has held its ground during the past\ndecade. It is a matter of record that the great majority of the secondary schools in\nAmerica are at present attended by both sexes. In 1891 only fifteen cities out of 628\nreported separate schools; and in 1902 three of these fifteen had joined the ranks of\ncoeducation, no change being reported in the others. It seems, too, that mixed schools\nhave proved satisfactory in the main. In England, France, and Germany, where the\nconventionality of centuries may not be changed in a day, separate schools are still the rule.\nIt is often a matter of surprise to our foreign visitors to see boys and girls sitting together in\nthe same class-rooms, reciting the same lessons, engaging in the same calisthenic drills. Is\nAmerica, with her grfeater freedom, in the right ? Is coeducation, despite the'fact that it\nis seemingly well intrenched, an unnatural and an unhealthy system ?\nTo study the subject in all of its necessary phases we shall have to consider the\nphysical, social, moral, and intellectual effects of coeducation upon the well-being of the\npupils.\nFrom the physical standpoint, it is argued that girls cannot, in the nature of the\ncase, follow the same regimen as the boys without serious detriment to their health ; that\ngirls are naturally prone, during the high-school age, to contract nervous disorders,\nespecially if they are subjected to severe mental or physical strain. The last word on\nthis subject seemed to have been uttered when Dr. Clarke published \\\\\\%Sexin Education.\nBut subsequent inquiry and experience have served to show that many of his contentions\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n457\n\nare overdrawn, or are unsupported by facts. Recently the editor of the Ladies' Home\n/ozirna/ endesivored to help the cause of nervous and overworked schoolgirls by publishing\na page of so-called letters from mothers. The artificial and uniform style of these letters,\nhowever, stamped them as coming largely from the same \"mother.\" Their general tenor\nwent to show how \"Mary, just budding into sweet womanhood, entered the high\nschool. She became ambitious in her studies, and now she is an angel in heaven.\"\nIf these melodramatic epistles were half true, we should close the doors of our schools\nagainst girls and go to feed them on Mellin's Food. No one denies that the girl sometimes makes shipwreck of her health by working too hard at her studies. But he who\nasserts that the majority of cases of ill-health among girls can be traced to the school\nwould perhaps find it difficult to verify his assertion. It was pointed out by Thomas\nWentworth Higginson, in reply to Dr. Clarke's book, that \"in country villages where\nthere are only very poor district schools, kept for less than half the year, the traveler\nconstantly observes among the farmers' daughters cheeks as pale and vitality as deficient\nas in the best-educated metropolis.\" My own observation bears out the truth of this\nstatement. In fact, I should be inclined to assert that, according to population, there\nwere more cases of debility among females in the country than in the city. Mr. Higginson\nfurther observes that of the wealthy classes who attend private schools, as compared with\nthe middle class who go to the public schools, we should expect to find, on the basis of Dr.\nClarke's contention, a higher degree of health among the former than the latter. But,\ndespite the fact that the daughters of the rich may study as little as they please, one\nwould have a hard time proving.that they were better favored in point of health than their\nmore humble sisters. Study, when not carried to excess or pursued in violation of all the\nlaws of hygiene or common-sense, promotes rather than hinders physical development.\nIt adds tenfold to one's capacity for appropriating and enjoying the good things of life,\nand thus promotes a happy reaction between the mental and the physical Now, it would\nseem on examination that the mixed high school is an advantage rather than otherwise\nfrom the health standpoint. All courses of instruction are arranged to suit the capacity\nof the average pupil. Furthermore, it is generally conceded that up to the age of eighteen\n\n^^^\n^^B\n^^V\n^^K\n^^K\n^^K\n^^B\n^^V\n^V\n^^B\n^^B\n^H\n^^m\n^B\n^B^H^\n\na boy's mental development is slower than that of the girl. Therefore, while this condition serves as an intellectual stimulus to the boy, who can stand to be stimulated, it also\noperates to lower the standard for the girl at a time when she ought not to be taxed to the\nfull limit of her powers.\nOn the other hand, it is fair to infer that girls receive physical stimulus from association with boys.\nA normal, healthy boy is nothing if not active.\nOne cannot be long in\nhis presence without feeling the magnetic influence that arises from his overflowing\nanimal spirits. His very attitude is an unconscious banter to go out for a frolic. It is\nworthy of note that the girls who have brothers are far more natural and unaffected than\nthose who do not. Such a girl may be something of the tomboy, but what of that?\nAlong with her romping, her horseback riding, her tennis, and her golf, she is getting\nhealth, self-reliance, happiness, and that style of beauty that needs no cosmetic art to\nenhance it. Girls are today far more inclined to outdoor sports than they used to be: —\nand much to their advantage.\nAnd to what can we attribute this more than to our natural,\nfree, American way of educating the sexes together?\nTo say that boys and girls attend the same school is not equivalent to saying that\nthe same regimen must be required of both.\nThere is sufficient variety in the courses\noffered by our high schools to suit the most exacting requirements of sex or of individual\ntaste. For the boys there may be shop-work, mechanical drawing, laboratory work, and\nthe more strenuous exercises of the gymnasium ; for the girls, cooking and sewing, music,\npainting, and the lighter Swedish gymnastics. 'But there will be many things which they\nmay take in common, to their mutual benefit.\nIn considering the social side of this question, we note first that coeducation makes\nfor better manners, especially among the boys.\nWhen a boy is ready to enter the high\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nschool he is neither \"fish nor flesh.\" He is just emerging from the semi-barbaric state\nof the grammar school, where he has a downright disgust for girls. Soon, however, he\nbegins to take them as a matter of course, and even progresses so far as to wish to appear\nwell in their sight. Hence more attention to his shoes, his hair, and other details of dress.\nHis shyness and awkwardness disappear after a while, and he learns to speak to a girl\nwithout stammering or blushing to the roots of his hair. The innate sense of chivalry\nthat every manly heart has for woman finds daily expression, in a mixed school, in little acts\nof courtesy, until what is innate becomes a fixed habit of life. And by the time the boy\nleaves the high school he is transformed into a courteous, self-respecting young gentleman, with pleasing manners and address, and with the knowledge of how to appear natural\nand unaffected in the presence of ladies.\nNeedless to say, girls also gain by such social relations at school. It is good for the\nshy and distant girl who, perhaps, has not much social life at home. It is good even for\nthe melodramatic girl who reads novels and sighs for a lover. It is far better for her to\ncontemplate the boy present than the boy absent. The chances are that if she sees him\nevery day he may appear less desirable. But in the monastic seclusion of the boarding\nschool she may eat out her heart on his account; she may even grow desperate and try\nto elope at the first opportunity. Similia similibus is by no means a bad remedy in such\ncases.\nA few stolen glances, a few sighs — and the symptoms gradually subside.\nClosely associated with the question of manners is that of discipline. Having had\nexperience in teaching both separate and mixed classes, I am free to declare that\ndiscipline is a far easier matter when boys and girls are together. They somewhat act to\nthe mutual restraint of each other. When boys are alone with a male teacher, unless that\nteacher has the genius of Napoleon for command, or the power of Apollo to charm, they\nare more than apt to give him his hands full. But when girls are present things are\ndifferent. The rough horse play, the coarse jest, the rude trick are rarely thought of.\nIt is the evident disposition in each sex to appear to the best advantage in the eyes of the\nother. One educator declares that a motion of the hand or a flash of the eye is all that\nis necessary to control disorder in a mixed school.\nIt is perhaps upon moral grounds that the opponents of coeducation object to it most\nstrongly. And in city districts where there is a large and vicious foreign element this\nobjection is doubtless well urged. But where the population is homogeneous, and of\naverage stability, the criticism no longer has weight. After an experience of twelve\nyears in a mixed high school, I have failed to find a single instance of improper conduct\nresulting from the mingling of the sexes. On the contrary, the better elements of human\nnature under such circumstances have seemed to be dominant. In addition to the corrective tendencies that the presence of each sex has upon the conduct of the other, there\nis the further advantage that comes from their dwelling together in an atmosphere of\nbooks and of m.ental activity. No wonder that Dr. Harris had noticed that the atmosphere of mixed schools was desexualized, whereas that of separate schools generally tended\ntowafrd immorality. The often-quoted statement of Richter on this point is as forcible\nas it is true. He said : \" To insure modesty 1 would advise the education of the sexes\ntogether, for two boys will preserve twelve girls or two girls twelve boys innocent amidst\nwinks, jokes, and improprieties, merely by that instinctive sense which is the forerunner\nof natural modesty. But I will guarantee nothing in a school where girls are alone\ntogether, still less bo.ys.\" From the foregoing we fail to see where the separate school\nhas any advantage over the mixed school in point of morality. Rather it is true that\nboth theory and practice confirm the opposite view.\nAs regards the intellectual phase of the question, the objection has been raised by\nsome that girls require a different kind of training from boys, and should therefore be\neducated by themselves. There is no question that the majority of women are destined\nto the sphere of the home. This would naturally require some differentiation in their\ntraining, but not so much as was once thought necessary.\nIt has been found, not only\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n459\n\nthat women can measure up with men in the so-called masculine studies, but also that\nsuch studies are beneficial to them ; beneficial not only in the lines of independent activity\nthat many women, either from choice or necessity, are now pursuing, but beneficial\nmentally. Shall the education of women be such as to make her visionary and impractical, full of sentiment and gush, simply because her nature is finer and more sympathetic\nthan man's? Would it not be better, along with the poetry and music, to have some\ntraining in the exact sciences? But since these questions have been thoroly argued and\ngenerally agreed upon, it is not my purpose here to discuss them. Most assuredly, as 1\nhave before pointed out, the fundamental nature of the courses in our high schools permits that the sexes may study the same subjects together, while there is latitude enough\nto allow for varying conditions. This being granted, we may ask whether there is any\nintellectual gain to the pupil in coeducation. It is a well-known fact that girls are, as a\nrule, more studious than boys and more conscientious in their work. They thus set a\nhigh ideal for the class. A boy naturally feels ashamed to be outdone by a girl, and will\nspur up his efforts to prevent it. I have known cases in which girls have had a good\ninfluence over their boy admirers in arousing their ambition.\nSomehow a subtle but distinct influence is felt in the schoolroom that contains both\nboys and girls. Each sex seems desirous of winning respect from the other, both in regard\nto behavior and work. Of course, there are exceptions ; classes differ from each other\nalmost as much as individuals. The mere fact that classes are mixed by no means insures\nperfection. But I fully believe that, all other things being equal, there is more interest,\nbetter behavior, better work in the class where the sexes recite together than where they\nare kept separate.\nThis mutual stimulus of the sexes keeps the routine work of the schoolroom oftentimes from becoming humdrum. It may sound like a bit of sentimentalism, but there is\nlittle doubt that a sort of romantic interest springs up along with the Latin and mathematics as ^ result of this sex-association. There is that in the fervid imagination of\nyouth which makes of each lad a hero and of each lass a heroine, and transforms the\nprosaic schoolroom into a \"field of cloth of gold.\" Nor do the Latin and the mathematics suffer on this account, but rather gain. Pleasure adds zest to work and work to\npleasure. These young people do not have to fall in love to be interested in each other.\nThe possibilities of the future lend a romance to the present, and that is sufficient.\nAffection under such circumstances is not the \" master passion,\" and need not cause the\nslightest alarm.\nAnother good advantage of coeducation is that it permits teachers of both sexes.\nThat instruction is necessarily more or less one-sided and incomplete which comes from\nteachers exclusively of one sex. What a misfortune, for instance, to be placed under the\nabsolute dominion of a set of old maids who have very decided convictions and are\nterribly set in their ways. I hasten to correct the impression that may be formed that I\nthink lady teachers are all of this class. Far from it. But I mention a condition by no\nmeans impossible or unheard of.\nI believe thoroly in the coeducation of the sexes. It is the natural way. Nor do I\nbelieve that it cheapens woman to be associated with man in intellectual endeavor. If\nwoman's charm is essential and not artificial, there is no danger that she will lose any of\nit or that it will be any the less appreciated. Besides, there is so much that she can\nimpart to man as well as receive from him. In the earlier ages, when man had to contend\nwith the elemental forces of nature, he had no time or need to cultivate the gentler graces\nof character. But now he finds that he needs more of patience and of the moral virtues,\nand less of brute strength and animal courage. So with woman. The ruder ages forced\nher to stay by the fireside. But advancing civilization and changing standards have\nmade it possible for her to do a different service, for which she needs practical w^isdom\nand intelligent training. So one by one have the pales of prejudice and convention been\nbeaten down, until now man and woman stand together, distinct in individuality, but\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "460\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhelping each other to completer living, and blessing the world with their joint labors. If\nthis new order of things indicates true progress, and not retrogression, then is coeducation\na necessity, and will never depart from among us.\nDr. G. Stanley Hall, being called out by the audience, said that coeducation\ntransforms and idealizes home and school influences. We cannot quite fairly compare the\ntwo kinds of education, because the old arguments must be used to justify things that are\nexpedient. Newer arguments for the separation of the sexes in education are more\ndifficult. Coeducation in the middle teens tends to sexual precocity. This is very bad ;\nin fact, it is one of the subtlest dangers that can befall civilization. There are momentous\nchanges in boys at the age of fourteen. Adolescence is a crisis in their lives. The first\ndanger to a woman is over-brainwork. It affects that part of her organism which is\nsacred to heredity. This danger is seen in the diminishing number of marriages. The\npostponement of marriage is very unfortunate in its influence upon civilization. Many\nmen neglect marriage with no adequate excuse.\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ARGUMENTATIVE\nHIGH SCHOOLS\n\nDISCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nI\nGEORGE\n\nP.\n\nBAKER,\n\nASSISTANT\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nPROFESSOR\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nOF ENGLISH,\nMASS.\n\nHARVARD\n\nThe attitude toward an opponent of a college undergraduate preparing\nto discuss a topic of the day was forecast with mortifying accuracy by\nOliver Goldsmith in his \"Good-Natur'd Man.\" When Leontine begs\nhis father, the lachrymose Croaker, to listen to reason. Croaker replies :\n\"Come then, produce your reasons. I tell you I'm fixed, determined, so\nnow produce your reasons. When I'm determined, I always listen to\nreason, because it can then do no harm.\" To such a beginner in the\nstudy of argumentation too often the man who can differ from him is\neither a fool or a dullard. You will find that a college student of the best\nsort has an opinion on many subjects ; that, if you cross-question him\nskillfully, perhaps he will tell you clearly just what he thinks; that possibly he may with equal clearness tell you why he thinks as he does ; but\nask him to state why his opponent ventures to hold a different opinion !\n\"The rest is silence.\" Surely, the danger, in a republic, of this attitude\nof mind is evident.\nMoreover, when this undergraduate is assigned a topic for discussion,\nhe rushes forthwith to the library. His train of thought is well illustrated\nby the fact that, if he is assigned a topic arising from conditions of college life, he is all at sea. He ranges thru the college publications, and if\nthey contain little or nothing on the subject, he probably comes to his\ninstructor asking to have the topic changed, because there is no evidence\non it accessible. He hesitates to accept such topics as, \"Should Work in\nthe Gymnasium be Prescribed for Freshmen ?\" tho he was once an intel-\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ARGUMENTATIVE\n\nDISCOURSE\n\n461\n\nligent freshman himself, but attacks unhesitatingly questions which have\ntaxed the powers of our foremost students of economics and constitutional\nhistory. The reason is that he knows there is on the second kind hi topic\na wealth of published material ; that on the first topic very little has been\nprinted. The undergraduate of today has an undue regard for what is in\nprint ; for what other people say, as contrasted with the value of what\nthey say. If my classes are discussing a question involving engineering,\nI can never be sure that some debater will not attempt to meet evidence\nof an authority on engineering with a quotation from a magazine article\ncontributed by a hack writer or by a man who has made hfs reputation in\na totally different field. Ever since \" McAndrews' Hymn\" Mr. Kipling\nhas been for the undergraduate an authority on engineering. Very\nrecently a professor in one of the leading medical colleges of the country\nsaid to me : \" You college teachers must do more to make your graduates\nunderstand that not everything in print by a student of a subject is\nindubitable. I spend hours which I need for other purposes in making\ncollege graduates grasp that seemingly self-evident fact.\" To this very\nattitude of mind may be traced a large part of current inaccuracy. It is\nso much easier to repeat, parrot-like, than to examine, weigh, and adjudge.\nYet in many departments of knowledge the discovery of new facts is\nwell-nigh impossible, tho there is hardly a field of human thought in\nwhich facts, so called, when subjected to rigid scrutiny, will not reveal\nerror or wrong emphasis, and bring the critical investigator contributive\nresults and reputation.\nProbably, too, the intense activity of our people manifests itself in\nthis would-be debater in a feeling that at twenty-two he must be for some\nreason a marked man among his college mates. But, instead of winning\nslowly a reputation in some one of the many activities which college life\noffers, he rushes into all which open before him. Constantly I meet\nyouths of much promise as speakers who so dissipate their energies in a\nhalf-dozen interests that they accomplish little even in the subject for\nwhich they have inborn capacity. Like many others in the college world,\nthey have not the power to select, to distinguish what, with their equipment, they may do from what they may not. Our secondary education,\nthen, develops the memory; it creates a zest for acquiring information;\nbut only rarely, apparently, does it train youth to think for the pleasure\nof thinking. Watching the undergraduate in his restless activity, one is\nreminded of the wise words of Richard Brinsley Sheridan : \" Now and\nthen, be idle. Sit and think ! \" and wishes that they might be written\nlarge where the undergraduate should see them daily, and, seeing them,\nobey.\nWho is responsible for these conditions — this narrow-mindedness,\nthis lack of constructive thinking, this inability to see proportions justly?\nBoth the college and the school, I think.\nCertainly, for years we of the\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^\n\n[Secondary\n\ncolleges have, in our teaching of English composition, been dwelling too\nmuch on the presentation of thought, too little on training our pupils to\nthink. No normal boy wants a vocabulary for its own sake : he wants it\nwhen he has ideas which he cannot express with the words at his command. Recognizing this, we of the colleges are trying to rectify our past\nerror; but that is not enough. What I have been describing in the\nundergraduate is an attitude of mind, well developed or even set by the\ntime he can begin in college his special study of argumentation. Every\nyear I spend a large amount of time battling bad methods of thinking\nwhich have, at least, not been rectified by the training of the student in\nthe secondary school. I believe, therefore, that in the boarding schools\nand the high schools of the country much more attention should be given\nto training boys and girls to think, and that, as the quickest means to this\nend, the teaching of argumentation should be developed in these schools ;\nfor, properly taught, it creates or develops a love of thinking for its own\nsake, fair-mindedness, and a just sense of proportion.\nOf course, I know the objection which instantly arises — that already the\nhigh-school curriculum is crowded; that to remove any subject is to take\nfrom a student what is as valuable as the study I suggest, or even more\nvaluable. But must we crowd out anything ? Possibly some readjustment may be made. Moreover, I doubt if, during the next five years,\nteachers in high schools will find themselves perfectly free to say whether\nor not the subject shall be taught to their pupils. Even now debating\nsocieties in the schools are increasing ; and inter-scholastic debating gains\nrecruits each year. For some time, I am told, there has been a successful\ninter-scholastic debating league of the schools in and about Chicago ; and\nrecently the Greater New York Inter-Scholastic Debating League has\nbeen organized. The history of inter-collegiate debating shows that certain results of this rapidly growing interest are inevitable. Defeat, especially repeated defeat, leaves its sting, and even its effect, on the reputation\nof the school. ^ Sooner or later some teacher or teachers must take a hand,\nand show the ineffective debaters how to work. The better the work of\nthe debaters and the more absorbing it is, the more it attracts attention\nfrom the regular course. Recognizing all this, some schools have yielded\nto the inevitable and made debating a part of their curriculum. And\nwhy not yield ? In any course in preparatory English you face the great\ndivision, argumentation, as a subdivision of exposition. Usually in our\nhigh schools it is lightly touched ; yet by argumentation you can teach\nstructure in composition as you can in no other way. Now, the tendency\nof the past ten years in the teaching of English composition has been\nfrom a study of parts to a study of the whole. Train a boy to a proper\nsense of structure in argument, with its necessarily careful marshaling of\nfacts, theories, and evidence, and you will find little difficulty in making\nhim understand the freer structure of description, narration, and exposi-\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ARGUMENTATIVE\n\nDISCOURSE\n\n463\n\ntion. So true is this that I have for some time given the first half-year\nof a course on the forms of public discourse to a careful exposition of\nanalysis and structure as illustrated in public argumentation. Once well\ngrounded in these essentials of good argument, the class has found little\ndifficulty with structure in the editorial, in letters to the press, and in the\nvarious kinds of addresses for special occasions. And when a boy or girl\nrecognizes the need and the value of careful structure in his writing, he\nhas passed two other important stages in his development: first, he has\nrecognized that it is indeed a simple question which reveals its full significance at a glance, or which, without special thought given it, is so clear\nin our minds that we can present it convincingly for others. That is, he\nhas learned to examine questions in order to find out what they involve;\nto ascertain what in the usual discussion of them is unnecessary or irrelevant ;what, tho connected, may be admitted ; what, for the sake of argument, under existing circumstances, may be granted ; and on what the\nquestion turns. When he has found what technically we term the special\nissue, he will find that the remaining ideas fall into groups around it.\nThat discovery means something of the greatest importance — acquiring\nthe power to see the right values among ideas, to see proportions\njustly. Yet this power of distinguishing the important from the unimportant has often been declared to be the best result of the higher education. Certainly, the exercise of this power is the duty from moment to\nmoment of the man or woman of affairs, of the leaders in any activity —\nfrom education to statesmanship.\nBut, it may be said, your suggestion will simply overcrowd the course\nin English composition. If so, may not a readjustment in another direction help matters ? I yield to no one in my respect for what elocution\nmay do for the growing boy or girl, but I believe that during the next\nten years the work of elocution in our schools must be largely changed.\nIt should become, not a co-ordinate, but a subordinate subject; and in\nthat position it can gain swiftly the recognition which it has vainly\nstruggled for in the past. Declamation, except in so far as it trains the\nvoice, I believe to be well-nigh worthless. Indeed, that we should have\nspecial teachers of elocution seems to me unnecessary. Instead, our\nyounger teachers of English, at least, should be required to give themselves such preparation as shall enable them to set standards for their\npupils and to train them in right speaking and in proper delivery of\ntheir own work. For the educated — that is, for the cultivated — man\nand woman the spoken word is as important as the written. Let us make\nof elocution, not a special preparation for prize declamations, but let us\nincorporate it with our English work as a means to the end of correct\nspeech, in an agreeable voice, of the Miought of the pupil, and I am sure\nthe support for elocution from pupil and general public will be that which\nteachers of elocution have long desired for their subject.\nBut such com-\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nbination should mean a saving of time ; and here is a chance for the\ntraining in discussion which I recommend; for it and the work in elocution must go hand in hand.\nIn schools where there is already a strong interest in debating among\nthe pupils, I think it desirable for another reason that argumentation\nshould become a recognized part of the curriculum, A boy who debates\nwith only occasional guidance gains the idea that debating includes all\nthat is most important in public speaking, and also, if his team be successful, the idea that it is an easily acquired art, which he has completely\nmastered. The most difficult student I have to deal with is the youth\nwho, successful in school debates in which he has relied chiefly on his\nown resources, has competed at inter-collegiate trial debates only to be\ndisregarded because of his flamboyant oratory and his inability to develop\na case consecutively and evidentially. Advised by old debaters, he enters\na course in argumentation. At the outset he is convinced that justice\nwould recognize his worth, and that only an obstinate maintaining of\narbitrarily established standards degrades him to association with students\nwho have not had his advantages. His regeneration begins only when he\nsees that his correct theory and practice are but a few grains amidst the\nabundant chaff of his prejudices and misinformation. Too often, indeed,\nthis self-trained or very slightly trained person, after his essay at college\ndebating has not been received with acclaim, sulks in his tent for a time,\nand then goes over to some other less exacting college interest.\nBut even the boys who have been well coached fall into the error of\nbelieving that debating is the most important division of public discourse.\nIn the first place, the preponderance is greatly in favor of work not strictly\nargumentative, and even forensic oratory is under no such rigid regulations as is inter-collegiate debating or its offspring, inter-scholastic debating. Boys trained in debating without any instruction as to its relation\nto the other forms of public discourse are like youths who take a course\nin journalism before they have mastered their rhetoric. Debating is the\nathletics of public discussion, and just as the athlete plays to win, the\ndebater speaks to win. Yet in education one works not for an immediate\nresult, but for an ultimate state of mind ; and the desideratum in teaching\nargumentation should be, not the winning of a special debate, but creating in a boy a love of truth from investigation, be it for or against his\noriginal idea; a zest for constructive thinking; and an increasing interest\nin the excitement and satisfaction that the overcoming of intellectual difficulties may bring.\nFirst of all, then, it seems to me that any instruction in the high\nschools\" in argumentation should treat, not debating simply, but the principles which underlie all public discourse, and should make students\nunderstand clearly the relation of debating to the other forms of public\nspeaking.\nSecondly, I think the schools could do much in training boys\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ARGUMENTATIVE\n\nDISCOURSE\n\n4^5\n\nand girls to think for themselves if, especially in any class-room work, not\nalways the topics set for inter-collegiate debates, many of them very intricate and difficult, but sometimes topics pertinent to the life of the school\nitself, be discussed. Such topics may not at first produce results as\ngratifying as may be obtained from subjects on which much has been\nprinted, but they will force the pupil to think for himself, and they will\nmake the whole subject of argumentation more vital and less a mere\nintellectual feat. Moreover, why should not the inter-scholastic debating\nbe somewhat differentiated from that of the colleges ? That final five\nminutes of rebuttal, or that series of short rebuttal speeches, in which a\nspeaker is to hold up before the audience a large section of the case, or\neven the whole case itself, reduced to its simplest proportion, bringing\nout what is essential and striking final blows, is a difficult task for even a\nmatured, skilled mind. Few college men can do this kind of rebutting\nat will ; none do it without the hardest training under severe criticism.\nWhy strain the boy or girl with that ? Why, too, worry them with persuasion, beyond training them in the persuasion which comes in the\ndelivery of a well-planned speech in a pleasant voice and manner.\nPersuasion may be studied better in the college than in the school, but,\nafter all, it cannot be fully studied except by the man himself as he faces\naudience after audience. What any boy or girl may be taught, and\nwhat he or she will be the better for knowing, are the main rules for\nbriefing ; how to search for what is central in the question ; the difference\nbetween assertion and proof; and the common-sense tests of evidence.\nHe or she may be made to understand, too, that often one cannot prove\neffectively till one has cleared the ground by disproving ; but that disproof of error does not necessarily establish an opposing theory. And\nthe value of all this is twofold. It teaches what will be useful in all the\nforms of public discourse, and it tends to create a state of mind in which\nselection becomes easier than it usually is for youth, constructive thinking grows attractive, and an opponent is regarded, not with mere hostility, but with interest. Force a student to struggle with the two sides\nof a question by analysis, by the offsetting of the ideas /r^ and con, and\nby a careful valuation of what he finds to be essential in each of the\nopposing views ; and he attains, first, a detestation of snap judgments\nand a desire, in approaching any discussion, to know the full strength of\nboth sides before settling on an opinion; secondly, an opinion worth\nsomething; and thirdly, an opinion he can state in a way to be useful to\nothers. Above all, he gains firmly the idea that unswerving consistency\nis intellectual and even moral cowardice ; that the self-respecting, rational\nbeing, as he grows, will and must change his mind.\nThe attitude of mind thus created ^ill be helpful, too, in all the other\nwork of the student. Moreover, the success of the individual in life\nlargely depends upon his ability to see, among the multiplicity of pleas-\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nures and duties that each day brings, what is essential. Finally, the\nnarrow-mindedness this training tends to destroy is responsible for the\ncaste and the sectionalism which have threatened, and, in other forms,\nmay again threaten, the life of the republic. The history of our country\nhas shown more than once that only so long as we can be sure that, at a\ncrisis in the affairs of the nation, public opinion will rally to sane and\nwise leadership, or, itself commanding by its sanity, force the hand of\npoliticians, is our nation safe. Training of this kind is, then, training\nfor good citizenship.\nII\nCHARLES\n\nS. HARTWELL,\n\nTEACHER OF ENGLISH\nBROOKLYN, N. Y.\n\nIN THE\n\nBOYS' HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWith Professor Baker's main propositions, as set forth in the preceding paper, I heartily concur. Passing directly to lines not specifically\ntreated in his paper, my part is to touch upon the following three points :\n1. How argumentative discourse has been or may be a part of the\nhigh-school curriculum.\nProfessor Baker pleads for the introduction of the teaching of argumentative discourse into the high-school curriculum and speaks of argumentation as a division of exposition. In many cases the opportunity is\nalready there. Three fourths of the popular text-books in rhetoric which\ndiscuss exposition and argumentation give them equal prominence with\nnarration and description, and one-fourth treat them still more in detail.\nThe best rhetorics help the teacher to bring out the main features of argumentation.\nThe importance of this subject is recognized in the new syllabus in\nEnglish adopted for the high schools of Greater New York by the Board,\nof Superintendents. Argumentation is taught in the fourth and seventh\nsemesters, and exposition in the third and sixth. In four of eight terms\nthus composition work encourages logical thinking. The Board of\nSuperintendents in our metropolis has done its part. Courses elsewhere\nmaking no provision for constructive thinking and failing to recognize\nthe educative value of argumentative discourse should be revised, and\ntext-books in rhetoric which minimize this subject were better discarded.\n2. Methods of treatment in high schools.\nMethods employed in teaching argumentative discourse vary with the\npersonality of the instructor. Resources are taxed to devise ways to illustrate clearly the inductive and the deductive syllogism, burden of proof,\narrangement, motives, interests, development and summaries of proof.\nModels of briefs and specimens of sound argument are useful, but need\nthe interesting teacher. One method of creating interest is on certain\ndays to organize the class into a debating society.\nTwo pupils who have\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ARGUMENTATIVE\n\nDISCOURSE\n\n467\n\nsuccessfully brought out both sides of a live question before their section\nmay discuss it before the school.\nIn many schools literary and debating societies are expected to do all\nthis. Sometimes they are organized as Senate and House of state or\nnation, and manuals of parliamentary procedure are carefully studied.\nReadiness of expression and quickness of thought before an audience are\ncultivated, and, unconsciously, preparation is made for the actual struggles\nof life. But let us not allow a factious spirit to creep in, and let u^\ndiscourage anything that resembles a sneer. Much prejudice against this\nform of discourse is due to this tendency. Our object is to cultivate the\nhabit of looking at both sides of a real question, and to develop the\npower of independent thought and expression.\nThe motive for special interest in the study of argumentative discourse\nis found in' inter-class or in inter-scholastic debating. A league between\nschools in the same city or in neighboring towns will enlist the\nco-operation of teachers and pupils in the schools involved. Debates\nin a school prepare for debates between schools, and these give stimulus\nto the societies in each school engaged.\n3. Concrete instances of attempts to teach argumentation in high\nschools.\nIn Minnesota enthusiasm has been aroused by a series of contests\namong schools within the same congressional district.\nIn Michigan, resulting probably from the success of the state university in intercollegiate debating, unusual success has been achieved. I have\nsolicited a report from one of the high schools. Miss Agnes B. Powell\nwrites from Marshall, Mich. :\nOur school debates originated in the necessity of training to enable pupils to speak\nclearly and forcefully upon their feet. The last four years the entire high school has\nbeen divided into small sections meeting once a week. At first these sections corresponded tothe grade sections — 9, 10, 11, and 12 — and met on four consecutive afternoons\nat 3 o'clock, when our session closes, but when any teacher has the right to hold special\nsessions for forty-five minutes more.\nLast year the element of rivalry was introduced by cutting each grade into halves,\nand holding one-half of the ninth with one-half of the tenth, the other halves the next\nnight; and on the third and fourth nights the eleventh and twelfth grades divided\nsimilarly. In this way ninths debated tenths ; elevenths debated twelfths. The. score\ngrew very close at the end of the semesters. The winning grade in the half-year contest\nbetween ninths and tenths chose debaters to contest elevenths and tvi'elfths. In both cases\nfreshmen debated seniors and lost only by a small margin in the finals, so enthusiastic\nhad been their preparation.\nThis year the twelfth grade pupils were assigned, three at a time, to various sections\nto judge the debates, each senior judging four or five times in the semester. The debates\nwere varied by short reports on current topics once a month. Another year the ninth will\ndevote most meetings to speeches on news, inft-easing the proportion of speech to debate\nas the year progresses.\nOur debates are usually upon current events.\nEach section was assigned to a different teacher, and all met at the same time in\ntheir respective rooms for twenty minutes. In one section of ninths each member appeared\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nfour times during the year, never in exactly the same position. Most members were called\non in the general discussion at least once in two weeks. The interest was keen throughout.\nThe self-possession and unembarrassed thinking of our high-school pupils when\ncalled upon to speak upon their feet in recitation or in other situations is unusual. The\nimprovement among the ninths was marked during the year. The bearing of some\ntenth-grade pupils, when asked to step to the front and report briefly a magazine article\nread for class, would not discredit adult speakers.\nDebates begin in November, and are discontinued at the first hint of spring languor.\n\nThe following plan for a half-hour debate has been thoroly tested in\na Brooklyn high school. A public-spirited citizen has provided a fine cup\nto be held for the ensuing term by the room which wins. Each term the\nfour rooms of the senior class have a championship series consisting of\nsix debates at fortnightly intervals before the school. Each room debates\nwith the other three in succession. In each twelve representatives are\nelected by ballot to form three teams of three speakers with one alternate.\nThe three boys receiving the highest number of votes act as captains.\nThe class teacher acts as coach. One team chooses the question, and its\nopponent chooses the side. Seldom does a substitute get a chance to\nspeak. Not only is it an honor to represent the room, but a mark for the\ndebate is allowed in place of that for one formal composition. A schedule\nis prepared, teams are elected, questions selected, and sides arranged for\nthe entire term. This schedule is gazetted within the first month and it i^/\nstrictly carried out. Three judges, teachers, appointed for the entire\nseries, are bound by the following rules :\n\n'\n\nA maximum of ten credits shall be given each captain for his opening statement of\nthe issue joined, and of the limitations of the question.\nA maximum of ten credits shall be given each speaker for argument, refutation, and\npresentation respectively.\nBy argument is meant direct proof of the position taken.\nBy refutation is meant either the answering of anticipated objections or the rebuttal\nof advanced opposing arguments.\nBy presentation is meant dignity and ease of bearing, and force and gracefulness of\nexpression.\nThe maximum of credits possible for either team from one judge is one hundred.\nEach judge shall thus on a scale of ten record his judgment ten times for each side\nand cast his vote for the side making the higher aggregate.\nOnly the aggregate marks of all the judges shall be announced with the decision.\nThe order of debate is as follows :\nCaptains are allowed two minutes to open and five minutes to close the debate\nfor their sides.\nAssociates are allowed four minutes each.\nA minute's warning is to be given each speaker.\n\nThe entire debate is completed thus in thirty minutes. Then the\nschool proceeds to sing, and the timekeeper collects the ratings from the\nthree judges, who by no means confer with one another, notes the\ncomparative results, and hands the decision to the principal.\nAfter\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ARGUMENTATIVE\n\nDISCOURSE\n\n469\n\nmaking comments appropriate and encouraging, the principal announces\nthe decision of the judges, and gives the aggregate number of points\nmade by either side; as, for example, 216 to 195 out of the possible 300\naccording to the rules No speaker is commended at the expense of the\nothers. Thirty-six different pupils thus in a semester have the benefit of\nparticipation in one public debate.\nIn the Greater New York Inter Scholastic Debating League four of\nthe five boroughs in New York city are represented in the eight high\nschools which form this league. The schedule arranged for next year\nprovides for a championship on each side of the East River, and then one\nof the entire city. During the year each school debates with the three\nothers in its group, and the two winners meet in a final contest. A flag,\nwhich may be carried at future debates, is presented to each winning\nschool.\nThe first step in preparation for a debate with another institution is\nthe selection of the participants. In another Brooklyn high school, which\nhas won fifteen out of twenty debates with six other public or private high\nschools in the past seven years, one method of selection is as follows :\nSix boys are chosen by three teachers from all comers in a trial discussion\nwhere either side of the question advertised may be presented. These are\narranged alphabetically and divided into two sets to discuss a week later\nthe sides of the question. The first and the fourth act as leaders, and thus\nspeak twice or \"sum up\" for their sides. The sets are then turned about\nto discuss the opposite side of the question, and the second and the fifth\nact as captains. The thjrd and sixth then draw lots for choice of side\nor first choice of associate. After three trials each judge decides separately on the three he selects and, comparing lists, the team is finally\nchosen, the remaining three agreeing to debate against the regular team\nto afford it practice. No boy is allowed to write out and memorize his\narguments, but fallacies and sophistries in his reasoning are pointed\nout by the three trainers. Picking flaws and trying to be smart are\ndiscouraged. A fundamental injunction is: Find the strongest point\nyour opponent can bring to bear and an answer for it. The direct arguments are separated, each speaker having a line to develop which will\nprove cumulative. The boy weakest in rebuttal is assigned a place after\nthe leader, so that the third may have more opportunity to refute, while\nthe leader in his second speech is to demolish any opposing arguments\nadvanced which slip the attention of his colleagues and then close with a\npowerful summary of the points on his side.\nKeen enthusiasm pervades these mental contests. It is delightful to\nwatch the alertness of opposing teams, to note that peculiar aggressiveness\nand dash which only boys seem to Iftive. It is easy to see which teams\nmake set speeches and which analyze their problem as they would a game\nof chess.\nThe value to pupils of a critical study of both sides of live\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nquestions cannot be overestimated.\nSimply to appreciate the fact that\nthere are two sides is an important lesson.\nWhen we think of the enthusiasm of pupils along the purely physical\nside, we wonder if there may not be similar zest in mental struggles.\nTeachers and principals have great influence in popularizing the various\nforms of public speaking. Educators enthusiastic about inter-scholastic\ndebating deepen interest in oratory, and a working appreciation of one\nform of public speaking will extend interest in other forms of oral\nexpression.\n\nROUND\n\nLEADER, HENRY\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\n/.\n\nCLASSICAL\n\nWHITE\n\nCALLAHAN,\nGENERAL\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nSTATE PREPARATORY\nCOLO.\n\nSCHOOL, BOULDER,\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nR. W. Husband, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. — Since I understand that this\nis to a large extent to be an experience meeting, the object being mutual encouragement,\nI want to begin by relating three things that have encouraged me this year. First, I\nthink I have not been more merciful than usual, and yet my freshmen have taken an\naverage mark lo per cent, higher than for two or three years past. I attribute the gain\nto their better preparation for college and to their unusually good spirit. Secondly, at\nthe end of the first semester I suggested to my second-division freshman class that I\nshould be much pleased if they would decide to abstain from using a translation for the\nremainder of the year. They voted unanimously to do so, and they have stuck to it. I\nthink this accounts for the fact that they now stand 15 per cent, higher than did my\ncorresponding class of last year. Thirdly, about a year ago I printed a small pamphlet\ncontaining the titles of two hundred and fifty classical books recommended for a teacher's\nlibrary. These have been distributed, some to the schools that fit for Dartmouth, others\nupon request of teachers, and I have sent out over nine hundred copies. From letters\nthat come to me, I am sure many of them are being well used. This is to me a certain\nindication that teachers are anxious to broaden their classical knowledge. I am\nconvinced that we teachers here this morning could do no more effective work for the\nencouragement of classical studies, than the printing of such a list of books, containing\nfrom three hundred to five hundred titles (the expense would be trifling), and spread them\nbroadcast among classical teachers in America.\nThese are encouraging signs that have come to me personally within a year, and yet\nI do not want to feel, or make you feel, too optimistic as a result of these, which are really\ntrifling things in themselves, altho they have shown me the tendency toward which our\nefforts must be directed. We have many difficulties to face, many great ones. It is\nneedless to speak of the rush toward practical studies — a tendency as old as Pericles and\nAristophanes, but no less crippling on that account ; needless to point to the legislation\nin several colleges recently against retaining Greek as a requirement for the A. B. degree.\nThe Greek battle that is now being waged is also a Latin battle, for I am convinced that\nnot many years hence a similar assault will be made upon the position of Latin. The\nfight of the two languages is the same, and no teacher of Latin can afford to stand idly\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCLASSICAL\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n471\n\nby and allow the place of Greek to be assailed, without a serious struggle. But this is\nnot a killing matter ; it gives us a few bruises — rather hard ones at times; but bruises\nheal, and our spirits rise again. The outcome remains with ourselves, for all the legislation in the world will not kill the classics in our colleges and schools. We rQst on a firm\nfooting, and our business is to see that this footing continues firm. I am a graduate of a\nuniversity that requires neither Greek nor Latin for entrance or for the A. B. degree, yet\neven there Greek is not the smallest department, and Latin is one of the large ones. Our\nfight is one not for existence, but for position ; and if we are but ready to put on our\nfighting clothes, the classics will always hold an honorable and honored position.\nWe have an opportunity now, such as never before existed, to strengthen our position.\nThis is to be found in that lamentable indifference on the part of students which is the\ngreatest curse of present-day education. Not one-third of our students do their best; not\none-third have a genuine interest in their work. As a fine old man in California said of\nhis school, quoting Herodotus, iroWol jxkv AvOpoiTroi, iravpoi d^ Avdpes — he had \"many\npeople, but few good men.\" Herein is our opportunity. Seize upon your careless\nstudents, teach skillfully and interestedly, and good results can be guaranteed. The\ninfluence of strong teaching in secondary schools is enormous, irrespective of department.\nScholars are made in secondary schools much more frequently than in colleges, and the\nscholar remembers his teacher much longer than he does his course. Hard work, vigorous\nand interested teaching, backed by knowledge that compels respect, will banish forever\nthe students besetting sin of indifference ; and the teacher with these characteristics will\ndraw students, whatever be his subject. The student needs an impetus, and if it comes\nfrom the classical teacher, the classics will flourish ; if not, heaven help us ! The\nsecondary-school teachers have it in their hands to kill or restore the classics; it is with\nthem the burden mus^ rest. If a student has felt for three or four years that Greek and\nLatin are a drag, we can do nothing with him in college ; our labor is lost ; an angel\nfrom heaven could not reclaim him. I wish to repeat this point : students are afflicted\nwith chronic indifference to all their work ; strong teaching in some one department will\ncure the malady ; and I appeal to the classical teachers to cure it.\nThere is but one way of making the most of our present opportunity, and that is by\nsuccessful teaching. With the odds against us as they now are, it is not sufficient that we\nteach as well as the teachers of science or history. I am convinced we do that now, but\nwe must do still better. I have no pedagogical theories ; I hold to the old-fashioned\nbelief that the greater our knowledge the better we teach. But before this, there is one\nquality that must be possessed, or effort is vain. This is enthusiasm^ and enthusiasm for\neach day's work. I know a teacher who has such fondness for the Greek verb that his\npupils believe it a work of art, and soon become as enthusiastic' and familiar with it as he\nis. Here I wish to utter an earnest protest against allowing a pupil to think that anything he does is valuable only as a bridge, useful in aiding him to gain some other desired\npoint. I therefore protest against those grammars which are written merely as an aid to\nlater reading. We have grammars that appeal to our sense of beauty, symmetry, and\nclearness, and these are the only ones fit for use. Enthusiasm for his subject will\ncertainly lead the teacher to widen and strengthen his own knowledge. He who has not\nincreased his knowledge every year since graduation, cannot be a successful teacher.\nEither enthusiasm or industry is lacking, and a want of either quality should force a\nteacher out of the profession. I have made this statement before, and have been criticised\nfor it on the ground that teachers have not time for extra work. I shall, however,\ncontinue to make the statement, and for evidence that I am right, need only point to\nthose well-known secondary-school teachers who are both our most successful teachers\nand best editors of text-books. If I were a meJ^ber of a school board, one of the first\nquestions I should ask an applicant for a position would be: \"What have you read or\nwritten on your subject since graduation ?\" A teacher should read broadly in his classical\nauthors, and read intelligently, and with great accuracy.\nIt is our business to work as\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhard as health will permit, with but the single reservation that we should always appear\nbefore our classes in good physical condition.\nThere is one serious lack in the teaching of Latin and Greek that renders it surprising\nthat any students realize the value of studying the classics. At the beginning of the last\nacademic year I was amazed to find that freshmen could translate accurately three or four\npages of Herodotus and not know what they had been reading about. We need the\nteaching in forceful, vigorous, virile manner of the historical, or linguistic, or religious, or\nrhetorical value of what we teach. The teacher who thinks, or allows his pupils to believe\nhe thinks, that Caesar is stupid, is deserving of instant dismissal. Another thing that is\npartly responsible for the students lack of appreciation is their excessive use of translations. Many begin their use with the first page of Caesar and continue thru life. In\ncollege we can rarely secure sufficient personal interest to induce the dropping of this\ncurse. It can be done in secondary schools, and must be done if students are to be saved.\nThe teacher in secondary schools has the rare power of inducing boys and girls to do as\nhe wishes, and this is one of the things he should set about instantly.\nIf, then, we realize that at this moment we have an opportunity to revive interest in\nthe classics, and labor to the utmost of our ability to accomplish it, by teaching with\ngreater skill, and by increasing our own enthusiasm and knowledge, the fate of classical\nstudy in America will not long be in doubt.\nWalter B. Gunnison, principal of Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. —\nIt is gratifying to those who are interested in classical education in secondary schools\nto know that with the greatly increasing growth in secondary work the interest in\nclassical studies is showing such marked advance. In Latin particularly more pupils\nin proportion to the whole number enrolled are studying it than ever before, and this too\nwhen so much extra time is being given to other subjects, especially to science and\nEnglish. This approval of the idea, so broadly urged for years, that Latin offers one of\nthe best means for a broad and liberal culture and training, and the finest foundation for\nother work, is to our mind but natural and sound. And yet the obligation is upon us\nclassical teachers to guard jealously this pronounced tendency and to hold the study to\nits legitimate limits. We must bear in mind that we are furnishing this for secondary\npupils, not more than one-fourth of whom will carry their work into the college and university. What is, therefore, to be kept in mind all the time is the good to the greater\nnumber. Profound scholarship and complete mastery of this language must not be the\naim alone. Four years of work must be put to the best use. With this in mind, I wish\nto protest against the too great emphasis being given to what can only be accomplished by\nlong years of study of the subject by mature minds. A graduate of my school went to\none of our leading colleges a short time ago. At the end of his freshman year I asked\nhow he got along with his Latin. He said it was very hard on account of the great stress\nlaid on Latin prose composition. The professor required the students to write Latin\nfreely, and demanded that they must not only write it correctly, but must show distinctly that they appreciated and had acquired the distinctive literary style of their author,\nLivy. To me this seems a preposterous demand for a freshman in college, and makes\nan undesirable standard for the secondary school to strive for.\nWe cannot make Latin scholars in our fitting school, nor should we try to. I would\nurge, therefore, that less attention should be given to Latin prose, but greater attention to\nawakening a live interest from the free reading of Latin authors. This we can do and do\nwell in our four years, and in so doing it seems to me we are best conserving the interest in\nclassical study. We are to be more and more hard pushed by the advocates of the study\nof the modern languages, because they can make an apparent and usable accomplishment\nof the work they undertake. We can do the same service, I believe, better; but we must\npay less attention to marking the quantity of long, short, and doubtful vowels, to archaic\nforms and useless idioms, and read — read largely of the authors of the great classic\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCLASSICAL\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n473\n\nperiod of the Roman language and literature. In this way only can we maintain the\nprestige we hold, and do the effective and useful work for our students which the times\ndemand.\nMiss Abby Leach, professor of Greek, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. — The\none great aim in teaching the classics is to make their living power felt. \"Drill\" and\n\"discipline\" were the old words to conjure with, but now the striving is for quickened\nintelligence, breadth of knowledge, historical imagination. Read in this way, the Anabasis becomes the living record of men entrapped by circumstances, but clever enough\nand brave enough to extricate themselves and make the Retreat of the Ten Thousand\nfamous for all time. This higher aim calls for teaching power first of all — that subtle\npower of sympathy that enters into the mental struggles of the individual and shows how\nvictory can come; that can keep the minds of pupils alert, full of interest and enthusiasm\nfor their work ; that does not depend upon iteration or reiteration to carry home a\ntruth, but knows how to vary the presentation so that apperception will surely come.\nAnd this higher aim demands, too, abundant knowledge on the part of the teacher;\nwide and thoro study; a mind liberalized by much reading in the classics, that has\ngrasped a knowledge of the living and the thinking of these peoples, knows what archaeology has revealed, what history can teach, and so, with rich stores of knowledge to draw\nfrom, takes up the work of the class-room, and with living interest and vital force re-creates the great past of Greece and Rome and unites it with their struggling but hopeful\npresent. More knowledge, more study under competent teachers, is the great need of\nthose who essay to teach the classics in such a way that the storied past -becomes the\nactual present. In teaching Greek prose composition the teacher should have time\nenough to spend on each pupil so as to learn his difficulties and help him conquer them.\nStudy without illumination is profitless. No part of the work of learning a language\nshould be treated as drudgery, and all the faculties should be brought into play. The\naim ought to be, not to make the work easy by sliding over difficulties, but to make it so\ninteresting that the pupil likes to work and has something for his mind to feed upon\nwhen his lessons are over. This is the natural result if the teacher has ability and adaptability, sympathy and understanding, ample knowledge, whole-hearted enjoyment in the\nwork, and genuine appreciation of the value of classical study.\nAristotle has much to say of Kddapais in connection with tragedy, meaning by\nthis medical term the purging of the emotions that comes when we see the tragic\nexperiences of others vividly depicted before us, and our self-pity and our sorrow\nand pain are merged into the universal sorrow and grief and pain, so that we rise out of\nour own petty, narrow experiences into broad sympathy with humanity. This universalizing of experience is what the classics should do for us. The drama of life is enacted\nbefore our eyes, and our present fluttering hopes and fears are stilled as we see before us the\npast, with its hopes and fears and ambitions, its failures and successes, its magnanimity\nand generosity, and its envy and jealousy, and feel that times and places change, but\nhuman nature abides unchanging and unchanged. This is why the classics have won the\nname of the \"humanities.\"\nIt is because of the humanizing influence they exert.\nAnd, further, the aim should be to make pupils feel the power of the intellectual life,\nand the possibilities of the intellectual life, and the love of the intellectual life, that never\ndisplayed themselves so richly and so gloriously as in these wonderful Greeks who in\ntheir responsiveness to the beauty and the joy and the charm of life, and their inimitable\nexpression of it, are still our masters.\nMaynard M. Hart, St. Louis, Mo. — One who has taught classics for any length\nof time cannot but recall that often he has felt^as if he were beating the air; in other\nwords, that his subject was not interesting, or perhaps was not made interesting. For\nmy own part, I have often had this feeling, and at times have been discouraged over the\nresults of my labors.\nHow, then, shall we make classics more interesting? Our answer\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nwill be found chiefly in the manner of instruction during the first year or so. It pleases\nme to note that of late much has been said in favor of employing thoroly competent\nteachers for the junior work in Latin and Greek. This means much, but it is not enough.\nThere is a great advantage in having a resourceful, tactful teacher.\nLet us take an ordinary case. A high-school teacher has before him thirty beginners in Latin. After imparting instruction, as well as he knows how, for a week or two,\nhe becomes convinced that the class is practically divided into two or three parts : there\nare those who seem to master and enjoy the work, those who with frequent helps or words\nof encouragement may do fair work, and those who seem hopeless and appear to be discouraged almost at the outset. Is it right pedagogically, psychologically, or in any other\nrespect to keep together these students of varying mental qualities ? One may say, let\nthe weak ones alone until after the examination, and then they will be permitted to take\nthe same work over again. But is this best for all classes ? Many pupils so treated have\ndecided to give up the study of a language, simply because of discouragement at first\nor failure at the end of the first term. Some pupils cannot be made to believe that\nthere is something in them, that their brains work slowly or differently from those of\nothers. In my opinion, it is best for such slow or backward pupils to be placed in a class\nby themselves, just as soon as the instructor finds out the relative abilities of the members of his class. By being together these slow workers can go only so far as is best for\nthem, understanding every step of the way. A person can be interested only in what he\ngrasps or understands. It may happen that these slow workers will increase their pace\nand within ^ year or a year and a half be able to unite with other classes. The first class\nwill certainly make much more progress than would be the case if the members of it\nremained with the so-called \"dunces,\" tho I would not use that word at any time. Good\nwork will create a wholesome rivalry, and by the time the class is ready for graduation or\nentrance to college you may be sure that all will have covered, not only the prescribed\nwork, but much in addition thereto; and so the colleges will be better off. If the slow ones\ndo not manage at length to complete the course in four years, they certainly will in five,\nat the least. My own thought is that after a thoro training in elementary work, even if it\ntake a year and a half or more, they will thereafter proceed more rapidly. This may not\nbe feasible in all schools ; but I see no reason why it should not be applied in most high\nschools and preparatory institutions. It was tried in one of the Chicago schools, and with\nsignal success, according to the statement of the former director of classics.\nIt never pays to allow students to start the regular translation of texts until they\nknow well the forms and have a fair idea of constructions. My experience has taught me\nthat herein lies a great defect in our classical instruction. Under ordinary circumstances\nstudents are not ready for the serious reading of an author in Latin until nearly one and\none-half years have been spent in elementary work and a year at least in Greek. If the\nforms, etc., are concluded in Greek, say, at the end of the third term of the first year, I\nwould spend the rest of the year in a thoro review and in reading interesting light\nselections, as, for instance, may be found in Turner's selections. When the author's textbook is taken up, be it Nepos or C?esar in Latin, or Xenophon in Greek, the pupil will\nbe less liable to use a translation — the bane to the proper study of the classics — and thereafter intelligent advancement will be made.\nFinally, let me make the following suggestions :\nI. The possibility of getting an introductory book taking up the declensions,\npronouns, irregular verbs, etc., in the good old way, with illustrative sentences thruout.\nThere is no use in worrying about the memorizing of these forms, for the boys find it easy\nenough to remember the base hits, errors, runs, etc., of eighteen players, and can find\nthem all on Wednesday or Saturday and Sunday games. It has been said that freshmen\ndo not know as much grammar as formerly when teachers did not despair so much of the\nmemories of their pupils. A little more system and less high living would be a good\nthing for the student.\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCLASSICAL\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n475\n\n2. The need for some interesting illustrated reader prior to the taking up of the first\nregular text-book ; for instance, Viri Romcs or 'R\\\\.c\\i\\t''s Fabula Faciles. We should not\nrush the students into the critical study of an author.\n3. The study of Greek and Roman history. If ancient history were started at the\nbeginning of the high-school course, it would not be amiss. Perhaps the curriculum is full\nenough ; for it does not pay to burden the minds of the pupils with too many subjects.\nAt any rate, by the use of a historical reader enthusiasm may be created for the private\nstudy of ancient history. The student of classics ought to be encouraged to study history\nand literature. Certainly the teacher ought continually to keep up his studies in this\ndirection. So many neglect this and devote their time and energy to syntax. As far as\npossible, matters relating to history, literature, mythology, and antiquities in general ought\nto receive more attention than has been the case. It might be advisable to have on the\ninstructor's desk — not necessarily in the library — a number of books of reference. Maps\nought always to be in the room of the classical teacher; otherwise the subjects will to\nsome extent be aimless and dry reading. As much life as possible ought to be put into\nthe work. I have found pupils really interested in classical geography — a study which\nmay be regarded as a handmaid to ancient history. Attention should be paid to\narchaeology — a subject of great interest at present.\n4. The need of prose thruout the course. The translating of English into Latin, dry\nand difficult as it may seem to many, may be made interesting, if properly taught.\nEnglish sentences involving the various constructions should be given for translation at\nleast once a week after the beginning of author work. The teacher ought to receive and\ncorrect the papers, and return them marked according to merit, say by letters: a, a%\na^, by b^, b\"\", c, etc. This method I tried in Greek and Latin, and found that it\nsucceeded well. The pupils, in Greek especially, did their best to do the work as well as\npossible. By keeping up this prose work until the last the student gets a familiar\nacquaintance with declensions, verb forms, and syntactical points ; he gains in accuracy,\nfinds translation easier and more interesting, and has certainly more confidence in attacking a piece of sight work. My experience has taught me that a person may read author\nafter author without gaining materially in facility in writing prose. To a very great\nextent prose is the key to the classics. It gives strength and creates a stimulus for\nrapid reading.\n5. Impatient nagging and finding of fault prove a great hindrance. While being\nexacting in the matter of pronunciation, in the explanation of constructions, and in the\nreciting of poems, I believe it is best to help over the difficulties and to give encouragement and now and then to tell of the difficulty that you had. The feeling of sympathy\nis not pronounced enough in the class-room.\n6. In our American schools we hurry too much. This restless hurrying is especially\nunfortunate for those who are beginning the study of subjects which, above all else,\ndemand thoroness. What we want is more depth and less superficial work. Habits of\nthought- and character-building ought never to be obscured in our teaching.\nThere are many things that I should like to take up, but cannot because of lack of\ntime. Methods have their place and go a long way to make the imparting of knowledge\nmore interesting; but there is something else that we must not overlook. The mistaken\nidea of liberty of the young American must be taken into consideration. In certain\nsections of the country there is too much laxity. Children do not understand the meaning\nof \"respect.\" Good discipline must be upheld, or our efforts will be largely a failure.\nThe teacher must be the master in the class-room ; otherwise the work will not be\naltogether interesting, let the methods be what they will.\nDaniel W. Lothman, East High School,^olumbus, O.— In attempting to create\nan interest in Latin let me keep in mind what is to be attained by the pupil in the study\nof this language. It is obviously not so much information as power, not so much the\ntranslating of a certain fixed amount as the power to get the meaning.\nIn discussing\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe means of acquiring this, I wish to speak, first, of the reading of the Latin; secondly,\nof translating at sight.\nThere is too little reading of the Latin, and too much of that which is done is not of\nthe right sort. The reading ought to be a means of getting at the thought. Ordinarily,\nhowever, the pupil reverses the natural order, and gets the meaning first, then reads the\nLatin. An excellent way to get a pupil interested in the reading is to have him read a\nportion he has not translated, and to ask him simple questions in Latin which he can\nanswer from the context, and which will help him get the thought without actually\ntranslating.\nSecondly, in order to acquire the power we are after, the pupil should \" translate at\nsight,\" which I define as \"getting all the meaning possible out of a sentence or section\nbefore getting any outside help.\" Getting help is perfectly proper, provided the pupil\ndoes not get it until he has exhausted his own power. Never tell a pupil to guess, if he\ndoes not know. Translating ought not to be a guessing contest ; it ought to show the\nvery best kind of reasoning and thinking.\nTo recapitulate, in order to create a proper interest, show the pupil that what we\nwant is power, and let all his efforts be directed toward the acquisition of this power.\nGet him interested in reading the Latin properly, and in translating always so as to get\nthe kind of exercise that will give him the desired power.\n\n11.\nTHE\n\nPRINCIPALS'\n\nFORMATION\n\nWILLIAM\n•\n\nJ. S.\n\nOF\n\nBRYAN,\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nA FEDERATION\nASSOCIATIONS\nPRINCIPAL\nST.\n\nOF\n\nLOUIS,\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nNORMAL\n\nAND\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nMO.\n\nIn November last a letter was addressed by the officers of this department to superintendents, inspectors of high schools, principals of high schools, officers of teachers'\nassociations of various kinds, and others in the several states and territories who were\nidentified with efforts to improve the work of teachers thru the influence of organizations.\nThis extensive correspondence disclosed the fact that there is a separate association\nof secondary-school principals and teachers in ten states, a department of secondary\nschools connected with the state teachers' association in fourteen states, and an association of colleges and secondary schools in four states. In other states no information was\nobtained of the existence of separate or combined organizations of teachers of secondary\nschools. The non-existence or obscurity of such organizations in many states shows\nplainly the necessity of work along such lines. The importance and benefit of conventions of workers of all kinds seem to be admitted generally, and there is no present need\nof argument to establish the conviction already existing in the minds of men that meetings for conference are of great value as clearing-houses of thought and inspiration and\nimprovement. To change the figure, conventions of teachers are seedtimes of suggestions\nthat will germinate in conviction, grow into action, and bear fruit in the reorganization\nof vitalized methods of education.\nA resolution was unanimously adopted by the Department of Secondary Education\nof the National Educational Association at its last meeting, in Minneapolis, namely, \" That\nthe officers of this department be instructed to act as a committee to seek a federation of\nthe secondary associations in various states, and secure such an association in states where\nit does not exist.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPArS\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n477\n\nFrom the correspondence of the ofificers of this department, it appears that before a\nfederation of associations can be secured there must be created in many states the conviction that an independent organization of secondary-school men is desirable and necessary\nfor the promotion of the best interests of secondary education. It further appears that it\nwill require very great effort on the part of those who see the advantage to be gained\nby a federation of secondary-schoool associations to awaken and direct the thought of\nthose actively connected with secondary schools thruout the country to the far-reaching\nimportance of the modest resolution which was passed at the Forty-first Annual Convention of the National Educational Association and which has just been read in your\nhearing.\nThe great development in secondary education in this country in recent years has\ndemonstrated the existence of a deep-rooted conviction that such schools are essential to\nthe proper education of youth, requisite to the healthy growth in intelligence of states,\ncities, towns, and rural districts, and necessary for the stability and maintenance of republican institutions. The vast sums of money invested in high schools, the thousands of\nbuildings, the tens of thousands of teachers, and the hundreds of thousands of pupils proclaim aloud the imperative need of organization and co-operation of the forces of secondary\neducation for the accomplishment of the greatest possible good to the greatest possible\nnumber within the reach of available resources of secondary schools. Changes in\ncourses and plans for equipment ought to originate, and to reach the practical stage, thru\nthe co-ordinating agency of councils of principals and teachers of such schools. To\nbe directed most wisely, the affairs of secondary schools must be ordered from within\nrather than from without. The college professor can regulate most wisely the higher\neducation of the country, but he is not sufficiently acquainted with the conditions of\nsecondary-school work to legislate for the secondary schools. He may know the stage of\npreparation seemingly most desirable for entrance upon the work the college has laid out\nfor its students ; he cannot know so well as the secondary teacher, who is familiar with the\nstage development and the immaturity of youth of high-school age, whether or not\nsuch preparation is to be secured within the years allotted to the high school. It is\neasy for the college to say to the high school : \" Your pupils cannot enter until they\nhave done the amount of work required for entrance.\" It were easy for the secondary\nschool to pass the word along and say to the grammar school : \" Your pupils cannot enter until they have done the work required for entrance to the high school,\nwhich is to fit for college in four years.\" But to meet these requirements the grammar school must say to its pupils: \"You must stay with us long enough to acquire\nthe preparation that the high school demands of those who enter, that they may be\nable in four years' time to make the preparation that the college requires of those\nwho would reach a certain stage of development in four years at the most, but in\nthree years if possible.\" The beginning of life is fixed ; the beginning of school life\ncan vary but a few months. The possibilities of education up to certain years of childhood are not hard to discover. The kindergarten has done much for childhood in\nmaking the entrance to school life natural and pleasing ; but it has its limitations. It\ndoes not seek to burden infancy with the tasks of later years, nor to hasten the end of the\nperiod of education, so called. It does not seek to force maturitv, but to utilize natural\ntendencies.\nIt has been said that high-school teachers are lacking in initiative ; that they are not\nstudents of youth ; that they are indifferent to the problems that are pressing for solution ;\nthat they have been subservient to the colleges and universities to which their pupils\nexpected to go. If this state of things exists anywhere outside of the mind of the critic, it\nsurely is not to be found in the high schools of tlffe north central section or the great middle West, which have had a natural development, and have given relatively little thought\nto the preparation of pupils for college, because not more than one in four intended to\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ngo to college, and because the best preparation for life would be the best preparation for\ncollege also.\nIt is only recently that the growth of state universities has brought them into relation\nwith the high school, and it is thru these state universities in the intimacy of their relation\nto other parts of the great system of public education, and in their recognition of the\ngenuine work of the high school, that much has been done to articulate the parts of the\ngreat system of public education which embraces all stages of development within the\nscope of its scheme. It has been the purpose of the high schools, of the north central\nsection at least, to give their pupils a clear vision of the world and a vivid conception\nof its movements and forces, to show them the fields of human effort, and to prepare them\nto enter their chosen field with conscious possession of all their faculties ; breadth of view,\nintegrity of purpose, intensity of application, accuracy of knowledge have been the special\nfeatures of their preparation for life.\nThe object of the proposed federation of secondary associations is concert of action.\nIf the teachers of secondary schools, recognizing the importance of their work, would in\nevery state effect and maintain an active organization, holding state meetings for the\nconsideration of living questions, and if these state organizations would choose delegates\nand alternates to attend a national convention to be held at a time immediately preceding\nthe date of the meeting of the National Educational Association, with instructions to\npresent for the discussion of this delegate body such questions as seemed of pressing\nimportance, valuable practical results might follow. Then in turn the central delegate\nconvention might deem it desirable to instruct the several delegates to report to their\nrespective state associations for consideration such questions as seemed of special moment,\nthat the sentiment of the country might be ascertained and formulated at a subsequent\nmeeting of the federation of secondary organizations. The meeting of the Department\nof Superintendence is regarded by many as the most interesting and effective educational\nmeeting of the year. Not less important might be the meeting of the federation of\nsecondary associations. The influence of its deliberations and declarations of opinion\nwould be of great weight, and would serve to call attention to questions of importance,\nif it did not determine their decision.\nFor the purpose of securing definite action with regard to the formation of a federation of secondary associations, these suggestions are offered in the form of resolutions :\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nWITH\n\nREFERENCE TO THE FORMATION\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nOF A FEDERATION\n\nOF\n\nWhereas, It seems very desirable that there should be a consensus of opinion of secondary -school men\nin regard to matters of general importance which pertain to the conduct of secondary schools, and concert of\naction in matters with regard to which an agreement of sentiment and a concurrence of judgment can be\nreached, in order that the best interests may be conserved and the wisest action secured ; now, therefore,\nBe it resolved, (i) That we, the undersigned, secondary -school men of the various states and territories\nafPxed to our respective names, do hereby organize the Federation of Secondary Associations of the United\nStates ;\n(2) That hereafter this Federation shall consist of delegates chosen at a meeting of the secondary-school\nmen held annually in each state, and at such time and place as may be determined by the associations of\nsecondary-school men of the respective states and territories in meeting assembled for this purpose;\n(3) That each of the states and territories shall be entitled to two delegates, and as many more as will\ngive it a representation proportionate to the high-school attendance as published in the latest annual report of\nthe respective state superintendents ; but to secure a full representation should choose alternates at the time of\nthe election of delegates, to act as delegates in case of the absence of one or more delegates ;\n(4) That the meetings of the Federation shall be held the Friday and Saturday of the week preceding\nthe meetings of the National Educational Association, in the place chosen by that body, and in such locality as\nmay be selected by the executive committee of the Federation, unless another time and place shall have been\nselected at a previous meeting of the Federation;\n(5) That the officers of the Federation of Secondary Associations shall be a president, a vice-president,\na secretary, and a treasurer, and an executive committee of seven, consisting of the officers of the Federation\nand three other members chosen by the Federation at its regular annual meeting;\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRINCIPAL'S\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n479\n\n(6) That the annual dues of state organizations to this Federation shall be five dollars, which must be\npaid to entitle the delegates to take part in the proceedings of any meeting of the Federation ;\n(7) That enactment of further provisions for the conduct of the Federation shall be left to the Federation\nconstituted as herein provided.\n\nThe resolutions were seconded by Principal E. V. Robinson of the Central High\nSchool, St. Paul, Minn.\nDISCUSSION\nCharles F. Wheelock, of the University of the State of New York, said that he had\ncorresponded with many associations of secondary schools, some of which were composed partly of college professors and partly of secondary-school teachers. State\nteachers' associations had been requested to organize high-school associations. Such\norganization of high-school teachers was one of the leading aims to be realized by the\nproposed federation. He moved an amendment to the resolutions that the time of meeting correspond with that of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the\nNational Educational Association, which meets in February each year.\nE. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y., opposed this amendment, because many state meetings would not be held' before next year. It was also suggested that many high-school\nprincipals would not be allowed to go to a mid-year meeting without a loss of salary for\nthe time lost.\nThe question was asked : What is the need of such a federation ? Is not the\nNational Educational Association doing all that is needed ?\nAnother objection to the mid-year time of meeting for the federation was made to\nthe effect that a large attendance was needed for the best success of the new organization.\nTo this objection it was urged that nearly all the state meetmgs are held during the\nChristmas holidays, so as to make it feasible for plans affecting the federation to be carried\nout before the following February. Great numbers are not needed. Smaller meetings\nare better than large, crowded ones.\nPrincipal John T. Buchanan, De Witt Clinton High School, New York city. — If\nmeetings should be held in mid-winter, New York principals would not be allowed to\nattend. The new organization is not needed. If the National Educational Association\ncannot do the work required, the new body certainly could not.\nMr. Lyttle. — The gatherings of this proposed federation need not be large. Only\ndelegates need attend. We should simplify the matter of arithmetic. Metric system\ncould be secured if co-operation were brought about. Committees of correspondence are\nneeded as in old days. We need to take hold and push together in the whole country.\nHigh-school principals and superintendents are losing places because the ethics of mutual\nrelations are not known. We need to pass upon such questions. Lengthening the course\nof high schools to six years also needs much discussion.\nPrincipal O. S. Kriedel, Perkiomen Seminary, Pennsburg, Pa.— We need to get\ntogether to compare methods, plans of work, etc. One meetmg a year is needed. Great\ngood would come out of it. Each of some ninety secondary schools in Pennsylvania\nknows very little of the others' work. Private and public high schools need to do some\nthings in common.\nPrincipal D. R. Ellabarger, Richmond, Ind.— Superintendents have organized.\nThey seem to guide the educational work of the country. In Indiana high-school principals have no educational standing. We are asking that we be recognized in the educational work of the country.\nWe need to do something that will give us recognition.\nW. A. Wetzel, Trenton, N. J.— We should go slowly in putting ourselves on record\nas attempting to secure recognition. We may at the outset arouse friction. The superintendent isnaturally at the head of the educational system of any city.\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\n///.\nLEADER,\n\nDAVID\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMATHEMATICAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nEUGENE\nSMITH,\nTEACHERS\nUNIVERSITY,\nNEW\nYORK\n\nCOLLEGE,\nCITY\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nThe conference on mathematics was held Friday, July lo, at the close of a protracted\nsession of the department.\nThe leader, David Eugene Smith, in introducing the topic said that the object of\nassociations such as proposed should be not so much mathematical research as improvement in the teaching of mathematics. Other subjects of the curriculum of secondary\nschools have their associations of teachers, and the results have been improvement in the\nteaching of those subjects. In England, France, and Germany there has been of late\nundoubted progress in methods of instruction in mathematics, due to the influence of such\nassociations. The part of associations of teachers of mathematics is to give to this\ncountry its share in this progress. Several associations of the sort have recently been\nformed. The object of the conference is to talk over the methods of organization and the\nwork of these associations, with a view to securing more support for them on the part of\nteachers, of mathematics, and the organization of associations in other convenient centers\nthruout the country.\nClarence E. Comstock, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111., reporting upon\nthe movement in the middle West, said that interest and consultation among teachers for\na year or more past had culminated in the organization at Chicago, in April, 1903, of the\nCentral Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers. The association is divided\ninto various sections, including physics and mathematics, which hold special sessions in\nconnection with the general annual meeting of the association. A system of local centers\nhas been established in order to reach as many teachers as possible, and more frequent\nlocal meetings are held. Older clubs are being affiliated with this organization, and the\nCentral Association will serve as a clearinghouse for expression and discussion for the\nteachers of ten states.\nThe constitution states three objects: (i) to promote better teaching of science and\nmathematics, especially in secondary schools; (2) to obtain a better correlation of these\nsubjects to each other and to the other subjects of the curriculum ; (3) to bring the college\nand the secondary school into closer relations.\nAs to the teaching of mathematics, there appear to be three leading ideas at work in\nthe mind of -those most interested in the movement: (i) For the purposes of secondary\neducation, pure mathematics does not in itself furnish the proper incentive for mathematical study; this implies a correlation of mathematics and natural science. (2) The meaning of mathematics is best appreciated, and its processes more easily and effectively\nmastered, by a disregard of the arbitrary divisions of mathematics ; this implies a correlation of mathematical subjects — algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytical geometry, and\ncalculus. (3) The mind moves from the concrete to the abstract ; this implies a recourse\nto experimental and inductive methods.\nAt the April meeting of the association a committee reported upon the correlation of\nphysics and mathematics.'^ A monthly called School Science, with a quarterly mathematical supplement, has been ipade the organ of the Central Association and is furnished each\nmember.\nJ. S. French, Jacob Tome Institute, Port Deposit, Md., reported for the movement\nin the middle states and Maryland that a preliminary conference of teachers of mathematics in those states was held at Columbia University in May, 1903, and the organizaI This report, filling a sixty-page pamphlet, may be procured for fifteen cents from Mr. E. C. Woodruff,\n5735 Monroe avenue, Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n48 1\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nMATHEMATICAL\n\ntion would be effected, it was hoped, at the next Thanksgiving recess.\nMr. French\ndiscussed the basis of the proposed organization and the work it miglit do.\nEdgar H. Nichols, Cambridge, Mass., reported that the Association of Teachers of\nMathematics in New England perfected its organization in April, 1903. An effort is being\nmade to obtain a list of all teachers of mathematics in New England and interest them in\nthe association with a view to the organization of local centers. There are already 175\nmembers. The object of the association is the planning and execution of definite work\nfor the promoting of interest in mathematical study. The special work that the association is undertaking thru a committee is the preparation of a syllabus of concrete geometry. Letters of inquiry have been sent to a large number of teachers to ascertain the\nextent to which they are teaching concrete geometry, together with the methods used and\nthe results obtained ; and much valuable information has been received in response. The\nmovement promises well in the way of bringing together information as to best known\nmethods and selection of subject-matter, and at any rate in saving teachers from working\nat cross-purposes.\n\nH.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nENTRANCE\n\nW. TYLER,\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nREQUIREMENTS\nTECHNOLOGY,\n\nIN MATHEMATICS\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS., CHAIRMAN\n\nIn July, 1899, a committee of the Departments of Secondary Education and Higher\nEducation presented a report on college-entrance requirements, including a discussion of\nthe scope, aim, and place of mathematical studies in the secondary schools and in preparation for college, with model courses in algebra, plane and solid geometry, and trigonometry, with methods to be used, time to be consumed, etc. To the details of this report\nit is not my purpose to refer. For several years a standing committee of the Society for\nthe Promotion of Engineering Education has been occupied with the study of entrance\nrequirements for engineering colleges, and has sought by various means to secure agreement of these colleges on standard formulations of requirements, particularly in\nmathematics, chemistry, physics, and mechanic arts. Committees for conference and\nco-operation have been appointed also by the National Educational Association, the\nAmerican Mathematical Society, and the Eastern Association of Teachers of Manual\nTraining, The committee of the American Mathematical Society prepared a provisional\nreport, which, as chairman of the committee, I desire to present, informally, to this conference, with the understanding that at the present stage the report, while based on careful\nstudy, has no authoritative significance :\nPROVISIONAL\n\nREPORT\n\nON DEFINITIONS\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nOF THE\n\nENTRANCE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nREQUIREMENTS\n\nMATHEMATICAL\n\nSOCIETY\n\nIN MATHEMATICS\n\nThe committee understands its duties in the following sense :\nFirst: To specify those mathematical subjects which are generally recognized as appropriate requirements for admission to college.\nSecond:\n\nTo specify details under these subjects in such a manner\n\nas to represent the standards of\n\nthe best secondary curricula — the word \" best\"' being interpreted in a qualitative rather than a quantitative\nThird: The committee understands also that the consideration of pedagogic questions is not among\nits duties. It has therefore, made no attempt to deal with methods of secondary education in mathematics, or\nthe order of taking up the subjects and their correlation with each other and with other sciences. The\norder in which the subjects and the topics under them are presented below does not necessarily imply\npreference of the committee as to order of teaching either the subjects or the topics. It is the opinion of the\ncommittee that these are the subjects and the topics which, according to the best present usage, should be\noffered for admission to colleges and scientific schools.\nThe formulation is not to be interpreted as exhaustive. It represents rather the extent to which, in the\nopinion of the committee, definite specification should be u^jdertaken by it; it is expected that further details\nwill be determined in accordance with the judgment of the particular college, school, or teacher.\nThe definitions proposed are based on present usage and standards. In case of divergence between\nstandard text-books and what seemed a more scientific presentation of the subject in question, the committee\nhas endeavored to make a choice which should not depart so far from current usage as to involve hardship to\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nschools or teachers. The committee is of opinion that no formulation should be considered as having more\nthan temporary validity. No advantages attendant upoa uniformity of definition could counterbalance any\ntendency of the definitions to retard progress of scondary education in mathematics. It is, therefore, recommended that if the definitions are approved, they be revised at intervals, perhaps of ten years.\nSubjects\n1. Elementary algebra.\n2. Plane geometry.\n\n3.\n4.\n\nSolid geometry.\nPlane trigonometry.\n\n5.\n\nAdvanced algebra.\n\nFormulations\ni. elementary algebra\nDefinitions.\nThe four fundamental operations for rational algebraic expressions.\nFactoring, determination of highest common factor and lowest common multiple by factoring.\nFractions, including complex fractions, ratio, and proportion.\nEquations of the first degree, both numerical and literal, containing one or more unknown quantities ;\nproblems depending on such equations.\nRadicals, including the extraction of the square root of polynomials and of numbers.\nExponents, including the fractional and negative.\nQuadratic equations, both numerical and literal, including simultaneous equations of which only one is\nquadratic.\nProblems depending upon quadratic equations.\n♦Proof of the binomial theorem for positive integral exponents. (It is expected that the theorem will\nhave been used at an earlier stage).\n♦Arithmetic and geometric progressions.\nThruout the course the pupil should be required to solve numerous problems which involve putting\nquestions into equations. Some of these problems should be chosen from mensuration and from physics.\nThe use of graphical methods in connection with the solution of equations is advised.\nII. PLANE\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nThe usual theorems and constructions of good text-books, including the general properties of plane\nrectilinear figures ; the circle and the measurements of angles ; similar polygons ; areas ; regular polygons,\nand the measurement of the circle.\n*\nThe solution of numerous original exercises, including loci problems.\nApplications to the mensuration of lines and plane surfaces.\nIII. SOLID\n\nGEOMETRY\n\nThe usual theorems and constructions of good text books, including the relations of planes and lines in\nspace; the properties and measurement of prisms, pyramids, cylinders, and cones; the sphere and the spherical\ntriangle.\nThe solution of numerous original exercises, including loci problems.\nApplications to the mensuration of surfaces and solids.\nIV.\n\nPLANE\n\nTRIGONOMETRY\n\nDefinitions and relations of the six trigonometric functions as ratios ; circular measurement of angles.\nProofs of principal formulae, in particular for the sine, cosine, and tangent of the sura and the difference\nof two angles, of the double angle and the half angle, the product expressions for the sum or the difference of\ntwo sines or of two cosines, etc.\nInverse trigonometric functions.\nSolution of simple trigonometric equations.\nTheory and use of logarithms (without the introduction of work involving infinite series).\nThe solution of right and oblique triangles, and practical applications.\nV.\n\nADVANCED\n\nALGEBRA\n\nPermutations and combinations, limited to simple cases.\nComplex numbers, with graphical representation limited to sums and differences.\nDeterminants, chiefly of the second, third, and fourth orders, including the use of minors and the solution\nof linear equations, but not the multiplication ot determinants.\n\n♦A college finding it impracticable to meet this normal requirement Is advised to require all topics not\npreceded by an asterisk.\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICAL\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n483\n\nNumerical equations of higher degree, and so much of the theory of equations, with graphical methods,\nas is necessary for their treatment, including Descartes' rule of signs and Horner's method, but not Sturm's\nfunctions or multiple roots.\nH. W. Tyler, Chairman,\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology ;\nT. S. FiSKE,\nColumbia University;\nW. F. Osgood,\nHarvard University;\n} Committee,\nA. ZlWET,\nUniversity of Michigan;\nJ. W. A. Young,\nUniversity of Chicago ;\nApril, 1903.\n\nIt may be of interest to compare the above formulations with those of the College\nEntrance Examination Board, based themselves on recommendations of a committee of\nthe National Educational Association. The College Board presents elementary algebra\nin three divisions : algebra to quadratics, quadratics, etc., and progressions, etc. ;\nadvanced algebra in two divisions — series, etc., and theory of equations. The committee\nincludes under elementary algebra all of the College Board elementary algebra, except\npermutations and combinations, and the use of the tables of logarithms. It omits, also,\nhighest common factor by division and simultaneous quadratic equations. Its phraseology\nis somewhat more explicit, and it emphasizes problems depending upon algebraic\nequations. In advanced algebra the committee's formulation differs from that of the\nCollege Board in omitting undetermined coefficients, infinite series, binomial theorem for\nfractional and negative exponents, and the theory of logarithms. It includes, on the\nother hand, complex numbers, determinants, and a somewhat fuller statement of the\ntheory of equations, the general aim being, on the one hand, to omit subjects which the\nsecondary scholar is not prepared to appreciate fully, and, on the other hand, to secure a\nsomewhat higher degree of unity.\nThe definitions of plane and solid geometry do not differ in principle from those of\nthe College Board, but are staled with somewhat more fullness, while they still contain\nthe general expression \"the usual theorems and constructions of good text-books.''\nThe definitions of plane trigonometry present no important differences in principle,\nbut that of the committee is considerably fuller.\nIn presenting formulations of these five subjects, it is by no means the opinion of\nthe committee that any college should require all for admission. The committee has\nundertaken to define those mathematical subjects which are at present required by any\nconsiderable number of colleges, and expresses no opinion of its own as to the\nappropriateness of the more advanced of these subjects for secondary-school work. The\ncommittee appreciates that the value of its definitions must depend to a great extent on\ntheir conformity to the needs and interests of secondary schools and teachers. It therefore begs to invite the freest criticism on the part of secondary teachers by correspondence\nwith any of its members.\nWilliam T. Campbell, Boston Latin School, speaking of geometry ;n the grammar\nschool, said that a great deal of the subject-matter taught to pupils oi fifteen might be\ngrasped by them at twelve, but tha*^ in g^.nerai there was no particular disadvantage in\ndeferring the instruction, because with ncreased maturity and logical power in the pupil\nthe subject may be grasped with greater facility and thoroness. The case is different\nwith geometry, because, if the pupil of fifteen thinks better, he sees worse. The character\nof the geometry suited to the bov jf twelve is very different from that suited to the boy\nof fifteen. The latter begins wUh lines, points, angles, and ends with the cube, pyramid,\nsphere; the former begins with the pyramid, cube, sphere, and ends with lines and\npoints.\nDemonstrative geometry exalts the proot and may neglect the application; with\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "4^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nobservational geometry it is the reverse. Geometry in the grammar school should be\ntaught with reference to the cultivation of the constructive imagination and keenness of\nobservation, the power of drawing good diagrams, accuracy of measurement.\nProfessor Osgood very briefly summarized the work of the conference. These\nmovements promise much of benefit and improvement in the teaching of mathematics:\nThey look toward the organization ultimately of a national association of teachers of\nmathematics — a step, however, which should not be taken until the movement shall make\nit inevitable. As to the relation of these associations to the American Mathematical\nSociety, there should be the greatest interest on the part of the latter in the success of the\nformer, and without doubt members of the American Mathematical Society will be\ninfluential in assisting in such associations. Any more close relationship is not, however,\nadvisable.\n\nIV.\nLEADER,\n\nJAMES\n\nHISTORY\n\nSULLIVAN,\nTEACHER\nCOMMERCE, NEW\n\nCONFERENCE\nOF HISTORY,\nYORK\nCITY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nIn opening the conference the leader said: In visiting schools I have been struck\nwith the poor quality of teaching in such subjects as civics, and mediaeval, and modern\nhistory. Such teaching is due, no doubt, in a certain degree to the poor quality of our\ntexts, but in a far larger measure to the poor preparation of teachers in these subjects.\nAs the question of civics has already been considered in another section of this Association, itis our purpose here to take up the question of the teaching of mediaeval and\nmodern history in the secondary schools. In this subject poor teaching is due, aside from\nthe question of poor texts, to an insufficient preparation of teachers in this line of history,\nand to a certain inability, due to lack of preparation, to present the subject in such a way\nas to make it possible for the pupils to seize the true meaning of mediaeval life and history. Teachers who fail most lamentably are those \"who attempt to teach the history of\nthe Middle Ages as a series of histories of separate nations. It is no wonder that they\nfail, and that their pupils are incapable of retaining so many contemporaneous events in\ntheir heads as are given them to remember as important. Listening to the complaints of\nsuch teachers, the board of superintendents of New York recently withdrew mediaeval and\nmodern history from the list of required subjects in the high-school curriculum and pkced\nit on the optional list.\nThis was felt by many teachers to be a serious mistake, because the high school\nis the only place where the larger percentage of our population have any opportunity of learning anything about European history and institutions — the lack of\nknowledge of which leads to a bigoted patriotism and a narrow provincialism on the part\nof our people. It was also felt that if the teachers in general had a more thoro preparation in mediaeval history and knew how to handle the subject, not as a series of national\nhistories, but as the history of the great movements and institutions of Europe as a unit,\nthey would have had such success in its teaching as to lead them to ask for its retention\nin the curriculum of the high school.\nIt is with the hope of interesting teachers in preparing themselves more thoroly in\nthis special field of history that I have asked Professor Haskins, of Harvard, a former\nmember of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association, to open\nthe discussion today.\nCharles H. Haskins, Harvard University. — As matters stand at present, the question of the teaching of the history of mediaeval and modern Europe in schools seems to\nrelate not so much to the desirability of such instruction as to the practicability of giving\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n485\n\nit effectively in the average school. It would be hard to maintain either that a systematic\ncourse of study ought to omit subjects of such importance, or that they cannot be made\ninteresting and profitable to the ordinary school pupil. Mediaeval history in particular,\nwith its wealth of color and movements, and its vital relations to the origins of the modern\nworld, can easily be made attractive. At the same time, we should not conceal from ourselves the considerable difficulties which this field presents. Some of these are temporary,\nsuch as the scarcity of good text-books and the inadequate training of teachers, and are\nfast being met. But there is also a permanent difficulty, inherent in the nature of the\nsubject — namely, the great extent and complicated nature of the field, and its remoteness\nin time and place from the experience of American boys and girls. In no other of the\nsubjects ordinarily taught in schools is there so great need of careful selection of material\nand firm grasp of essentials on the part of the teacher. Any attempt to cover the whole\nfield in the time usually allotted is almost sure to result either in vague generalities or in\na confused and lifeless mass of names and dates. In selecting topics for treatment it is\npossible either to take only certain culminating episodes or epochs, or to make a single\ncountry, such as France, the center of study, or to pay less attention to continuous narrative and emphasize the principal underlying institutions. Particularly for the Middle\nAges, the teacher will find it desirable to make clear such topics as the ecclesiastical system, feudalism, the crusades, the mediaeval empire, and the rise of France, by extensive\nuse of concrete description, emphasizing continuous and typical conditions rather than\nindividual events.\nRay Greene Ruling, Cambridge, Mass. — I think that there is something better\nthan mediaeval history. The field of mediaeval history is not in general interesting to boys\nand girls of high-school age. Moreover, the study of that period does not conduce to the\ncultivation of a desire to read history later in life, with some knowledge of the books to\nbe read and a good method of reading. For the first year in the high school he suggested\nEnglish history ; for the second, ancient history ; for the third, American history in its\nconstitutional development ; and for the fourth, a careful and detailed study of the discovery and colonization of the eastern part of the United States. This would furnish good\ntraining for the imagination, and also for the budding powers of the reason and the\njudgment. Such a course would have three good results : the first is an interest in reading; the second, an ability to reason intelligently and record the results clearly; and the\nthird, something of an expert's knowledge of the means of research to find out what the\nstudent wishes to know.\nW. J. S. Bryant, principal of the St. Louis High School, said that a large percentage\nof high-school pupils do not go beyond the high school. Mediaeval history should be\nstudied in the high school, or it will not be studied at all. The difficulty of a subject is\nnot a good ground for leaving it out of the curriculum. Modern institutions cannot be\nunderstood unless we trace them back to their beginnings in the past. The pupils need a\nwell-connected view of the whole scope of world-movements and forces. Pupils need\npreparation for minute study later.\nMiss Harriet G. King, Oak Park, 111.— Which of the various studies are to be preferred, ifsome must be left out ? Colonial history is not so profitable in the middle West\nas it is in New England. What shall be done with all the books sent to us ? Have not\nwe too much to read and too much to do ?\nProfessor Haskins. — The date 800 was suggested by the Committee of Seven, not\nbecause it was considered a fixed dividing-line in history, but because it offered the most\nobvious and convenient break in a two-years' course covering ancient, mediaeval, and\nmodern history. No doubt it will often happeil»that the work of the first year cannot well\nbe carried so far, and the newer text-books are so arranged that the four or five centuries\npreceding 800 may be placed with the work of either year. At the same time, by carrying\nthe study of Roman history thru the later empire and into the early Middle Ages pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nget a much more adequate idea of the place of Rome in tlie general history of the world\nthan if ihe course breaks off somewhere in the early empire and fails to make proper connection with what followed.\nE. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y. — Mediaeval history does not lack interest. We are\nfarther away in experience from mediaeval history than from the history of Greece and\nRome. We therefore know the history of Greece and Rome better than we know mediaeval history. Hence arises the difficulty of teaching mediaeval history. For that very\nreason it should be taught, and it can be made interesting. Youth is intensely interested in\nreligious questions. The great facts of the church in the Middle Ages, of the feudal system, of chivalry, and of the crusades, if rightly handled, will be full of interest and\nprofit.\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION. — Tuesday, July 7, 1903\n\nThe Department of Higher Education met at 9 : 30 A. M. in the Central Congregational Church of Boston, with the president, Benjamin Ide Wheeler, president of the\nUniversity of California, in the chair.\nAbout twelve hundred persons were present.\nIt was moved and carried that the president appoint a committee on nominations for\nthe ensuing year.\nThe topic for the morning was \" The Length of the Baccalaureate Course and the\nPreparation for the Professional Schools.\"\nElmer E. Brown, professor of the theory and practice of education, University of\nCalifornia, introduced the subject in a paper setting forth the history and evolution of the\nAmerican college and the bachelor's degree.\nPapers dealing with the general subject from various standpoints were read by the\nfollowing: Charles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University; Nicholas Murray Butler,\npresident of Columbia University; William R. Harper, president of the University of\nChicago ; Andrew F. West, dean of the Graduate School, Princeton University.\nDiscussion was opened with a paper by Daniel W. Hering, dean of the Graduate\nSchool, New York University. A general discussion followed, which was participated in by G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University ; W. H. Hadow, dean of\nWorcester College, Oxford, England ; Rev. G. A. Kratzer, pastor of the Universalist\nChurch, Fitchburg, Mass. ; James H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado ;\nCharles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University ; William DeWitt Hyde, president of\nBowdoin College ; W. H. P. Faunce, president of Brown University.\nAt the close of the discussion, President Wheeler announced the Committee on\nNominations as follows :\nAndrew S. Draper, president of the University of Illinois. W. H. P. Faunce, president of Brown University.\nAndrew F. West, dean of the Graduate School, Princeton University.\n\nThe session then adjourned to meet in the same place on Wednesday morning at\n9:30 o'clock.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION. — Wednesday, July 8\n\nThe second session of the Department of Higher Education was held Wednesday\nmorning, July 8, at 9:30 o'clock, in the Central Congregational Church. President\nWheeler presided.\nAbout nine hundred persons were present.\nPresident W. H. P. Faunce of Brown University presented the report of the\nCommittee on Nominations, as follows :\nFor President — Benjamin Ide Wheeler, University of California.\nFor Vice-President — George Harris, Amherst College.\nFor Secretary — John Henry MacCracken, New York University.\n\nOn motion, the report was unanimously adopted, and the officers were declared\nelected for the ensuing year.\n487\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThe topic for the morning was : \" Shall the university concern itself more directly\nwith the morals and manners of its students ? If so, by what methods and devices ?\nShould there be in every college and university a medical visitor who should also be an\nadviser for students on all matters relating to health and disease ?\"\nPresident Wheeler, in announcing the subject, called attention to the fact that\nAmerican institutions were in the beginning modeled after English patterns, that they\nhad during the last half-century been strongly influenced by German ideals, and that now\nthere were indications of a reaction setting iji from the too great freedom of German\ninstitutions toward a wise regulation and control of students.\nPapers were read by the following : George Harris, president of Amherst College ;\nWilliam J. Tucker, president of Dartmouth College ; W. F. Slocum, president of Colorado\nCollege ; Rt. Rev. Thomas F. Gailor, bishop of Tennessee, Memphis, Tenn.\nGeneral discussion followed by James H. Baker, president of the University of Colorado ;William Aber, professor in the University of Montana ; Joseph Swain, president\nof Swarthmore College ; G. M. P. King, professor in the Virginia Union University,\nRichmond, Va. ; George C. Chase, president of Bates College ; G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University; Charles C. Ramsay, Boston, Mass.; John Lee Brooks,\nColumbia University, New York.\nThe following report of a committee appointed at the last meeting was presented,\nand on motion received, and the committee continued for another year :\nTo the President of the Department of Higher Education of the National Educational\nAssociation:\nDear Sir : Your committee, appointed at the last meeting of the Department of\nHigher Education, was instructed to participate in the conferences with the committee of\nthe Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education in the effort to formulate\nentrance requirements in mathematics, chemistry, physics, and drawing.\nThe committee has had some correspondence, and on July 7 held a meeting in\nBoston, at which were present Henry S. Pritchett,\" chairman, William Hallock, and E. V.\nRobinson. With the committee met Dr. H. W. Tyler, who has been chairman of the\ncommittee of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education for the formulation\nof entrance requirements.\nYour committee has to report that the following is the status of the work of the\ncommittee from the Society for Promotion of Engineering Education, as it stands at the\npresent time :\nIn mathematics a committee was appointed at the September meeting of the\nMathematical Society, at the request of the first-named committee, to formulate collegeentrance requirements in that subject, and that committee has printed a provisional report\nwhich is now in circulation for criticism, and a copy of which is attached hereto.\nIn drawing and mechanic arts correspondence has been had between the committee\nof the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education and the president of the\nManual Training Teachers' Association, and it is believed that progress is being made\ntoward a formulation of requirements in those subjects.\nIn chemistry correspondence has been had with representatives of the American\nChemical Society, and the opinion has been expressed that the time is not yet ripe for an\nattempt to agree upon any formulation of chemistry as an entrance requirement, and\nmuch the same result has been reached in correspondence with the American Physical\nSociety as regards physics.\nAs a result of the whole conference your committee is able to report that entrance\nrequirements in mathematics and drawing of a definite sort are likely to be adopted at an\nearly date by the committee of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education,\nand that but little progress has as yet been made toward a formulation of entrance\nrequirements in physics and chemistry.\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n489\n\nYour committee was instructed to act in co-operation and in conference with the\ncommittee of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, and had no\nauthority to take up anew the effort to formulate entrance requirements in the subjects\nassigned to it, nor does it seem to the committee wise that the Department of Higher\nEducation of the National Educational Asso'ciation should take up at this time a new\neffort to formulate such requirements, in view of the enormous amount of work expended\non the formulated requirements issued four years ago. Your committee therefore\nrecommends that this report be accepted as a report of progress, and that it be continued\nfor another year, with the hope that at that time it may be able to report more definite\nresults of its conferences with the committee of the Society for the Promotion of\nEngineering Education.\nRespectfully submitted,\nHenry S. Pritchett.\nWilliam Hallock.\nE. V. Robinson.\nBoston, Mass., July 8, 1903.\nOn motion, the department expressed its approval of the plan followed at this year's\nsessions of limiting the discussion at each session to a single topic.\nOn motion, the department adjourned.\nJohn H. MacCracken, Secretary.\n\nTHE\n\nLENGTH\nOF THE\nBACCALAUREATE\nPREPARATLON FOR THE PROFESSIONAL\n\nCOURSE\nAND\nSCHOOLS\n\nI\nHISTORLCAL\nELMER\n\nSKETCH\n\nELLSWORTH BROWN, PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE\nEDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL.\n\nOF\n\nIt is not easy to set forth in few words the relation of the colonial\ncolleges to preparation for professional life. Not much of the instruction\nwhich they offered was technically professional. Yet the professional\nbent was stronger in them than in the colleges of a later day. Colleges\nwere for the service of God in church and commonwealth, and that service was to be rendered thru the professional and governmental activities\nof their alumni. It is not too much to say that the college course was\nregarded as the first, undifferentiated stage of professional training. It\nhardly need be added that the profession chiefly in view was the Christian\nministry. A few subjects in divinity, of a pretty distinct and technical\nsort, found their way into the general college curriculum, and were pursued, willy-nilly, by students who were preparing for other than the ministerial calling. A large part of the immediate preparation for ordination,\nhowever, was made by young theological students thru private reading\nand practice in sermonizing under the directio^n of some ministerial friend\nengaged in an active pastorate. So the prospective physician learned of\na practicing physician, the prospective lawyer of a practicing attorney.\nAnd all three, if their training was ideally complete, had taken the same\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "49°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nclassical and philosophical course in college as the groundwork of their\nprofessional education.\nIf it was difficult to characterize briefly the colonial idea of higher\neducation, it is hardly easier to trace the subtle change which came over\nthis ideal and gave us the typical American college of the nineteenth century. In both Europe and America the revolutionary age brought forth\na new estimate of human worth, as human, and a new demand for a purely\nhumane culture. We cannot even attempt at this time to unravel the\ninfluences — religious, scientific, literary, revolutionary — which led to\nthese shiftings of emphasis. But the distinctive college ideal of the nineteenth century was the ideal of purely liberal culture, in one of the noblest\nforms in which that conception has appeared in the history of human\nthought. If this lofty idealism dwelt over-much in the thin air of academic abstraction, it none the less called out upon its heights a devoted\nand enthusiastic following. The ideal of the colleges became the ideal of\nthe academies. Somewhat modified it reappeared in the common schools;\nand the American people, with marvelous unanimity, embraced this common faith and purpose, that education shall be first and chiefly for manhood, irrespective of differences of family history or of prospective\noccupation. Thru the greater part of the nineteenth century, accordingly,\nwe saw general — that is, liberal — education in the ascendency; and professional education rising indeed, but slowly and painfully. Professional\nschools had come into existence in large numbers, and were more and\nmore largely attended. But their educational character was hardly taken\nseriously, and their courses of instruction were looked upon as only a\nslight improvement on the system of apprenticeship. An increasing\nnumber of students entered upon professional studies without having\ntaken any part of the college course.' There had come to be an unmistakable rift between studies for culture and studies for vocation. The old\ncollege course was for a long time but little changed, but insensibly it\nhad come to be pursued for culture rather than as preparation for the\nprofessions.\nOut of the enormous literature relating to the American college which\nthe nineteenth century brought forth we may take, as a single representative. Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System of the United Slates,\nby Francis Wayland, published in 1842. This work is of great historical\nvalue because of the detailed account which it presents of the actual coliThe American Almanac ior 1842 contained a list of toi colleges, 39 theological seminaries, 10 law\nschools, and 31 medical schools in the United States, C/. Wayland, Present Collegiate System, etc., p. 8.\nDr. Wayland goes on to say : .\"I rather fear that the impression is gaining ground that this [collegej preparation is not essential to success in professional study. A large proportion of our medical students are not\ngraduates. The proportion of law students of the same class is, I rather think, increasing. The proportion of\nstudents for the ministry who resort to College is much larger than formerly.\" — Op. cit., p. 153.\nIn 1890 it was estimated that 8 per cent, of the medical students, 18 per cent, of the law students, and 23\nper cent, of the theological students of the whole country had taken a degree in arts or science, — Report of a\nSpecial Committee (of the Board of Overseers of Harvard University), p. 12.\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n491\n\nlege administration of that day; and in its recommendations concerning\nimprovements, moreover, it is prophetic of some of the best things in our\nlater college history.\nSaid President Wayland :\nNo nation can derive the benefit which God intended from the intellect which he has\nconferred upon it, unless all that intellect, of what sort soever it be, have the means\nof full and adequate development\nThe colleges as now conducted are merely\nschools preparatory to entrance upon some one of the professions\nIn consequence\nof this unintentional restriction, a very large class of our people have been deprived of\nall participation in the benefits of higher education. It has been almost impossible in\nthis country, for the merchant, the mechanic, the manufacturer, to educate his son, beyond\nthe course of a common academy, unless he gave him the education preparatory for a\nprofession.\n\nAt the same time, an increasing number were entering the professional\nschools without this preliminary college training. The colleges were not\nin close touch with the after-life of their graduates.\nThe College or University forms no integral and necessary part of the social system.\n.... In no other country is the whole plan for the instruction of the young so entirely\ndissevered from connexion vv^ith the business of subsequent life.\n\nIt was this state of affairs which President Wayland would remedy in\nthe following manner.\nLet the College be the grand centre of intelligence to all classes and conditions of\nmen, diffusing among all the light of every kind of knowledge, and approving itself to\nthe best feelings of every class of the community.\n\nTo this end, he would raise the requirements for admission, thus\nsecuring students of a more uniform and more advanced age. To this\nimproved student body he would offer an improved college course, one\nof the suggested changes being the provision of a course parallel with that\nin arts, leading to the degree of bachelor of science or of literature.\nThe question will here be asked what are we to do with the four-year course ? I\nanswer, it seems to me of but very little consequence whether we do with it or without it.\n.... I certainly would not have the period curtailed, commencing with the present or\neven with much higher requirements for admission to the University, But I would not\nhave it a matter of time.\n\nWe will pause here to consider briefly the place which the baccalaureate\ncourse has occupied on the scale of years of college men's lives, thru our\neducational history. Harvard college* settled down at a very early day to\na four-year course, and from that time on the quadrennium was so nearly\nuniversal in the practice of our colleges that there is no need to seek for\npossible exceptions.^ For generations this was the most rigid time allotment to be found anywhere in our educational system. When we came\nto have professional schools, they were for a long time without any com%\n^ Yale College had a very early provision under which the course might be shortened, but it seems not to\nhave been carried into effect. The course of the College of Philadelphia before the Revolution was three\nyeais in length.\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nmon Standards. Below the college, the preparatory schools were likewise\nvariable. Their courses were largely determined by college-admission\nrequirements, and only gradually shaped themselves into another fouryear curriculum.\nNo extended inquiry has yet been made, so far as I can learn, into the\nactual ages of colonial college boys. We know that well-endowed students\nwere occasionally graduated in their teens — in some instances before\nthey were half thru their teens. These last were probably exceptional cases.\nThe significant fact is that, however rigid the college course, the loose\norganization of the secondary schools made such early graduation\npossible.'\n.\nFor the period since the Revolution we have now at hand the results\nof an extended inquiry made by Professor Thomas.^ Full statistics were\nfound to be available for only eleven institutions. The list does not\ninclude any of the greater universities of the country, but is made up of\nsmaller universities and representative colleges, seven of them in New\nYork and New England, one in the South, and three in the middle West.\nThese statistics show in the period from the Revolution to the middle of\nthe nineteenth century but little marked deviation from the standards of\nmore recent times.^ Professor Thomas has analyzed with especial care\nthe records of the past fifty years. It appears from his summary that half\na century ago the median age of graduation from these eleven institutions ranged from twenty years and seven months, at New York University, to twenty-five years and two months, at Oberlin. During the latest\nfull decade, 1890-99, the range is less great, extending from twenty years\nand two months, at the University of Alabama, to twenty-three years and\neleven months, at Oberlin College and Syracuse University. One institution, at the end of the half-century, was where it had been at the beginning. The remaining ten were equally divided, five of them showing a\nhigher and five a lower median age of graduation. Counting still by\ninstitutions, the median age of graduation in this whole group, in the\nfirst of the five decades under consideration, was twenty-two years, nine\nI President F. A. P. Barnard of Columbia College, in his Annual Report of 1880, \"presented a list\nof eighty-one eminent men, all of them graduates of the early years of this [nineteenth] century or earlier,\nand none of whom graduated at a more advanced age than eighteen.\" In 1886 he presented the results of a\nsimilar study, relating to 230 persons, none of whom graduated later than the middle of the nineteenth century.\nThe youngest of these graduated at the age of nine ; the oldest at thirty-one. Three were thirteen, three were\nfourteen, and eight were twenty-six at graduation. The largest number graduated at nineteen, the next largest\nat eighteen, and the average of the whole number was 19.87. — A nnual Report of the President of Colutnbia\nCollege, 1885-86, p. 32.\n2W.. Scott Thomas, \" Changes in the Age of College Graduation,\" Popular Science Monthly, June,\n1903, pp. 159-71.\n3 Cf. the following, written in 1842 : \" Young persons may be admitted to our colleges at the close of\ntheir fourteenth year, and many enter at that early age. The requirements of our colleges are, however, so\nmoderate, that a young man who has commenced life with other expectations, may, at a much more advanced\nage, change his pursuits, and in a year or two be prepared for admission to colkge. Thus a considerable proportion of every class have attained to twenty-five or thirty years of age. Thirty-two or three is not an\nuncommon age for a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts,\" — Wayland, op. cit.., p. 31,\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n493\n\nmonths, and six-tenths, while in the last decade it was twenty-two years,\nseven months, and five-tenths, showing a lower age at the end of the\nperiod, by about two months, than at its beginning.\nBy changing the method of computation, it is shown that in the first\nof these five decades the average age of graduation of all of the students\nincluded in the reckoning was twenty-three years and three months, while\nin the last decade it was twenty-three years and five-tenths of a month.\nHere again there appears a slight lowering of the age at which the baccalaureate was taken.\nProfessor Thomas\n\nhas attacked his problem by a third line of\n\napproach, which yields the most interesting results of all. He has computed the percentages of students graduated at the different years of\ntheir age, and plotted the resulting curves, comparing the first decade of\nthis period with the last. From this it appears that the student body is\nbecoming somewhat more homogeneous with regard to age ; that a\nsmaller percentage is found either below or above the age of the bulk of\nthe class; and that the favorite age of graduation — the \"mode,\" as he\ncalls it — which was between twenty and twenty-one in the decade\n1850-59, has risen and is found between twenty-one and twenty-two in\nthe decade 1890-99. In this we see brought to pass one of the changes\nwhich President Wayland proposed.'\nIn the latter part of the nineteenth century various influences combined to lend new emphasis to professional education. The great\nadvance which had recently been made in the physical sciences had\nundoubtedly a great deal to do with the change. It is not surprising\nthat schools of medicine should have been among the first institutions\nto respond to this new quickening. When these schools undertook seriously to lengthen and strengthen their courses of instruction, they found\nthe age of graduation from college already so high that to add a sufificient professional course to the ordinary course in liberal arts would\npresent serious practical difficulties. Then arose a demand for the\nshortening of the traditional college course, and this was followed by a\ndemand for the shortening and enriching of the courses in lower schools.\nHarvard University was the storm-center in the earlier part of this discus ion. shall\nI\naccordingly chronicle, as briefly as possible, the official\nI Earlier discussions of the same problem may be found in the following papers :\nE. Benjamin Andrews, \"Time and Age in Relation to the College Curriculum,\" Educational\nReview, Vol. I (February, 1891), pp. 133-46. Table of ages of students entering freshman class of Brown\nUniversity, by five-year periods, 1827-1890: 1827-30, 17.7 years ; 1831-75, over 18 and not over 19; 1876-90,\nfrom 19,0 to 19.4. Age of students entering freshman class at Harvard: 1856-59, under 18; 1860-80, over 18\nand under 19; 1881-90, six years out of the ten, 19, or over. Summary: \" While the average age of graduation at New England colleges is rising, the usual age is falling.\"\nS. C. Bartlett, \"Shortening the College Cour^,\" Education, Yo\\. XI (June, 1891), pp. 585-90.\nAverage age of entrance has not been materially rising at Williams, Michigan, Tufts, Dartmouth. At Dartmouth average age of last four graduating classes was less than four months higher than that of classes\n1832-36. At Michigan University average of present freshman class is one year less than that of the classes\nfifteen years ago.\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nhistory of Harvard's part in the movement\nand there this sketch will come to an end.\n\n[Higher\n\ndown to the early nineties,\n\nIn his annual report for 1883-84 President Eliot started the discussion by\nsuggesting, a propos of plans for lengthening the course of medical instruction to four years, the advisability of shortening the course in the college\nproper to three years, or of bringing undergraduates to avail themselves\nof the facilities already provided for abbreviating the college course.\nThe faculty of the medical school, in June, 1886, proposed to the\nAcademic Council a plan for the abridgment of the college course, by\nthose who would go from the college to a professional school of the university. The faculty of law concurred in this recommendation. After\nconsideration in committee and extended discussion, the Academic\nCouncil, in November, 1887, requested the college faculty to consider\nthe expediency of a reduction of the college course. The reply of the\nfaculty was not given till March, 1890. It took the form of four recommendations addressed to the Corporation :\n1. That the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts be expressed .... in\nterms of courses of study satisfactorily accomplished.\n2. That the number of courses required for the degree be sixteen.\n3. That when a student enters college there shall be placed to his credit . . . . (l)\nany advanced studies on which he has passed in his admission examination beyond the\nnumber required for admission, and (2) any other college studies which he has anticipated.\n4. That a student may be recommended for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in the\nmiddle as well as at the end of the academic year.\n\nThis report was approved by the president and fellows, who transmitted it to the Board of Overseers. From April, 1890, to April, 1891,\nthe overseers had the matter under consideration, and during the same\ntwelvemonth public discussion of the shortening of the college course was\nat its height. Then action was taken by the overseers, refusing consent\nto the first, second, and fourth proposals of the faculty, and approving\nthe third, with unimportant modifications. In reporting this action.\nPresident Eliot called attention to the fact \"that any student of fair parts\ncan get the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Harvard College in three years\nunder existing regulations without any unreasonable exertion.\" ■\nParallel with this movement at Harvard, important steps were taken\nat other institutions. In May, 1890, Columbia University adopted the\nplan of permitting seniors to elect their studies, under certain restrictions,\nfrom courses offered by the faculties of philosophy, political science,\nmines, and law. This arrangement came to be known as the \"Columbia Plan,\" by way of distinction from the proposed \"Harvard Plan.\"\nThe University of Michigan had for several years prescribed its requirements for graduation in quantitative terms, and had permitted students\nwho came up to the beginning of their senior year with not more than\none\n\nhalf-year's\n\nwork of their course\n\nremaining\n\nuncompleted, to take\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n495\n\nprofessional studies duri-ng the senior year along with the remaining\nwork of the undergraduate course. The further provision was now made\nat Michigan that students preparing for the (four-year) course in medicine might arrange for an overlapping of the two courses, with the result\nthat the general and the professional degree might both be taken in\nseven years. The University of Chicago and the Leland Stanford Junior\nUniversity appeared on the scene at this time, with their characteristic\ncontributions to current discussion and practice. The proposals of\nPresident Butler respecting the baccalaureate, which have given a new\nimpetus to the moveuient we are considering, are so recent that they\nbelong rather to the present than to the province of the chronicler.\nTo sum up, the more significant aspects of this history seem to me to\nbe these: that the bachelor's degree has in some sense determined our\nnational educational standard ; that it has come to be a general possession of our people, that is, the mark simply of the well-educated man\nirrespective of his calling; that, with better educational organization, it\nhas come to represent normally a higher grade of training than it once\nstood for ; that, in becoming both a higher degree and a more popular\ndegree, it has largely lost its old-time connection with training for vocation, and has prompted young people, after they have come of legal age,\nto go on still with general studies, and without serious thought of occupation in life. To ward off the danger of chronic dilettantism, which is thus\nincurred; to integrate the baccalaureate with life, while keeping it still a\ndegree of high standing and also a popular degree, has been, I think, the\npurpose of recent movements in this field. There has been some consideration, but not enough consideration as yet, of the problem of intermediate, connective courses, between general culture and professional training.\nOf the extensive literature to which this question has given rise, attention may be\ncalled to the following, in addition to the papers already mentioned :\nCharles\n\nKendall\n\nAdams, \"The Next Step in Education,\" Forum, Vol. X (Febru-\n\nary, 1891), pp. 618-32.\nArthur M. Comey, \"The Growth of New England Colleges,\" Educational Review,\nVol. I (March, 189 1), pp. 209-19.\nDaniel\n\nC. GiLMAN, \"The\n\nShortening of the College Curriculum,\" ?^eV. (January,\n\ni89i),pp. 1-7.\nN. S. Shaler, \" The Use and Limits of Academic Culture,\" Atlantic Monthly, Vol.\nLXVI (August, 1890), pp. 160-70.\nAnnual Report of the President of Columbia College: 1879-80 (Barnard), pp. 44-56 ;\n1885-86 (Barnard), pp. 14-37 ; 1890-91 (Low), pp. 48-52 ; 1901-2 (Butler), pp. 29-49.\nAnnual Report of the President of Cornell University (Adams): 1889-90, pp. 20-22.\nReport of the President of Harvard College (Eliot): 1883-84, pp. 36, 37; 1885-86,\np. 14; 1886-87, pp. 14, 16, 17, 75, 76, 80; 1887-88, pp. 12, 13, 81-83; 1888-89, PP- 21,\n1 16-19; 1890-91, pp. 7-9.\nUniversity of Michigan, The President's Report (Angell), for the year ending September 30, 1890, pp. 14-18.\nReport of the President of Yale University (Hadley), for the academic year 190 1-2,\npp. 13-29, 42-51.\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nMASS.\n\nII\nCHARLES\n\nV/. ELIOT, PRESIDENT\n\nOF HARVARD\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nThe period devoted to professional education has been more than\ndoubled within the last forty years in the United States, except in the\ndivinity schools, where three years were early required and are still\nrequired. In Judge Story's law school at Harvard the period of residence\nwas eighteen months. It is now three years. In 1869-70 the period of\nrequired residence in the Harvard Medical School was four months in\neach of three years. It is now nine months in each of four years. This\ntendency to increase the period of professional instruction has by no means\nexhausted itself ; and, inasmuch as the amount of professional knowledge\nand skill to be acquired by every student is steadily increasing, we must\nexpect more and more time to be devoted to professional education. This\ntendency is by no means to be regretted. The advanced studies of professional schools supply a better training than the elementary studies of\nschool and college; and they are generally pursued by the professional\nstudent with greater zeal and energy than either schoolboys or college\nstudents manifest; but, inasmuch as it is the interest of society and the\ninterest of the individual that young men should be enabled to enter, well\ntrained, on the practice of a profession by the time they are twenty-five\nyears old, it follows that the period of training preliminary or preparatory\nto professional training should come to its end by the time the young men\nare twenty-one years old.\nIf we ask, next, at what age a boy who has had good opportunities\nmay best leave his secondary school — whether a high school in a city, or\na country academy, or an endowed or private school for the sons of wellto-do parents — the most reasonable answer is, at the age of eighteen. At\nthat age the average boy is ready for the liberty of a college or technical\nschool, and will develop more rapidly in freedom than under the constant\nsupervision of parents or schoolmasters. Seventeen is, for the average\nboy, rather young for college freedom, tho safe for steady boys of exceptional maturity. Between the secondary school and .the professional\nschool, then, there can be, as a rule, only three years for the college. The\nAmerican colleges have been peculiar in expecting so long a residence as\nfour years. For the A.B. degree Oxford and Cambridge have required\nresidence during only three years, and during much less than one-half of\neach of those years. Even the honor men at Cambridge are in residence,\nas a rule, but three years. Until recent years the American colleges\ndoubtless needed four years, because of the inadequacy of the secondary\nschools. These schools having steadily improved and taken on themselves\nmore and more of the preliminary training of well-educated youth, it is\nnatural that the colleges should now be able to relinquish, without lowering\ntheir own standards, a portion of the time which they have heretofore\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n497\n\nclaimed. What portion, is an interesting question. In the Latin countries\nthe A.B. is given at the end of the secondary-school course. In Germany\nthe college course and the degree of A.B. have disappeared altogether.\nOn this point I confine myself to stating what answer the Harvard\nfaculty has given to this question about the relinquishment of a portion of\nthe time heretofore devoted to the college. The principle on which the\nHarvard faculty has acted is this : They propose, in reducing the time\nrequired for the A.B. degree to three years, to make no reduction whatever\nin the amount of work required for that degree. In other words, they\npropose that the degree of A.B., taken in three years, shall represent the\nsame amount of attainment, or power acquired, which the A.B. taken in\nfour years has heretofbre represented. Under the conditions which obtain\nat Harvard there is no difficulty whatever in bringing about this result.\nIn the first place, the faculty has already pushed back into the secondary\nschools a good deal of work of proper school grade which used to be done\nin the college. Secondly, the faculty requires the young man who takes\nhis degree in three years to pass exactly the same number of examinations\non the same number of courses as are required of the man who takes the\ndegree in four years. This demand can be readily met by the student,\nbecause the long summer vacations can be utilized, and the ordinary pace\nor rate of work of the student in the four-years' course can be considerably\naccelerated by the ambitious man who proposes to take his degree in three\nyears. There are three months and two-thirds of vacation at Harvard in\nevery academic year, — a superfluous amount. The standard of work in\nthe four-years' course for the Harvard A.B. was decidedly lower than the\nstandard of work in any of the Harvard professional schools. It is one\nof the advantages of the three-year plan that it raises this standard of\nwork during the college residence. Pursuing this general policy that the\nrequirements for the A.B. are not to be diminished, the Harvard faculty\nfixes the minimum regular residence for the Harvard A.B. at three years.\nThey do not believe that the residence can be reduced to two years without diminishing the amaunt of work required for the degree. At several\ndifferent times it was proposed in the Harvard faculty that they adopt the\nprinciple of counting the first year spent in one of the professional schools\ntoward the degree of A.B.,as well as toward the degree of the professional\nschool ; but the faculty always rejected that proposal, on the ground that\nthis method implied a reduction of one-quarter in the requirements for\nthe degree of A.B., and indeed of more than one-quarter, because the\nsenior year ought to be a better year than the freshman year. To\naccentuate this determination not to abate the requirements for the degree\nof A.B., while shortening the period of residence, the faculty for some\nyears required persons who were to take the degree in three years to obtain\nhigher marks or grades than were required of persons who took the degree\nin four years.\nThis particular requirement has now been removed ; but\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "49 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nit was useful during the years of transition, because it made it evident that\nthe three-years' man, on the average, had made greater attainments than\nthe average four-years' man. The governing boards of the university\nhave had precisely the same intentions as the faculty; so that insistence\non the previous sum of the attainments for the degree is the characteristic\nfeature of the evolution at Harvard. The result ha« been brought about\nby the use of the Harvard admission examinations to raise the standards\nof the secondary schools, by the utilization of parts of the long summer\nvacation, and by encouraging students to put more work into the day and\ninto the year while they are in residence for the A.B.\nThe Harvard faculty has endeavored to hold fast to the actual facts of\nthe case. It says nothing about an A.B. in five years, because none but\nmen in some way disabled spend five years in getting a bachelor's degree.\nIt does not try to bring boys to college in large number at sixteen or\nseventeen years of age; but it has for years advised that they come at\neighteen instead of nineteen. It offers the bachelor's degree in three\nyears or three years and a half, instead of four years, because many students\ncan win the degree in these shorter periods of residence without any lowering of the standard. In short, it proposes to hold everything it has\nwon for the college and the degree of bachelor of arts, and to meet the\nclaims of professional education by better organization of the whole course\nof education from beginning to end, by better methods of teaching, and\nby large and early freedom of choice among different studies.\nWhile this change was going on in Harvard College, the university\ntook the important step of requiring the A.B. for admission to its three\noldest professional schools, first in the Divinity School, then in the Law\nSchool, and lastly in the Medical School. It had already established the\nGraduate School in Arts and Sciences, for admission to which a preliminary degree was, of course, required. It is unnecessary to point out that\nthis action gives the strongest possible support to the A.B. If taken by\nthe leading universities of the country at large, it would settle at once in\nthe affirmative the question of the continued existence of the American\ncollege. To preserve the college, the sure way is to keep down the age of\nleaving the secondary school, abbreviate the college .course to three years,\nand require the A.B. for admission to university professional schools.\nThen we may avoid what has happened in all the nations of continental\nEurope, namely, the disappearance of the college course for the A.B.\nThe requirement of the degree of bachelor of arts for admission to the\nprofessional schools has the happiest effect on the whole course of professional study. The classes in the professional schools become at once\nmuch more homogeneous in quality, and that quality is distinctly higher\nthan before. To believe that any other result were possible would be to\ndiscredit the college course itself.\nThe objections to this very decided\nimprovement are two.\nIt is\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nL KNG\n\nTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBA CCA LA UREA\n\nTE\n\nCO URSE\n\n499\n\nalleged, in the first place, that the professional schools of the universities\ncannot bear the reduction in their number of students which would follow\nthe enforcement of this requirement. Doubtless there would be some\ntemporary diminution in the number of students; but the experience at\nHarvard shows that this reduction would be only temporary. The\nreduction is lessened, if four or five years' notice of the change is given.\nAfter a few years the reduction would be overcome. Indeed, in the Harvard Law School the number of students rapidly increased after the\nrequirement of a degree for admission to the school. As a rule, the men\nalready engaged in the practice of a profession approve and actively support all measures which tend to raise the standard of education for their\nprofession. This pecuniary argument, therefore, may safely be regarded\nas one of only temporary and limited force. The other objection is a\nsentimental one. It is said that the requirement of a degree for admission\nto all professional schools would exclude some young men of remarkable\npowers, who have had no opportunities in their early years to obtain a\ngood, systematic education. The obvious answer to this objection is that\nthe organized institutions of education are not planned for geniuses,\nand that geniuses do not need them. Moreover, it is not supposed that\nall the professional schools of the country would make this requirement.\nThere would doubtless be plenty of private-venture schools in all the large\ncities, which w'ould receive young men of an appropriate age without the\nslightest inquiry into their preliminary education. That is the case today,\nand the proposed change in university policy would, of course, be an\nadvantage to such schools. The question before us, in this Department\nof Higher Education, is what the universities ought to do. I urge that\nthe universities should maintain each its present standard for the degree\nof bachelor of arts, but should permit young men who are capable of\nreaching that standard in three years of residence to take the degree in\nthree years ; and, secondly, that, with notice of not less than four years,\nthey should require some bachelor's degree in arts or sciences for admission to their professional schools. The long notice will enable parents,\nschools, and the whole community to adapt themselves to the change.\nThe greater the number of universities which unite in this movement, the\nmore easily will it be brought about.\nIt will be observed, perhaps, that I have said nothing about the degree\nof bachelor of science or bachelor of philosophy. My reason is that I\nregard those degrees as only temporary and inferior substitutes for the\ntraditional degree of bachelor of arts. I believe that these lesser degrees\nwill disappear as soon as an adequate variety of studies is allowed to count\ntoward the degree of bachelor of arts. Toward this admirable consummation the Harvard faculty has already taken some important steps.\nThus, many college studies can be counted toward the degree of bachelor\nof science; and many of the studies originally introduced into theuniver-\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nsity thru the Scientific School may be counted toward the degree of\nbachelor of arts. Again, in 1903 and thereafter the requirements for\nadmission to the Scientific School represent as large an amount of work\ndone at the secondary school as the requirements for admission to Harvard college, altho the number of options is larger in the Scientific School\nrequirements. A very moderate increase in the number of required\nstudies for admission to the Scientific School, and in the number of\noptional studies allowed for admission to Harvard college, would make\nthe requirements for admission to the two departments identical. For a\ntime, in the development of the American universities, there was a strong\ntendency to multiply bachelor degrees. For ten years past the tendency\nhas been all the other way. Until this simplification is brought about,\nhowever, the requirement for admission to the university professional\nschools will have to be a bachelor's degree in arts or sciences, this\ndescription including the miscellaneous degrees in letters, philosophy,\nengineering, and so forth.\nFinally if a degree in arts or sciences is to be required for admission\nto university professional schools, the road to such a degree should be as\nsmooth and broad as possible. No exclusive prescriptions should obstruct\nit; and the various needs of the individual pupil should be carefully\nprovided for in both school and college.\n\nin\nNICHOLAS\n\nMURRAY\n\nBUTLER, PRESIDENT\nOF\nNEW\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIn my judgment most participants in the discussion now going on\nthruout the land as to the length of the baccalaureate course and the preparation for the professional schools err in supposing that the two questions are necessarily reducible to one, and also in taking hold of that one\nby the wroTig end. The nature, content, and proper length of the baccalaureate course are matters quite independent of the proper standards of\nprofessional education and are entitled to consideration on their own\nmerits.\nThe one question to which the two are usually reduced is taken\nhold of by the wrong end when it is said that the baccalaureate course\nshould be of a stated length, say four years or three years, and that everything else in education and in life must adapt itself accordingly. Those\nwho take this stand give us no clear notion of (i) where the baccalaureate\ncourse begins, (2) what it consists of, or (3) what it exists for. They\nassume that all of these points are clearly understood and generally agreed\nupon. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Not even the so-called\nreputable colleges are in anything approaching agreement as to the stand-\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n501\n\nard to be enforced for admission to the baccalaureate course; and while\nthere is an external pretense of unanimity as to what the baccalaureate\ncourse exists for, that course is, nevertheless, in too many instances fearfully\nand wonderfully made. Dr. Wayland said over sixty years ago that '* there\nis nothing magical or imperative in the term of four years, nor has it any\nnatural relation to a course of study. It was adopted as a matter of accident, and can have, by itself, no important bearing on the subject in\nhand.\" To suppose that a four-years' baccalaureate course is necessary\nsemper, ubique, ab omnibus is to elevate an accident to the plane of a\nprinciple.\nOthers take hold of the question by the middle. They fix an arbitrary\nage at which professionally trained men should be ready for active work\nin life, and after subtracting the sum of the years that they propose to\nallot to the elementary school, the secondary school, and the professional\nschool, the remaining years — three, or perhaps two — are held to be\nsufficient for the college.\nBoth of these method^ appear to me to be arbitrary and unscientific,\naltho the former is the usual academic mode of settling the question and\nhas behind it the support of uncritical public opinion.\nOne of the worst of all educational evils is that of quantitative standards, and it persists surprisingly in the discussion of college and university problems. Every hi'gher course of study that I know of, except only\nthat of graduate work leading to the degree of doctor of philosophy at\nthe best universities, is primarily quantitative. These courses are all based\non time spent, not upon performance. The adjustment of the period\nof work to the capacity of individual students, now so common in\nelementary schools and not unusual in secondary schools, is almost wholly\nabsent from the colleges. The ** lock-step \" ic seen there to perfection,\nand class after class of one hundred or even two hundred members moves\nforward (with the exception of a few delinquents) as if all its members were\ncast in a common mold. The place of the baccalaureate course and its\nstandards will never be established on sound principles until the question\nof its length is made subordinate to those relating to its content and its\npurpose. Moreover, it is quite unreasonable to assume that the baccalaureate course should be of one and the same length for everybody. By the\nterm ** baccalaureate course\" I mean those liberal studies in the arts and\nsciences that naturally and historically follow the secondary-school period.\nMy own views on the questions at issue are, briefly, these:\nI. The baccalaureate or college course of study of the liberal arts and\nsciences should be preserved at all hazards as an essential part of our educational organization. It is distinctively American and a very powerful\nfactor in the upbuilding of the nation's^cullure and idealism. It should\nbe treated as a thing of value in and for itself, and not merely as an incident to graduate study or to professional schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\n2. The college course is in serious danger by reason of the fact that\nthe secondary school is reaching up into its domain, on the one hand,\nand the professional school is reaching down into it, on the other. Purely\nprofessional subjects in law, medicine, engineering, and architecture are\nwidely accepted as part of the baccalaureate or college course by university colleges, and now independent colleges in different parts of the\ncountry are trying various devices with a view to doing the same thing.\nIf this tendency continues unchecked, at many institutions there will soon\nbe little left of the old baccalaureate course but the name.\n3. To preserve the college is (^) to fix and enforce a standard of\nadmission which can be met normally by a combined elementary and\nsecondary-school course of not more than ten years well spent, and {h) to\nkeep out of the baccalaureate course purely professional subjects pursued\nfor professional ends by professional methods. The college course, in\nother words, should be constructed for itself alone and for the intellectual,\nmoral, and spiritual needs of the youth of our time, without reference or\nregard to specific careers. This course mustLj^e widely elective, and so\noffer material to enrich and develop minds of every type. This course is\nthe best preparation for the professional study of law, medicine, divinity,\nengineering, architecture, and teaching, simply because it does what it\ndoes for the human mind and the human character, and not because it is\nso hammered and beaten as to serve as a conduit to a particular career or\ncareers.\n4. This course should be entered upon at seventeen, or in some cases\nat sixteen. Eighteen is too late for the normal boy; the boy who has had\nevery educational advantage and is not ready to meet any existing college-entrance test before he is eighteen has been dawdling and weakening\nhis mental powers by keeping them too long in contact with merely\nelementary studies.\n5. For the boy who enters college at seventeen and who looks forward\nto a career as scholar, as teacher, or as man of affairs, four years is, ordin'arily, not too long a time to spend in liberal studies. On the other\nhand, the boy who, entering college at seventeen, purposes to take up\nlater the study of a profession in a university, ought not to be compelled\nto spend four years upon liberal studies just at that time in his life. To\ncompel him to do so is to advance the standard of professional education\narbitrarily without in any way raising it. It is a fallacy to suppose that\nthe more time a boy spends in study, the more he knows and the more\nhe grows. Whether he grows by study depends entirely upon whether he\nis studying subjects adapted to his needs, his interests, and his powers.\nPedagogs suppose that the more time a boy spends in school and college,\nthe better; educators know the contrary. There is a time to leave off as\nwell as a time to begin. A boy can develop intellectual apathy in college\nas well as knowledge, weakness of will as well as strength of character.\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n503\n\n6. The earlier parts of professional courses in law, medicine, engineering, and the like are most excellent material for the boy of nineteen or\ntwenty. He should begin them at that time and complete his four years\nof professional study by twenty-three or twenty-four. To postpone his\nprofessional course later than this is not only to waste his time, but to\nwaste his mind, which is far worse.\n7. There should be a college course two years in length, carefully constructed as a thing by itself and not merely the first part of a three-year\nor a four-year course, which will enable intending professional students\nto spend this time as advantageously as possible in purely liberal studies.\nThe university colleges can establish such a course readily enough; the\nindependent colleges will have to establish such a course or see their\ninfluence and prestige steadily decline. To try to meet the new situation\nby simply reproducing all present conditions on a three-year scale instead\nof on a four-year scale is a case of solvitur ambulando. The shortening of\nthe college to three years for all students involves an unnecessary sacrifice. As usually defended this policy involves no educational principle,\nbut merely concedes a year of liberal study to the modern demand for\nhaste and hurry.\n8. Whether the completion of such a two-year course should be\ncrowned with a degree, is to me a matter of indifference. Degrees are\nthe tinsel of higher education and not its reality. Such a two-year course\nas I have in mind would imply a standard of attainment at least as high\nas that required for the degree of A.B. in i860, which had many characteristics that we of today persistently undervalue. If this discussion could\nbe diverted from degrees to real educational standards, it would be a\ngreat gain. The compromise plan as to degrees, now becoming so popular, whereby the baccalaureate degree is given either for two years of college study and two years of work in a professional school, or for three\nyears of college study and one year of work in a professional school, is\ndisastrous to the integrity of the college course. It deliberately shortens\nthe college course by one year or two years, while proclaiming a four-year\ncollege course. It is a policy that only university colleges can adopt;\nindependent colleges must suffer if it becomes a fixed and permanent\npolicy.\n9. The most difificult point to establish, apparently, is that at which\nthe baccalaureate course should begin. Colleges with courses nominally\nfour years in length are admitting students with from one to two years'\nless preparation than is demanded by other colleges with four-year\ncourses. The lax enforcement of published requirements for admission,\ntogether with the very general acceptance of certificates from uninspected\nand unvisited schools, has demoralized%:ollege standards very generally.\nIt does not make much difference how long the baccalaureate course is, if\nit does not begin anywhere.\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\n10. A university ought not to admit to ils .professional schools students who have not had a college course of liberal study, or its equivalent.\nA minimum course of two years of such study should be insisted upon. A\nfour-year course should not be required for the two reasons : (i) it delays\ntoo long entrance upon active life-work, and (2) it does not use the time\nand effort of the intending professional student to the best advantage.\n11. For a university to admit professional students direct from the\nsecondary schools is to throw the weight of its influence against the spirit\nand ideals of college training, and to prepare for the so-called learned\nprofessions a large body of very imperfectly educated men. To say that\nany other procedure is undemocratic is not only a grave misuse of words,\nbut is to imply that the universities should not struggle to give this\ndemocracy what it most needs, namely, well-educated and highly trained\nprofessional service.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nR.\n\nHARPER,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF\nCHICAGO,\n\nTHE\nILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nIn view of the time allotted, I limit my statement to the presentation\nof some considerations which appear to me to be distinctly opposed to\nthe proposition to make three years the normal period of residence for\nthe college course instead of four.\nSome students are, unquestionably, able to complete the course in\nthree years. About the same number should perhaps, to do the work\nequally well, take five years. The question before us, however, is not one\nthat relates to a small proportion of the students who enter college — the\nvery brightest or the very dullest. It is a question which has to do with\nthe normal college course, that is, the course of study intended for the\naverage student.\nIt is easy to point out the origin of the difficulty which confronts\nus and has given rise to the proposition itself. It is a survival of the\nold idea which made the college curriculum something rigid, something\ninto conformity with which every student must be brought, rather than\nsomething which should be made to conform to each individual student.\nIt is not inconsistent with this suggestion that the first discussion of the\nquestion took place in an atmosphere friendly to the elective policy in\ndistinction from the policy of a fixed curriculum. Adaptation to the\nneeds of the individual along certain lines did not in this case carry with\nit flexibility and adaptation in other lines. It is not an adaptation of\nthe college course to the needs of individual men to propose that the\ncourse shall be a three-year one. An adaptation would permit four years\nfor those who need four years, five years for those who need five years,\nand three years for those who are able to do the work in three years.\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\nS^S\n\n1. The proposition for a three-year course is based upon the supposition that the entire work of the college course is really university work.\nThis is a mistaken supposition. The work of the freshman and sophomore years is ordinarily of the same scope and character as that of the\npreceding years in the academy or high school. To cut off a full year\nmeans either the crowding of this higher preparatory or college work of\nthe freshman and sophomore years, or the shortening of the real university work done in the junior and senior years of the college course. The\nadoption of either of these alternatives would occasion a serious loss to\nthe student. The average man is not prepared to take up university work\nuntil he has reached the end of the sophomore year. No greater mistake\nis being made in the field of higher education than the confusion which\nis coming to exist between college and university methods of work. The\nadoption of a three-year college term would only add to a confusion\nalready great.\n2. The suggestion rests upon an incorrect idea as to the age of\nstudents beginning work. The average age of students entering college today is about the same as it was twenty-five or fifty years ago.\nThe average age of students leaving college today is about the same as\nit was twenty-five or fifty years ago. The serious difficulty lies in the\nfact that the demands of professional education are greater today, and\nthat, instead of courses of professional study extending over two years,\nwe are confronted with courses of professional study extending over\nthree or four years. It is a point of special interest, however, that,\naltho the requirements for entrance to college are so much greater than\nthey were in former years, the student masters these requirements and\nenters at practically the same age. In other words, better educational\nfacilities have made it possible to graduate the young man at the same\nage, but with nearly two years of additional work. With all this gain\nit is apparent to any student of the situation that even yet there is\ngreat waste, and that a better arrangement of the curriculum in the\nearlier stages of educational work will make it possible for one or\ntwo additional years to be gained. With the multiplication of high\nschools and their greater efficiency, and with the consequent improvement in the grammar schools, much may be expected. It is reasonable\nto suppose that a practical limit has been reached so far as concerns the\nrequirements for admission to college. With this limit fixed, it is not\nunreasonable to expect that on the basis of the present requirements a\nboy may reach college one or two years earlier within the next decade.\nThis will counterbalance the increase of time required in the professional\nschools referred to above. It is therefore unnecessary to shorten the college\ncourse merely to provide for an extension of the professional course.\n3. The proposition is based upon a wrong idea of the high school.\nThis institution is no longer a school preparatory to college.\nIn its\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nmost fully developed form it covers at least one-half the ground of the\ncollege of fifty years ago. Tt is a real college ; at all events, it provides\nthe earlier part of a college course. Its work may not be separated from\nthat of the freshman and sophomore years either in method or scope.\nMany high schools are actually moving forward to include in their curriculum the work of the freshman and sophomore years. In these schools the\nentire college course, as it was known fifty years ago, besides the additional work in science which at that time was unknown, is included.\nThis development of the high school has a significant bearing upon the\nquestion before us. How is this new college, the product of our own\ngeneration, to be brought into relationship with the old college which\nhas come down to us from our ancestors ? The correct appreciation of\nthe modern high school and its proper adjustment to the situation as a\nwhole makes strongly against the proposed three-year course.\n4. The adoption of the three-year policy by the larger institutions\nwould be followed immediately by an increase of requirements for admission to the first year of college work. This fact is seen in the history of\nthe college of the Johns Hopkins University. While high schools as\nsuch show a tendency to increase the scope of their work, and while\nthis tendency is certainly to be encouraged, such increase should be\naccepted as a substitute for the work of the college, but not as an additional requirement for admission to the college. Our present difficulties\nhave their origin partly in the fact that from time to time we have\nincreased the requirements for admission to college until, as has already\nbeen pointed out, a fairly good college course of instruction is now\nobtained before the so-called college work begins. This is an evil which\nshould be corrected, and its correction lies in the direction of reducing\nthe requirements for admission rather than in increasing them. The evil\nwould be intensified by the adoption of the three-year policy.\n5. The proposition is based upon the supposition that the time requirement is the essential thing. Starting from the tradition that the college\ncourse must be four years for all men of whatever grade, it proceeds upon\nthe assumption that, for various reasons, this period, now the same for\nall students, must continue to be the same for all students, namely, three\nyears. No idea has exerted a more injurious influence in the history of the\ncollege work than that the period of four years, however employed, if spent\nin college residence, guaranteed a college education. It is questionable\nwhether the time limit in the undergraduate course is any more important\na factor than the time limit in the work for the doctor's degree. This\nfondness for a time limit, which is the fundamental basis of the three-year\nproposition, is a survival of the old class system which disappeared long\nago in the larger institutions, and is beginning to show decadence even in\nthe smaller institutions.\n6. The proposition is likewise to be opposed because of its deleterious\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n5°?\n\ninfluence upon the smaller colleges. The American college is the glory\nof American spiritual life, and its existence must not be endangered.\nGranting that the larger institutions could adopt without injury the\nthree-year plan, it would be impossible for the smaller colleges so to do.\nTwo things would follow: (a) the decadence of the better colleges of this\nclass, and {h) the adoption of the policy by colleges only slightly above\nthe grade of high schools. When it comes to be seen that the college\nsystem is adjusted in its entirety with a view to its relationship to the\nprofessional schools, and that it is only a second college course following\na first college course already received in the high school, the tendency\nwill be to go directly from the high school to the university — a tendency\nto be discouraged as urgently as possible. Moreover, the colleges of\nlower grade will at once reduce their period to three years, even tho their\ncurriculum be greatly inferior to that of the larger institution. In other\nwords, the step proposed, in spite of protestations to the contrary, means,\nin the end, a lowering of requirements thruout the field of higher education.\n7. Less than four years for a boy who enters college at the right age,\nsixteen or seventeen, is too short a time. The adoption, however, of the\nthree-year course will compel pvery boy to limit his college course to\nthree years. This is a serious difficulty. On the present basis he may\ntake one, two, three, or four years according to circumstances. On the\nnew plan he would be limited to three years, so far as college work is\nconcerned. With the immense increase in attendance at college which\nhas come within the last decade on the four-year basis, why should we\ndeliberately plan to reduce the time to three years ? Surely a preparation\nwill be needed in the years to come as full and long as in the years that\nare passed. The one place in which it is unnecessary and undesirable to\ncut down the time of those who are willing and able to take four years is\nin the college period. Let the time be shortened in the earlier years, but\nat this stage of preparation, with the great number of subjects which may\nprofitably be considered, let us have all the time possible.\n8. The suggestion of the three-year course ignores the culture value\nof the subjects in the first year of professional work. For my own part\nI cannot conceive any work more valuable to a young man or woman,\nfrom the point of view of citizenship and general culture, than the first\nyear's work in the curriculum of the law school, the medical school, the\ndivinity school, or the school of education. In any one of these groups\nthe student is brought into contact with living questions. The fact that the\nmethod of professional schools is different is, in the majority of cases, a\ndistinct advantage, and in no case an injury, since it serves as a corrective\nof a tendency toward dilettanteism unque^ionably encouraged by the more\nlax methods of the later years of college work. If any one question has\nbeen settled in the educational discussion of the last quarter of a century,\nit is that a line is no longer to be drawn between this class of subjects\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "508\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nand that, on the ground that one group, and not the other, may be\nregarded as culture-producing. The opportunity to elect subjects of this\ncharacter in the last year of the college course does not injure the\nintegrity of the college. It must be confessed that the adoption of this\npolicy by larger institutions introduces a difficulty for the smaller institutions, but this difficulty is not insuperable, and several ways have been\nalready suggested for meeting it.\n9. The proposition, as already hinted, subordinates the college almost\nwholly to the professional school. It is largely because of the increased\ndemands of the professional schools that it seems necessary to shorten\nthe college course. This does not seem to be in harmony with the fact\nthat a comparatively small number of students really expect to enter professional schools. Why should students who do not have the professional\nschool in mind be required to shorten the term of college residence ? If\nit is answered that the student who enters any line of business activity\nneeds the year thus saved in order that he may begin his work earlier, it\nmay be said that the facts do not bear out this proposition ; and, in any\ncase, a year of business is not to be treated as a year of colleg£ work in\nthe sense that it is equivalent to the first year's course of study in a\nprofessional school. It is therefore as inexpedient to adjust the whole\ncollege policy to the supposed needs of a minority who are planning to\nenter the professional school as it is to adjust the whole policy of a high\nschool to the needs of a minority who enter college.\n10. In conclusion it is to be urged in opposition to the proposed\nmovement that it is in general contrary to the drift of educational movements, and that the very thing which it proposes can easily be secured by\nother means. Among other educational tendencies today may be cited\n{a) that of the high school to enlarge its scope and add to its curriculum one or two years of additional work; {b) that of the average smaller\ncollege to strengthen its faculty and curriculum; {c) that of avoiding the\nwaste in the earlier years, and the consequent possibility of college\nentrance at an earlier age; {d) that of distinct separation between college\nand university methods. To each and all of these the proposition stands\nopposed.\nFollowing the example of one of the speakers this morning, I would\nsuggest that the plan which has been in operation at the University of\nChicago for nearly ten years has seemed to many of us to meet in large\nmeasure the demands called for this morning. This plan provides a\ncourse of four years and a course of two years. It permits students of\nexceptional ability to do the work in three years. It makes it possible\nfor those who so desire to prolong the work to five years. It is adapted\nto the needs of individuals of different classes. The provision of a twoyear course meets the need of many who cannot take a longer term of\nresidence and likewise of many who ought not to take a longer course.\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n509\n\nThe provision of a normal four-year course meets the need of the average\nman or woman. This plan does not imply that this average man or\nwoman is particularly stupid, nor that a year has been wasted. With the\ncompletion of the two-year course a certificate is given, granting the title\nof Associate in the University. This, for the present, is sufficient in the\nway of a degree. To students who maintain a standing of the highest\ngrade certain concessions are made.\nThe details of the plan have been worked out as experience has indicated the need. It is believed, from an experience of ten or more years,\nthat it contains the solution of at least many of the points now under\ndiscussion.\n\nANDREW\n\nF. WEST,\n\nDEAN\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nGRADUATE\nSCHOOL,\nSITY, PRINCETON, N. J.\n\nPRINCETON\n\nUNIVER-\n\nThe American college is the vital center of our system of higher education. With all its imperfections, it serves, as probably no other\ninstitution can serve, to uphold the standards of the secondary schools and\nto lift from below the level of professional schools. It occupies an intermediate field of its own, not perfectly defined, but as clearly defined as\nthe fields of our secondary or professional education. It should be\nallowed and encouraged, as they are, to organize itself completely and\nefficiently according to the laws of its own life, without curtailment or\nencroachment. Otherwise we shall be in the absurd and uncivilized position of refusing to try for the best college education, and shall be\nsacrificing to commercial and utilitarian demands the one educational\nagency most needed to purify and elevate the too materialistic tone of our\nAmerican life.\nBy tradition the length of the college course is four years. This is\nalmost universal. There seems to be no good reason a priori why it\nshould have been four, rather than five or three, or even two. But the\npractical unanimity of the tradition indicates that thus far at least the\nperiod of four years has been found to be well suited to our needs.\nAnalyze this as we may, it is a definite result of long and wide experience,\nand one which should not be discarded without the fullest consideration.\nIt is argued, however, that conditions are changing and that a shorter\ntime must be allotted, if we would save the American college. This argument rests mainly on the increasing age of the student at entrance to\ncollege and the lengthening courses of the professional schools. The fact\nthat college graduates are kept back from^ntering business life until they\nare twenty-two need not disturb us on economic grounds, because it is also\na fact that the marked increase of college graduates in business life has\ncoincided with the very period in which the age of graduation has been\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIAIION\n\n[Higher\n\nrising. But for those going into professional life the case is different.\nTaking eighhteen as the average age of entrance to college, adding four\nyears of college, and three or, as it may soon be, four years of professional\nstudy, the young doctor or lawyer is not fledged until he is twenty-six.\nA year, or even two years, may be saved by reducing the length of the\ncollege course.\nLet us admit at once that we are facing a serious economic question.\nThe saving of a year or two in time and money will in many cases settle\nthe question as to how extended an education a young man can get.\nYoung men who must get to law or medicine by twenty-four must forego\nsomething, if they enter college at eighteen. No device will secure them\neight years of educated life in six. The brighter and more mature among\nthem may perhaps save a year by entering college at seventeen. But this\ndoes not meet the general difficulty. If by any chance they enter at sixteen, they will be found as a rule too immature mentally for the studies\nand too immature morally for the life of our larger modern colleges. This\nsolution may therefore be dismissed as insufficient and unwise. If the\nyear, or two years, is to be saved, it must be taken in most instances from\nthe college or from the professional school.\nWe may as well admit that in such cases the college must suffer the\nloss, because the intending doctor or lawyer cannot escape the demands\nof the professional schools. His livelihood is conditioned on completing\nhis professional education, and this settles the matter.\nBut does it settle the general question of the proper length of the\ncollege course for those who have time to take it ? What are we to do\nwith the mass of students who can take four years of college ? Why must\ntheir course be shortened? It is the minority which goes in to law and\nmedicine. Some better reason must be found than the fact that a part of\nthis minority cannot remain four years. If it were true, or if it becomes\ntrue, that the majority of young men suitable for college cannot stay\nthruout the present course, then it may be a shorter course must be established. Otherwise it does not appear that we are doing a wrong to\nstudents by holding them four years, unless it can also be shown that a\nthree-year or two-year course is intrinsically better than a four-year course\nfor American young men.\nThis is to me the one question of real difficulty. I am unable to see\nthat young men generally will be better trained to begin as lawyers at\ntwenty-four than at twenty-five or twenty-six. I am able to see that many\ncannot afford to wait so long, and must take what they can get in the\nshorter time. It is clear that some of them cannot take four years in college. It is also clear that giving them the bachelor's degree at the end of\ntwo years or three years will not give them an education of four years. It\nis the time taken, as well as the studies taken, that counts heavily, if a permanent impression is to be made.\nExtended time in residence given to\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\nS^^\n\nunhurried, settled study, and not rapidly formed acquaintance with a series\nof studies, is what is needed. And when we realize with what imperfect\ntraining so many boys come from the schools, it may easily take four years\nto outflank their deficiencies, correct their methods, and develop even a\nsemblance of liberal culture.\nWhy, then, if some of them must leave college, should they not leave,\nas some now do, at the end of two years or three years, taking with them\ntheir valuable half-loaf or three-quarters loaf of college life and training?\nIt is worth a great deal to them. They will find most of the professional\nschools ready to receive them, and some of them ready to give, if not the\nvery best, at least a good professional education. The best of everything\nin education cannot be had without taking the time needed. In fact,\nwe are exaggerating the situation ; for if all professional schools would\nmerely go so far as to exact at least two years of college as prerequisite to\nentrance, there would be a gain the country over in the quality of professional students. It may perhaps be thought that the three-year course\nwill bring more students to college and more college graduates to professional schools. This is a matter of speculation. But suppose it does.\nIs it clear that we need more college students with shorter education than\nthey have now ? Is it clear that we need proportionally more doctors\nand lawyers ? The desired gain in quality of professional students can be\nsecured without destroying the four-year course, merely by exacting\ngenerally three years of college as a minimum entrance requirement. Has\nany American university gone farther than this in dealing with the students\nof its own college who enter its own law or medical school ?\nIn the present condition of affairs in our land, viewed in its entirety,\nthe question of entrance to professional schools and the question of the\nproper length of the college course are two distinct questions. By all\nmeans let there be a few leaders among the professional schools exacting\na college degree for admission, especially if it be possible to secure this on\nthe basis of a full college course completed in the full time without haste\nor crowding. The time may come perhaps when all good schools will be\nable to follow their example.\nBut it has not come yet.\nIf, therefore, the college course is to be shortened, it should be\nbecause the shorter course is intrinsically better for the mass of college\nstudents. Is four years of American college education better than three?\nFew will doubt it is better than two. Three years or four is the real\nquestion.\nThat a change of profound importance has come over our colleges in\nthe last thirty years none will deny. It is a change in tone and spirit.\nThe gains in diversified opportunity and in student self-government have\nbeen immense. There have also been losses. In the large older colleges\nparticularly there has been an accession of students who are attracted\nmore by the social and athletic life than by studies.\nThere has been a\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nrelaxing of effort, a disposition to look on college life as a pleasant social\nepisode. The old-fashioned college with its simple program of prescribed\nstudies is gone. The so-called ''elective system\" has come in to replace\nit, wholly or partly. To rehabilitate the old stage of things is impossible\nand undesirable. To endure the disintegration and confusion in intellectual standards which have ensued is also undesirable and, I believe,\nimpossible. The strength of opinion favorable to the four-year course is\nfound to be greatest where a large basis of prescribed studies has been\nkept. The arguments for a shorter course are most influential where\nelective freedom prevails most. It is possible to argue with much effect\nfor four years when it can be shown that a fine education is given because\nof the very definite correlation of studies to one end, namely, the acquainting of young men, not only with the methods of knowledge, but with the\nsubstance of things important for all liberally educated men to know —\nthe elemental things which, taken together, represent the stock and staple\nof our intellectual inheritance as a race. This takes considerable time.\nSupplement this with a first exploration into the fields, or far better into\nsome definitely mapped field, of elective freedom corresponding to the\nwell-ascertained aptitudes rather than the chance likings of the student,\nand four years will be found none too much. A natural break between\nthe two lower and two upper years may thus easily be made. At this\ntime, if the hard necessity arises so soon, let men leave who must leave\nearly. The bachelor's degree may then be kept for those who do the full\nwork in the normal time. From this point of view, the four-year course\nis in every way worth maintaining. •\nBut if the principle is to prevail that, once in college, the student is to\nfind all studies elective, the case is very different. No definite program\nis completed. for the mass of students, so far as concerns the specific substance of what they study. And without this an important common element is subtracted. A certain effect is lost. The common area of liberal\nculture, in which all educated men should be at home, tends to shrink\nand vanish. The solidarity of the student community, the intense esprit\nde corps which accompanies movement by college classes, the intimacy of\nthe community in things of common intellectual acquaintance — all these\nare weakened by dispersion. The students are not traveling near enough\nin the same direction to be within easy hail and call. Such a condition\nis anomalous in education. Secondary education below gains its effect\nfrom the correlation of prescribed studies, so as to form a general\ngymnastic of the mind. Professional education above is unattainable\nwithout the mastery of correlated subjects prescribed for all. The inner\nrelations of the subjects studied and not the preferences of immature\nminds, form the basis for an organized course of study, and should have\nmuch to do, perhaps most to do, with determining the length of any\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENG\n\nTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBA CCALA\n\nUREA\n\nTE\n\nCO URSE\n\n513\n\ncourse. College education alone, under the plan of free election, is being\nallowed to wander aimlessly, as tho there were no general and necessary\nrational relations according to which college studies should be combined\nas they are in other fields of education. The student's preference, so\noften determined by inadequate knowledge or an easy-going following\nof the line of least resistance, is dignified by the name of \"election,\" and\nthe bewildering niass of elective studies offered him is seriously called a\n\"system.\"\n\"System\" it may be to others, but not to him.\nHow can a definite argument for a discipline and culture of four years,\nrather than of three years, be erected on such a basis? We need not\nwaste time in exploring the tangle of inner reasons which indicate that\nthe indefiniteness and heterogeneity of a free elective course may be\na proper, even an urgent reason for shortening it. The mere fact that the\nmovement for a three-year course is strongest where elective freedom is\nleast restricted is enough indication that a powerful cause operating inside\nthe college course to shorten it is the inability of a purely elective scheme\nto fill out four years' with profit to the mass of students.\nIf the proposal were made to change a four-year course in elective\nstudies to a three-year course with a large basis of prescribed studies, I\nconfess the three-year course would seem to me a marked improvement.\nAnd unless something is done to reduce the tangle to order, the threeyear course seems to be inevitable in some places. But if the proposal be\nto reduce the other type of four-year course to three years, then the loss\nis not only unnecessary, but is in every way undesirable, because it is the\nloss of the crowning year in a definitely rounded plan, the consummate\ncollege year of intellectual development, privilege, and satisfaction.\nOn the colleges, therefore, which believe in maintaining a large basis\nof prescribed studies as the one sure foundation for a rational plan of\nsubsequent elective studies will rest the duty of maintaining a four-year\ncourse. They will need to make sure that they work out their program\nin true accordance with their academic confession of faith, and secure to\ntheir students at all hazards the few fundamental studies, well and amply\ntaught. They will need to be resolute in teaching young men that there\nis no real education without well-directed effort; that it is not doing\nwhat a man likes or dislikes to do, but the constant exercise in doing\nwhat he ought to do in matters of intellect as well as of conduct, whether\nhe happens to like it or not, that alone issues in lasting satisfaction,\nand that turns the frank, careless, immature, lovable schoolboy into the\nstrong, well-trained man capable of directing wisely himself and others.\nIf they fail to do this with measurable success, they fail to justify their\ncontention. If they succeed, the American college course of traditional\nlength and largely prescribed content «iay be trusted to justify itself\ntriumphantly.\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nDISCUSSION\nDaniel W. Hering, dean of the graduate faculty, New York University, New York\ncity. — In discussing this topic confusion is inevitable, unless some distinction is made\nbetween a college course and a course in college. Obviously it is difficult to formulate a\ncollege course that would preserve such a distinction, but something might be offered that\nwould receive common acceptance ; and then it may be found that the college course will\nnot admit of much alteration in amount, whether it be distributed over many years or few ;\nand it may also be found that some institutions are continuing the college course beyond\nthe undergraduate department, while in other cases secondary schools have included portions of it in their curricula. There never has been a time when it was not expected that\nthe college was to provide something higher than the secondary schools give, or, if it\ntreated the same subjects, to do it better, and it is now conceded that its work should be\ngeneral rather than special, so that it has been said the college should teach something of\neverything, leaving it to the university with its professional schools to teach everything of\nsomething. The field has become much too broad to carry out the first part of this epigram, but the same end can still be attained and the same distinction can still be\nmaintained by covering in college such ground as to lead to an equivalent intellectual\ndevelopment. It is not easy to see how the time needed for this can be materially\naltered.\nWhatever the undergraduate college is in America, it is pretty generally understood\nthat it is not a school or course of instruction by which a man is specifically fitted to enter\nupon a learned profession.\nThe upper limit of a college course is set for many at present by the prolonged work\nrequired by professional schools ; and if there is a proper distinction between college and\nuniversity work, the line apparently should be drawn where special work is undertaken\nwith reference to specific results. A subject that is essentially a part of a profession, and\nthat would not be given but for the part it plays, technically, in the practice of the profession, might be regarded as an intruder in the college course.\nIf a university should feel warranted in discontinuing college work at the end of two\nyears for students going on in a professional school, on the ground that their subsequent\nwork would better be done, or perhaps be done better, in the latter; and if its patrons then\nshould conclude that the work of the first two years in college is useless, on the ground\nthat it would better be done, or would be done better, in the preparatory or high school;\nthat would leave no college work to be done by such students in that particular university,\nbut it would not in the least shorten the college course.\nBut has not the baccalaureate degree been unduly exalted ? Has it not been made\nto mean too much ? Is the purpose of the Harvard authorities to guard strenuously the\npresent standard of the baccalaureate wholly meritorious ? Compared with those of twenty\nyears ago, entrance requirements in English are greatly extended ; in many instances\nmore advanced preparation in mathematics is required ; three languages other than\nEnglish are demanded, or, failing a third language, then a natural or physical science ;\nwith these advances now generally insisted upon, if from this vantage-ground the undergraduate cannot go as far in three years as students formerly went in their four-year\ncourse, it must be that he wastes his time, or he is less capable than former college\nstudents, or his instructors are not as competent as their predecessors. Probably none\nof these three things is true ; more probably the genuine student is as proficient now at\nthe end of the junior year as he was then at the end of the senior. Why should he be\nhiore so for graduation ? The necessity is not obvious, and he is not obliged to cease\nstudying at that point if he wishes to continue. If he can continue a fourth year after\nentering college, would he not better spend it as a graduate student, upon special study,\nelected with mature judgment ? The undergraduate course is now as it has long been\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLENGTH\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nCOURSE\n\n515\n\nfor general culture, and legitimately precedes a professional course in which the necessity for work that is higher and more extended than formerly is obvious. Both the\nelective system and the group system are recognitions of the fact that one's studies\nmay be more varied than formerly and yet be not less effective in developing intellectual\nstrength.\nIt seems to me that the principal desiderata, and the conditions upon which their\nattainment rests, jnay be summarized as follows : (i) Good, broad culture before entering\nupon the specialized work of a profession ; for this, sufficient time and opportunity must\nbe given in the college or high school. Two years in college is a short time in which to\naccomplish this. (2) The opportunity to begin a professional course early enough to\ncomplete it at an age not unreasonably advanced ; for this, the requirements for entering upon it and for the baccalaureate degree must not be too high. Four years in college makes this almost impracticable. (3) The opportunity to acquit oneself creditably\nin both these courses of study; for this, the work of one should not be mixed with that\nof the other. Three years in college will meet all these conditions if the distinction\ncalled for in the last is observed, namely, if the course in college is devoted to a college\ncourse.\nThese conclusions rest upon the present college-entrance requirements. There may\nbe some who consider four years in college better than three, and for those I would make\nthe course four years by beginning lower.\nPresident G. Stanley Hall of Clark University thought that three points should\nbe made which had not been touched on in the papers : First, as civilization advances,\ntime of apprenticeship necessarily increases. A man is not mature until the age of twentyfive or twenty-six ; he believed, therefore, in a prolongation of \" the time of exposure to\nhigher education.\" Secondly, he did not believe that the best education is that which\ncomes with effort from direct attention and application, but that there is an unconscious\neducation which is much more important, and which is carried on in the penumbral regions\nof the mind. This \"environmental education\" needs more time. Thirdly, we do not need\nuniformity everywhere in higher education. We do need variety. Let different institutions, therefore, follow different models.\nDean W. H. Hadow\n\nof Worcester College, Oxford, England, spoke in favor of the\n\nlonger course, and protested against hurry and h'aste, and the disposition to look for immediate results. Such methods would bring the disastrous result \"of everybody being able\nto do everything rather badly.\" Speaking from twenty-five years' experience at Oxford,\nhe held that the fourth year is of more value in the training of the intellect and of character than the three preceding years put together. He emphasized the importance of the\nquestion, in view of the fact that the whole future of national character depended\nupon it.\nRev. G. a. Kratzer, Fitchburg, Mass., argued in favor of studies having a practical\nvalue, maintaining that such studies had also a culture value ; that culture studies, therefore, should be pursued only up to the age when the student is able to undertake studies\nof practical value. He favored, therefore, the student beginning his professional course\nafter two years of college study, say at the age of nineteen, and the granting of both\nthe culture and professional degrees at the end of a total period of university study of six\nyears.\nPresident James H. Baker of the University of Colorado said that, while he had\nnot reached conclusions as to the remedy, he believed the period of general education was\ntoo long. In order to foster the higher spiritual elements of our civilization, we must\npreserve, however, our liberal education. He believed that there should be a national\ninvestigation into the time element in education, with reference especially to economy and\nto the value of culture elements to our civilization.\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "5i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nPresident Eliot of Harvard University, being called on to present further the\nargument for the three-year course, said that the discussion of the morning showed that\nthis is a case where doctors disagree, and that the only way to solve the problem is by\nexperiment. It was a just diagnosis made by Professor West that there is a connection between the elective system and the shortening of the course to three years; and the\nreason was that under the elective system the student does much more work in a given\ntime than under a prescribed course. Professor West's experiment would be a firm fouryear college course mainly of prescribed studies. It would be delightful to have that\nexperiment tried under the most favorable circumstances — say at Princeton. The fouryear course, so far as the large universities are concerned, is gone already. It seems\ncomical to hear President Harper maintain the inevitable worth of a four-year curriculum, and then cite as an example the practice of the University of Chicago, where a man\ncan secure a degree in any time that best suits his conveinence. He said he could not\nquite make out whether President Butler recommended a four-year course or not ; he\nwas delighted to hear Dr. Butler say that the bachelor's degree should be required for\nadmission to university professional schools, in sp.te of the doubt whether it should be a\ntwo, three, or four-year degree. The four-year course being gone, there is to be liberty\nfor experiment, and that is desirable. Harvard has chosen its way, Chicago has another;\nlet Columbia and Princeton each pursue its own course. We must get forward in education as in politics by a perpetual contest and a series of compromises. Frank conflict is\nalways welcome. Let us have the conflict of these four experiments, and the result will\nbe the working out of a solution by compromises from year to year, or from decade to\ndecade.\nPresident Hyde of Bowdoin said that a college course aims to do two things:\nfirst, to make man master of the tools of knowledge; secondly, to make some great\ndepartment of knowledge master of the mind of the individual student. With these two\nthings accomplished, we shall have the liberally educated man. How long it will take\nto do this will depend on whether the first aim is accomplished in the secondary school\nor not. If the Harvard entrance requirements can be maintained, it will be so accomplished, and three years in the college will probably be sufficient to do the second thing.\nHe did not believe, however, that it is desirable for most of the colleges to maintain so\nhigh a standard of entrance requirements. He thought that just now is a poor time to cut\ndown the length of the course when we are entering on the second stage of the elective\nsystem, and are insisting that the student's choice shall be intelligent, and the course of\nstudy cumulative.\nPresident Faunce of Brown University spoke of how President Wayland, of\nProvidence, had outlined many of the things advocated here today, and said that we\nmight see in his career how much it avails a man to see clearly and speak boldly, for\neven if he is not able to carry out his plans himself, they will be carried out by others.\nHe believed that it was impossible to lay down an absolute time limit for the baccalaureate degree. For the great majority of students, for some time in the future, the time\nwould be four years. For some, on account of ill-health and limited means, the time\nwould be five years. For some, of physical strength and brilliant intellect, the time would\nbe three years. They had made provision at Brown University for the degree to be\ntaken in three years, but for same amount of work to be done as in the four-year course.\nHe believed heartily in Dr. Eliot's suggestion that we enter upon experiments; but we\nshould beware lest we try all the experiments in one institution.\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nSHALL\n\nUNLVERSLTY CONCERN LTSELF MORE DIRECTLY WITH THE MORALS AND MANNERS OF ITS\n\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n5>7\n\nSTUDENTS? IF SO, BY WHAT METHODS AND DEVICES ? SHOULD THERE BE IN E VER Y COLLEGE AND\nUNIVERSITY A MEDICAL VISITOR WHO SHALL ALSO\nBE AN ADVISER FOR STUDENTS ON ALL MATTERS\nRELATING TO HEALTH AND DISEASE ?\n\nGEORGE\n\nHARRIS,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF AMHERST\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAMHERST,\n\nMASS.\n\nTaking the last question first, I dispose of it at once without discussion byanswering it emphatically in the affirmative. There should be\na physical examination of every student at entrance; there should be a\ncollege physician to visit students who are not well; there should be a college infirmary to which students who are ill should be sent for proper\ncare and for seclusion in case of contagious disease; there should be\nauthority to prevent students who are not in good physical condition from\nengaging in strenuous athletic contests. All this is as necessary to a college as a museum, a library, or professors of economics and philosophy.\nThe relation of the last question to the first is obvious, since a high\nmoral tone and agreeable manners are affected by bodily health.\nThe question as to morals and manners is stated comparatively:\n''Should the university concern itself more directly with morals and manners? \" I cannot go thru the universities to ascertain the degree of supervision that is exercised in each institution, and so to determine the more\nor less of direction necessary, but must content myself with indicating\nthe virtues peculiar to students and the mode of promoting those virtues,\nwith incidental reference to manners.\nThe distinctive, one may almost say the supreme, virtue of the scholar\nis truthfulness. Knowledge is truth, and the pursuit of knowledge is love\nof the truth. The modern scientific method promotes intellectual conscientiousness. Facts do not bend to theories and doctrines, but reality\nis the basis of opinion. The spirit of truthfulness dominates. Love of\ntruth for truth's sake is intellectual virtue. It promotes, it is the basis of,\nindeed it is, morality. This is the temper of students in all colleges.\nSome are lazy, taking the line of least resistance; some regard study as a\nhardship and go about it doggedly; but to a man our students are truthseekers, indignant toward falsehood and deceit.\nA teacher who is ignorant is not respected. It is a fatal verdict : \" He\ndoes not know his subject.\" A teacher who evades facts, who is not downright honest in his opinions, is despised.*\nI said that intellectual conscientiousness promotes morality. It certainly promotes truthfulness in all relations. College men, whatever their\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "518\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Higher\n\nfaults and wrong-doing, will not tell lies. A man's word is sacred. A\nstudent who lies to a fellow-student might as well leave college. However\ndamaging to himself, he will not put No in place of Yes to a president or\na professor. This virtue, which is associated with the English gentleman,\nhas become as distinctively the virtue of the American gentleman and\nscholar.\nYou will find that students mean to regard themselves as gentlemen.\nThe ideal of everyone is the ideal of a gentleman — of an honorable,\ngenerous, courteous man. There is no place where meanness has so little\ntoleration as in a college. You will search long to discover a student\nwho intentionally hurts the feelings of a fellow-student, or one who does\nnot applaud the success of a comrade. A student must be a gentleman in\nall relations. Sports must be gentlemanly. If one drinks, one must drink\nlike a gentleman. The most opprobrious epithet, unless it be a liar, is\nmucker; and I am not sure but that in the students* judgment it is worse\nto receive that offensive designation than to deviate from the truth.. There\nare queer notions, to be sure, of the manners, the speech, and the dress\nof a gentleman student; but the ideal in its essential moral quality is\nthere. \"Thou shalt be a gentleman,\" is the first amendment to the Ten\nCommandments, and on it hang the academic law and prophets.\nAnother virtue is the democratic spirit. Students constitute a democracy of merit and culture. In a university or college the rich and poor\nfrom all sections of the country meet together, and \"earth's poor distinctions vanish here.\" Everyone stands upon his merit, not upon wealth or\nparentage. There are self-constituted, artificial aristocracies in some\nuniversities, but they are sneered at by real worth. The sturdy Kansas\nscholar is not impressed by, if he has even heard of, the blue book of\nBoston. Every college likes to boast that it is democratic, and regards\nthe reputation of being aristocratic as a slur. It is a distinct disadvantage to be wealthy.\n\" He's rich, but he is a good fellow.\"\nLoyalty is a virtue of students — loyalty to the college or university.\nOne who excels in any respect must run, row, play ball, sing, write, debate,\nfor the glory of the college. A student who will not come out is disloyal. He must make sacrifices for his college, his class, his fraternity.\nHe will be a good citizen by and by, a patriot.\nThe college is imbued with the idea that the educated man is to render service. The colleges were founded to train men for service to the state\nand the world, and I doubt whether in any generation the aim has been\nmore distinct than it is today. Success in occupation and profession,\nindeed, and in specific training for it, yet thru success the promotion of\nrighteousness. Our students intend to be leaders and helpers in the\ncommunities in which they will live, in education, citizenship, religion.\nEspecially is the civic conscience awake. In the college is a mighty\nimpulse to service.\nThe university settlement is one expression of it.\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n519\n\nTraining for intelligent citizenship is another expression. Educated men\nmay be selfish; yet a broad education is always understood to be, not for\nits own sake, not for personal culture merely, but to make teachers,\nleaders, ministers in society. The strongest impulse to social, political,\nphilanthropic service has come from the college.\nI have suggested the virtues that should be, and in good measure are,\nthe peculiar virtues of students, because in any consideration of methods\nand devices to promote morals and manners we must perceive the ideal\nwhich is almost universally recognized by students, and which is a true\nideal.\nWhat, now, militates against morals ?\ncollege ?\n\nWhat is the immorality of the\n\nSome college customs are immoral, but are not so regarded, since custom is sacred and makes law. Physical violence and personal indignity\nare brutalizing to those who inflict them. To be sure, it is understood by\nboth parties that insults and injury are impersonal; that the student suffers, not because he is William Jones, but because he is a freshman, or\nbecause the violence and indignity are initiational mysteries. I cannot\nbut think, however, that such customs are immoral. Happily these impositions are diminishing, till they are little more than amusement for all\nconcerned, altho exposing singular conceptions of the humorous.\nThe notion that students are a privileged class, that they may be lawless and disorderly, that they may appropriate the property of others, is\ndemoralizing. It can be exploded best by treating them as any citizens\nare treated — by arrest, fine, and imprisonment. Many students think it\na joke not to pay their bills. They contract bills with no expectation of\npaying them. They laugh together on getting out of town at graduation\nwithout having been caught by their creditors.\nI will not specify further, nor am I sure that these immoralities are\nnot the exception.\nAs to manners, which traditionally are inseparable from morals, the\nstandard of students is high. In some colleges rough and negligent dress\nis affected, but only on college premises. On the whole, students are too\nmuch interested in dress. Those who have plenty of money spend lavishly\non clothes. The code of manners in their mutual relations is somewhat\npeculiar. Nicknames are freely applied, but are expressions of regard\nand even affection rather than of derogation. The give-and-take of conversation islangy, possibly for the enrichment of the English language,\nbut is recognized as the patois of the tribe, and not for foreign use. The\nstudent is polite to ladies and believes that he can move with grace in the\nbest society.\nHe attaches great importance to good form.\nThe college should concern itself with the morals and manners of\nstudents, but not, I think, directly by specific methods and devices. The\npaternal system of government is outgrown.\nA large freedom obtains*\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nand should obtain. The college must make requirements as to studies,\nand for the rest must trust to influence. Work itself is the best moral\npower. Stiff requirements of study, week in and week out, daily tasks,\nconstant attainment, steady intellectual progress are mighty moral\ninfluences. It is the proper business of the student to study. If the only\nreal requirement is to pass examinations twice a year, if the student crams\ntwo weeks and loiters thirty weeks, he is demoralized. What is more\ndemoralizing than to substitute appearance for reality? If the statement\nis true that 45 per cent, of the students of a great university are loafers,\nthen 45 per cent, undergo weakening of intellectual fiber and disintegration of character. Recovery, after four years of inactivity, is well-nigh\nimpossible. The man is incompetent for success. If the method of\nlecturing is such that there need be little or no honest, productive work,\nthen the first duty of the university is to change methods of teaching so\nthat something more than bodily presence at lectures, something more\nthd!h cramming at night and disgorging in the morning, something more\nthan intellectual pretense, is requisite. The best method for the making\nof sturdy character is, as Lowell says, \"work done squarely and unwasted\ndays.\"\nMuch is gained by the recovery of the literary and spiritual, as against\nthe merely technical and the materialistic, in all studies. The seventh\nand eighth decades of the last century — say from i860 to 1880 — were\noccupied with the scientific theory of evolution, of the origin of man from\nlower orders, of the physical universe. It is not too much to say that in\nthe ninth and tenth decades — from 1880 to 1900 — interest swung back\nfrom the universe to its noblest inhabitant, from the natural to the human\nsciences. The absorbing studies of scholars became and still are anthropology, sociology, economics, aesthetics, literature, ethics, and religion.\nThe humanistic studies take the lead in the colleges. The spiritual and\nethical aspect of truth is recognized. Ancient and modern literature are\nknown on this side, and so a liberal culture is promoted. The college is\nimbued with this spirit, which uplifts character and refines culture.\nA potent influence for morals and manners is the president and faculty.\nA gentleman at the head makes gentlemen of students. Let him exemplify\nthe virtues of honesty and honor; let him respect students ; let him exhibit\nintellectual conscientiousness; let him do thorolyand ably his every piece\nof work in speech, in service for the college; let him be a man among\nmen, and temper all with the saving sense of humor; and the whole student\nbody will have self-respect, a high moral tone, the democratic spirit, and\nthe ambition to be and to do something of value. The professor who is\na real teacher, who is interested in students, sympathetic with all that\nengrosses them, firm and kind, polite and decently dressed, is a power for\nmorals and manners. We know professors for whom students have\nunbounded admiration.\nThe man and the manner; not much influence\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n521\n\nfor manners has the long-haired, slovenly dressed, dirty professor. It is\nsaid that a marked change for the better was noticed at Harvard with the\nadvent of a young professor named Longfellow who addressed every\nstudent as Mister.\nAthletics promote morals. Should football, baseball, field athletics\ncease, the moral tone of the college would be lowered. Sports rest more\nand more upon a moral basis.\nTo be sportsmanlike is to play fair.\nThe society of ladies promotes good morals and fine manners. It is\nunfortunate if a men's college is so situated as to be a community by\nitself, with no access to women — as unfortunate as the situation of a\nwomen's college temote from the abodes of men. I think the education\nof women and of men should not be the same, and so have my doubts\nabout coeducation ; but I have no doubt as to the value of their social\nintercourse.\nIt is not a far cry from the social to the religious. Religion should\nhave a home and should be at home in the university. The college pulpit\nis a throne of power. The great preachers of the country come gladly to\ncolleges with the message of truth and righteousness. . The student\nresponds with all his heart; for the intellectual man is the spiritual man.\nIf you should sit Sunday after Sunday in a college congregation, you would\nfind students listening eagerly to preaching on the real, human Christ and\non the service of man to man. Sermons are ethical and spiritual rather\nthan theological. Preachers of the several denominations bring the same\nmessage to the college. Voluntary associations of students for religious\nculture and for Christian service, if rightly conducted, are a great moral\npower in a college. There is more genuine religion in the colleges today\nthan in any period of our history. Cant and pretense are not tolerated ;\nirrational doctrine is discarded ; but faith, hope, love, character are exalted.\nThe university should encourage sane, healthy, trustful, God-loving, and\nman-serving religion.\nKeep the flame burning on the altar of piety!\nThe morals and manners of students are not maintained, then, by\nparticular devices and methods, but by the aim of the college ; by requirement of solid attainment ; by teaching that presents intellectual, moral,\nand spiritual values; by faculties of scholars, teachers, and gentlemen;\nby manly sports; by social intercourse with refined and pure persons;\nand by religion.\nII\nWILLIAM\n\nJ. TUCKER,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF DARTMOUTH\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nHANOVER,\n\nN. H.\n\nThe immoral or even the unmannered student does not enter into the\ntheory of the higher education. It lies ill the theory that the collegebred man will be able to pass the tests of good breeding. Practically,\nhowever, our colleges and universities do graduate men who are deficient\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nin morals or in manners, or in both. Opinions vary as to the extent to\nwhich this may be said to be true. Judged by the conventional standards, more men are deficient in manners than in morals. But no university would be willing to guarantee as its final product either the absolutely\nhonest man or the perfect gentleman. What shall we do with this variance\nbetween the theory, or assumption, or expectation in regard to the morals\nand manners of the university man and the fact, as it appears, at least in\nexceptional cases? Shall we accept it as a normal variance, and go our\nway undisturbed, or shall we make it a matter of direct concern?\nThere is much to justify the contention that the college or university\nis a section of the world, and therefore that the more nearly it conforms\nto the methods which obtain all around it, the more naturally and effectively itwill do its work. The world does not have very much to say to\na man personally. It is chiefly concerned with him thru his profession\nor business, or, if he affects society, thru the social conventions. Why\nnot allow the university to deal with a man at the single point of intellectual discipline to the end of culture, or to some end of utility.\nI will not attempt in the moments before me to enter broadly into\nthe opposing theory of \"direct concern\" with the manners and morals of\nstudents. I will state at once certain considerations which seem to me to\nmake this the working theory of the American college or university.\n1. The American college or university stands for social advancement\nas well as for intellectual discipline. The university is the gateway thru\nwhich democracy passes to the refinement of its strength. Universities in\nthe older countries assume for the most part certain social qualities which\nare here in the making. It is impossible to ignore the peculiar responsibilities which must be borne by the higher education in a country which\nis still new. Even in New England there is a greater preponderance,\nin all our colleges, of those from new families — families that is, which\nhave not been represented before in college training.\n2. The waste of material in college or university life is a matter\nwhich needs constant attention. There is a loss of at least 25 per cent,\nin every class which goes thru college. This loss is partly due to lack of\nscholarship, or to poverty, or in slight degree to ill-health ; but something of it is due to lack of training in those personal qualities which lie\nin the region of manners and morals. Habits are formed which lead\ninevitably to the loss of college standing. Very few students are separated\nfrom college for immorality, but a good many fall out of college for want\nof moral fiber.\n3. Scholarship is not the first end of the college or even of the university. The common product of each is not the scholar by distinction,\nbut the man who is fitted for the largest uses of society and the state.\nFor every scholar who is to devote his after-life to pure scholarship there\nare at least ten graduates who are to give themselves to more general\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n523\n\ncallings. It is not safe to lay too great a burden upon a means thru\nwhich a comparatively small proportion will reach the ends of their college life. It is too much to ask of scholarship to do everything for men\nwho are not by first intention scholars.\nIn view of these considerations it becomes, I believe, a matter of\n\"direct concern\" for the college and university to take account of morals\nand manners, assuming that \"direct concern\" must never degenerate into\npaternalism. The note of college and university life, which must not be\nlowered, is personal freedom.\nBut having made this statement of the obligation, we find no little\ndifficulty in agreeing upon methods of satisfying it. Manners cannot be\ntaught — not, at least the manners of a gentleman. On the inner side it\nmeans the training of the spirit, and on the outer side it means association. Manners come to be more and more manner — the whole bearing\nof a man. And this result — apart from the ceaseless working of the\nspirit — is a pure matter of form, and therefore the effect of environment.\nIt is the subtle distinction of manners that they come to us, not by what\nwe do under our own initiative, but from what others are doing around\nus. Manners good and bad are communicated. \" I was a scrubby little\nboy,\" said an old graduate of Phillips- Exeter, \"and I met Dr. Soule in\nthe street and he touched his hat to me, and it set me to asking how such\nan unparalleled emergency could be met.\" Not so with morals. We\ndo not become strong or weak morally by imitation, but by definite acts\nof which we are entirely conscious. The moral effect of our surroundings is that they determine the sphere of our moral action. A college\nstudent does not have the virtues or vices of a cashier or politician open\nto him while a student, but simply the virtues or vices of a college student. The training, therefore, in morals beyond the Ten Commandments\nmust be the training in college morals, in which the personal element is\nas decisive as it is in morals anywhere.\nWhat is the essential idea in college morals? What but this, that a\nman shall take his work and his play seriously — not solemnly, but seriously; that he shall work honestly and \"play fair.\" You cannot inculcate either morals or manners into the mind of the trifler or loafer. The\nspirit of the trifler or loafer is not strong enough nor fine enough to work\nupon. Neither one is capable of the so-called refinement of elegant leisure.\nThe best test of seriousness in a college is honest work. You may not\nrestrict it to any one form. I often say that the very best thing about\nathletics is that no indifferent work is tolerated on the athletic field. The\nstandards there are higher than they are in the class-room. They are\nas nearly absolute as possible. And this is one source of their attractiveness. If athletic sports were loose, flabby, irresponsible exercises,\nnobody would care for them. The greatest moral lack in our older colleges and universities is the lack of mental seriousness.\nIt hurts a man\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nmorally to work below his powers. That is what a large minority, if not\na majority, of our students are doing — working below their powers, with\nthe inevitable result. I think that here lies the only rational ground for\nthe contention of the past months for shortening the college course. The\ncontention really stands for redeeming the time, not for shortening it.\nThe college has been helped, and is being helped, in this matter of work\nby the technical school. This has proved to be a good running mate,\nquickening the pace of college life on its work side. I believe that we\nmust lay great stress, in the interests both of morals and manners, upon\nthe morality of work. Here is the core of the whole system. In my own\ncollege there is an old rule, dating back to the very beginning of its life\nthat any student who \"speaks diminutively of work\" shall do the work\nof which he speaks dirq,inutively. I wish that it were possible to enforce\nthis rule as applied to brains as well as to hands. For until we can insure\nin our colleges and universities a profound respect for work, we cannot\nbe sure that the man whom we send out among the toiling masses will\ntake his place honestly among them, or even that he will play the gentleman.\nIn all our endeavors to inculcate specific college morals, I would insist\nthat we must reach the negative virtues thru the positive. It requires a\nvast deal of moral enthusiasm to deal in repression. There is no steering\npower in repression. A college which is under repression will either\ndrift or stop. The positive virtues which ought to thrive in a college —\nand which do thrive there, I believe, more than anywhere else — are truthfulness, courage, honor, and generosity carried to the point of sacrifice.\nThe negative virtues, which are for the most part associated with college\norder or personal behavior, must be carried along by these. Nothing is\nmore impotent than the attempt to secure self-control without first\nsecuring self-respect; nothing is more impotent than the attempt to\nsecure college order without first' awakening true college spirit. There is\nconstant danger from the unquickened man — danger to himself and to\nothers. It is always a question how long he ought to stay in the common\nbody, how long the common body can afford to wait for him. On the\nother hand, nothing is so inspiriting as to see one coming under the\nquickening process. It may start from an apparently slight cause. It\nmay not always be associated with a moral issue. But it always results in\nmoral power of some kind. The man is at once transferred from the\nunmoral, if not immoral, side of the college to its moral side. I do not\nunderestimate the place of the negative virtues in the academic life. It\nis a great thing for one to be able to make a proper resistance or refusal\neither in word or by act. But the ability to do this is first made possible\nby some affirmative action, by some uprising of the moral nature.\nI insist, further and very strenuously, that what we ought to expect\nfrom students in morals and manners will depend upon what we do for\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n525\n\nthem in these regards — upon the general tone and quality of the official\nlife of the college or university. The estimate which will be put upon the\nvalue of morals and manners will be proportionate to the provision made\nfor their development. Take the quality of reverence, as finding its\nhighest expression in religious services. Reverence has very little opportunity for growth, if the service with which it is associated is crowded and\njostled in the midst of exercises which are entirely alien to it. It makes\na vast difference whether college prayers are thrown into a medley of college notices, scoldings of the president, snappy addresses of distinguished\nguests, and the chance hubbub of athletic victories ; or whether the service\nhas its own time and place to the exclusion of irrelevant subjects. The\nwhole religious attitude and behavior of a college may be revolutionized\nby a change of place for worship, or for that matter by a change of time.\nIt was an immense gain to religion when the old-time custom of chapel\nbefore breakfast was abolished.\nA like correspondence between the business management of a college\nand the business habits of the students may be expected. A careless\nadministration will develop carelessness in those who live under it. The\nmoral effect of executive ability is far-reaching. Promptness, accuracy,\ncertainty in the \"office\" will in time make their impression upon the\nneedless student. Probably no academic change within the last ten years\nhas been so great as the change in administration. The dean, tho he\nmay have had a nominal existence before, has suddenly become the center\nof a system. He may do his business largely in personal ways, or by\nroutine, but he regulates the whole daily movement of a college as surely\nas it is regulated by the college clock. The machinery of administration,\nwhen reduced to its minimum, is still so much in evidence that every precaution must'be taken to see that it works' efficiently, which means that it\nmust be made to work promptly, steadily, and above all things honestly.\nAnd when we pass to those influences which have the most direct\nbearing upon manners, I believe that the college authorities must have\nconstant regard to the refining influences of the college environment.\nPoverty is no excuse for bad architecture. Good architecture costs no\nmore, it costs less, than poor architecture. Poverty is no excuse for\nunkempt grounds. Neatness is not expensive. Least of all is poverty an\nexcuse for unsanitary conditions. The most expensive thing which can\ncome to a college is sickness. The whole aesthetic life of a college or\nuniversity rests upon a physical basis. The daily bath is about the first\nthing in the making of a gentleman. Unfortunately the scholar and the\ngentleman do not always begin the day alike.\nI advocate very strongly proper provision for the social life of the college, the whole college. Nothing has wrought more clearly to this end\nthan the building of college club-houses during the past few years. Fraternity houses are not sufficient.\nThey accomplish in a small way what\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthe college club-houses should accomplish in a large academic way. The\nfirst requisite to a college house is that every man should be made to feel\nthat he has a right in it.\nI have no doubt whatever that in the development of morals and manners the college itself must take the initiative. The college or university\nis permanent. It inherits traditions and is constantly making traditions.\nIts faculty is a constant force amid the more transient student life. Its\ntrustees determine- how the students shall be housed and cared for.\nThe administration of the college is the most powerful factor in the daily\nlife of every student during the years of his residence. I insist, therefore,\nto the last degree that we ought to expect no more from students than we\nare disposed and prepared to give them in the common work of securing\nhonest men and gentlemen as the natural product of college and university training.\nIll\nW. F. SLOCUM,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF COLORADO\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCOLORADO\n\nCITY, COLO.\n\nThe answer to this question is found in replying to the larger\nenquiry: What is, or rather what should be, the predominating motive,\nor principle of action, in an institution of higher education, as it deals\nwith young persons who have duties to themselves and also to others?\nIt is fair to ask, in view of the seriousness of this problem : Is there any\nlarge and comprehensive principle or motive that ought to command the\nyoung man in the university who is under obligation to make the most\nof himself for high ends ?\nIt certainly is true that the radical point of failure in any life, if there\nbe one, is ethical, and that the life of any college graduate cannot be\nregarded as successful which is a moral failure. Theoretically, at least,\nall thoughtful people agree that a noble life is better than one possessed\nof mere intellectual skill and stores of information. The most essential\nthing in the training of young people is the production of positive\nmorality. Truismatic as this is, it is worth while reminding ourselves of\nthis self-evident proposition at the outset of our discussion.\nIt may still further be said that the evolution of college life, in all its\nmany details and its varied experiences, should indicate a development\nin harmony with this larger comprehensive principle. In other words, the\ndeeper moral purpose which ought to dominate the whole life of man\nshould pervade the university plan and ideal for each and every student\nunder its influence. Whether this end is to be secured directly or indirectly, whether by the creation of a right ethical atmosphere and a moral\ntone which is quietly felt, or whether by more formal expression — all\nagree that an educational foundation where right living is not the most\nreal product is missing its largest reason for existence.\nCertainly all the\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n5^1\n\nconstantly reiterated expressions about making citizenship by means of\nuniversity training and life become the most veritable cant, if character\nis not the highest end in view.\nDoes it not, then, follow that clear, definite views in regard to right\nand the practice of morality are essential, not only for the production of\ncharacter, but also for the creation of individuals who will be of value,\nethically, in the life of the nation itself ?\nCharacterless education as well as a characterless man misses the end\nfor which society exists. The university, to fulfill its highest function,\nought not, because of anything in .its own life, to send out immoral\nmen, or those who are unmoral, but rather those who positively, definitely,\nwholesomely feel the sense of obligation, and who act in conformity with\nsuch sense. It is men who possess what James Martineau called the power\nof \"personal causality\" that the nation at large requires from the college\nand university.\nFor the production of this positive morality in students it is certainly\nnecessary that they should hold accurate, vigorous views, which easily\npass with them into principles of action, upon such ethical matters as\npersonal purity, rights of property, the right of contract, the right to\nliberty and the pursuit of happiness, the sanctity of marriage, personal\nintegrity — ethical ideals which in the life of the nation today are being\nput to severe tests, and confusion of views in regard to which has led\nagain and again to bad politics, dangerous economics, and wretched social'\nopinions.\nTwo things are essential for the production of men with these vigorous, virile ideas on moral questions : First, such clear, rational instruction\nin regard to ethical matters that lawyer?, physicians, clergymen, journalists, publicists, politicians, and business men looking back to their\nuniversity life will say : \"I owe much to the instruction in my university\nfor the views I hold upon public and private moral questions.\" The\nsecond thing that is necessary for the existence of this ethical life in the\ncharacter and views of university graduates is such a personal influence in\nthe character and the personality of the teacher himself that the inner\nlife of the student will be awakened and the conscience made responsive.\nIt may not be out of place to remind ourselves just here that the\nhighest effectiveness of intellectual power is never realized if the moral\nelement in the mind is not positively dominant. The ethical principle is\nthe central and radical element in the intellectual nature, and all education which ignores or slights this factor must of necessity be one-sided,\ninasmuch as a true self-realization of the mind cannot be obtained\nwithout the evolution of this moral pow^.\nThe development of this moral capacity may in some cases, especially\nwhen the home has been true to its duty and privilege, be brought about\nby the general spirit, the intellectual standards, and the tone of the\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nethical atmosphere which pervades the life of a university; but the\naverage student will not acquire in large measure the positive, self-assertive\nmoral habit, if his ethical education is left to the absorbent power of the\nordinary young person who frequents institutions for higher education.\nThe diversions, in many cases the false standards of living, that one\ngains in college, the immaturity of view on public and private questions\nwhich too often obtains in university circles, will lead too many students\nto pass out into the world without that dominating moral ideal which is\nalways essential for ethical leadership, unless there is somewhere in the\nuniversity course definite, vigorous instruction given upon practical\nethical questions. The more conspicuous and commanding the place of\nthe university graduate in the business, social, and political life of the\nnation, the more essential is it that this moral ideal should predominate\nin his character. The position of the university graduate is that of the\npresent-day makers of the nation, and the character of the country\nreflects the moral ideals, the moral assertiveness, and the moral actions of\nthese graduates. It is only fair to expect that college and university\ntraining should produce the best, and not merely an ordinary, type of\ncharacter; and it is fair also to put this question: As one meets the\nuniversity graduate in business, in professional life, in and about the\nuniversity club, and more especially in politics, does he find that his views\nand his actions are more ethical than the views and actions of the same\nnumber of business men who have not had the advantages of a college\nand university education .? The world has a right to expect, because of\nhis opportunity for the better training of his mind and because of the life\nhe ought to find in the university, that the graduate is, on the whole,\nmore to be trusted in regard to public and private questions than are\nthose who have not received what is termed \"the advantages of a liberal\neducation.\"\nHas this expectation, on the whole, been realized, and in such large\nmeasure that the present condition of ethical training in the university\nand college is entirely satisfactory ? Is it too much to say that the advance\nin the political life of the country, and in fact in the whole ethical life of\nthe nation, awaits the increased moral effectiveness of the graduates of\nthe American college and university ? This is what constitutes the\nseriousness of the question we have been asked to discuss here this\nmorning.\nSuch leadership which is the outgrowth of positive moral character is\ngreatly facilitated by a healthy body as well as a healthy soul. The\nstudent must be made to feel the necessity of giving a well-developed\nself, his best self in every respect, to his life-work, whatever that work\nmay be, in order that this ideal of ethical leadership may be realized.\nFor this reason there ought to be more general athletic cultivation among\nthe student body, such as one finds at the great English universities, where\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n529\n\nevery man Is expected to engage regularly in some one out-of-door sport\nwhich he enjoys for its own sake. In the American university the athletic\nlife and development are given over altogether too much to the teams\nwhich too largely merely represent all the other students. There is, in\nfact, too little sport for its own sake, and too much which finds its\nincentive in intense and sometimes bitter competition. The athletic\nlife is too largely transferred to a very few whose training takes the place\nof that of the great mass of students. The result is that some get too\nmuch physical exercise and the large majority far too little.\nA resident physician, if he is the right sort of a person, can\naccomplish much, by advice and helpful personal instruction and information, to induce students to take scientific training and out-of-door\nexercise, and to form such hygienic habits as will produce such normal\nand vigorous physical conditions as are necessary for the best moraleffectiveness. There is much that might be said about the production of\ngood morals growing out of a genuine love of athletic games, and also\nfrom a spirit of fair play and good sportsmanship. There is, in fact, a\nmuch closer relation between character and good sport than is always\nrecognized.\nOn the whole, students will do what is right, fair, and honorable, if\nthey clearly see a matter in all its ethical bearing. It is also true, with\nall that is said about the necessity of maintaining one's honor at the\nGerman university, that ideals of character and high thinking are on a\nbetter plane among American students than they are at older schools on\nthe continent. Still, it is important that there should be more concrete\nand rational instruction in regard to good morals in our American\nuniversities, especially as one considers the necessity of a higher ethical\nlife in the political, social, and business affairs of the nation.\nWhat has been said about good morals might be repeated in regard to\ngood manners. The spirit of manliness which one finds in and about the\nAmerican college goes a long way in producing gentlemen, and what the\nuniversity should send out is manly men and not snobs.\nWithout being told, the alert student will acquire much information\nin regard to the forms of good society; but when all this has been said,\nit is true that many men pass out from our universities so ignorant in\nregard to some of the conventionalities of life that they are at a disadvantage from the moment they are forced to seek a position, or their unwholesome example bears its fruit in those whom they are influencing by\nmeans of some one or other of the positions in which they find themselves. When a man holding a degree from the board of trustees and\nfaculty of a Massachusetts college, wheals a graduate student of a distinguished university, a man of rare ability and uprightness of character,\ndoes not even answer an invitation to dine in a cultivated home to meet\ndistinguished guests, because he thinks that if he stays away it will not\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "53°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nmake any difference with the person who is seeking to extend a courtesy\nto him, it may be said that it is because of a lack of sense of propriety;\nbut it is also because he does not know any better, when he ought to\nknow better. Whatever the cause, his action, justly or unjustly, reflects\nupon his home, upon his college, and upon his university. The close\nrelation between boorishness and commonness in moral conception is very\nmarked, and students are often held to higher ethical standards by a\nsense of what is good form in polite society. The reverse is also in\nlarger measure true — that fineness in morals brings fineness in manners.\nThe capacity and purpose of doing and saying the kindest thing in the\nkindest way is the essence of good manners, and this is as much a matter\nof good conduct as it is of good manners.\nAfter all has been said and done, the good m6rals and good manners which do or do not pervade the life of an institution of higher\neducation will depend more than all else upon the morals and manners\nof the corps of instructors. The teacher must first of all be a cultivated\ngentleman, and a boor should have no place upon the faculty of an\ninstitution of liberal education. The quiet air of refinement, the spirit\nof a cultured mind and heart, the dignity in word and bearing of the\nscholar, are bound to produce men of moral force and refinement in\nmanners.\nNothing, however, in university, college, or polite society can take the\nplace of the good breeding that comes from a cultured home where\nhabits of speech, thoughtfulness toward others, the giving of dignity to\nthe daily ordering of a household, fairness and justice in mental attitudes\ntoward others, are the bread which feeds a human soul during all the\nmost impressive months and years, and which if a man eat thereof its\ninfluence abides forever. When this has been said, it still holds true that\nvery many students come from homes and an environment where such\ninfluences do not exist. Many have lived in an atmosphere where selfish\nself-assertiveness has dominated, rather than the moral self-assertiveness\nwhich at heart is altruistic rather than egoistic.\nWhat is the university bringing to pass in the character of such young\npeople ? The number of graduates of colleges and universities who lose\npositions, which .they are seeking, and which in some respects they are\nable to fill, because they do not know how to write a letter or answer in\ngood form a polite note, is much larger than these same young people\nrealize. Modern instruction in English has nearly forced the adverb\nout from between the parts of the infinitive. It would be a good thing\nfor the university, as well as for the student himself, if it would teach its\npupils how to write a letter characterized by courtesy and good form,\nunless it is true that the art of gracious letter-writing has gone forever\nwith the incoming of the type-writer, and other indications of the\nmechanical and mercantile age in which we are now living.\nIt is\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STL/DENTS\n\n531\n\ncertainly not altogether out of place to ask whether our departments of\nEnglish have done their full duty when even western college presidents\nreceive daily letters from the graduates of distinguished eastern universities which instantly condemn their applications to fill important positions,\neven if there were no other reason for allowing them to remain in their\nOrient.\nIV\nRIGHT\n\nREV.\n\nTHOMAS\n\nF.\n\nGAILOR,\n\nBISHOP\n\nOF\n\nTENNESSEE,\n\nMEMPHIS,\n\nTENN.\n\nLadies and Gentlemen of the National Educational Association :\nI cannot but be embarrassed by the breadth and richness of the subject upon which we are asked to speak this morning; and what, in all\nmodesty, I shall venture to say will be based rather upon my experience\nas a teacher than upon the conclusions which I might have reached by\nan abstract, philosophical study of the theories of education. In the\nabstract, for example, the university may be held to imply such a maturity\nand fixedness of intellectual and moral character in its students as would\npreclude the necessity and even propriety of special discipline. In its\nlarge and ideal sense a university would mean an association of educated\nmen and women, who have come together for the purpose of reporting,\ncomparing, and criticising the results of learning and of prosecuting\nresearch into the hidden fields of knowledge. Assuming such a definition of a university, our subject, of course, would have to receive a very\ndifferent treatment from that which existing conditions make possible\nand even necessary.\nFor, practically and concretely, a university means to us a college for\nundergraduate students, surrounded by, and in connection with, postgraduate and professional schools ; a place, in other words, where youths\nof undeveloped character are associated with matured men of ripe experience, feeling the influence, receiving the impressions, and conducting the\naffairs of an educational institution.\nI shall make no comment here upon the wisdom or desirability of\nsuch conditions ; but, assuming that they exist, I shall gladly say a word\nin answer to the question whether the university shall concern itself more\ndirectly with the morals and manners of its students.\nThe latter half of the subject proposed — viz., the expediency of a\ncollege or university having a medical adviser for the students — will be\nincluded in the answer to the first half. Only I may say in passing that\nI do not see why the. question should not have included a religious chaplain as well as a medical adviser, unless we are to assume that the care of\nthe body covers the whole sphere of njorals.\nI believe, then, that the university should concern itself directly, and\neven more directly than is commonly the case, with the manners and\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n•\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nmorals of its students; for these reasons: first, because the relation of\nthe university to the state is essential and of primary importance — the\nstate in a large sense depends upon the university ; and, secondly, because\nthe purpose and end of education are not merely the acquisition of the\nresults and habits of scholarship, but the formation and discipline of\ncharacter.\nVon Humboldt said wisely: \"Whatever we wish to see introduced\ninto the life of the nation must be first introduced into the schools;\"\nand this is true a fortiori oi the universities, because the universities set\nthe ideals for the schools. I believe that it is^but waste labor to try to\ninfluence humanity from below; and I also believe that the reason why\nNew England is the center of educational enthusiasm in this country is\nnot because its common schools and its private schools are so numerous\nand well organized, but chiefly because its universities and colleges have\nbelieved in an ideal and have wrought unselfishly for the realization of\nan ideal, which has caught at last and holds the imagination and ambition of the masses of the people. This is a truth which ought to be\nemphasized. It contains a lesson for those philanthropists who are\nattempting to uplift the uneducated classes of the country by beginning with the public schools. Our universities, after all, are our truest\nand surest nurseries of good citizenship; and good citizenship, in its\nlargest sense, implies complete and rounded manhood. So much the\nmore reason, then, for saying that a university which does not concern\nitself directly and systematically with the morals and manners of its students fails to appreciate or to discharge its duty to 'the country. What\nour government needs, to secure its stability and permanence for future\ngenerations, is not so much scholars as men ; and we have a right to\nexpect the ideal of that manhood to be illustrated, exemplified first of all\nin the lives of those who go forth from the universities.\nFurthermore, in order that this identification of citizenship with manhood, which was Plato's splendid contribution to the science of education, may not foster the mere individualism which proved disastrous to\nancient Greek ideals, we must make the freedom and responsibility of\nAmerican citizenship the preparation for that super-civic and cosmopolitan ministry of service which the Divine Teacher showed and history has\ndemonstrated to be the only safeguard of the individual life and the true\nfoundation of patriotism.\nA university, then, is not only a depository of learning, but a training\nplace for the highest citizenship ; i. e., for complete manhood; and that\ntraining necessarily includes morals. When we come to consider more\nspecifically what that moral development includes, I should say that the\nthree virtues of honesty, purity, and reverence are the virtues that need\nmost to be cultivated ; because they are foundations of character, and\nbecause they are not altogether encouraged by the conditions of modern life.\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\nUnder \"honesty\" I would include truthfulness and the love\n— genuineness, sincerity — and that quality we call honor, which\nthe profit that comes from sharp practice and deceit, and which\ntake unfair advantage, nor cheat, nor steal, nor gamble; which\nwith Brutus\n\n533\n\nof truth\ndespises\nwill not\nwill say\n\nI had rather coin my heart,\nAnd drop my blood for drachmas, than to wring\nFrom the hard hands of peasants their vile trash\nBy any indirection.\n\nIn our time, when gambling has become the strenuous occupation of so\nmany leading citizens ; when baseball and football matches, and the\namusements of ladies' drawing-rooms, are the daily opportunties for the\ngamester, this kind of honor is imperiled; and yet its preservation is the\nonly sure defense of government. Nay more : business methods are condoned, if not respected, in our high places, which the subtlest casuistry\ncan distinguish only by a hair line from plain dishonesty — a dishonesty\nwhich is breeding wrong and cruelty, and would protect itself by corrupting both legislation and religion. The cultivation of a fine and delicate\nsense of honor among all our leaders in the commercial world would\ngreatly help to solve and settle the social and political problems of the\nday. And this is the quality for which above all others our university\nmen have been supposed to stand, and, I believe, do stand. But have\nthe universities themselves fully realized the responsibility? To be sure,\nno university would knowingly encourage or tolerate the sin of dishonesty\nor the vice of gambling among its students; but I do not think that we\nhave done all we ought to do to make these things infamous.\nThe second virtue we need to emphasize is personal purity. I have\nbeen told by experienced educators, and that quite recently, that they have\nfound an alarming and unaccountable increase of indifference to the\nvirtue of personal purity among boys and young men at school and college. Ido not know about this. My own experience is against any such\nconclusion. And yet there are signs of the times that startle us, when we\nstudy them. There is a growing disregard of the marriage relation and\nof the integrity of the family life in some sections of the country that is\nno less than appalling. There are sins, nay crimes, of the very meaning\nof which the boys of our day were ignorant, which are said to be of more\nand more common occurrence, and that among the upper classes of society.\nMay God save us from the evils of an overdone civilization, where wealth\nbreeds luxury, and luxury begets vice, and the revival of the old gospel of\nlubricity corrupts and destroys society, as it did that of the Greeks and\nRomans ! Certainly the universities would do well to concern themselves\nmore directly with the suppression of these sins, which endanger the very\nsafety of the republic.\nFinally we must cultivate reverence in the students of our universities.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThis means respect for others, respect for institutions, respect for themselves. It means civilization and good manners. It means courtesy,\ngentleness, serious-mindedness. It means the dignity of life and the\nthought of God. The only commandment in the decalogue given with\npromise is the command to reverence ; and it is given to secure the dignity\nand honor of the family — of that institution which we Americans are in\ndanger of dishonoring today, but upon the sacredness and integrity of\nwhich depends the future of our country.\nThese three virtues, then, upon which I might speak at greater length\nif time permitted, constitute, it seems to me, the more essential elements\nin that moral education for which the universities and colleges must be\nheld especially responsible. Without them all our learning and exact\nscholarship are wasted time. We must have men, and not monks; and\nthere is many a monk who would scorn the confinement of an ecclesiastical cloister, but who has smothered his life in a class-room, or a library,\nor a laboratory, and has imagined himself wise above his fellows. For —\nMen have oft grown old among their books,\nTo die, case-hardened in their ignorance.\n\nIn order to make 7nen our universities will be obliged to consider moral\ntraining and moral discipline as of first importance.\nBut what are the methods and devices by which such moral training\nmay be consistently and successfully conducted ? Have the doctrines of\nexpediency and the warnings of a paid physician ever rescued young men\nfrom the hell of unrestricted self-indulgence ? Did policy ever make\nmen honest, and did Aristotle's exhortations to wisdom ever redeem men\nfrom sin ? Was there ever on earth but one true and adequate inspiration\nto goodness of life and thought ? Was there ever but one sufificient pledge\nand promise of help and strength to the soul that is fighting for its life ?\nI know only one. There is no other. I know One who said : \" He that\nabideth in me and I in him, the same bringeth forth much fruit : for\nwithout me ye can do nothing.\" And the history of mankind, for nineteen centuries is a demonstration of that truth. Interpreting this saying\nof Jesus, it was a Christian apostle who said : \" Add to your faith virtue\nand to virtue, knowledge.\" That solves all problems. The finest moral\nlife is built up on faith in God ; and true culture is founded on the moral\nlife. The surest way to enlighten men is to make them better.\nBut if the Christian gospel is the only sufficient basis and inspiration\nof moral training, how are the universities to inculcate it ? By compulsory\nchapel ? Well, such discipline is reasonable and right for boys ; but I do\nnot believe in compelling men to pretend to pray. And the modern system of calling chapel attendance compulsory, and then of excusing men\nfrom chapel as a privilege granted to upper classes, does about as much\nharm as good.\nThe best results of all education are due to contact with personalities\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF\n\nSTUDENTS\n\n535\n\nand the influence of environment, rather than to the observance of any\nroutine duty.\nIt does seem that our present system of education in America is imperfectly organized. We need intermediate institutions between the grammar school and the university ; and it would be better if the university\nwould limit itself to M.A. and post-graduate work. It is confusing and\nembarrassing, especially in dealing with the moral aspects of education,\nto have boys fresh from a grammar school associated with older men in\nthe life of a great center of learning. Even the English system, which\nprolongs the grammar-school course and is supposed to keep the firstyear university men under a strict tutelage, does not solve the problem\nand is not possible in this country.\nIf the universities would absolutely exclude all under-graduates — i. e.,\nall students who are candidates for bachelor's degrees — and encourage th£\norganization and work of small colleges, where students from fifteen to\neighteen years of age could be kept under stricter discipline and more\nthoro moral and spiritual direction, our problem would be greatly simplified. The German system strikes me as far ahead of ours, and some day\nwe may adopt its salient features. For my part I believe in the work of\nthe smaller colleges, so called; and my hope is that their number may\nincrease and not diminish.\nMeanwhile I believe that the presidents and faculties of our universities\nshould address themselves with renewed earnestness to the task of creating\nand encouraging a deep and serious sense of the value and importance of\nreligion in the minds and hearts of their students ; for true religion is the\nfoundation and safeguard of true morality. The interest of the ablest\n.preachers in the country should be enlisted in the cause, and students\nshould be obliged to hear them. The work of societies like the Young\nMen's Christian Association and the Brotherhood of St. Andrew should\nbe fostered and helped on by the university authorities. Professors should\nenter the athletic associations, and encourage an enthusiasm for clean and\nhonest and manly sport, which is always a discipline in morals. The\nconsideration of a man's moral stature, as well as of his intellectual ability,\nought to enter into the determination of his fitness for the place of tutor\nor professor. And above all else it should be made plain that a university\nis not a theater for the exploitation of eccentricities and paradoxes and\nirreverencies; \"but a sacred place, where the holiest memories of the great\npast consecrate all present purpose and thought and work, with confidence\nin the greater future for ourselves and for our country. Therefore the\nmoral and spiritual power of an institution of learning will go forth from\nits teachers. Surer than that of any system or method is the influence of\na noble soul. .Beyond all devices of ri^Jes and regulations for the discipline of character is the living contact and loving service of men who\nrealize their high responsibility as teachers in the fear of God.\nThey\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\ncreate the environment. They represent and exemplify the ideals. They\nset the standard of manhood. And for them is the promise which the\nHebrew prophet wrote: \"They that be teachers shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to righteousness as the\nstars, for ever and ever.\"\nDISCUSSION\nPresident James H. Baker of the University of Colorado said that the aim in\neducation must be, not individual, but social. We must urge education, not because of\nthe personal advantage, but because of the increased power of the scholar to aid the state\nand society. Culture for culture's sake, unless it is given some kind of useful expression,\nmeans nothing for the individual nor for society. Culture aiming at service becomes the\nally and leader of democracy, and thereby atiams its own highest realization.\nProfessor William Aber, of the University of Montana, said that at the twentyfifth anniversary of his college class he found that some men who had been triflers in\ncollege had accomplished the greatest things in the world. The explanation was that they\nwere men of marked individuality and strength who had no respect for requirements as\nrequirements, but only for things which seemed to them to have value. He would take\nexception, therefore, with President Harris as to the hopelessness of idlers, and would\ninsist that colleges and universities strive to present opportunities which would appeal to\nstrong men.\nPresident Swain of Swarthmore College said that, in his opinion, they had\nlistened this morning to one of the most inspiring set of papers to which the department\nhad had the pleasure of listening for several years. He was impressed by the unity of\nsentiment shown by men speaking on the subject from different standpoints. He noticed\nthat they had not suggested devices by which the best young men or women could be\nmade, but had laid emphasis on character and had insisted that we must begin first with\nthe faculty, seeking not only scholars, but men and women with such characters as we\nwish our students to have. He believed that we must strive further to secure the right\npublic spirit in the student body, and that this could not be done by a parental system, but\nmust be developed in liberty. He believed that coeducation gave an atmosphere of refinement which could be secured in no other way. The morals and manners of the student\nare to be improved, not by rules and regulations, but by the influence of the instructor\nand by making use of some particular student in a quiet way to help the man whom we\nare seeking to influence. He had found it a desirable plan, when something had been\ndone which ought not to have been done, to call the students together and ask suggestions from the students themselves as to how the problem should be solved. He had\nnever failed to meet response in such a case.\nProfessor G. M. P. King, of the Virginia Union University, Richmond, Va., said\nthat we could not give to our pupils what we have not in possession ourselves, and that\nthe only way in which the teacher could meet the heavy responsibilities that confronted\nhim was by the aid of divine inspiration.\nPresident George C. Chase of Bates College expressed his gratification that the\nsubject of the morning had been presented under its Christian aspects. All our morals\nmust have their inspiration from a true Christianity. Many of our doubts and troubles in\nmorals have resulted from our obscuring this truth to ourselves. Our earlier colleges were\nfounded as Christian institutions. Thru the growth of the spirit of tolerance and catholicity we have come to put too little emphasis on Christianity. He failed to see why institutions should not announce themselves as Christian institutions, and why the student\nshould not be made to feel their Christian influence and impress thruout his course.\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMORALS\n\nAND\n\nMANNERS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n537\n\nRepresenting the first college on the Atlantic seaboard that made a liberal education\npossible to women on the same platform with men, he wished to say that coeducation had\ntriumphed and shown its power to make more manly men and more womanly women.\nPresident G. Stanley Hall argued that modification of the current mode of\nteaching ethics was needed ; that the ethics which rests solely on theological tenets or on\nmetaphysics has not much moral effect. He agreed with Aristotle that ethics begins with\nbody-keeping, and we should give first instruction as to bodily regimen. The Bible is the\ngreatest text-book of psychology as well as of ethics. It pictures the development of the\nhuman soul. We must recognize the fact that the child repeats the history of the race, and\nthat even Mohammedanism and Confucianism can teach important truths to children at\ncertain ages. We must conserve the good in the ethnic religions and must broaden our\ntraining especially for men who are to engage in the foreign missionary work. It does\nnot work in the interests of morality when in our college courses in philosophy we infect\na man with a sense of the unreality of the world, leaving the man to doubt ; a man's soul\nthus becomes seared ; what a man believes is important, not what he does. He would\nplead, therefore, for a philosophy which is positive, and which teaches faith, not doubt.\nCharles C. Ramsey, of Boston, said that he had been disappointed in observing\nthe influence exerted by college men in their respective communities. He had known\ncollege clubs to put themselves on the wrong side of public questions, or to be utterly indifferent to such matters ; and there was evidently some connection between these facts and\nthe training received in college. He thought that the college was infected with the too\nprevalent worship of cleverness and success, as the world measures success. We should\nrevive the idea that there is such a thing as worldliness, and that there is such a thing as\nspiritual life.\nJohn Lee Brooks, of Columbia University, said that the time had come to differentiate sharply the university from the college, and that thus and only thus would each institution be able to adapt its moral training to the needs of its students. It was important\nthat the university should be permeated thruout with the deepest religious and moral\nspirit. At Columbia University, while the library was well stocked in other departments,\nfew modern works on theology were to be found, and few courses were given along these\nlines. It was true, however, that the university had entered into certain relations of affiliation with various theological schools. At the university itself they were trying to meet\nthe religious need by the Y. M. C. A. work which centered in Earl Hall, and in the social\nsettlement work conducted in connection with the Speyer School. He was convinced that\nthe best way to cultivate the religious spirit was by giving it an outlet in social service.\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 7, 1903\n\nThe sessions of the Department of Normal Schools were opened at 9 : 30 A. M. in\nArlington Street Church, Livingston C. Lord, president of the Eastern Illinois Normal\nSchool, Charleston, 111., in the chair.\nThe first paper, \"The City Normal School of the Future,\" was presented by Francis\nBurke Brandt, professor of pedagogy in the Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nThe paper was discussed by Superintendent C. F. Carroll, Worcester, Mass.\nThe second paper, \" Does the Teacher's Knowledge of a Subject Differ from the\nScholar's Knowledge,\" by W. W. Parsons, president of the State Normal School, Terre\nHaute, Ind., was read by John W. Cook, president of the Northern Illinois Normal school,\nDe Kalb, III. A second paper on the same subject was presented by David Eugene Smith,\nprofesssor of mathematics. Teachers College, New York city.\nThe subject was discussed by Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.;\nPresident John M. Cook, De Kalb, 111.; Frank McMurry, of the Teachers College of\nColumbia University, New York city; Francis J. Cheney, president of the State Normal\nSchool, Cortland, N. Y.; Charles A. McMurry, De Kalb, 111.; Professor Henry Johnson,\nCharleston, 111.; and Professor Grant Karr, Oswego, N. Y.\nThe chair appointed President Z. R. Snyder, of Colorado, President C. H. Cooper,\nof Minnesota, and John Hall, of New York, as a committee on nomination of officers for\nthe department.\nThe session then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 8\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 : 30 A. M. in Arlington Street Church, President\nLord in the chair.\nThe first paper, \" Conditions for Admisson to Normal Schools,\" was presented by\nWalter P. Beckwith, principal of the State Normal School, Salem, Mass.\nA second paper on the same subject was read by R. H. Halsey, president of the State\nNormal School, Oshkosh, Wis,\nThe papers were discussed by C. T. McFarlane, principal of the State Normal\nSchool, Brockport, N. Y., Superintendent E. L. Hendricks, Delphi, Ind., and Albert\nSalisbury, president of the State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.\nThe next subject, \" The Academic Side of Normal-School Work,\" was presented in\na paper by Henry Johnson, teacher of history in the Eastern Illinois Normal School,\nCharleston, 111.\nThe next paper, \"To What Extent and in What Manner Can the Normal School\nIncrease its Scholarship : (a) Without Diminishing its Output ; {d) Without Increasing its\nCost Too Greatly; (c) Without Infringing upon the Legitimate Liberal Arts Course of\nthe College ? \" was presented by James M. Green, principal of the State Normal School,\nTrenton, N. J.\nThe paper was discussed by Henry G. Williams, dean of the State Normal College,\nOhio University, Athens, Ohio ; Charles DeGarmo, professor of the science and art of\n539\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\neducation, Cornell University; L. D. Bonebrake, state school commissioner of Ohio;\nJohn R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.; W. S. Dearmont,\npresident of the State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo.; E. B. Craighead, president\nof the State Normal School, Warrensbury, Mo.; E. Oram Lyte, principal of the State\nNormal School, Millersville, Pa.; and Principal James M. Green.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President — L. H. Jones, president of the State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich,\nFor Vice-President — Grant Karr, superintendent of Training School, State Normal School, Oswego,\nN. Y.\nFor Secretary — Mrs. Grace Sproull, professor of English, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\n\nThe persons nominated were unanimously elected officers of the department for the\nensuing year.\nThe department then adjourned.\nEdgar L. Hewett, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nFRANCIS\n\nCITY\nBURKE\n\nAND\n\nNORMAL\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\nBRANDT, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY,\nCENTRAL HIGH SCHQOL, PHILADELPHIA\n\nThe time has come, I believe, when the eyes of American educators\nshould be directed to the city normal school and its future development.\nIf any justification were needed for emphasizing the importance of city\nnormal schools, it could be found, I think, in the extensive service which\nthese schools render in the leading twenty cities of the United States\nalone. Beginning with New York, with its more than three million\npeople, and ending with Providence, with its 175,000, we have a circle of\ntwenty American cities — including Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis,\nBoston, Baltimore, Cleveland, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, New Orleans, Detroit, Milwaukee, Washington, Newark, Jersey\nCity, Louisville, and Minneapolis — embracing altogether a populution\nof 11,971,000 persons. Upon the normal schools of these twenty cities\nalone, therefore, is imposed the responsibility of providing for the educational needs, so far as elementary teachers are concerned, of nearly\none-sixth of the whole population of the United States. What concerns\nthe future of these cities concerns the future of the nation.\nI wish to observe at the outset that the city normal school of the\nfuture will be more thoroly alive to the educational situation in American life which it is called upon to meet. The state of public education\nin our large American cities might well be made a matter of national\nconcern. National indifference to public education, state evasion of\nresponsibility, and municipal mismanagement have combined to bring to\npass an educational situation which is not altogether creditable to the\nAmerican nation.\nThe public schools are not reaching the people as\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n54 ^\n\nthey should. I have compiled a table for the twenty most populous cities\nalready mentioned, showing the school-census age, the number of children of school-census age, and the number of pupils enrolled in schools\npublic and private. Excluding six cities whose returns are either incomplete or exceptional, of the 2,679,697 children of school-census age in\nthe remaining fourteen cities but 1,925,329 are enrolled in schools public\nand private. Making all allowance for divergences, the figures make it\nseem highly probable that in the foremost twenty cities of the United\nStates fully one million boys and girls are being robbed of the right of\nchildhood and are growing up. outside the influence of the school at an\nage when only the school can give them the training and experiences\nwhich will safely fit them for a life of effective social service and make\npossible for them the highest degree of personal development.\nBut this is the least part of it. The aborted character of the American public school is more particularly revealed by the statistics which\nshow the comparative enrollment in the different parts of the system.\nOf the 15,710,394 pupils registered in the whole public-school system\nof the United States in 1901, there were enrolled in elementary schools\n15,061,721, as against 558,740 in institutions of high-school grade, and\n89,933 only in all phases of higher education. Startling as are these\nfigures for the country at large, they are no less startling for the chief\ncities of the country. New York, with its population of 3,437,000 souls,\nhas 16,548 students in public high schools; Philadelphia, a city of\n1,293,000 persons, has altogether 5,195 pupils in its higher schools; and\nyet New York has 543,370 pupils in elementary schools, and Philadelphia\nhas 182,638. And the same figures hold relatively for the foremost\ntwenty cities of the country. A great city like Pittsburg, with a population of over 300,000, can boast of 711 pupils in its high school; and\nNew Orleans, with nearly an equal population, has few more — 991.\nThere is something fundamentally wrong, either in our American life\nor in our American school system, when it is possible to find in the\ntwenty leading cities of the country 1,734,664 pupils enrolled in elementary schools, and in the high schools of the same cities a grand total of\n71,902 persons, boys and girls. The great mass of the American people\nare not sharing even in that degree of higher education which is represented by the American high school. The vast majority of American\nboys and girls are either being clogged somewhere in the school system\nor are going out into life at fourteen years of age to become petrified\npersonalities. Undoubtedly this situation is the outcome of complex\nsocial conditions — imperfect family life, inherent inability in the individual, defective industrial conditions, \\^4ithheld religious sanctions, and\nignorant and venial political administration; but so far as it arises from\nthe imperfect character of our teachers and their training, the normal\nschool of the future must recognize this and remedy it.\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nED UCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[Normal\n\nLet me say first, then, that the city normal school of the future will\ntake advantage of its opportunities to organize itself into a teachers' college. What are these opportunities? In the twenty most populous\ncities of the United States there is a high-school course four years in\nlength. In all of these cities graduation from the high school is' a condition of admission to the training course for teachers. In most, if not\nall, of these same cities the training course for teachers lasts two years.\nThe chosen or imposed work of these training schools or departments is\nprimarily the preparation of teachers for the local elementary schools.\nThe problem for these schools, therefore^ is not complicated as it frequently isfor the state normal schools. There is no attempt, as there\nshould not be, to train teachers for secondary schools; there is no need,\nas there should not be, to do academic work of high-school grade. The\ncity normal school thus in the first reception of its students has an\nadvantage equal with that of the best colleges. The same courses that\nprepare for admission to college prepare for admission to the city normal\nschool. In New York city, for example, the examinations conducted by\nthe College Entrance Examination Board have been adopted as the test\nof proficiency for graduating from the New York high schools. Most\nimportant in this connection, however, for the future development of the\ncity normal school is the general recognition that the best high schools of\nthe country with four-year courses overlap the college course by fully a\nyear. In New York city, the City College, which takes its pupils directly\nfrom the grammar schools, has a three-year high-school course preparatory to its collegiate years. In Philadelphia, students from the manualtraining high schools, with three-year courses only, are admitted directly\ninto the collegiate department of certain universities. In a number of\nwestern and other cities either students are leaving the high school at the\nend of the third year to enter the freshman class of a college, or after\ntaking a four-year course are admitted to advanced standing in the college. The wide election of advanced subjects offered in the fourth year\nof our leading city high schools is added indication that instruction of\ncollegiate grade has fully begun in the last year of the American high\nschool with a four-year course. When the adjustment which is now\ngoing on between the high school and the college, and the high school\nand the elementary school, is made complete, students who go to college\nfrom high schools will go at the end of the third year ; consequently,\nthose students who enter upon the work of the normal school will and\nshould begin this work one year earlier. The possible consequences of\nsuch adjustment must be obvious. Without adding a single year to the\npresent normal-school course, the city normal school of the future will\nhave at its disposal three years and students fitted to carry on a collegiate grade of work.\nIn the next place, the city normal school of the future in becoming a\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n543\n\nteachers' college will lay greater emphasis on purely scholastic courses,\nand will devote itself more to the liberal culture and perfection of the\nscholarship of its students. When the demand is made that the course\nof study in a normal school shall be strictly professional in character, we\nshall be enlightened enough to recognize that the mastering of a subject\nis as fit a professional occupation as any in which an intending teacher\ncould find himself. Scholastic courses are as truly professional courses\nfor the intending teacher as courses in psychology, methods, or even\npractice-teaching. There is a big difference in normal schools which\nattempt scholastic work to make up the deficiencies in scholarship represented bythe actual lack of a high-school education, and those which\nattempt scholastic work on the basis of a high-school training, with a\nview to extending and deepening the scholarship of the student. And\nby this latter scholastic training I mean something different from that\nadvanced scholastic work which many normal schools attempt in the form\nof a review of the elementary branches in the light of more advanced\nstudies. I agree with Dr. Harris that experience shows this kind of work\nto be of great value, but I entirely disagree with him so far as he implies\nthat advanced studies may be dispensed with rather than this work be\ndisplaced. It is worse than useless, however, to discuss the relative value\nof two absolutely necessary and possible things. I would not exclude a\nproportionate amount of scholastic review work from the professional\ntraining of teachers ; but just as no work that is done in the secondary\nschool — that is to say, in the high school or academy — is an equivalent\nfor the normal-school work done in the same studies, as Dr. Harris himself declares, so no academic work done in the normal schools in the\nshape of a review of elementary branches is an equivalent of the enriching\nand enlarging training of advanced scholastic courses collegiate in scope,\nspirit, and method. \"The higher the standard of preparation in the\npupils who enter the normal school,\" says Dr. Harris, \"the more profitable is this work of reviewing the lower branches in the light of the\nhigher, and thus studying them constructively.\" The standard of preparation necessary to take up the normal review work will never be high\nenough until it is as high as that represented by a liberal or collegiate\ntraining. The city normal school of the future will give up the plan of\nconducting all its lessons with special attention to method. It will curtail considerably the work of methods as it is carried on today, and will\nmake room for three years of scholastic training of collegiate grade with\nan easy conscience as to such work being \"strictly professional.\" If it is\nasked here, \" Wherein, then, would a teachers' college differ from any\nother college?\" I answer: Chiefly in the scope, content, and special\naim of its curriculum.\nFurther, with the possibility of its development into a teachers' college realized, the city normal school of the future will give up its policy\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nof preparing its graduates all on the same pattern, and especially with\nreference only to the earlier years of the elementary school. Even when\nthe normal school confines its work to the training of teachers below the\nhigh school, it must recognize the real differentiations which exist in elementary education. The kindergarten, the elementary school, the high\nschool, the college, and the university have come to be recognized as five\nfundamental differentiations of the school system, each with a scope and\nmethod peculiarly its own. But it is obvious, from the discussions and the\nadjustments which are going on in American education today, that the precise line of demarkation between these several divisions has not been made\nout. Particularly is this true in elementary education. The distinction\nbetween the primary school and the grammar school is a marked and a\nreal one, and to many it is unfortunate that the grammar schools should\nbe classed with elementary rather than with secondary education. At any\nrate, it is not creditable to our intelligence or our management that we\nfurnish, on the one hand, a special training for kindergartners and, on\nthe other, a special training for high-school instructors, each covering\nfour years or less of service, and yet expect one and the same training to\nequip teachers adequately for the eight years of the elementary schools.\nThe weakest spot in the public schools today is the grammar school, and\nthe reason is not far to seek. For years we have turned into the elementary schools teachers of meager scholarship equipped chiefly with\nmethods applicable for teaching only the youngest children. The chief\nqualification for advancement to the upper grammar grades has been long\nyears of \"experience.\" This will be changed. The normal school of the\nfuture, recognizing that the teacher as an artist is an artist in some one\nphase of the school system, will provide opportunity in the training course\nfor some degree of specialization in the practical part of schoolroom work ;\nwhich means that it will differentiate the practical training of the kindergartner, the primary-school teacher, and the grammar master. The whole\nmatter of management and methods it will relegate to a fourth year,\nwhich will be much the same as the year of hospital practice of the medical student. But the chief weakness in our grammar schools today comes\nnot so much from lack of knowledge of special methods as from lack of\nspe-cial scholarship and the spirit of inspiration that goes with it. We are\nexacting too much from prospective grammar-school teachers when we\nattempt to fit them to teach mathematics, natural science, language and\nliterature, history, and all the various forms of school arts. The normal\nschools today are giving a two-years' training in omniscience. The normal school of the future will give up its plan of preparing all its graduates\nto give instruction in all the studies included in the course of the elementary schools. It will prefer its teachers to go forth with Socratic wisdom,\nand even those teachers who must administer the whole of the course\nof study in primary grades will be allowed to specialize in some one or two\nsubjects of the curriculum.\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCITY\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nFUTURE\n\n545\n\nFinally and briefly, the city normal school of the future will train more\nmen teachers. In the normal course of the twenty most populous cities\nof the United States I count 256 young men training to be teachers, as\nagainst 3,453 women. In the whole public-school systems of these cities\nthere are 37,468 teachers, and of this number 34,912 are women. In a\nword, in the schopi systems ministering to the educational needs of nearly\n12,000,000 American people are found but 2,556 men! These are facts\nover which both educators and the American nation may well ponder.\nI have tried to indicate the educational situation which suggests that\nthe American school, as it exists today, is not fulfilling its full function in\nthe life of the American people; and I have pointed out what seems to\nme must take place in the development of the normal school of the\nfuture, if- that situation is to be properly met. The time has come when\nwe must see these problems in their relation to our larger national life.\nLiberty, we have come to learn, is in essence freedom, and freedom, we are\nslowly learning, means more than we have been wont to understand by it.\nAmerica today stands for more than political freedom, it stands for more\nthan religious freedom, it stands for more than social freedom, it stands\nfor more than industrial freedomj it stands above all for intellectual\nfreedom. Only with the intellectual emancipation of the individual will\nAmerican democracy be complete ; and intellectual emancipation can\nnever come with the training now\"possible for the immature minds of boys\nand girls. The democracy that sets adrift its boys and girls on the complex sea of modern life at thirteen and fourteen years of age with only an\nelementary school education cannot fulfill its mission. To the right of\nfree worship, the right of free suffrage, the right of free birth, and the\nright of free contract and combination, we must add the right of free\nculture, if we would have the whole meaning of freedom. This America\nwill some day secure for every one of its sons and daughters; and in that\nimportant work the city normal school of the future will have a large\npart.\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent C. F.Carroll, Rochester, N. Y.— Until within ten or fifteen\nyears, normal schools have differed very much in their plan of organization. At the present time most of the well-established normal schools present well-defined common characteristics. shall\n1\nrefer briefly to a number of these.\nGenerally thru New England and in some other states the applicant for admission to\na normal school is expected to present a high-school diploma or an equivalent. In addition, itis assumed that the applicant must have attained a reasonable scholarship standard. Graduation from a high school may not imply scholarship. A person may graduate\nupon a very low standard or may be several years in completing a high-school course.\nThis suggests that the recommendation of the^principal should go along with a\ndiploma. At least one normal-school principal of my acquaintance declines to admit a\nhigh -school graduate, even with a good scholarship rating, who does not present some\nevidence of general intelligence.\nTo put it more directly, this principal declines to admit\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\na person, either on a high-school diploma or on a successful scholarship examination, who\nis evidently crude and unacquainted with ordinary social and industrial relations.\nThe normal school of the future will be strictly professional. In the early stage of\nnormal-school development we frequently find a so-called academic or classical department in the normal school. Some of the New England normal schools still furnish a complete high-school training. This is no less than a high-school education at state expense.\nIn normal schools farther west the academic department completely overshadows the\nprofessional, and frequently there is but a fractional part of a school of several hundred\nactually taking the training course. The normal schools of Connecticut are all strictly\nprofessional, as is also the normal school at Worcester, Mass. Training schools everywhere are on the professional plan.\nAs a rule; the organization of normal schools now varies but little. There is usually\na force of expert teachers, competent to give instruction in the history of education,\npsychology, school administration, school management, and principles of teaching. As a\nrule, these teachers are strong and competent. There is an added force of expert\nteachers known as critics and teachers of methods. The work of teachers of both these\nclasses varies in detail, but it is assumed that in each case they are to furnish leadership\nbased upon their own larger information and experience. Just how much value should be\nattached to the history of education, to psychology, or to the theory of school administration and school management; just how much influence a so-called expert teacher shall\nhave in decreeing the method and suggesting the matter for the pupil-teacher, must be\ndecided by the traditions and present theories of each training school. It is certain that\nmuch has been attempted that has fallen short of its purpose, especially in theoretic work.\nExpert teachers or critics have sometimes overburdened the timid learner with suggestion\nand criticism. The selection of these teachers is by far the most important business of\nnormal-school authorities.\nThe model school and the school of practice have come to be regarded as of the very\nhighest importance. Oswego years ago illustrated the value of the school of practice.\nThe normal school at New Britain, Conn., was the first, so far as I know, to establish on\na large scale both the school of practice and the model school. The Teachers College of\nNew York city has perhaps the most complete equipment for both model-school and\ntraining-school work that can be found in this country.\nIt is important that there should be possible in every normal school a process of\nelimination. I do not mean by this merely a survival of the fittest. When it is clear to a\nfaculty that a person is unfitted to teach, or has not the natural qualifications to teach\nsuccessfully, such a person should not be carried along in the hope that she may finally\nattain mediocrity.\nFinally, normal-school work, like any other work, should be subject to intelligent\nand authoritative supervision. Whenever a school of any grade is successful in the best\nsense of the word, supervision in such a school is not a hindrance or a burden. Whenever\na normal school attains a degree of excellence that is marked and generally recognized,\nthe supervisor finds his duty a pleasant one, and the supervised enters heartily into any\nintelligent suggestion that is likely to be offered.\nBut normal schools, above all others, tend to be individual. To an extent, this\ntendency has its advantages, but certainly there are excellent features recognized as fundamental and essential in the training of teachers and in normal-school practice. There is\nno reason why the plea for individuality should go so far as to produce exclusiveness. No\nnormal school should be so self-satisfied as to fail to seek the best things from other\nschools of its class.\nI need not \"add that politics should have no place in the normal school. In so far as\na normal school resists or escapes supervision, there is evidence that politics or indifference affects unfavorably its condition.\nWhile the work of the training school varies somewhat from that of the normal\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment J TEA CHER 'S KNO W LEDGE\n\nvs. SCHOLA\n\nR 'S KNO W LEDGE\n\n547\n\nschool, yet there appears to be in the organization of training schools, as a class, an honest\nattempt to give to the learner the benefits of experience and skill. The supervision of\nthese schools has usually been reasonably thoro, and there has been active in them a spirit\nof competition in the best sense of the word. The normal school, on the other hand, has\noften been afflicted with localism that has prevented its being closely articulated with the\nschool system, and has also prevented it from anything resembling a close association\nwith other schools of its class. Both of these objects are of the highest consequence, and\nthe normal school of the future will break away from such limitations.\nTo summarize: The normal school of the future will represent scholarship, will be\nstrictly professional, will have in its force experts of great resources who will attempt only\na reasonable amount with the learner, and will lead the apprentice into the art of teaching both from the fullness of knowledge and from the fullness of training or experience.\nThere will be a model school and a school of practice in the normal school, the latter\nample enough to furnish a minimum amount of experience. No person will be graduated\nwho cannot be recommended with some confidence. The normal school will be under\nsupervision, and every normal school and every state will be expected to aim at some\ncommon excellencies. There will be no local visitor who will practically control any\ngiven normal school. The normal school will have in its service college men and women,\nand normal students will, in goodly numbers, also be college graduates. College graduates who are normal-school graduates will be in demand, and will receive far higher salaries than are at present paid to elementary teachers. Such teachers could command the\nfield today if they were obtainable. While the day is far distant when the normal-school\ngraduate will generally be a college graduate, yet this proposition implies but a logical\ncourse of events, and suggests that, at the earliest moment, we put a premium on the service and resources of the highly trained man or woman, both in teaching in the normal\nschool and in teaching children in every department of the elementary and secondary\nschools.\n\nDOES THE\nDIFFER\nPRESIDENT\n\nW.\n\nW.\n\nTEACHER'S\nFROM THE\nPARSONS,\n\nSTATE\n\nKNOWLEDGE OF A SUBJECT\nSCHOLAR'S KNOWLEDGE?\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTERRE\n\nHAUTE,\n\nIND.\n\nWhat constitutes a teacher's knowledge of a subject of instruction ?\nIs there some peculiar view of the subject that may be termed the\nteacher's knowledge ? If so, what principles belonging to the subject\ninherently, or what relations of these, come distinctively within the teacher's\nview ?\nHere are two students pursuing the subject of physiology. One is in\nthe college, with no decision as to his life-vocation, devoted only to the\ngeneral cultivation of his powers ; the other, having resolved to enter the\nraedjcal profession, is studying physiology in a medical school. Are the\nfields of study in these two cases identical ?\nIn the first case, the subject is studied simply as a means of selfculture ; in the second, that the knowledge acquired may be turned to\naccount in a field of practical activity. The medical student investigates\nevery fact brought to his notice in the light of a great ruling thought. He\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nconsiders it in relation to the art to which he is preparing to devote his\nlife- energies. Chemistry, botany, even psychology, he would consider at\nevery step in their bearing upon the intelligent practice of his chosen\nprofession. It is not enough to say that he must acquire a more extended\nand exhaustive knowledge of these subjects than the general student, that\nthis alone constitutes a physician's mastery of them. That he has need\nof this more thoro and detailed acquaintance with the subjects will be\nadmitted, but has not the medical student enlarged the field of investigation byadding a vital relation of the physiological facts ? The physician\nstudies the eye, the heart, the stomach, the lungs, not simply in general,\nbut ever in the thought that they are liable to derangement and thus to\nbecome subjects of his healing art. Further, is it not clear that the\ngeneral student of physiology, who pursues the subject in the general\nschool and for general ends of self-education only, would require a thoro\nrestudy-of the whole field of subject-matter, and need to consider it most\ncarefully in this new relation before engaging in the delicate and responsible work of ministering to disease ?\nNow, there is no contention that the academic knowledge of physiology\nis useless, nor that the time thus given to the subject is unwisely spent.\nNor is it denied that this general study of the subject in its academic\nphases is the logical and necessary^roundwork of any true consideration\nof it from a professional point of view. Again, it is not denied that this\nshould precede in the order of preparation a detailed and critical study\nof it from the technical standpoint of the physician. The simple claim\nis that a thoro study of physiology, chemistry, or botany, when these are\npursued solely as instruments of self-education, does not of itself result in\nthat professional view of them which, in part at least, underlies the scientific practice of medicine.\nIn education there are two standpoints from which any subject of\ninstruction may be studied. One may pursue the subject simply for the\npurpose of educating himself, having no intention of teaching it; or he\nmay study as a teacher, thinking of himself at every step as one who is to\ndirect others in acquiring knowledge of the same subject. In the first\ncase the mental attitude of the learner toward the subject would be indicated by the question : \"How can I study this subject so that it shall be\nto me the most efficient instrument of self-education?\" In the second\ncase there would be this added question : \" How can I acquire such mastery of this subject as will enable me to employ it most efficiently as a\nmeans of educating others ? \" This latter is the teacher's mental attitude\ntoward every subject of instruction. Again, let it be said that this is not\na substitute for general education ; but it is something added to this,\nwhich is peculiarly the teacher's view of the subject. What special insight\ninto the subject this attitude gives him, what things receive his attention\nthat are omitted from the field of study in the case of the general student,\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nTEACHER' S KNOWLEDGE\n\nVS. SCHOLAR'S\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\n549\n\nwill be considered later. In general, it may be held thai the dominant\nend one holds before his mind while pursuing a subject would not be without strong influence in determining what knowledge of it would be necessary to teach a subject, and would naturally dispose the mind to see and\ndwell on the more obvious educational aspects of the subject. Questions\nof method, of comparative worth of given subject-matter, of disciplinary\nand ethical value — all of the highest importance to the teacher — will\nnaturally come within the view of one who is considering the subjectmatter from the standpoint of the teacher. So, it is held that the simple\nfact that one considers a subject as a teacher and for teaching ends gives\nhim, to some extent, a peculiar and distinctive view of it.\nA subject of study consists of two things : (i) a large number of facts\nlying in a common field; (2) the organization of these under the essential\nrelations which inhere in the subject-matter. The facts may be termed\nthe original materials or phenomena of the subject. Thought applied to\nthese materials brings them before the mind as distinct objects of attention, and discovers* their essential relations of co-ordination and\ndependence. Let it be noted that relations discovered are essential,\nexisting relations, and not merely arbitrary products of mind. The study\nof these facts leads to the forming of general ideas, to the discovery of\nforces and laws, and to all those processes which result in the organization\nof the materials into scientific or systematic form. To think the subject,\nthen, is to form true conceptions of these facts in their inherent relations.\nGeography, for example, consists of certain geographical phenomena or\ndata so considered by the mind that it knows, first, the facts themselves\nas facts ; secondly, the essential relations among these ; thirdly, the facts as\nclasses of phenomena; and, fourthly, at least the common body of general\ntruths or generalizations which the facts fully warrant. The original\nmaterials of the subject are facts or phenomena, existing relations, forces,\nprocesses, and laws. These, discovered and built together into orderly,\ncoherent form, give us the subject proper or the science of geography.\nHere, then, are two things which are logically separable : first, the matter\nor materials of geography ; secondly, the organization of these. One is\nthe fact phase of the subject; the other the organization.\nThese constitute the entire field of study when the subject is considered\nin its academic phases only. And whether one's purpose is to educate\nhimself by studying geography or to prepare to teach geography, he must\nmaster the subject both as to its materials and as to the organization of\nthese. It is no distinctive characteristic of a teacher's mastery of a subject\nthat he has been led to reflect closely upon its organization. The teacher\nmay have somewhat greater need for emphasizing this, but thoro study\nfor any true educational end will lead to reflective consideration of this\nelement thruout.\nThe person who is pursuing\n\nthe subject solely as a means of self-\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "550\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATLON\n\n[Normal\n\neducation has little or no motive for going beyond these two things.\nHe may reflect in a general way upon the mental acts which he puts forth\nin mastering the subject, and on its value as an educational instrument,\nbut this is quite incidental to his main object. At least, there is not the\nnecessity for the close and detailed study of these points that exists in the\ncase of the person who studies the subject that he may qualify himself to\nteach it.\nAnd here we find the teacher's special view of the subject. He must\nknow the subject in its professional phases. In addition to mastering the\nmaterials of the subject in their true organization, in common with the\ngeneral student, he is to study, in connection with these, two great relations of these materials : first, the processes of mind by which they are\nknown ; and secondly, the educational value of the materials thus organized. Attention may now be directed briefly to each of these elements\nas constituting a professional knowledge for the teacher.\nAnd, first, the general contention is that the student who is preparing\nto teach must think his thinking of the subject of instruction. He must\nknow not only geography, but geography as a product of mind. The\nobject of attention is enlarged by the addition of the processes of thinking the materials of the subject in their order of dependence and\nco-ordination. With the general student the object consists of these\nmaterials in their organization. The teacher adds the mental activity\nnecessary to think these materials into this orderly whole. The position\nis not taken that the teacher is here to acquire a systematic, comprehensive, and technical knowledge of psychology, as such, by directing his\nattention to the activities of mind which are involved in the study of the\nvarious branches of learning. It is meant only that in studying any subject to acquire a teacher's knowledge of it a necessary element of the\nprocess is to see, by careful introspection, the nature and conditions of\nthe mental activities engaged in it.\nThe psychology of a* subject, in the sense described, is the only reasonable basis for a scientific procedure in teaching it. Moreover, a study\nof general psychology, especially in its purely scientific aspects, can\nhardly give the psychology of the special academic subject. To teach is\nto stimulate the highest mental activity in the pupil that he is capable of\nperforming without permitting any waste of energ}'. The subject as\na whole, every division and general topic — indeed, the minutest fact\nwhich it comprehends — is to be seized by a mental activity appropriate\nto it. The more fully, therefore, one has considered these activities,\nespecially as performed by himself, in connection with the given field of\nsubject-matter, the better prepared one is to guide the thinking activity of\nanother who seeks to acquire in the most educative way the same knowledge. What we call the method of teaching a subject is the psychology\nof that subject — the mind's necessary way of thinking it.\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER 'S KNO WLEDGE\n\nvs. SCHOLAR '5 KNO WLEDGE\n\n551\n\nEffort is here made to direct attention to the fact that the most helpful psychology of any subject is to be acquired by the teacher in the mastery of the subject itself. The psychology of the subject is not something\nbrought to it from without and superimposed upon it. The teacher who\nwill patiently take up the materials of any subject he is required to teach,\nand think closely and long upon the nature and conditions of the mental\nacts which he himself must perform in thinking these materials, will find,\nnot only that the subject has new educational significance to him, and\nthat he occupies as a teacher a high vantage-ground not hitherto known,\nbut that he possesses new insights and new faculties of mind.\nLet us try to make clear by an illustration what is here urged as one\nelement of the professional mastery of a subject. A teacher of English\ngrammar wishes to present to a class the idea of the sentence. His first\ninquiry is : What is the natural procedure Of mind in coming into possession of this idea ? Appeal is made to his own thinking of the subject.\nHe reflects that the visible or audible words constitute a sentence because\nthey express a judgment, and he sees that to make the idea \" sentence\"\nsomething more than a formal definition, the nature of the judgment\nmust be considered. His own idea of a judgment is general, deduced\nfrom a study of many particulars. He thus sees that his problem is to\nlead the mind of another in the construction of a general conception\nwhich has its verification to every mind in a multitude of particulars.\nHe now knows, as he can never know in any other way, what the essential and necessary nature of this general conception is, and how it alone\ncan have reality and true validity to the learner. The method he verifies on the safest psychological grounds — his own conscious thinking of\nthat which he would teach. The immeasurable superiority of this procedure over that of simply committing to verbal memory a formal definition of the sentence must be obvious.\nTwo students, A and B, are studying a human eye by dissection and\nactual inspection of a real eye. A has no other object than to educate\nhimself by this study; B wishes to be a teacher. A's only concern is\nthat he shall so study the eye that he himself will best acquire a knowledge of it and derive the most efficient mental discipline from his work.\nB has equal reason to educate himself thoroly by studying this subject,\nbut adds something which A has little or no reason to consider. He\nreflects upon the very processes by which he acquires the knowledge of\nthis organ. He verifies or sets aside on psychological grounds the procedure followed. He sees, if the process is valid, that no other procedure\nin the case would result in a clear, real, and vivid knowledge of the structure and functions of the eye. He thus sees the necessary process in\ngeneral and why it is necessary. Not oi^y this, but he takes the necessary steps in this actual examination of the eye in its different parts, and\nsees that he does take them and why he takes them.\nA acquires an aca-\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ndemic knowledge of the eye; B adds to this one very essential relation of\nthe subject-matter which only the teacher needs to consider.\nA teacher's knowledge of a subject of instruction, then, involves, in\naddition to a thoro mastery of the subject academically considered, a\ncomprehensive and clear understanding of the mental activities which a\nknowledge of the subject presupposes, acquired mainly by a direct or\nintrospective study of the mind's own working.\nA second characteristic of a teacher's knowledge of a subject has\nalready been mentioned. Whoever is to teach a subject so that it may\nbe most thoroly educative to the student must not only know the subjectmatter in its true organization and the processes in the mastery of this\nsubject-matter, but he must understand the educational value of the\nsubject and its place in a course of instruction. To employ a subject\nmost wisely as an instrument of education requires that the teacher shall\nhave clear views of the fitness of the subject to promote certain clearly\ndefined educational ends. If a course instruction is a reasonable thing,\nevery subject therein must make its contribution in some way to the\ngeneral ends sought by the course. The teacher can have the best hold\non a particular subject only when he sees its value as an educational\nmeans and its relation to other subjects which with it are to promote the\ngeneral object. Certain elementary objects are usually considered fundamental because they are adapted to the inherent needs of the growing\nmind, and because they are presupposed by other subjects of study which\nfollow them in their course. Surely, whoever is to employ a subject as\nan educational instrument for the accomplishment of a certain end must\nunderstand both end and instrument in their mutual relations.\nSubjects of school education have value as educational instruments\nfor many reasons, three of which may be set forth briefly :\nI. As conferring useful information. This is not given as the principal\nfunction of any study, tho probably many subjects have greater value\nfrom this point of view than is usually attributed to them. In any view,\nthis enters more or less fully into most, if not all, subjects of instruction.\nUseful knowledge, in the sense here understood, is information that can\n.be turned to immediate account in the world of affairs. Most subjects\ndealing with natural objects have phases which bear more or less\ndirectly on the utilitarian activities of life. One reason for employing\nthese subjects in education — not the main reason — is that the knowledge\nacquired by studying them is useful knowledge. So far as this does\nenter as one of the ends for which the subject is studied, it must be\nrecognized and given its due weight in instruction. From this point of\nview, also, the question of what is essential and what relatively unimportant in the subject will to some extent be necessary. A teacher's\nknowledge of a subject must include an understanding of this subject\nfrom the point of view of its value as information-giving.\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depariinent]\n\nTEACH EIV S KNOWLEDGE\n\nVS. SCHOLAR' S KNOWLEDG E\n\n553\n\n2. Subjects have educational value because of their disciplinary effects.\nBut to say that a subject is disciplinary is to say very little about it until\nits disciplinary value is shown, qualitatively and quantitatively. A subject\nmay have such nature, in respect both to its subject-matter and to its\norganization, as to be strongly disciplinary of one or of several mental\nfunctions. Arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, for example, seem to have\nspecial advantages for strengthening the power of abstract judgment and\nclose deductive thinking; history and geography, the practical judgment\nor judgment of affairs; English grammar, general reflection and introspection ; music, drawing, and literature, the capacity for aesthetic\nappreciation and creation. While it is true that subjects of instruction\nvary, both as to quality and quantity of discipline to be gained by\nstudying them, it probably remains that the disciplinary effect depends\nmore on the mode of pursuing the subject than on the specific nature of\nthe subject-matter considered. A teacher who understands the logic of a\nsubject, and is skilled in presenting it so as to exercise the learner in the\nmost systematic way, would probably make a subject, least valuable in\nitself considered, worth more than any other could b3 in unthinking and\nuntrained hands. Whoever would most fully educate another by means\nof any subject of study must take careful account of the strictly disciplinary character of the instrumentality.\n3. But at least one other consideration may give a study educational\nvalue. Perhaps the most significant term for this element is the word\n\"ethical.\" Some subjects are fitted to give more or less fully that\nrational insight into the world of humanity, and indeed into the permanent spiritual order of the world, which the individual most needs for\nlife-guidance. In the hands of wise teachers, possessed of deep ethical\ninsight, many of the subjects of common-school education offer the\nopportunity for the most valuable and permanent form of ethical culture.\nNot that they abound in moral maxims or the distinct enunciation of\nprinciples of human conduct, but that they furnish glimpses at least of\nthe great abiding truth that the world-order is an intelligent, reasonable,\nstable thing, and that to this the individual as a rational being must\nadapt his life. Every subject of nature well comprehended will reveal\n^^\n^H\n\nmore and more fully the order, system, and coherence of the natural\nworld.\nPhysics, chemistry, biology, geology, and astronomy could not\n\n^K\n^H\n^H\n^B\n^B\n^B\n^K\n^B\n\nfail under intelligent direction to enlarge one's whole view of the\nsignificance of life. All branches of mathematics reveal the world in its\nestablished mathematical order, which does not for a moment respect the\ncaprice of the individual.\nHistory, geography, and sociology reveal the\nworld of humanity as really constituting an organic social whole, and\nthey ought to show the individual the^ecessity of reinforcing the social\nOrder by every word and deed of his life. English grammar, logic, and\nphilosophy are introspective in their character, and they fail of one of\n\nI-\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ntheir greatest educational possibilities if they do not impress the student\nwith the substantial and valid character of the world of spirit. No\nteacher can be fitted to wield these subjects of study most efficiently as\ninstruments to these high ends who has not patiently and profoundly\nconsidered them in relation thereto.\nThe doctrine set forth may be gathered together in one sentence : A\nteacher's knowledge of a subject of instruction includes, in addition to a\nthoro, comprehensive understanding of its subject-matter — its materials —\nin their true organization, first, a clear view of the mental processes\ninvolved in thinking the subject ; and, secondly, a profound consideration\nof the entire subject as an educational agency, this latter including its\nvalue as information-giving, as conferring discipline, and as revealing\nmore or less fully, and in some phase or phases, the abiding, reasonable\norder of the world.\nTo prevent any possible misunderstanding, let it be added that the\nprofessional knowledge herein urged is not supposed in any way to take\nthe place of scholarly attainments. Method cannot be, is not offered as,\na substitute for scholarship. The doctrine asserted is that scholarship\nalone does not qualify for the work of the schoolroom, that a professional\nknowledge of subjects is a valid and necessary addition to this, and that\nit consists, fundamentally, in the two phases of study outlined.\n\nII\nDAVID\n\nEUGENE\n\nSMITH, PROFESSOR\nOF MATHEMATICS, TEACHERS\nCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nI. The historical origin of the question. — Before considering the question at issue, it will clarify the situation if we consider briefly its origin.\nThere was for a long time a tradition among those who ranked themselves\nas scholars that the guild of teachers burned incense before some fetich\ncalled Method, without worshiping at the altar of true knowledge ; that\nits members bowed before form without content, shadow without substance. Meanwhile an equally unwarranted tradition obtained among\nthose who ranked themselves as teachers that the scholar kept himself\ncloistered in his cell, wearing out his days oblivious of the life, the beauty,\nthe infinite soul about him.\nIn the early d.ays of normal schools there may have been some justification for the first charge, just as in mediaeval times there may have been\nsome for the second one. But with the rise of the standard normal school\nof today, with at least two years beyond a four-years' high-school course,\ncombining advanced academic work with the professional, and with the\ngrowth of special training in other professions, the tradition has lost its\nearlier dogmatic form.\nTwo generations ago physicians often asserted\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEA CHER '5 KNO WL EDGE\n\nvs. SCHOLAR\n\n'5 KNO W LEDGE\n\n555\n\nthat the knowledge required for their fraternity was best obtained in the\noffice of a good practitioner, but today we require not only graduation\nfrom a good medical college, but even postgraduate work. The lawyer,\nthe preacher, the nurse, the bookkeeper, and the teacher as well, all\ndemand knowledge, and knowledge of their subjects, peculiar to their\nseveral professions, and in advance of that of their immediate predecessors.\nThe question which this paper considers, therefore, had its origin in\nthe larger question as to the best training for a teacher, and was born of\nthe old tradition that the teacher had no knowledge which the scholar did\nnot have, but, on the contrary, that his knowledge was generally neither\nas extensive nor as exact. The opposition to the professional training of\nthe teacher has passed away, at least as to elementary education, but the\nquestion as to the nature of this training, and as to the nature of the\nteacher's knowledge, still has place.\n2. Necessity for definition. — Thus far the terms \"teacher,\" ''scholar,\"\nand \"knowledge of a subject\" have been loosely used. It is, however,\none of the first principles of debate to make clear the issue by defining\nthe terms employed.\nFor our purposes I take \"teacher \" to mean one who imparts or draws\nout information in a school. This is not a broad use of the term, for\n\" every man I meet is my master in some point, and in that I learn of\nhim.\" It is, however, the meaning intended in this question, excluding\nthose who teach thru books, from the pulpit, by the medium of the daily\npress, or by friendly discourse at home.\nI take \"scholar\" to mean a mere learned man, one who ranks as\nerudite on leaving the university, one who may be contributing in some\ndegree to the world's stock of knowledge. He may be a teacher, but in\nthought, at least, I wish to separ.ate him from any profession, as we might\nseparate theologian from preacher, or physician from nurse.\nIt would be easy to answer the question if we could now define\n\" knowledge of a subject \" to refer to the academic knowledge of the\nisolated subject of the teacher's work; not to its history, not to its relation\nto other subjects, and not to its relation to mind. This interpretation,\nhowever, is absolutely untenable. It leads at once to such an absurd\nstudy of isolated infinitesimals that ordinary common-sense at once dictates a much broader understanding of the expression. If it were possible\nto narrow our discussion to some single thing taught, the knowledge of\nthe teacher would not differ at all, as to that thing, from the knowledge\nof the scholar. The infinitesimal bits of knowledge must be known\nequally well. This, however, is no real answer to the question, for it supposes a case which does not exist. Just* as modern psychology does not\npermit us to isolate the faculties, so common-sense declines to allow us to\ncut out bits of knowledge and to isolate each from the others or from the\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nrest of the infinite domain. Knowledge is not a honeycomb of unrelated\ncells ; the relation of facts is a great part of knowledge ; and here it is\nthat the knowledge of the teacher will be found to differ greatly from that\nof the scholar. It is, therefore, reasonable to define ''knowledge of a\nsubject\" to include the relation of that subject to other subjects.\nFor example, take the knowledge of simple arithmetic. The scholar\nknows the processes of numbers, and their elementary theory, and their\nconventional applications, quite as well as the teacher. He also knows\ncertain relations of these facts to one another, forming their logical\nsequence. But the teacher must not only know all this, but the relation\nof these facts to a child's mind — the psychological sequence — and also\ntheir relation to human life. It is the influence of the mere scholar which\nhas kept the science so long stagnant and stupid in the schoolroom ; it is\nthe influence of the teacher which today is bringing it into touch with\nchild mind and with world-life, as we are now living it.\nAs another illustration, consider the story of Bunker Hill. The\nscholar knows it quite as well as the teacher, as an isolated fact ; indeed,\nhe probably knows it better if his field is the history of the revolutionary\nperiod. But the teacher must know it as it bears upon present life, if it is to\nhave any lesson. He must make the boy, and the girl as well, feel that inward\nstirring of patriotism which means fighting for right today, even as their\nancestors fought for right then, altho the battle may now be one of\nfearless speech and honest ballot, instead of one with saber and with\nshot.\nTo take a case from the more advanced grades : Professor Mommsen\nknows so much more of Roman history than Dr. Arnold did, that the\nlatter does not, in comparison, rank as a historian at all. But Dr. Arnold\ncould systematically handle a class, could psychologically present the\nsubject, could develop it logically month after month, could bring from\neach chapter a lesson for the boys of Rugby, and could arouse an interest\nin the subject, far beyond Professor Mommsen's powers ; so that, by comparison, the latter would not rank as a teacher at all. And yet the\nknowledge of these two men with respect to any isolated fact was the\nsame; it is the knowledge of a topic, of the relation of the fact to other\nfacts, that is radically different.\nRecognizing perfectly that reasoning by fanciful analogies is both easy\nand dangerous, I hesitate to enter this field even for purposes of illustration. And yet I cannot refrain from taking this means to make the\ndiscussion clearer. A diamond is a diamond whether rough, or broken,\nor polished and set. If we wish size alone, it should be left in the rough ;\nif we wish it for cutting glass, it is better broken ; if we wish it for decoration, it is better polished and set. How does the carbon of one differ\nfrom that of the others ? Not in the least. The scholar is the rough\n(iiamond ; he has mgr^ crystallized carbon than the cut diamond.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEA CHER 'S KNO W LEDGE\n\nvs. SCHOLAR'S\n\nKNO WLEDGE\n\n557\n\nteacher is the cut stone; he has less carbon, but he lets his light shine\nbetter; or, to put it more truly, he reflects light better. Or, to take\nanother illustration, the teacher is a circle, the extent varying with the\nindividual ; while the scholar is a secant thru its center, the length also\nvarying. The two have infinitely many points in common, on the line.\nThe scholar may call out from some distant point, \"You have not progres ed \"; and the teacher, from some point within the circle, may retort,\n\" You are narrow.\" Each is, in some small sense, right; the teacher has\nnot progressed as far on the line, in the groove, of this particular scholarship; the scholar is narrow, and he may be said, relatively, to see a point\non one side only, and not from all sides, as the teacher may be said to\nsee it.\nOf course, these are mere fanciful analogies, but in a homely way\nthey bring out the quality of mind of the two classes, if classes we must\nmake. In a 'broader sense, of course, every true scholar, even tho dumb\nin the schoolroom, is a teacher, and every teacher worthy the name, even\ntho master of a single tongue and not learned in the lore of the past, is\na scholar in his field. The circle of scholars must always intersect the\ncircle of teachers. Some individuals will always lie in both circles, and\nall iiHiividuals of either will always lie in the fringe of the other.\n3. The question answered. — Taking, therefore, the phrase \"knowledge\nof the subject\" to have its common-sense meaning of knowledge of a\nsubject in its relations to other subjects, the following propositions would\nseem to be reasonable :\na) The \"Scholar must know a little of the general field, and much of\nsome special field, and he must be sympathetic at least with the effort to\ncultivate the latter. Such men are not difficult to find. Our scientific\njournals are made possible by them. Their contributions are the increments, usually infinitesimal, by which knowledge grows. Most of them\nare mediocre scholars, just as most of us are mediocre teachers.\nb) The teacher must also know a little of the general field and much\nof some special field; but instead of being primarily interested in contributing to the world's stock of knowledge, his interests are rather in\n•bringing the accumulated stock to the view of his pupils and in stimulating them to activity.\nc) The teacher's knowledge of the subject differs from that of the\nscholar in that he must appreciate, much more clearly than the latter,\nthe relation of fact to fact outside of the narrow groove. The necessity\nfor dealing with a diversity of minds requires him to mass a greater line\nof data for' induction. For him, too, there must be a much fuller relation of the subject to life; he must know, not merely the subject itself,\nbut its applications. The scholar requTres merely a logical arrangement\nof his matter ; the teacher, whether or not he knows the psychology of\nbook or of laboratory, must have a psychological arrangement.\nAnd\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nNA riONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\nfNormal\n\nwith all of this cross-arrangement, and increased data, and application to\nthe life about him, comes a scholarship with respect to the topic in hand\nthat the mere scholar misses; for everyone who has had the experience\nknows that the best test of scholarship in any subject is the preparation\nof a plan for teaching it.\n4. The traming of the teacher vs. that of the scholar. — If, now, the\nknowledge of the teacher is identical with that of the scholar as to some\nhypothetical and isolated element, but if it differs in the relation of\nthat knowledge to other subjects, to life in general, and to the mental\nlife of the learner in particular, and if the immediate aims of the two are\ndistinct, this very practical question suggests itself to us who are interested in training teachers : Exactly what knowledge of the subject do\nyour professional courses propose to give that the ordinary college course\ndoes not give ?\nThis is not at all the question as to the general professional training\nof the teacher, for that question is altogether too extensive for a mere\nparagraph of this kind. Neither does it consider the possibility of making a teacher out of hopeless material ; for everyone recognizes that\nprofessional courses rarely turn out a great teacher, just as academic\ncourses rarely turn out a great scholar. It considers simply the question\nas to the distinctive kind of knowledge to be imparted to a teacher, but\nnot to a mere scholar.\nIt will surely be pardoned me if I take an illustration with which I\nam most familiar — the preparation of a teacher of mathematics, say for\nthe high school. What knowledge should such a teacher possess, particularly as to mathematics, and of such knowledge what may the mere\nscholar omit ? No students should be admitted to the professional\ncourses preparing for such work until they have completed the ordinary\ncourses in elementary mathematics, which are now defined to include the\ncalculus. My own students always take more or less work in higher\nmathematics, including projective geometry, theory of equations, and\nadvanced courses in the calculus and analytics, often with theory of functions, differential equations, theory of substitutions, and the more modern special theories. Thus far, the knowledge of teacher and scholar is\nthe same. Each must know more than his own field of work in order to\nget his bearings. But, in addition to this work, what further knowledge\nof the subject must the teacher have ? First, he should have at least one\nyear of work in the history of mathematics, and preferably two years.\nHe may be a scholar in the narrow field of geometry without this, but he\nis a far better teacher with it. Secondly, he should know, as the scholar\nneed not, the relation of this subject to the human mind as seen in the\nhistory of teaching it. Not to know this is to challenge a waste of time\nin useless or criminal experiment.\nThirdly, he must know the reason\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER' S KNOWLEDGE\n\nVS. SCHOLAR' S KNOWLEDGE\n\n559\n\nfor allowing the subject place in the curriculum, and in particular the\nworld's present demands. Fourthly, he must know the further relation\nof the subject to the pupil's mind today as it appears in the best-known\nways of presenting it; and this, is we have seen, is no small part of\n\"knowledge of the subject.\" Fifthly, in spite of the abuses of the word\n\"correlation,\" the teacher must know, as the mere scholar need not, the\nrelation-of each part of a subject to the other parts, so that education is\ngiven more as a unit than was formerly the case. And, furthermore, he\nmust know the correlation of the subject to other subjects and with life —\nwith life before the presentation (the apperceptive phase), and with life\nthen and thereafter (the social bearing of the subject).\nFinally, the teacher's knowledge of a subject differs from that of a\nstudent in the selection made from the great body of knowledge. For\nexample, a university student of botany may survey the general field of\nbiology, then the special field of botany, and then'may study intently the\nlife of any plant or group. The teacher, however, must guard his selection, studying preferably that plant or group which touches in some way\nhuman life and interests. Many a man takes his doctor's degree in Latin\nand begins teaching well acquainted with the best French, German, and\nItalian authorities bearing upon Horace or Terence, and familiar with the\nmanuscripts by which these writers are known to us, but absolutely ignorant o*f the wealth of literature bearing upon those authors whose works\nhe will teach. The proposition is wholly untenable that the mere habit\nof investigation is all that is essential in advanced courses for teachers;\nthe material of the investigation, the nature of the selection, is of vital\nimportance — an importance altogether too little considered in our university courses.\nI have endeavored not only to show that there exists a real difference\nin the knowledge of the subject possessed by the teacher and the mere\nscholar, but also to call attention to the following natural corollaries to\nthis proposition :\n1. A considerable amount of knowledge of a subject is necessary on\nthe part of a teacher, in addition to that required by the mere scholar,\nand in addition to the so-called professional courses.\n2. It is impossible wholly to divorce professional from academic\ncourses.\n3. A considerable amount of so-called academic work, not duplicating high-school or college courses, is necessary in any professional\nschool.\n4. Much more attention should be given in the selecting of courses\nby those undertaking doctorate work with the expectation of teaching.\nI know of no matter demanding mo^ careful attention on the part of\nthose having to do with the higher education of teachers than this.\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "S6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nDISCUSSION\nF. Louis Soldan, superintendent of public schools, St. Louis, Mo. — The modern\nscholar has narrowed his field and deepened it at the same time. The immensity of\nscientific discovery has made\n\nlimitation nece^^- iry, and every scholar has specialized in\n\nsome particularly narrow field ; but within' the limits of this field his work is deep and\nexhaustive. The modern scholar is a specialist. While he ought to be, and usually is, a\nman of general culture, there is one subject which he must know well and fully.\nThe modern university teacher, or the college teacher, is a specialist, and his knowledge must be of scholarly character. It differs from the knowledge of the scholar who\nis not a teacher in one important respect. The teacher's primary aim is the training of\nhis students. The subject, which is an end in itself with the scholar, is merely a means\nin the hands of the teacher which must serve some other greater end — the cultivation\nof the student. The primary teacher's knowledge of the subject differs from the scholar's\nknowledge, in the first place, by being at once more comprehensive and less intensive.\nThe teacher must know a greater number of subjects, since he instructs classes in\nhistory, geography, mathematics, etc., and he must possess in each of these subjects\na scholarly knowledge, but he cannot be a specialist in each ; hence, while he must\nbe well versed in a number of subjects, his knowledge in each will be less intensive\nthan that of the specialist who\nwork.\n\nhas made\n\nmathematics\n\nor history exclusively his life-\n\nThere is, however, a vital difference between the scholar's knowledge\n\nof a subject\n\nand the teacher's knowledge of a subject. While the teacher's knowledge should be\nscholarly as far as it goes, his knowledge of the subject-matter is subordinated to the\neducational training which he makes this subject-matter yield for the benefit of the\nyouths whom he instructs. He is a specialist in one department; his main study and\nthe center of his scholastic excellence must be a knowledge of child-nature and of the\nprocesses of teaching by which the child may grow into manhood thru the influence of\ninstruction. The teacher must know how to present knowledge so that it educates.\nHe must discern, in the presentation of matter, the difficulties which the child-mind will\nencounter in mastering it. He must be able to subordinate the data of the various studies\nto the thought which they are to convey. In short, his specialty is the education of the\nyoung thru the proper presentation of knowledge. This is the special domain of the\nteacher of all grades; and his scholarship, while it should be liberal in all the studies\nwhich he teaches, should be that of the master of education.\nJohn W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois Normal School. — The discussion of\nthe theme seems to me to be very satisfactory. In what 1 shall say it is probable that I\nshall traverse lines already followed.\n»\nThe subject under consideration lies within the field of method, and should have a\ncandid and exhaustive treatment. I assume that normal-school men generally hold that\nthe student of education finds that his acquaintance with the various subjects of the\nschool curriculum must be extended as soon as he attempts to use them in the most fruitful\nway as educative material in elementary grades. It seems to me that this is more\nespecially true in elementary grades than elsewhere, since the more advanced pupil is\nbetter qualified to supply deficiencies of instruction thru his independent activity. I do\nnot yield the proposition that the principle holds in all grades. I believe that the quality\nof teaching in secondary schools and in the higher institutions can be immensely\nimproved by a frank abandonment of the unfortunate attitude held by so many respecting\nan art of teaching, and by a careful study of what has been learned in the field of\nmethod. The lofty attitude of many scholars in regard to this matter is out of harmony\nwith their other relations to the general problem of education. Their illiberality and\nPhilistinism respecting phases of the problem with which they are not familiar are all the\nmore irritating because of their catholicity and humility everywhere else.\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER 'S KNO WLEDGE\n\nvs. SCHOLAR 'S KNO WLEDGE\n\n561\n\nRosenkranz declares that \" the logical presupposition of instruction is the order in\nwhich the subject-matter develops for the consciousness. The subject, the consciousness\nof the pupil, and the activity of the instructor interpenetrate each other in instruction, and\nconstitute in actuality oneVhole.\" To the examination of a subject which the scholar\nwho is intent upon its mastery as a body of related ideas would give, there must be added\nin the case of the teacher an accenting of certain elements and a slighting of others,\nbecause he must consider the subject with regard to its adaptation to the consciousness of\nthe pupil. The familiar principle of apperception suggests the idea that any content will\nbe seized by dominating notions and converted into their terms and sorted out among\ntheir relations. The familiar illustration of the different views which a half-dozen men\nget of Niagara Falls, because of their prepossessions, is a case in point. I do not see\nwhy the student who has no pedagogical consciousness should have any such fringes to\nhis field of thought as the teacher must of necessity find in the greater part of his\nintellectual experience. As to the engineer every running stream suggests the possibility\nof utilizing unused power, so to the teacher every subject solicits an analysis of the order\nof its ideas with respect to their economic communicability, resistance value for the development ofmental energy, knowledge value for the enrichment of the stock of ideas, aesthetic\nvalue to the emotional nature, and ethical value in the cultivation of the moral will.\nA few illustrations may serve my purposes better than a more abstract discussion. I\nsuspect that many of the normal-school people are on the lookout for a psychology text\nthat has special adaptability to the needs of the normal-school pupils. There are certain\nphases of the subject that are more intimately related to the work of the teacher than\nothers. Indeed, psychology as a science is not necessarily of special value to the\nteacher. We have all seen the psychological expert in the class-room with continents\nbetween him and his class. It is for this reason, I suspect, that we are hearing so much\nof late about educational psychology.\nPresumably attention is the topic of greatest service to teachers. It has been defined\nas the will acting upon the intellect, and consequently that mental capacity which makes\neducation a possibility. It is the office of the teacher to get certain things within the\nrange of the pupil's vision and to induce him to adopt them as his extreme solicitude.\nTo effect this supreme purpose he seeks assistance from the science of mind with regard\nto the secret springs of the soul and the manner of their release. It is the psychology of\nthe developing, rather than of the mature mind that interests him. How does the miracle\nof knowledge come to pass ? Where in the mind's activity is the vanishing point of\neducation ? Where does the image become an obstacle to mental growth ? Which of\nthe pupil's acts are chosen with reference to the good, and in consequence deserve to be\nclassed as essentially moral ? What is the relation of interest to the formation of the\nethical character? What motives belong under the category of \"soft pedagogy\"?\nWhere is the truth in the doctrine of \"effort\"? hX. every turn the teacher is seeking\nlight upon the question : *' How can I present the subjects of instruction to the minds of\nthe young so that they will awaken the most fruitful effort and consequently eventuate in\nthe best educative result ? \"\nAs this is the determining conception in pursuing such subjects as psychology, so\nethics will be solicited to lend its aid in fixing the technique of the process by which the\nforming mind attains moral freedom. Not the speculative, but the practical, aspects of\nthe subject attract the teacher. He is endeavoring to acquire skill in the practice of an\nart, and estimates his subject with that criterion as a guide.\nThe ordinary student has no such selective interest at work, sorting out one phase\nand slighting another. It is probable that everyone has his predilections, but they are not\ndetermined ordinarily by practical considerations in subjects of this character. Something of the same predetermination may be observed in the attitude of the clergyman;\nindeed, I should say that his case will be fully as strongly marked as the teacher's, since\nhis function is to make certain ideas assume control in the conduct of life.\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nIt may be said that psychology, ethics, logic, sociology, possibly anthropology and\nphenomenology, as Rosenkranz suggests, are essential presuppositions of a science of\neducation, and, in consequence, are exceptional in their relation to the teacher's work.\nWhat shall we say of such subjects as grammar, geography, arithmetic, and the rest ?\nEnglish grammar is ordinarily regarded as related to the art of correct speech, and is\nstudied for the purpose of securing that result. But of late there has been a radical\nchange in the treatment of this subject, and the institution in the charge of the leader of\nthis discussion is chiefly responsible for that change. It is an effort to make the learner\nconscious of the mental processes that generate the different forms of speech. Such a\ntreatment of the subject betrays its origin. It is a product of the normal school. I am\nnot attempting to pass judgment on the wisdom of the scheme for the ordinary purposes\nof language study. For the use of the teacher it seems quite indispensable. I have seen\nthe old-fashioned grammar in all of its glory, and Solomon is not to be referred to in that\nconnection. I have also seen psychological grammar in elementary grades with the same\nsense of wonder (it is possible that a more internal habit would lead me to say, \" I also\nhave seen,\" or, \"I have seen also\"). But I repeat that I am not reviewing any recent\ntexts on language. One can talk well and sing well, and yet know nothing of vocal\nchords. One may speak beautifully and write as well, and yet be unconscious of the\nmind's process of limiting itself by the self-imposition of the ideas for which adverbs and\nadjectives stand.\nBut the teacher will lack any discriminating criterion to save him from pure formalism, on one side, and pure skepticism respecting the value of formal grammar, on the\nother, if this aspect of language should be entirely neglected. I well remember Bronson\nAlcott's admonition to a group of us who were sitting awestruck at his feet waiting for\nhim to say something that we could understand. He warned us against grammar,\nfor Louise had never studied it. One must not be too introspective when writing\nor speaking, but when observing the speech of our pupils we are always striving to\npush back to their mental states ; and language as the sign of mental states that need\ncareful study is quite different from language which is examined simply to arrive at its •\nmeaning.\nThis is only another way of saying that I believe in psychological grammar for\nteachers.\nWhat of geography ? Is there geography, and then is there geography ? That the\nfacts and principles are the same for all no one can doubt. There are not trade winds\nand ocean currents for the scholar, and other and different trade winds and ocean currents\nfor the teacher. The subject must always have an inherent independence and individuality which even a teacher must hold sacred. Again, the subject must be analyzed with\nreference to its apperception by minds with extremely simple ideas and with the larger\nparts of those in haphazard and absurd relations. What aspects of the subject will\nawaken the mental weaver and urge him to his task — the construction of the web of\nthought in the wonderful loom of life ?\nAgain, to recur to an idea already overworked here perhaps, the subject always is to\nbe regarded with reference to the mental equipment of the learner. As the fish is not\nalone the structure that lies on the table of the biological laboratory, but is also the element in which alone he can live and grow, so geography is not alone the body of\nknowledge about the earth, from the teacher's point of view, but is also the consciousness\nthat is to live and grow in it. This again implies an organization of the content of the\nscience with reference to its nutritive adaptability to various grades of development.\nThis requirement may necessitate a disturbance of w^hat the scholar would regard as a\nlogical unfolding of the science. Hence the teacher is a geographer who knows his subject, but who regards it as no impiety to desecrate its logical sacredness or sacred logic by\na readjustment of sequences in the interests of the child. This readjustment will be influenced in no small degree by the geographical environment.\nIf near a stream, its\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEA CHER '5 KNO W LEDGE\n\nvs. SCHOLAR 'S KNO W LEDGE\n\n5^3\n\nmodification of its banks, its service as a drainage agent, its relation to plant and animal\nsocieties, and, in general, its transforming power, are all so obtrusive and concrete that it\nwould seem the height of folly to fail to give them special accent. It is thus seen to be\nimpossible to make a detailed scheme for all geographical localities.\nI must not use more of your time in these repetitions ; for what is true of the subjects\nconsidered is true in varying degrees of all of the others.\nProfessor Framk M. McMurry, Teachers College, New York city. — The scholar\nis interested in fact as fact, while the teacher is interested in fact as related to life, as\nbearing on human interests. There is, therefore, one marked difference between the two.\nThe latter adds a very important element to the other's knowledge. This difference is\nwell illustrated in the advance made in nature study in recent years. Much of the subject-mat er inthis field some years ago consisted of facts unrelated to present time, to\nactual interests; it was scientific fact and nothing more. Now, while many of the topics\nremain the same, their bearings on life have been added — often a large addition, indeed,\nrequiring a whole recitation or more for a single subject — and so we speak of agricultural nature study specifically. The present arithmetic illustrates the scholar's point of\nview admirably. Inasmuch as it consists solely of a study of processes, it is as dry, dead\nfact as any study one can imagine. To satisfy the teacher, however, bearings on life must\nbe made abundant. So we may, in the near future, be studying the quantitative side of\nthe farmer's life, of railroading, banking, etc., thus adding a large element beyond that\nrequired by the mere scholar.\nIn literature we can teach the narrative carefully, thoroly, and then stop. Or we can\ntake cognizance of the moral contained in a poem and discuss its bearings at length on\nthe lives of pupils. So every study has a fact content and another series of ideas touching\n\n^^^\n^^B\n\nhuman interests ; and the scholar's knowledge includes only the first of these, while the\nteacher should possess both.\nA second point : We have apparently assumed in this discussion that each branch of\nknowledge is very definitely limited in content. But, so far as I can see, there is no fixed\nbody of topics in any study, nor is there a fixed emphasis for any of them. What is\nordinarily done in any normal school or college is to choose some topics for extensive\nstudy, and others for more intensive treatment. Many of the possible themes are omitted\nentirely. Selection and elimination are necessary, therefore. Now, the aim one has in\nmind is the main factor in any selection of means. It would seem natural, then, that the\nteacher would choose quite a different body of facts from the mere scholar, since the\nformer is preparing for the definite work of instructing children.\nFor example, the student of literature in college may well, perhaps, attempt to\nacquaint himself with some of the best poetry, novels, essays, and speeches.\nAnd this\nsuggests the common plan followed in such work.\nBut the teacher should certainly make\n\n^^H\n^^K\n^^K.\n\na careful study of fairy-tales and fables, of Hiawatha, the Iliad and Odyssey, and Pilgrim'' s\nProgress.\nIt is remarkable that so many people intending to teach should pursue literature from the former, adult point of view, and then go out to supervise or instruct children\n\n^^K\n^^V\n^Hr\n^^B\n^^B\n^^B\n^^B\n\nin children's classics, of which they know almost nothing.\nIt is this defect in the teacher's\nknowledge of the subject that is causing many teachers to be failures who might otherwise prove very successful.\nThe teacher likewise needs a different knowledge of history\nfrom that of the scholar.\nThe latter often specializes in European history, or it may\nbe in any phase of American history that happens particularly to interest him.\nBut\nthe teacher of history in the grades should be well acquainted with pioneer history and\nthrow special emphasis on the Revolutionary War.\n\n^^B\n^^K\n^^K\n^^B\n\nThus the teacher's knowledge of a subject should be radically different from that of\nthe mere scholar in two respects :\n•\nI. The teacher should add to mere acquaintance with fact the bearings of such fact\non life — a large addition.\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfNormal\n\n2. Much of the subject-matter that receives his attention should be that which is\nexpected to be presented to children, and not solely the literature that is selected from the\nadult point of view.\nFrancis J. Cheney, principal of the State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y.— I wish\nto express my endorsement of the remarks of the last speaker. The answer to the question under discussion will depend largely upon whether the purpose of acquiring knowledge is the same in the case of the teacher as in the case of the scholar. The scholar may\nhave various reasons for acquiring knowledge. He may acquire it just for the personal\npleasure that it gives him intellectually; he may acquire it just for the satisfaction that\ncomes from knowing things; he may acquire it for the sake of self-discipline; or he may\nacquire it for the sake, in part at least, of conveying it to others thru the medium of the\nwritten or printed page.\nThe teacher, however, has a far different purpose. This purpose is understood when\nwe come to know what teaching really means. To my mind the best general definition of\nteaching which 1 have run across in my studies is the one given by Mr. Gordy 'in his excellent little book on psychology: \"Teaching is the art of getting one to do something\nwhich he would not do apart from the teacher, in order that he may become something\nwhich he would not become apart from the teacher.\" The purpose of teaching is to make\nmen and women in the highest sense of the word. This is the defense of the public schools.\nTheir proper function is to send out into the world useful members of society, who will do\ntheir part toward making the communities in which they live more orderly and moral ;\nwho will make kindly neighbors and law-abiding citizens. This is the reason the state\ngives for taking money from one man's pocket to educate another man's child.\nThis being the aim, then, of the teacher in acquiring knowledge, he will put himself\nin possession of those facts which will enable him the most surely to attain the end he has\nin view. We can readily see that it will make a difference what kiiid of facts he has in\npossession, with which to arouse the activities of his pupil ; what his pupil becomes will\ndepend largely upon the nature of the ideas transmitted. He is to make of his pupil a\nman of keen perceptive power, strong memory, well-developed constructive imagination,\na close thinker; but if he stop here, he will not have done all for his pupil that he should\nhave done, for a man can have all of these powers highly developed and still be a fit subject for prison. He must arouse the most healthy emotions; he must appeal to the will,\nand thus enter the domain of morals. In this way he will help to develop a man that is\nworth while. This is his aim, and to do this he has in view a far higher purpose in obtaining knowledge than has the mere book-worm of a scholar. His knowledge should differ\nin many respects from that of the mere scholar; for he must impart those ideas that will\narouse the highest motives for action.\nHenry L. Johnson, teacher of history in Eastern Illinois Normal School. — In\ndrawing the distinction between the scholar and the teacher, one point seems to have\nbeen overlooked this morning, and that is that the scholar has before him the problem of\nhow to communicate his learning. His interest does not always stop with ihefacl, as has\nbeen suggested. Dr. Mommsen, for example, the great historian of Rome, who has been\ncontrasted with Dr. Arnold by one of the speakers, had before him so consciously the\ncircle of readers whom he wished to reach thru his history that a French critic has\naccused him of sacrificing his scholarship to his public. Surely, here is a phase of the\nproblem of which so much has been made in seeking to differentiate the teacher's\nknowledge of a subject from a scholar's knowledge.\nProfessor Grant Karr, State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. — In all of this discussion there seems to be one essentially wrong assumption which has received very little\nattention, viz., that mind, facts, and their organization may be looked upon as unrelated,\nas entirely isolated from each other.\nFrom the general trend of the discussion one might\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "♦Department]\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nKNO WLEDGE\n\nvs. SCHOLAR'S\n\nKNO WLEDGE\n\n5^5\n\nbe led to believe that there is such a thing as a fact per se, apart from any mind, which\nthe mind reaches out and apprehends much as an animal takes in food.\nIn this way great emphasis has been placed upon the distinction between certain\nfacts according as they are known by the child, the teacher, or the scholar. Doubtless\nideas differ greatly according to the nature and culture of their possessors, but still their\nsimilarity is as great as or greater than their difference. This phase of the subject has been\nmentioned incidentally, but its importance would seem to warrant its receiving greater\nemphasis.\nIn the first place, there is no such thing as a fact entirely separate from a mind which\ncan be taken hold of and drav/n into the mind. A fact is- a thing made, and its maker is\na process of thought, and this process of thought is a functioning mind. The fact is that\nin which the whole niind reveals itself. There are no dead facts, but only thinking minds\nrevealing themselves in facts.\nFacts differ according. to the difference in the experience and culture of persons, but\nthey are alike and of the same nature in so far as all minds are alike in their nature and\ncumulative processes.\nMr. Parsons says, \"Relations are a part of knowledge,\" and, \"The general is the\nonly abiding knowledge.\" In a child's facts of geography or history there must be certain characteristics which are general and abiding, else the facts would not be geography\nor history. These general characteristics must be known also by the teacher and\nscholar, if they know their subject, because they are permanent and abiding. The\nteacher and scholar must take into account the facts known by the child, because they are\na part of their own equipment, of their own summarized experiences; and while distinctions and differences between the facts known by pupils, teachers, and scholars are great\nand important, they should not be unduly emphasized at the expense of unity, the\ngeneral, the permanent and abiding in these phases of educational work.\nThis is, indeed, idealism, but it is an idealism which constitutes true realism. It is\nthe idealism of Herbart, Froebel, and Dewey.\nPresident John W. Cook. — If I may be permitted, I should like to add another\nword. It is interesting to reflect upon the reasons for this discussion. For many years\nthe normal schools were attacked for what was called their academic work. Naturally\nthey endeavored to free themselves from the odium of being simply academies when they\ndesired to be considered professional schools. No sooner, however, did they attempt to\nbecome professional than they were attacked from another side. It was then declared\nthat the great lack of the normal school was anything approaching genuine scholarship.\nIt is evident that the topic which we have just been discussing was put upon the program\nfor the purpose of defending the normal schools for what has improperly been called their\nacademic work. Those of us who are engaged in the professional education of teachers\nbelieve most thoroly that a large part of our professional work lies entirely on the\nside of the subject-matter of instruction. When we use the word \"method,\" consequently,\nour friends must understand that we are not talking of the tricks and devices, which are\nindeed valuable, but of a proper treatment of the subjects' of instruction. If they will\nsimply understand this department of normal-school work, method will have a richer\nsignificance in their vocabularies.\nIt is most interesting to watch people of university training who are genuinely in\nearnest in their effort to acquire a technique of instruction in elementary grades. I may\nbe pardoned for introducing a personal experience. Two years ago I needed a teacher\nof literature. I learned of a woman who was said to be amply endowed by nature, and\nfurnished with liberal culture by her long studies in the university. Upon meeting her I\ndiscovered, or I thought that I discovered, the a*ded graces of genuine love for teaching,\nan enthusiasm for literature, and a fine sincerity in all the relations of life. Consequently\nI employed her and took great pains in assigning her work to make her regular duties in\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^\n\nrNormal\n\nthe normal department very light, in order that she might devote herself to the instruction of children in elementary grades. I shall never forget her self-consciousness, even\namounting to shame, as she earnestly struggled to interest herself in the simple literature\nof childhood, and to take with the children, in a genuinely sympathetic way, their shortened step. The phenomenon was an extremely interesting one. A good half-year had\ngone before the sense of the trivial had disappeared and she could enter with a genuine\nenthusiasm into the lives of the children as they joined with her in the studies of the fairytale and folk-lore.\nThis transforming process is always intensely interesting, and it must take place in\nthe experience of the university-man or woman who enters upon the instruction of childhood in any fashion that means genuine success.\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF ADMISSION\n\nTO NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nI\nWALTER\n\nP. BECKWITH,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSALEM,\n\nMASS.\n\nThere are certain fundamental requisites, such as sound bodily health\nand a good moral character, which should always be considered as indispensable in candidates for admission to any normal school. Beyond\nthis, the admission of candidates is a matter to be determined chiefly by\nlocal conditions. It resembles the tariff question, as that was viewed in a\nwell-remembered political campaign by a certain candidate for the presidency. Even in the same state, uniformity in all respects is not possible\nexcept at the expense, of general usefulness, and it is, therefore, not desirable. In Massachusetts this fact has been recognized and the logical\nconsequences accepted. While the requirements for admission are uniform thruout the state, and while the questions prepared for the examinations are identical, each school is left to determine for itself the results of\nthe tests, and there is necessarily a variety of results. An equal degree\nof liberty is given to the nine individual schools in working out their\nspecial problems of greatest service. A normal school is in a measure\nconditioned by its capacity, by its number of applicants for admission,\nand by its market.\nIf these statements are true of the schools in a single state, they will\nbe true, in an even larger degree, of the schools in different states. A\nlarge element of this discussion must consequently consist of the presentation of the varying conditions and of the means by which, in various\nplaces, the attempt is made to meet them.\nSince 1896 admission to Massachusetts normal-school examinations\nhas been restricted to graduates of high schools and to other persons\nhaving an equivalent education. The conditions have been enforced with\na gradually increasing degree of strictness. They are now understood to\ninclude only graduates of four-year courses. The vast majority of the\ncandidates come from the public high schools. My own school is probably\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depaitm-nt]\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF ADMISSION\n\nTO NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n5^7\n\na fair type of the Massachusetts schools in this respect. In 1902 there\nwere 11 1 candidates admitted to the regular course. Of these, 103 were\ngraduates of four-year courses in public high schools, five were from\nacademies doing work equal to that of the public high schools, and the\nremaining three were from country academies who either had had experience in teaching or showed more than average promise.\nThe Massachusetts schools also offer a special course of one year, but\nthe privilege of taking it is restricted to college graduates, graduates of\nnormal schools, and other persons of maturity who have had considerable\nexperience in teaching. The number of such students is not large, rarely\nreaching 10 per cent, of the membership of the school, and each school\nprobably rejects every year more applications for the privilege than it\ngrants, because the applicants are not regarded as coming within the conditions prescribed.\nSomething, perhaps, should be said of the manner in which admission\nis determined. Written examinations are not the only element considered.\nCertain general credentials of character are required. The schools now\nconduct the physical examinations for themselves, instead of accepting\nformal certificates from physicians. Candidates are invited to present\ntheir high-school records, and any statements they can furnish regarding\ntheir personal characteristics and attainments from former instructors.\nAll practicable opportunity is improved for oral communication with\nthem by the normal-school examiners, and they are required to read\naloud suitable selections. All these things are considered in determining\nthe question of admission. The results, therefore, do not depend upon\nany arbitrary dead-line of percentages. It must be remembered that the\nMassachusetts schools, in point of nujmbers, are small, as compared with\nthose found in many sections of the country, the largest normal school in\nthis state having less than three hundred students. Especial emphasis is\nplaced upon the opinions of the teachers who have known the candidates\nduring their high-school courses, and such utterances, when known to be\nthose of persons who are discriminating, frank, and fearless, not infrequently turn the scale. It is also generally true, while many candidates\nare annually rejected — the percentage of rejections at some schools has\nsometimes been as high as 20 — that the schools all prefer, so far as their\naccommodations permit, to be rather liberal in admissions, and to apply\ntheir stricter tests to the work done and the promise shown by the students after admission.\nThe results, with the conditions prevailing here, have justified the\nimportant change made seven years ago. The number of admissions has\nincreased about 80 per cent., when compared with the average of the previous ten years. This increase is in part accounted for by the opening\nof four new schools — one in 1895, and three others in 1896 and 1897;\nbut less than half of it can properly be so reckoned.\nThe percentage of\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTNormal\n\nnormal graduates employed in the public schools of the state has arisen\nfrom 36 to nearly 50, and is annually increasing. The average wages\nof teachers, during the same period, have increased more than 10 per\ncent.\nThese results have been attained in the face of a constantly increasing college influence, and along with the wonderful growth of Smith,\nMount Holyoke, Wellesley, and Radcliffe — not to mention the coeducational institutions like Tufts and Boston University. The attendance\nof Massachusetts women at all these colleges has vastly increased and\ntoday more than one-tenth of the membership of Vassar College consists\nof Massachusetts residents. All these institutions draw their students\nchiefly from our public high schools.\nThe explanation, if one is needed, is to be found in the fact that the\nnormal schools, by raising their standards of admission, were thus placed\nin an entirely different relation to the public-school system. Instead of\nbeing on a level with high schools, as formerly, they are now distinctly\nabove them. Hence the increasing respect in which they are held by the\npublic, by the teachers themselves, and by the high schools. The change\nin the normal schools has naturally been followed by a marked change in\nthe attitude of the high schools toward them. Many of our best high\nschools now have courses of study meeting directly and specifically the\nnormal-school requirements for admission. Formerly the only recourse\nfor a young woman graduate of the high school was to the college ; different tastes and needs are now met by the normal-school course, and\nits advantages to those intending to teach are much more often than\nformerly given due consideration by high-school principals in advising\ntheir pupils.\nAlong with these changes has gone the requirement that such towns\nas are not obliged to maintain high schools shall provide free tuition in\nother towns for those residents who are properly prepared.\nMassachusetts is, relatively speaking, a thickly settled state, and this\nfact, of course, is a material factor in her educational problem. It makes\npossible here requirements which it is not feasible to adopt in other states\nwhere the population is less dense ; but the change was not made any too\nearly here. States are more likely to be too timid than too rash in facing\nthe problem of establishing a reasonable standard of preparation for their\nteachers. When the teaching force is to be recruited, we are dependent\nupon volunteers, and due account must be taken of all rational means by\nwhich the ambition of would-be teachers can be aroused. The change\ndid not command universal approval in this state when it was made, and\nsome intelligent and well-disposed persons thought they saw in it the\ncertain destruction of the normal schools. But experience has shown\nthat their fears were groundless, and the normal schools have shared the\ngeneral results which have followed the action, of other prominent insti-\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF ADMISSION\n\nTO NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n569\n\ntutions of learning when corresponding steps have been taken. No college or professional school in New England has ever raised its standard\nof admission without finding that students were attracted, rather than\nrepelled, by the action. For a year or two the contrary result may appear,\nbut the loss in such cases is only temporary, and it is soon more than\nmade -good.\nFinally, something should be said regarding the teachers in the rural\nschoc)ls. Many of these are young women without professional training\n— ambitious girls who have mastered the requisite subject-matter after a\nfashion and teach a few terms before marriage; many are young normalschool graduates; and there are others of various kinds. From their\nranks comes no small number of really successful teachers, tho the usefulness of a large proportion of them might be greatly hastened and\nincreased by even a little work in a normal school. To furnish teachers\nfor these schools no specially organized effort is made in this state.\nThey have to take their chances, and what with low salaries and surroundings and appliances still far from ideal, some of their lots are not\nhappy ones. In the normal schools, as now existing, the work is done\nupon the hypothesis that all schools should have teachers of practically\nequivalent training. Large numbers of normal graduates begin their\nteaching in country schools; the best ones are quickly discovered and\npromoted to positions in village and city schools. The experience is\nexceedingly valuable for them, and supplements most admirably their\nnormal-school courses.\nWhether the beneficence of the state', more and more manifested with\nalmost every year toward the smaller and poorer communities, could find\na useful expression in some form of normal-school work may be an interesting question; the limits set for this paper do not encourage any\nattempt at a discussion of it ; but, since the present aim has been to set\nforth truthfully the conditions that now exist here, it seems necessary to\nmake a brief reference to this phase of the problem.\n\nII\nR. H. HALSEY, PRESIDENT\n\nOF STATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL, OSHKOSH,\n\nWIS.\n\nThat we may enter upon our discussion without loss of time, let us\ntake it for granted that, however widely we may differ in theory and practice as to the function of normal schools, we recognize as their main object\nthe training of teachers for the common schools. Let us understand,\nfurther, that this term \"common schools\" includes both rural and city\nschools. Let us leave out of consideration the training of teachers for\nsecondary schools, tho many excellent teachers in strong high schools\nhave doubtless gained their training in state normal schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nIt would be well if all applicants for admission to normal schools were\nrequired to furnish evidence of good moral character in something more\nthan the perfunctory manner in which persons desiring to become\nnaturalized furnish evidence of good moral character — by showing that\nthey have never been convicted of an indictable offense. Positive testimony to the possession of such character, as we feel should be the foundation upon which should be reared the superstructure of professional\nqualifications, should be demanded not only from the teacher, but from\nother persons in the community having knowledge of the applicant for\nadmission to the normal school.\nAgain, every person seeking to enter the teaching profession thru the\ngateway of the normal school should present evidence of good health. It\nis true that in some of our larger cities this requirement is rigidly enforced,\nso that many persons whose general health is such as to unfit them for the\nnerve-trying work of teaching are excluded from the teachers' training\nclasses. But tho the greater number of normal schools have a nominal\nrequirement for their entering students of a physician's certificate of good\nhealth, my observation leads me to conclude that this is a \"paper\" requirement only. It needs no argument to show that the normal school is\nestablished, not only to prepare those fitted by nature and education for\nservice as teachers, but also to keep out of the profession those physically,\ntemperamentally, or educationally lacking. The state could much better\nafford to pension its invalid teachers or to maintain in idleness those who\ndesire to enter the profession, but are physically unfit for it, than to allow\nthe children to suffer under the nervous strain that such teaching produces.\nIt is my belief that more candidates for admission to normal schools\nare deficient in a good working knowledge of the common branches than\nin any other one particular. This statement applies to high-school\ngraduates as well as to those entering more elementary courses. The\ncomplaint of normal-school instructors because of the faulty preparation\nof their students in English is as universal as was the wail a few years ago\nover the Harvard examinations in English. If the normal school could\nbut take for granted thoro preparation in arithmetic, geography, United\nStates history, grammar, and composition, leaving the time of the class\nfree for the consideration of the professional aspect of these branches,\nmuch time could be saved for our students. Occasionally students come\nto us as high-school graduates who have had no work along these lines,\nwith the possible exception of composition, since their days in the grammar school, and it is not surprising that the entrance examination reveals\nno foundation for professional work in these branches. Our request of\nthe high school should be for more emphasis to be placed upon this work\nwith such of their students as are planning to enter the normal school.\nIn my judgment such work in the high school would not by any means\nbe amiss for those students who are planning to enter college, and cer-\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOJVDITIONS\n\nOF ADMISSTOM\n\nTO NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n571\n\ntainly it would be beneficial for those to whom the high school is the\nfinishing school. The community into which the normal-school graduate\ngoes to teach may not be able to appreciate his accurate knowledge of the\nsciences or of a foreign language, his professional understanding of the\nmethods of teaching reading or nature study, his familiarity with the\nhistory of education; but let him show a weakness in his grasp of the common branches, and they are quick enough to detect it and often unreasonably harsh in the judgment they pass upon him because of his weakness.\nIt is in view of this fact that the normal schools of Wisconsin, while\naccepting the diploma from a four-year-course high school as a qualification for admission to the junior class of the school, nevertheless require\nthe holder of such diploma to pass an examination in arithmetic, grammar, and geography before he may be admitted to a class studying the\nprofessional phases of those subjects.\nWe have heard it often repeated during the past few years that the\ntime is near at hand when graduation from a four-year-course high school\nwill be absolutely necessary for admission to any normal school. It seems\nquite evident that if we are trying to outline the qualifications for a\nteacher in an ideal system of schools, we shall insist that the requirement\nought to include a normal-school course of at least two years subsequent\nto a four-years' high-school course. But we must face the conditions\nactually existing before we commit ourselves to the proposition that we\nhave now reached a time when we can demand high-school graduation for\nall students entering the normal school.\nI take Wisconsin as a typical state of the north central section, and\nbecause a long residence there has made me familiar with its public-school\nsystem. The state superintendent's report for the school year 190 1-2\nshows that there were 13,403 teachers employed in the public schools of\nthe state for that year, 3,099 of whom were employed in cities having\nsuperintendents of schools. The average professional life of a city\nteacher with us is not more than seven years, and probably less than that\nlength of time. That would necessitate about 450 new teachers each year,\nto supply the places of those dropping out of the city schools. The\naverage professional life of the Tural-school teacher is probably not\nmore than three years. That would call for about 3,500 new teachers\nannually for these schools. To meet these demands for new teachers the\nseven normal schools of the state, enrolling 2,600 students during the\nschool year 190 1-2, graduated 395 from the advanced course and 146\nfrom the elementary course. It will be seen that the graduates from the\nadvanced course do not suffice to furnish the cities of the state with the\nnumber of new teachers needed, and the elementary course furnishes only\nabout 4 per cent, of the number needed for the rural schools.\nUnder such circumstances it would be worse than folly for us to consider seriously at this time in the educational development of the state\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nthe feasibility of limiting attendance upon the normal schools to those\nwho are high-school graduates. One-half of the number of students\nenrolled are first- or second-year students — that is, are pursuing with their\nprofessional work studies of high-school rank. At a time when those completing the course in the normal schools especially designed for ruralschool teachers are only one twenty-fifth of the number actually needed,\ndoes it seem wise to advocate the abolition of the so-called elementary\ncourse and exclude one-half of the students now in attendance upon the\nschools? Not to paint the picture in colors darker than is justifiable, I\nought to say that the situation is somewhat relieved by the en)ployment\nin the rural schools of more than fifteen hundred undergraduates of the\nnormal schools as teachers.\nThe evolution that is going on in this matter of securing professionally\ntrained teachers for the common schools is shown by the fact that the four\nschools situated in the southern half of the state — the older portion —\nhave 37 per cent, of their students in the elementary course, while the\nthree schools in the northern part — the more recently settled portion of\nthe state — have 70 per cent, of their students in this same course.\nRealizing the fact that its normal schools are not satisfying the demand\nfor teachers for rural schools, the state has provided for the establishment\nof a number of county training schools for teachers, to which are admitted\nthose who have secured a common-school diploma. It is probable that\nmany of the students who have spent their year in these county training\nschools will, after an interval of teaching, enroll in the normal schools\nand so further prepare themselves for service in the public schools of the\nstate.\nI do not believe it is the wise thing, however, for the normal schools\nto withdraw entirely from the field of preparing teachers for the rural\nschools. If for no other reason than a matter of policy, it seems to me\nthat the normal schools must keep in close touch with the country schools,\nespecially in these states where the majority of the population is found\nin those portions which God is said to have made — the country. Furthermore, Ibelieve it is desirable for every person intending to enter upon\nthe work of teaching in the public schools to have at least a year's experience in teaching in a rural school, so that he may gain the self-reliance\nthat such work naturally develops. If there is any inherent virtue in the\nAmerican system of town government, anything that helps to develop a\ndemocratic spirit, then it is well for our intending teachers to gain the\ndiscipline that may come from teaching in a school most closely associated\nwith that form of government. To keep in touch with the country\nschools it seems to me absolutely necessary that we should continue the\nelementary course in our normal schools. We cannot expect that the\nprospect of permanent employment in such schools will prove sufficiently\nalluring to induce our high-school graduates to take two years in the\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF ADMISSION\n\nnormal school to prepare for this work.\nfor them.\n\nTO NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n573\n\nIt is a poor financial investment\n\nAn examination of the catalogs of the state normal schools in the\nnorth central section of states will satisfy any one that the data given with\nregard to Wisconsin represent the condition of affairs in most of the\nnormal schools of that section — that about one-half of the students\nenrolled are in the two-years' course of the normal school, the academic\nwork of which would correspond more nearly to the last two years of a\nfour-years' course in a high school. That about the same ratio exists in\nthe New York state normal schools may be inferred from the fact that\nduring the year 1900-1901, when there were 4,523 students in attendance\nifpon the twelve schools, there were only 1,089 graduates — approximately\none graduate to four students enrolled. During the same year there\nwere 43,372 students enrolled in the public normal schools of»the United\nStates and 8,753 graduates — or one graduate to every five students\nenrolling. In so far as my knowledge goes, it is not a correct statement\nof facts to say that students are admitted to high schools and to state\nnormal schools upon the same standard of scholastic attainment. Not\nonly is a much higher standard of maturity demanded of the entering\nstudent in the normal school, but a higher standard of scholarship is also\nrequired. I am led to make this denial because of the repetition of this\nstatement in discussions that have occurred in various departments of this\nAssociation, as reported in the published proceedings.\nThat what is true of the insufficiency of the normal-school product in\nthe north central states to supply the teachers needed for the schools in\nthat section is true in other parts of the United States may be seen from\nthe following statistics, taken from the report of the state superintendent\nof public instruction of New York for 1902 : The total number of\ngraduates from the normal schools for the year 1901 was 1,089. The\ntotal number of licensed teachers employed in the state for the same year\nwas 32,453. If we allow six years as the length of the professional service\nof the average teacher, there would be needed 5,400 new teachers each\nyear. It will be seen that the normal-school output would supply just\nabout one-fifth of that number. Commissioner Harris says in his article\non \"Elementary Education\" in the volume Education in the United States :\n\"It may be assumed, therefore, that less than one-eighth of the supply of\nnew teachers comes from the training schools especially designed to\neducate teachers.\" President Schurman's statement is that only 15 per\n.cent, of the teachers in the United States have passed thru normal\nschools.\nIn view of these facts, should we be taking a step forward or backward if we were to reduce the number of students attending normal\nschools by admitting none but high-school graduates? It would seem as\nif this were a new application of the old homeopathic principle of high\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\npotencies — the higher the potency of your drug, the more efficacious its\nremedial agency.\nThe consideration that enters more largely into this matter than any\nother one is probably the compensation that awaits the intending teacher.\nWhen one learns that the average salary paid to teachers in the cities of\nthe United States is $687, he will at once admit the reasonableness of\n\ndemanding high-school graduation as a condition for admission to the\nnormal school in the preparation of teachers of .this class. And yet this\nquestion cannot be settled purely by a determination of average salary.\nWe have here an illustation of the old Hindoo proverb that \"the ox was\ndrowned in the stream whose average depth was only sufficient to cover\nthe hoof.\" While we might be entirely willing to recommend eveft\ncollege graduation as a prerequisite for professional training for teachers\nin the citi« of New York state, whose average salary is $928, yet we\nshould be inclined to think that, considered as a matter of financial\ninvestment, the expense of a* high-school course, supplemented by two\nyears in a normal school, would not be warranted by the average annual\nsalary of teachers in the cities of West Virginia, ^413. When we take\ninto account the salaries paid to country-school teachers, we shall see how\nhopeless is the case of those demanding high-school graduation plus\nnormal-school training as a qualification for all teachers. The average\nmonthly salary for women teachers outside of cities in Wisconsin for the\nschool year 190 1-2 was $33.19. We cannot expect that young women\nwill enter upon a prolonged course of training in high school and normal\nschool with no prospect of greater financial return than this. Are we\nnot beginning at the wrong end of this problem? Should we not rather\nset ourselves to the task of securing a respectable compensation for\nteachers of rural schools, being assured that the demands for higher\nqualifications will always be a little in advance of the increase in salary;\nI do not wish to be understood as pleading for the continuance of a low\nstandard of entrance to normal schools. I believe that these schools\nshould always keep in advance of popular demand for progress in educational matters ; but they must not be so far in advance as to get out of sight\nof the taxpayer. They must remember the responsibility that rests upon\nthem to educate the public as they advance. No advanced position can\nbe maintained unless they hasten to bring the people to this position, so\nthat educational orthodoxy shall always be crowding upon the heels of\nradicalism. I have no doubt that there will be a continued gradual\nprogress in the standard*of admission to normal schools, so that states,\nthat now admit upon the presentation of a third-grade teacher's certificate, or its equivalent, shall soon require the candidate 'to present the\nsecond-grade certificate ; those requiring the second-grade certificate will\ndemand a first-grade certificate; those demanding the first-grade certificate will ask that the intending student will present a certificate of the\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nOF ADMISSION\n\nTO NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n575\n\ncompletion of a three-year course in a high school, or its equivalent.\nEventually, as salaries slowly advance in response to this gradually\nincreasing demand for professionally trained teachers, with no corresponding increase in the supply of such teachers, we shall reach a position\nwhere we may ask that the teacher shall have had her normal-school\ntraining subsequent to a high-school course; and this, I hope, even for\nthe teacher of the rural school. I am glad that Massachusetts has already\nreached that advanced position, and I shall be more than pleased when\nWisconsin shall have gained the same point of progress. But I hope\nthat we may never be compelled to purchase that advancement at the\ncost of a separation in normal schools of those who are preparing for\nteaching in rural districts, on the one hand, and those who will render\nservice as teachers in city schools, on the other. Each class needs the\ninfluence of the other.\n\nDISCUSSION\nE. L. Hendricks, superintendent of schools, Delphi, Ind. — In a consideration of\nthe standard of admission to normal schools, I believe that some things may be insisted\nupon with uniformity.\nGood health and a sound body should certainly be required of all who would be\nteachers.\nThe dyspeptic and the deformed should not stand before the young.\nCommon-sense and native ability should be prime requisites to admission. No\namount of professional training can take their place. The teacher must be able to see\nthe general fitness of things.\nIf moral character-building is the highest aim in education, high types of manhood\nand womanhood should be expected of those who engage in the finest of the fine arts.\nThese characteristics are fundamental and should be demanded everywhere. They\nmay not always be discernible when the student seeks admission; but, if found wanting, the would-be teacher should be advised to withdraw from a prospect of so grave\nresponsibility.\nScholastic requirements for admission may not be insisted upon with the same degree\nof uniformity. The conditions of admission to any school should be determined, in large\nmeasure, by the needs of the educational field which supports the school. With state\nnormal schools this field is the state. We may regret the provincialism, but it remains the\nduty of the school to supply the needs of the state. As long as there is a difference in the\neducational needs of our states, the scholastic requirements for admission to our normal\nschools cannot be uniform.\nWe rejoice with Massachusetts, who has led the way before, that she can require\ngraduates of first-class high schools. Indiana would do as well, or better, but at present\nit would be impossible to maintain so high a standard. During the school year just\nclosed only 15 per cent, of Indiana's teachers were normal-school graduates ; only 8 per\ncent, were graduates of state normal schools. At our last meeting of city superintendents\nrepeated calls were made for trained teachers and there was no answer. Nor is this\ndearth of trained teachers peculiar to Indiana — which, by the way, is not as old\nas some Massachusetts teachers now living. The Report of the Committee on Normal Schools informs us that 75 per cent, of teachers in this country are without any\nspecial training for their work. We must not increase this percentage of untrained\nteachers for the sake of a higher standard of scholarship.\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nCity superintendents know the value of trained teachers, and we want more of them.\nFor this reason no phase of educational work is more favored than the training school.\nBut we know, too, that few high-school graduates, with additional training, are content to\nteach in the elementary schools. They secure positions in high schools, thus making our\nnormal schools a place of training for one class of teachers alone ; or, in the present prosperous commercial condition of the country, they enter the more lucrative business world.\nFrom 25 to 30 per cent, of our teachers drop out annually. Larger inducements must be\noffered the high -school graduate before he can afford a normal-school training in order\nthat he may teach in the elementary school.\nI believe that the standard of scholarship for admission to normal schools should vary\nwith the character of work to be done. We are perhaps agreed that teachers in secondary\nschools should be college or university graduates with normal-school training. We hope\nmore of them will take the professional work. It would not injure some college professors to take a course in the training school. We are perhaps agreed, also, that teachers\nin elementary schools should be high-school graduates with normal-school training. I\nbelieve the student body of the normal school of the future will be made up largely of\nthese classes of students. And it is well to keep such qualifications for admission in mind.\nThey serve well as an ideal toward which we may work. But it will be some time before\nsuch standards can be maintained thruout the states. We now have many teachers of\nmature years and successful experience, but without academic scholarship. We must kqep\nthem. Our normal schools must, for the present, continue to train those who have\nfinished the elementary-school course and satisfied the state in regard to scholarship.\nI believe the business of the normal school is to meet a condition as well as to exploit\na theory. The standard of admission should be high, but never beyond the common needs\nof the great mass of the people.\nPresident Albert Salisbury, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis. — I wish to\nlay a little more emphasis on two points that have been raised :\nFirst, with regard to the physical requirements for admission to normal schools. At\npresent they are only nominal ; they ought to be made-more real and stringent. Consumptives,\ndyspeptics, and the deformed are being trained at state expense to enter the severe labor\nof the schoolroom. Those who are physically unfit for any other calling think that they\nmay legitimately turn to teaching ; and our sympathies prevent us from excluding them.\nIt is the children of the land who are entitled to our sympathies and our protection. But\nwe shall never accomplish our duty in this matter without official medical inspection. The\nfamily physician will certify to anything that is asked of him by his patrons. Many\nstudents who enter the normal schools plead physical inability to take the gymnastic exercises of the school, and bring a physician's certificate of disability. Why should such\ndefectives be helped by the state to inflict themselves upon the school children of the state\nthru neglect of proper tests for securing what we all assume to be just and needful ?\nMy other point concerns the scholastic requirements. All seem to be practically\nagreed that we should work toward the standard of high-school graduation as a condition\nfor admission to normal-school courses. But this ought not to be asked on the old\ngrounds, viz., that we may thus be left free to give a \" purely professional\" course of two\nyears in the normal school. I trust the day may never come when we shall do that, or\nwhen we shall exclude the common branches from the normal school. A higher standard\nfor admission should be sought in order that we may have more time to devote to the\ncommon branches from the pedagogical point of view, the consideration of the mental\nprocesses which they severally involve, and their relations to life. And we should not be\nunduly alarmed about any waste of time thru overlapping of courses. The only sure way\nof learning things is by \"overlapping,\" by frequent return to the same ideas or facts in\nrelations that are practical and vital.\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\nHENRY\n\nACADEMIC\n\nACADEMIC\n\nJOHNSON,\n\nSIDE\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nWORK\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTEACHER OF HISTORY, EASTERN\nILLINOIS\nSCHOOL, CHARLESTON, ILL.\n\n577\n\nWORK\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nIn one form or another normal schools are from time to time admonished that their business is to teach teachers how to teach and not how\nto acquire knowledge. No one understands this to mean, of course, that\ngeneral scholarship should not be a factor in the equipment of teachers.\nWhat is implied is that the necessary foundations of scholarship should\nbe laid before entrance to the normal school. The fact that normal\nschools themselves undertake to lay such foundations is, according to\ncommon tradition, only a confession of the existence of a necessary evil,\nwhich is to be eliminated whenever and wherever circumstances may permit. Two considerations seem to lie at the root of this attitude. In the\nfirst place, it is assumed that academic work in normal schools must,\nsooner or later, resolve itself into mere duplication of work offered in\nother institutions. It is then to be regarded as unnecessary. In the\nsecond place, it is urged that a general education forms no proper part of\nthe program of a professional school. It has been excluded from schools\nof law and medicine. By the same token it ought to be excluded from\nnormal schools.\nThe possibility of duplicating instruction may be readily granted. It\nis, however, a possibility not peculiar to normal schools. There is a\nduplication of grade work in the high school, of high-school work in the\ncollege, and of high-school and college work in the graduate departments\nof the university. The evil, if such it be, is seen most clearly in the case\nof normal schools, not because it is there exhibited in the highest degree,\nbut because normal schools, owing to the circumstances of their evolution,\nhave developed the greatest amount of sensitiveness to it. Observant\ntaxpayers and other critics of educational waste, who would bar from normal schools instruction available in other institutions, have seized upon a\nprinciple of wider application than seems to be generally recognized.\nWhether the normal school, in view of possible duplication, is justified in\nmaintaining, as a part of its curriculum, courses along conventional academic lines is a question -that cannot be examined fairly in isolation.\nThere are other pertinent queries. Is the high school justified in teaching arithmetic and grammar ? Is the college justified in offering French\nand German to beginners? Is the university justified in maintaining\nelementary courses in history ? Is the law school justified in presenting\nconstitutional law? Is the medical school justified in supporting a chair\nof anatomy ? The student of history not infrequently goes to the university to sit at the feet of a great man wh« has written a small book for highschool use, only to find the great man slavishly following the very manual\nwhich the student conned in the high school.\nBut such a possibility\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nseems neither to call for apology on the part of the university for duplicating instruction, nor to suggest the desirability of dropping \" History\n1449 \" from the list of graduate courses. One need not seek far for\nsimilar illustrations from schools of law and medicine. In such instances\nthe accepted principle seems to be that an educational institution may\noffer the work adapted to its special needs and ends without much dread\nof previously established boundaries. Cases of palpable overlapping are\nfreely disposed of, not by running new lines, but simply by \"allowing\ncredit.\" So far as mere duplication of instruction is concerned, normal\nschools may, then, assume responsibility for general scholarship without\napology to other educational institutions. May they assume such responsibility without apology to their own \"professional \" character?\nAmong the Delphic utterances of modern pedagogy there is, perhaps,\nnone more familiar than that which informs us of the existence of the\nchild in the presence of subject-matter, with a teacher between them to\nattend to the ceremony of introduction. In recognition of the special\nproblems created by this situation, normal schools are established and\nmaintained. The function to be performed is vaguely described as \"professional.\" Its main concern is to define the aims of education and to\narouse conciousness of the processes by which those aims maybe realized.\nSuch a function must obviously take account both of the child and of the\nsubject-matter of instruction. But, in their anxiety to be clearly differentiated from institutions for general culture, normal schools have usually\nfelt the necessity of acknowledging, in theory, a self-denying ordinance\nwith reference to the subject-matter. The \"strictly professional,\" as\nordinarily conceived, is held to exclude the \"purely academic\" and to\nfurnish the sole excuse for being which it is legitimate for normal schools\nto offer. It is common, in this connection, to cite the case of schools of\nlaw and medicine. The comparison is often quite misleading. In the\nlatter, provision is made for a knowledge of the actual subject-matter of\nlaw and medicine to be used in winning and saving, or in losing, cases.\nThe corresponding subject-matter for the teacher lies within the field of\ngeneral education. The branches actually to be taught constitute for him\nwhat law and medicine constitute for 'the lawyer and physician. Those\nbranches in the normal school for which the label \" strictly professional \"\nis claimed correspond, not to the complete curricula of schools of law and\nmedicine, but rather to certain minor courses and parts of courses that\ntreat of the principles and methods of court procedure and of medical\npractice. The analogy of schools of law and medicine, if it proves anything for the normal school, proves more than is usually intended.\nIt is professional to know the child. It is also professional to know\nthe subject-matter of instruction. Both are involved in the solution of\neducational problems. For the normal school to surrender the academic\npart of its domain is to invite at least a loss of balance.\nThere is a zeal\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nACADEMIC\n\nSIDE\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\n579\n\ninspired by pedagogy which regards the subject-matter of instruction as\nsomething to be determined wholly by principles derived from sources\noutside of the subject-matter itself.\n\"It was two by the village clock,\nWhen he came to the bridge in Concord town.\"\n\n\"This,\" says pedagogy to the child, \" is. history.\" \"But,\" protests\nsome big, dull book, \"he was stopped on the road by British soldiers and\n.\" \"Objection overruled,\" retorts pedagogy; \"the educational value\nof the story does not depend upon its literal accuracy.\" Last February,\nit may be remembered, the course of study in history for the grades was\nunder discussion at Cincinnati. After one of the meetings it was mildly\nsuggested to a well-known normal-school man that certain material which\nhe had been exploiting did not seem to fit any known historian's conception of history. The suggestion did not disturb him. With a gesture of\ncontempt he declared his complete indifference to historians. What he\nproposed was good for the child, and that was sufficient for his purpose.\nAnd yet he insisted upon calling the material \"history.\"\nSuch a point of view is not difficult to understand. In adapting history to the schoolroom — and here apology may as well be offered once\nfor all for drawing illustrations almost exclusively from one's own line of\nwork — there are obviously three factors to be considered : the aim of the\nstudy, the historic sense of the pupil, and the nature of history. Professional interest usually begins with a definition of aims. It has much\nto say of entertainment, inspiration, ethical ideals, patriotism. The next\nstep is to test the historic sense of the pupil. That seems to lead with\ngreat regularity into a realm peopled by creatures that breathe most\nfreely and act most consistently in an atmosphere of legend and romance.\nThe aim of the study being thus determined by professional considerations, and the nature of the materials being determined by the child,\nthere remains small need of special inquiry into the nature of history.\nWhen, later, the subject is investigated, professional zeal habitually looks\nfor light on the nature of history to philosophers, poets, critics, and\nschoolmasters, many of whom have never really studied the subject.\nThis is a method of procedtire applied by pedagogy in various fields.\nProfessional interest naturally finds the child of greater importance than\nthe integrity of any particular subject in the curriculum. It naturally\nlooks to the child as the center and inspiration of school effort. When,\ntherefore, a subject begins to \"decline to live peaceably\" with predetermined pedagogical theories, those charged with the administration of the\ntheories are likely to exercise a large liberty in transforming the subject.\nNumerous acts are thus inspired whi^h, from the point of view of the\nsubject, can be characterized only as a species of pedagogical vandalism.\nThe extent to which such acts are supposed to command respect and\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "58o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION-\n\nCNormal\n\nsympathy in normal schools may help, not only to explain, but to justify,\nthe suspicion with which the world of scholarship regards the normal\nschool. The latter cannot divide responsibility in the manner so often\nproposed and stiU hope to retain toward the academic a scholar's attitude.\nStrictly professional studies may, it is true, be pursued in an academic\nspirit, and thus be made to yield the fruits of scholarship. The history\nof education, for example, may be so presented as to illustrate the general\nprinciples of historical method. It is not likely to be so presented. But\neven if it should be, that would not be sufficient for the present contention. The flavor of scholarship must extend to the general branches —\narithmetic, geography, and the rest ; and it must be strong enough to be\ndetected by scholars. That this is a condition yet to be realized is quite\nevident. Take a single illustration. We normal-school men and women\nare frequently approached by publishers of gilded historical rubbish with\nrequests for testimonials, the result of which is that we firki ourselves\nquoted with bankers, clergymen, members of Congress, and other equally\ndiscriminating ex officio historical critics, for the benefit of a public that\nmay be conservatively described as indulgent. But how many of us were\ninvited to contribute to Larned's Literature of American History?\nThe normal school cannot, of course, undertake the task of training\nhistorical scholars in the technical sense. There can be no difference\nof opinion on this point. What may reasonably be expected on the\nacademic side is a training that shall prepare normal-school graduates to\nuse with intelligence the works of historical scholars, or, to speak more\ngenerally, of historians.\nWhat does this involve ?\nHere is a man, let us say, who has given the best years of his life to\nthe collection of materials for a History of the City Coopville. He has\naccumulated a large stock of oral traditions by talking with hundreds of\npersons now living. He has delved in letters, diaries, and official papers.\nHe has examined the records of the various social, industrial, and religious organizations. He has read the files of all the newspapers. He\nhas plowed his way thru the proceedings of the city council. In a thousand ways he has come into touch with the past life of the city. He\norganizes his material, constructs his narrative, gives to the world his\nlearning in four forbidding quartos, and goes to his reward poorer in\npocket and not much richer in fame. By and by some hack writer in\nsearch of a theme stumbles upon the quartos, and in a few months the\nnewspapers are organizing clubs to sell a rQV!i2ir\\i2ih\\e History of Coopville\nin two volumes, prepared by the greatest scholar of his time, a master of\nEnglish, a philosopher, and an artist. Publishers, newspapers, agents,\nwriter, reap their golden harvest, but not from the multitude. The work\nis still too bulky, the price is too high. So in due time another hand\ntakes the two volumes and compiles from them an easy, gossipy little\nbook of perhaps two hundred pages, and at last we have a History of\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nACADEMIC\n\nSIDE\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nWORK\n\n581\n\nCoopville suitable for the general public and for schools. Substitute for\nCoopville the United States, increase the number of years of preparation\nand the number of quartos, multiply the compilations and extend them\nto the «th degree, and we have an actual condition without the offense\nof calling names.\nNow, what is the demand of scholarship ? At the very least that the\nstudent shall be able to recognize the difference between the work of the\nman who writes the quartos and the work of the man who merely compiles from the quartos, or the work of the man who merely compiles from\na compilation of the quartos. A student who for the first time firmly\ngrasps this one distinction may find all of his thinking about history\nrevolutionized. Certainly he cannot hope without it to use intelligently\nthe works of historical scholars.\nAgain, the student should be trained in the use of indexes, tables of\ncontents, card catalogs, bibliographical aids. This is the mechanical side\nof historical research. It is drudgery, but drudgery that illuminates.\nMore general familiarity with its details would often render erudition less\nimposing and, perhaps for that very reason, more convincing. For\nerudition, to the uninitiated, at times becomes so wonderful that it\nassumes an air of unreality. Somebody once asked Freeman if any of the\nbooks which he had used in writing The Norman Conquest were printed.\nIt is scarcely conceivable that such a person should read with intelligence\nThe Norman Conquest.\nYet again, the student should be trained to solve representative types\nof historical problems. Historical compilations in general, including the\nordinary text-books, do not present the subject-matter of history in the\nlight of its problems. They are made up, as a rule, almost wholly of mere\nanswers to problems. When the student has learned these' answers and\nhas acquired some skill in \"organizing\" them, he is often credited in the\ncircles of the unthinking with the possession of historical scholarship. In\nreality nine-tenths of his answers may be wrong and he powerless to discover how or why, as if he had mastered arithmetic by learning the contents\nof a book of answers to arithmetical problems. The student should work\nout for himself some simple problem involving the interpretation of a\ndocument, say the boundaries of Pennsylvania according to the charter of\n168 1. He should examine the credibility of some source, say the famous\nPocahontas story as told in the General History of Virginia^ edition of\n1624. He should touch some issue complicated by long association with\npolitical or religious controversies not yet laid to rest, say the reasons for\nthe banishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts. After such a\ncanvass of original materials as shall justify conclusions of his own, he\nshould read, say, Hinsdale's account <W the boundary disputes that grew\nout of the Pennsylvania charter, Fiske's vigorous defense of John Smith,\nEggleston's championship of the *' Prophet of Religious Freedom.\"\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nsignificance of historical authority now becomes apparent. The inadequacy\nof a single author's treatment of historical questions is illustrated. The\nneed of discrimination in the selection of books is emphasized. If the\ndoctrine of the infallibility of text-books shall in consequence pass away,\nits place will be taken by an intelligent appreciation of some of the things\nthat history is, and of some of the things that history is not.\nFinally, the student should be trained to habits of accuracy in dealing\nwith historical facts. Such habits imply something more than acts of\nmemory. They imply discrimination in the use of data. Scholarship\ncannot proceed from the premise that one thing in history is just as true\nas another. Neither can it accept as a sufficient justification for historical\ninaccuracy the plea, so often made, that, if a thing is not so, it might have\nbeen so. It must regard history strictly as a record of what was, and not\nof what might have been. Even historians must use sparingly the argument from the \"spirit of the times.\" Others are likely to make it\nridiculous. One mission of history in school is to bring facts into\nbetter repute. This mission is to be accomplished by establishing more\ndefinite relations between history in school and history in histories. Such\na view of the subject must still take account of educational values. It\nmust still adapt materials to the historic sense of the pupil. But its point\nof departure is sought in the nature and aims of history itself as revealed\nin historical literature. Its foundation is laid in and for an intelligent use\nof histories.\nSuch academic requirements as have been indicated are to be urged\nmainly for the sake of the professional spirit itself. They are not in\nconflict with it. They are simply a basis for professional work. They\ndevelop an abiding interest in the subject itself, and thus relieve pedagogical anxiety of a large part of its burden. They adapt themselves to the\nnoblest professional purposes. But, all other considerations being waived,\nthe strictly professional still needs the salt of academic savor to preserve\nit from its own vagaries and needs it in the normal-school curriculum\nitself.\n\nTO\n\nWHAT EXTENT AND IN WHAT MANNER CAN THE\nNORMAL SCHOOL INCREASE ITS SCHOLARSHIP: {A)\nWITHOUT DIMINISHING ITS OUTPUT; (B) WITHOUT\nINCREASING ITS COST TOO GREATLY; (C) WITHOUT INFRINGING UPON THE LEGITIMATE LIBERAL\nARTS COURSE OF THE COLLEGE?\n\nJAMES\n\nM.\n\nGREEN,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTRENTON,\n\nN. J.\n\nThe state is raising and applying annually large sums of money for\nthe instruction of its children in what are termed the common branches\nof learning.\n\nThe extent of the common-school\n\ncurriculum is variable,\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department 1\n\nHO W TO INCREASE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\n5^3\n\ndepending upon times and conditions, but the branches included in what\nare usually termed the elementary and secondary courses are so generally\naccepted that they may be regarded as standard. If the state assumes to\nappropriate large sums of money for public instruction, it follows as a\nnatural consequent that this expenditure, for purposes of economy as\nwell as for an intelligent interpretation of the state's standard, must be in\nthe hands of those who are skilled; that is, must be in the hands of\ntrained teachers. Unless there are available institutions for training these\nteachers by private enterprise, it becomes necessary that the state establish such institutions. This has been done in many instances, and these\ninstitutions are known as state normal schools.\nThis account of the origin and purpose of these schools will serve to\nindicate somewhat the scope of their work. They are to prepare teachers\nfor the primary, grammar, and, to some extent, for the high-school\ngrades. The great mass of children are in the elementary grades, and\nfor these grades few private institutions definitely prepare teachers;\nhence the duty of the state within this range of work is clear. There are\nmany institutions of learning, such as colleges, technical schools, etc.,\nthat claim to prepare teachers for the secondary schools. To what extent\nthis claim is justified is not fully determined, but certain it is that the\nstate is very much relieved from pressure at this point. It cannot, however, fail to give in its normal schools a sufficient training in the highschool branches to enable the graduates to teach these branches, at least\nin the smaller high schools, and clearly to understand their educational\nvalues.\nWhat constitutes preparation to teach in certain branches is a question\npertinent to the inquiries in our topic. There are those who seem to\nconfuse the desirable personal culture of the teacher with the knowledge\nthat is essential to teaching certain branches or parts of branches to pupils.\nThese persons would have all teachers from the kindergarten up be graduates of colleges and possessed of accuracy as well as refinement in all\ntheir learning. These same persons make such statements as: \"The\nkindergarten teacher should be the best-informed teacher on the corps;\"\n\"No one other than college graduates should teach the secondary\nbranches;\" \"The most important part of education is the beginning.\nIf the foundation is not correctly laid, the superstructure will be defective ;\" etc. They fail to distinguish between inanimate brick and mortar,\nand the crude or refined states of vital energy. Whatever may be the\nvalue of such opinions as ideals, certain it is they are not practical. The\nnumber of teachers desired and the salaries paid them, in comparison\nwith the number of highly educated people and the income they can\ncommand, will, for many years, banish the vision of only highly educated\npeople engaged as teachers.\nOne who is to teach must know thoroly the subject-matter he is to\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "584\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC/ A TTON\n\n[Normal\n\nteach. He must also know the relations of this subject-matter to that\nwhich immediately precedes it and that which immediately follows it.\nFor instance, the teacher of solid geometry should understand trigonometry and plane geometry. To state this same point in another way: the\nteacher should understand that which leads up to his subject, as well as\nthat which immediately follows it, and for which it is a definite preparation.\nIf we will contrast this kind of a preparation in a subject on the part\nof the teacher with a preparation that a few years ago was quite familiar\nto most of us, and is yet too common — viz., a preparation so meager that\nthe teacher was not independent of the text-book — we shall realize that\nour proposed requirement is not so simple as it might at first thought\nseem. Apply this gauge to all the subjects falling within the school curriculum, and we have what maybe termed a minimum standard of preparation to teach in academic matter. The features of pedagogical training\n— viz., the selection of the most appropriate matter to teach a given class,\nthe best adaptation of that matter to the conditions of the class, the\nobservation of child growth and development, the resultants of certain\nsystems, practices, etc., formii^g the natural field of normal-school work —\ndepend upon the thoroness in the academic knowledge to such an extent\nthat, if it is not possessed by the students entering the normal school, it\nmust be secured within such school.\nBefore following the above statements with an application to our subject, I wish to say that I am not among those who are willing to risk\ngeneral and indiscriminate criticisms concerning normal schools. This\noffice should be left to certain of our magazine writers, college presidents,\nand professors, who do it so well. I fully realize that a personal knowledge of the conditions in a particular school is necessary to reliable\ncriticism on that school, and that this personal knowledge can be s^ecured\nonly thru visitation and study, rather than thru printed matter; hence, in\nthe very nature of things, the field of observation of any one critic is\nlimited. I am of the opinion, however, from the observation I have had,\nthat ce'rtain criticisms will apply to a great deal of the normal-school\nwork.\nTo come directly to the answer of the questions of our subject : I think\nwe may improve the work in our normal schools :\nFirst, by greater care and definiteness in the selection of the subjectmatter upon which we work. To illustrate: Assuming the student comes\nto the normal school well equipped in the common-school curriculum, it\nremains for him to take each branch of this curriculum and examine it\ncarefully as to its psychological and logical development, and its applications to the problems of life. It is in these latter particulars that I am\ninclined to think the normal schools may most improve their scholarship.\nRecently a number of questions, such as: \"Of what use to the mechanic\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO INCREASE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\n585\n\nis drawing, and what drawing is of use to the mechanic ? \" \" Of what use\nto the real-estate agent is manual training, and what phases of manual\ntraining are of most use to him ? \" \" Of what use to the mining engineer\nare geometry and physics, and what of these subjects is of most use to\nhim ? \" brought answers that seemed to indicate that these subjects had\nbeen regarded from a mere academic point of view, rather than from the\npoint of view of their part in the real and definite conditions of life. Even\nin literature and history it would seem that more regard had been given\nto a knowledge of authors and periods, dates and events, than to the power\nof correct and thoughtful expression, and a conception of the institutional\nforces that are shaping the conditions under which we live.\nIf questions such as the above are well answered, they will furnish,\ntogether with the correlative pedagogical questions of school organization,\nsufficient occupation for the two-year normal-school course for graduates\nof high schools ; and if they are well answered in each subject, the scholarship of the average normal school will be greatly improved, not so much\nby the extent of work as by the manner and kind of work.\nSecondly, there are many students in our normal schools who cannot\ntake a longcourse after leaving the normal school — such a course as the\ncolleges require — and who yet wish a more extended equipment in certain branches than that of the regular course — such an equipment as will\nenable them to teach those branches even in the high schools of the\nstronger class. Provision may be made for such students by establishing\nan additional or postgraduate year, in which a large number of electives\nis offered, the student being permitted to take a sufficiently small number\nof these electives to enable him within a year to do in them a large amount\nof work and to relate this work to the preceding part of his course. For\ninstance, a person who has had one year in physics and has been able in\nthat subject to take certain of the most common and simple problems or\ntopics and apply them to the common-school\n\ncurriculum may in this\n\nadditional year be able to take 'enough more topics, with their applications, to put him sufficiently in advance of the ordinary high-school class\nin that subject, both in knowledge of work and in maturity, to teach such\na class in an acceptable manner in that subject. A person who has had\nthe forms of literature — the epic, the drama, the lyric, the novel — may\nadd the study of a single period in the history of English literature — for\nexample, the period of the French Revolution — and may examine the\nlives and works of the leading writers of the time in the light of historical\nconditions; or, he may make an intensive study of a single literary form.\nSuch additional study in this subject would enable him to teach acceptably\nin many high-school classes, and would compare favorably with the\nrequirements in this subject in most*of the regular college courses. The\noffering of these elective units in addition to the regular two-year course\nwould not be attended with very greatly increased expense either to the\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nschool or to the pupil, and would be of great service to the class of pupils\nreferred to and to the state as well.\nThe last inquiry of our subject is practically answered in the boundaries set for the normal-school course. Those who would command our\nrespect in school organization must give to each particular class of institutions its legitimate work. There has been a marked tendency to extend\nthe course of study in the normal schools so that the time consumed was\nequal to that required for the B.A. degree in the college. It seems to me\nthat such an extension of the course is unwarrantable for several reasons :\nIf so much time is taken, the pedagogical part of the work is apt to be\nspread out too thin, and the academic work is not sufficient to meet successfully the demand of the stronger high-school positions, principalships,\nand superintendencies. If four years are to be spent, xt would seem better that two of them be taken for the usual normal-school course and two\nfor purely advanced academic work in some good college or university,\npreferably one that would recognize what had been done in the normal\nschool ; or else that the person should go thru a college having a pedagogical department rather than attend a normal school at all.\nThe normal schools have done a magnificent work in improving elementary, and at least the lower forms of secondary, instruction ; and if\nthey continue to apply themselves to this field of education, they will yet\ndo a more magnificent work than they have done in the past; but if they\nseek to become degree-granting institutions, and to rival in time and\nexpense the colleges and universities, they will impair their strength in a\nfield they might cover most efficiently, and become weak substitutes for\nother institutions that are much better equipped than they to cover the\nscope of the B.A. course.\nDISCUSSION\nHenry G. Williams, dean of State Normal College, Ohio University, Athens, O. —\nThe specific function of the normal school is to provide such instruction and training as\nwill best qualify teachers for their duties. If we can determine these duties, the qualifications necessary in the teacher are plainly outlined. Having determined what the teacher\nshould know and do and be, we must next determine the means and methods necessary in\ngiving the prospective teacher instruction and training in each process in teaching, in\nmanagement, and in administration.\nThe normal school is to provide this instruction and training, or at least such portions\nof these as* are specifically and directly related to the work of the teacher. If teaching is\never to become a profession in the true sense, none must be admitted to its ranks except\nthose who have attained special scholastic fitness, both professional and cultural ; but we\nare still a long way from this standard. The graduate of the elementary school is certainly not a lawyer, nor a physician, nor a dentist, nor a pharmacist, nor a veterinary\nsurgeon ; yet the laws of many of our states may recognize him as a teacher, for, without\nany more fitness than graduation from the elementary school, or the completion of a curriculum no higher, the boy or girl of seventeen may be recognized by law as one who is\ncompetent to train children in the arts and sciences of citizenship and correct living. We\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO INCREASE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\n587\n\nare hardly so unreasonable when we seek a man to prescribe medicine for the sick, or to\nprosecute a trifling litigation, or to extract a tooth, or to cure a horse of the spavin — no,\nall these must know more than the three R's and the rudiments of an elementary education. Not even a high-school graduate should be any nearer the threshold of teaching\nthan the profession of law or medicine. What makes a high-school graduate a lawyer\ninstead of a teacher? Evidently it is not his high-school training, for both were taught\nthe same subjects in the same classes. It is the special collegiate and professional training beyond the high-school curriculum that makes him a lawyer.\nThe form in which our topic is put is virtually an acknowledgment of the need of a\nbetter scholarship standard for our normal schools. We are all familiar with the many\ncriticisms so frequently offered touching the standard of scholarship of the normal school.\nThese criticisms attempt to show that the scholarship represented by the courses of study\nin the many normal schools is not sufficient to fortify the teacher and entitle teaching to\nprofessional recognition. When a normal-school graduate is asked to name the institution\nfrom which he graduated, he is often noticed to apologize for his statement — many times,\nhowever, not because he feels that he is inferior to his questioner, but because of a prejudice that has seized the public mind. How shall we remove this prejudice and allay this\nfear ? In the first place, it does not follow that the normal-school graduate should be a\ncollege graduate. No one can doubt the cultural value of an A.B. course, but elementary\nteachers can hardly be expected to spend the time and means necessary in working out a\nfour-year college course only to compete with those who have had, it may be, eight years\nless of training. Then, the average compensation of the elementary teacher i§ less than\nthe average wage paid unskilled laborers. In my own state (Ohio) the average paid elementary teachers is ^34 a month for thirty-one weeks, or ^263.50 a year. Counting living\nexpenses at $4 a week, we find that the teacher would have about $55 left each year with\nwhich to clothe herself and indulge in other extravagances.\nLaying aside the elements of time and expense in securing a college education, let\nus ask ourselves if such a course best prepares the elementary teacher for her work. Does\nshe not need other knowledge and training not included in such a course ? Are there not\nother subjects than those found in our average college course whose disciplinary value is\nequal to that of the dead languages and mathematics ? Besides, may not a true cultu7-al\nvalue be found in many subjects not included in the college course ? Our question\nnaturally resolves itself into a discussion of the courses of study for normal schools.\nThe normal schools find their greatest responsibility in the training of teachers for the\nelementary schools. Statistics show that fifteen out of every sixteen of the teachers\nrequired for the public schools of this country are elementary teachers. In Ohio the\nratio is thirteen to one. Nearly one-half of the elementary teachers are in the multigraded or country schools where the tenure of service is least secure. It is safe to\nsay that the state needs twenty times as many elementary teachers each year as highschool teachers. Shall the normal-school courses be shaped to meet the needs of the\ntwenty elementary teachers or the one high-school teacher ? The proposition needs no\nargument. Both classes need special training, but the teacher who is only collegetrained will be more likely to succeed as a secondary teacher than as an elementary .\nteacher. In a total enrollment of nearly five hundred students during the first year\nof the State Normal College of Ohio University, at Athens, we find that about thirty\nare doing work designed for secondary teachers, or one in seventeen. It would seem\nthat we are in no danger of unduly emphasizing training for the elementary schools.\nAll these things must be borne in mind when we attempt to analyze the courses of\nstudy for the normal school. Let us not lose sight of its function. I believe that one of\nthe greatest needs in American schools todiw is the well-trained elementary teacher\n— educated and trained especially in those subjects she is called upon to teach. A teacher\nmay be an excellent Latin scholar, and fail in teaching the simplest lesson in elementary\nEnglish.\nShe may be well grounded in higher mathematics, and not know the first prin-\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nciples involved in teaching a lesson in numbers. It is one thing to know calculus and\nanother thing to know how the child thinks number relations and how to present these to\nhis mind. We must give our teachers a broad, thoro, and scientific training in the subjects they are required to teach, and then we must clarify, simplify, and unify that\nknowledge by reinforcing it with instruction and training in the purely pedagogical phases\nof the subjects taught and the underlying principles governing the teaching process.\nOne of the greatest weaknesses of elementary-school training is the superficial knowledge of the teacher touching the subjects taught. To teach geography well, the teacher\nneeds to have a wide range of knowledge of geographical subjects. She must study\ngeography scientifically, not superficially. She must familiarize herself with all the social,\neconomic, industrial, and commercial phases of geographic knowledge. She must know\nhow to select and adapt, never losing sight of the ultimate end of the instruction. It is\nthe function of the normal school to give her this knowledge and provide adequate training\nin the method of presenting the subject to the child's mind. A knowledge of subjectmatter alone will not insure success in the teacher. She must know the child and the\nrelation she bears to the child, and that of the child to the state. To teach a child as it\nought to be taught requires more skill than to wield the painter's brush or the surgeon's\nscalpel. The latter deal with material things controlled by fixed, unchanging laws, but\nthe teacher deals with the growing mind, whose very growth and individuality render a\nchart of the teaching process an impossibility.\nThe normal-school course must recognize the importance of the aim of education.\nThe scientific knowledge of subject-matter finds its intelligent interpretation in a knowledge of the thing the school must attempt to do. This demand upon the teacher makes\nit necessary for the normal school to provide adequate instruction and practice in method.\nClosely related to the course in methods comes the history of education, in which the\nstudent is taught to profit by the experiences of the past. From these three fundamental\nneeds of the trained teacher grow the several courses in professional, subjects which the\nnormal school must provide, such as courses in methods, child study, psychology, principle\nof education, history of education, school administration, and others. If these subjects\nare so essential, why should they not be placed upon an equal footing with Latin, Greek,\nhigher mathematics, etc., in measuring scholarship ? Why has Greek any more value\nthan psychology in measuring a teacher's scholarship ? Which will serve her supreme\npurpose best ? Are we not requiring a high standard of scholarship in the normal school\ncourse when we insist that every subject in the normal-school course be taught thoroly and\nscientifically ? Is not a truly scientific study of geography as much a unit in scholarship\nas the study of geology or biology ?\nIt seems to me that one of the best solutions of the normal-school problem is to\ncombine the purely professional training of the normal school with the regular academic\nwork of the college or university. This is the plan adopted by the two state normal\nschools of Ohio opened in September, 1902. For graduates of first-grade high schools\nwe have a two-year course of collegiate grade for elementary teachers, and a four-year\ncourse in secondary education. In the two-year course the purely pedagogical subjects\nconstitute two-fifths of the course, and in the four-year course one-fourth of the work\nis professional. The standard of scholarship is kept up to college grade at every\npoint, as the normal student is ranked and taught in classes with students pursuing\nother regular college courses. There can be no lowering of the standards. The twoyear course, wholly of college grade, while not identical with the first two years of the\nfour-year course, comprises one-half of the four-year course and is designed to meet the\nneeds of those preparing to teach in elementary schools ; and the four-year course prepares the student for teaching in secondary schools. The first course leads to a normal-school\ndiploma, and the second leads to a college diploma and the bachelor's degree. For those\nwho have not enjoyed the advantages of a high-school course a five-year course in elementary education is provided, the first three years being of secondary grade, including\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department ]\n\nHO W TO INCREASE\n\nNORMA L SCHOOL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\n5^9\n\none-sixth of pedagogical subjects, and the last two years of collegiate grade, including\none fourth of pedagogical subjects. This five-year course also leads to the normal-school\ndiploma.\nCharles DeGarmo, professor of the science and art of education, Cornell\nUniversity. — In the discussion of this question I intend to revert briefly to the current\nideals of scholarship in the normal school, and then to state what I conceive to be the\nreal problem.\nThe subject of scholarship in the normal school has not yet been subjected to the\npatient analysis that has been given to some of its other problems. We have simply\nassumed that scholarship is scholarship, and that the traditional ideals of the college are\nthe only ones to be considered. With most people who talk on this topic, scholarship\nmeans proficiency in languages and advanced mathematics. These and similar branches\nof knowledge are grouped together under the head of \"academic work.\" Normal\nschools seem to divide into two groups on this question. Some say : \" We will do\nno academic work at all ; we will confine ourselves solely to professional work.\" Others\nsay: \"Finding the scholarship of our students inadequate, we must perforce devote not\na little time to it. This we regret, but the fault is not ours, it lies at the door of the\nsecondary schools.\" According to my analysis of the situation, both these attitudes, tho\ndefensible in the past, are now wrong.\nAnother doctrine deeply ingrained in the normal-school procedure is the theory that\nthe chief work of these schools should consist in the re-examination of the common\nbranches in the light of the higher. This doctrine, tho excellent when held within proper\nbounds, is probably responsible for most of the defects for which the normal school is\nbeing chided. It has, as President Butler says, made the vestibule larger than the house,\nfor it has focused the attention of professors, training teachers, and students alike upon\nthe letter that kills. One must magnify one's office, and if one is confined to the most\nelementary aspects of a subject, either as a body of knowledge to be imparted to students,\nor as a study whose methodology is to be minutely examined, it is inevitable that overrefinement of exposition and.undue emphasis upon things elementary but not fundamental\nwill ensue. The force exerted is too large for the result effected. The midget is crushed\nwith a sledge. The mole hill becomes the mountain, and the art of teaching, which\nlike all arts is best when most individual and plastic, has its spontaneity seriously\nimpaired. Too close an adherence to this doctrine that the normal school should confine\nits attention to a review of the common branches compels it to do much of its large\nbusiness with small change.\nIf, then, the traditional college ideals of scholarship, and the equally traditional ideal\nof the proper academic work of the normal school as confined to the common branches,\nare to be rejected, the one as erroneous and the other as inadequate, what is the true\nscope of scholarship for these institutions ? The answer to this question is to be found in\nthe conception of the normal school as a place for the professional training of teachers.\nThe term \"professional training\" is, indeed, to be heard on every tongue, but the thing\nitself exists only in part, for genuine scholarship of the right sort has not yet been wholly\nprovided for in the normal-school curriculum.\nWe shall, I think, most easily picture to ourselves the scholarship naturally belonging\nto the well-prepared elementary teacher by calling up the analogy of other professional\nschools. Each of them selects such bodies of knowledge as pertain to its purposes, and\norganizes this knowledge in such ways as to make it most useful in effecting the end\nin view. Medicine, for example, has extended courses in anatomy, physiology, histology,\nbacteriology, chemistry, and medicines, al4 selected and arranged according to the\npurposes of the medical school. This procedure is followed by schools of law, theology,\nengineering, agriculture, forestry, and by every other professional institution except the\nnormal school.\nWhen this becomes truly professional, it will likewise select from the\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\ngreat bodies of knowledge subjects and topics that are significant for elementary education, and it will weave them together so as best to reach the ends set before the\nelementary teacher. Chemistry may be taught, but it will differ from that of medicine\njust as the chemistry of poisons differs from that of iron. The selection, the organization,\nand the presentation of this subject-matter would all be determined by the purpose of the\nnormal school. This puYpose is professional, not general, as is the case in colleges;\nhence the scholarship of the former could never trench on that of the latter. The college\npursues study mostly for subjective or personal ends ; i. e. for culture ; the normal school\nshould create scholarship chiefly for objective or professional ends. Both institutions\nmay in part study the same things, as do schools of medicine and of engineering, but\nthey study for different ends. Yet many college subjects are manifestly inappropriate in\nnormal schools. Among these foreign languages, higher mathematics, and advanced\npure science are prominent. Tho no knowledge is, abstractly speaking, useless, much of\nit is relatively so. The history of philosophy would in a sense be useful to physicians,\nbut it would not compare favorably even with psychology. The elementary-school\nteacher, as such, has small use for foreign languages, higher mathematics, or pure\nscience ; hence these subjects may properly be omitted from the normal-school\ncurriculum. The branches particularly needful for developing the higher type of\nelementary-school teacher are as follows : the English language and literature, and worldliterature in English ; geography, commercial, physical, and political ; history, civics,\neconomics, and the simpler aspects of sociology; mathematics thru algebra and\ngeometry; representative physical and evolutionary sciences, especially in their naturestudy aspects ; psychology and philosophy of education, motor training, including music,\nart, manual training, and domestic science. This is not the time to enter upon a\ndetailed description of what should be attempted in these subjects ; but it may be\npertinent to suggest that much of the time given to special methods, and some of that\ngiven to detailed criticism, might appropriately be devoted to advanced study in these\nsubjects.\nThis kind of a curriculum, it will be seen, trenches but little upon college subjects\nand not at all upon college ideals of scholarship. The size Of the output and the length\nof time of a normal-school course, tho they may be of local importance here and there,\nare not matters of principle, and should have no weight in the attempt to determine\nwhat ideal standards of scholarship the normal school should seek to establish.\nJohn R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — The tone of\nnormal-school mfen seems too apologetic, their attitude too submissive. The university\nmen are after the normal schools with a paring knife. As incipient monopolies the\nuniversities apparently seek to form an educational trust for the absorption or control\nof all educational instrumentalities. They -are inclined to become arrogant and\ndomineering.\nA university professor comes here to tell us that normal schools should omit foreign\nlanguages from their academic courses and leave out all of mathematics above plane\ngeometry. At least I so understand the gentleman. The manifest object is to devitalize\nnormal-school instruction by depriving it of the incisiveness, accuracy, and virility\nwhich characterize good instruction in the languages, sciences, and mathematics. The\ngentleman would confine the normal-school curriculum to the dogmatism and indefiniteness of those subjects not yet reduced to pedagogical form. Men of his school and\ntype desire the normal school to withdraw itself within the narrow sphere of preparing\nteachers for elementary schools and for no others.\nIt is asserted here that we may safely turn over the high-school instruction to\nuniversity graduates. Against this propagandism reason and common-sense protest.\nAlready the high schools of several states are seriously damaged by being made the\npractice schools for inexperienced\nand undirected university graduates who\nare\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO INCREASE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\n59 1\n\ninexcusably ignorant of school government, discipline, class management, and the direction of student work, and who from long isolation in specialized study have become\nunconscious of all practical avenues to the souls of ordinary pupils.\nWe should hesitate a long time before building a caste system which would deliver\nand surrender to the untrained, unskilled, high-strung, unsympathetic university graduate our public-school children in the critical age of adolescence, when the girls and boys\nare passing thru the most uncertain stage of existence, the period of storm and stress, of\nexaltation and gloom ; when they are neither children or adults ; when they most need\nthe kindly directing care of teachers capable of deep personal interest, with enlarged\nsympathies and the utmost sanity in utilizing all agencies which may help to guide aright\nthe varying energies of exuberant young life.\nIn the drift of opinion which seeks to establish a caste system in education some\nthings are overlooked. First of all, the university faculty is an investigating body and\nnot a teaching body. As a rule, its teaching is badly done. The typical university professor isnot worrying at all about the mental reaction of the students. Consciously or\nunconsciously, he encourages little more than reproduction thru the \" note-book,\" the\n\"quiz,\" and the \"exam.\" The worst teaching to be found in America is in our universities. Of this fact no well-informed man has any doubt.\nIt is evident, therefore, that the student who has lived several years among the\nprofound scholars and splendid men in the university has not only had his mind withdrawn from all ideas of practical school management or tactics, but he has grown\naccustomed to those forms of instruction that are least adapted to elementary and secondary schools. He is not a safe person to be intrusted with elementary or secondary\ninstruction until he has been overhauled in some school which will recast his ideas of\nteaching and compel him to acquire reasonable skill in teaching by virtue of some welldirected practice.\nBut what is the legitimate and exclusive field of the college which cann9t be\ninfringed upon ? Who granted the college or the university, or any school, an exclusive\nportion of the educational field ? Surely, our horizon is not growing so narrow. We live\nin America, where people are accustomed to rational freedom. There is no exclusive\nfield belonging to any college or any university. Several American universities are already\ntoo large to do efficient service. In one not far from Boston, we are told, the president\ndoes not know half of the members of his senior class. He is merely the managing\nagent of a vast commercial enterprise involving the investment of millions. He is a\ngreat business man. His energies are lost in vast manipulations. He knows the value of\nbuildings, grounds, and securities. He is neither a teacher nor a judge of teachers. He\nis not specially concerned about the teaching skill of the faculty over which he presides.\nSince the universities are becoming abnormally large and so many colleges are already as\nlarge as they ought to be, there is no reason why any other institution which chooses to\ncover a part or all of the college course should not do so. Indeed, this course is a necessity in order to divide the vast aggregations or masses of students, and bring them into\ncontact with mature men who are teachers as well as investigators.\nThe proposed caste system is bad. It can never be justified on American soil. It is\nindefensible. It would collect the most capable and ambitious students in one class of\ninstitutions and drive the mediocres into another class.\nIn Missouri, at least, the normal schools were created by law to prepare teachers for\nall public schools of the state. They have better buildings, better libraries, better laboratories, better general equipments, and better instructors than typical colleges of the\nMississippi valley have. They are covering most of the academic courses given in colleges, and doing it better than most colleges can do. They will continue this policy,\nbecause it is right and the people believe in it. They infringe upon no one's territory,\nbecause there is no exclusive territory legitimately belonging to any one class of schools,\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nat least in America. The normal schools of our country have nothing to apologize for.\nThey should abandon defensive tactics and vigorously assume the aggressive. Great\nissues are at stake. We should rise up and meet them, and settle them as they ought to\nbe settled.\nE. Oram Lyte, president of the State Normal School, Millersville, Pa.— I am\nimpressed with the thought that each locality has problems of its own to solve. Several\nof the questions that perplex the brethren of other states have been solved in' Pennsylvania, while the normal schools of Pennsylvania have many problems that do not appear\nto vex other normal schools. The colleges of Pennsj-lvania do not and cannot train\nteachers, and in most cases do not attempt to do so. The normal schools of Pennsylvania aim to train teachers for public schools of all grades.\nW. S. Dearmont, president of the State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo. — I\nlistened with great pleasure to Professor Johnson's admirable paper. In showing so\nclearly as to leave beyond question the need of scholarship on the part of the teacher of\nhistory, I feel that he has made clear the need of scholarly training in the normal schools.\nThe fact is that the teacher of history in the rural school, as in the lower grades of the\ngraded school, should have the same, scholarship truly to teach history as the teacher\nin the high school. Without that discrimmating scholarship described by Professor\nJohnson, the teacher is unfit to teach history at all.\nWhat is true of teaching history is true of teaching any other branch of knowledge.\nThe teacher of agriculture in the rural schools, for instance, must have some breadth of\nscientific knowledge. He must have had good scientific training such as is given in the\nbest college courses.\nNow, if this thoro scholarship is needed as a preparation for teaching, it is clear that\nthe normal schools must have strong academic courses. It is useless to expect teachers\nto get their scholastic training in one institution and their pedagogical training in\nanother. It has been repeatedly suggested that teachers should take their college course\nand then enter the normal school to receive their pedagogical training. But the attempt\nto bring this about has always failed. Either the teacher will enter the profession without\nthe proper scholastic training, or, having got this in college, he will enter the profession\nwithout the pedagogical training. The only way to give the teacher both scholarship\n' and professional training is to give both in the normal school. Therefore, the normal\nschools must have scholastic training, or training in subject-matter, equal to the training\nin subject-matter in the colleges. The question of how the normal schools are to give\nsuch training without encroaching upon the legitimate field of the college implies what\nis not true. It is not true that the normal school is encroaching upon the legitimate\nfield of any other institution when it undertakes to do that for which it was created.\nThe normal schools are established to educate teachers for the public schools ; not for the\nkindergartens, not for the primary grades, not for the grammar grades, not for the high\nschools, but for the whole public school system. Now, whatever education teachers\nshould have to prepare them for their work, that normal schools should give ; that belongs\nto the field of normal-school work. If some other schools must occupy the same field in\norder to fulfill their mission, it should not be considered that the normal schools are\nencroaching upon the field of these other schools. The normal school must do the work\nfor which it was created, regardless of whether its work at any point overlaps the work of\nother schools.\nIt has been suggested that out of twenty teachers one is a high-school teacher and\nnineteen belong to the lower grades, and that the normal schools may well give their\nattention exclusively to the education of the nineteen and leave the education of the\ntwentieth to the colleges. This should notbe done for many reasons. In the first place,\nthe suggestion carries with it the implication that knowledge of subject is not needed by\nthe teachers of the lower grades.\nThis position is entirely wrong, as I have shown.\nIt\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO INCREASE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOLARSHIP\n\n593\n\nmay be and will be true that many teachers in the lower grades will not do much work\nin the study of advanced courses in subject-matter ; but it is also true that, if these\nadvanced courses are offered in normal schools, many teachers, who would not otherwise\ndo so, will pursue them.\nIt is certainly desirable to offer them every inducement to do so.\nAgain, your twentieth man will not only be the high-school teacher, but he will\nbecome the principal and superintendent. Now, President Kirk has shown the folly of\nputting high-school boys and girls at a critical age under college graduates who have\nhad no pedagogical training. But if this is bad, what must we say of having principals\nand superintendents without pedagogical training ?\nAs has been suggested by President Kirk, teachers of all grades should be educated\ntogether in the same school. The contact of the future kindergarten teacher with the\nfuture high-school teacher and the future principal and superintendent is beneficial\nto all.\nThe whole logic of the situation demands that the normal schools shall give full college courses in subject-matter along with the most thoro courses in pedagogical training.\nAny other position is indefensible from any point of view. The normal school must\nalways explain and excuse and seek a reason for its existence until it fulfills its mission\nof preparing teachers of all grades for their work, both in subject-matter and in\npedagogy.\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nTRAINING\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 7, 1903\n\nThe department met in the Old South Church at 9:30 A. M., and was called to\norder by President Charles F. Warner, of the Mechanic Arts High School, Springfield,\nMass.\nAfter a brief address of welcome, the president introduced Mr. Milton P. Higgins,\npresident of the Norton Emery Wheel Co., Worcester, Mass., who presented a paper on\n\"The Demand for Trade Schools : From the Manufacturer's Point of View.\"\nArthur H. Chamberlain, principal of the Normal School of the Throop Polytechnic\nInstitute, Pasadena, Cal., followed with a paper on the same subject, \" From the Educator's Point of View.\"\nDiscussion of the papers was made by L. D. Burlingame, chief draftsman for the\nBrown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co., Providence, R. I.\n\"The Organization of Trade Schools \" was discussed by Thomas M. Balliet, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass., \" From the Point of View of the School\nSuperintendent,\" and by Arthur L. Williston, of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., \" From\nthe Point of View of the Director of a Trade School.\"\n\"Discussions and Suggestions from Experience \" were given by Charles A. Bennett,'\nof Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111., and Arthur H. Hamerschlag, consulting\nengineer. New York Trade School, New York city.\nWilliam H. Say ward, secretary of the National Association of Builders, Boston,\nMass., read a paper on \" Trade Schools and Workingmen's Organizations.\"\nThe discussion was led by Frank Keyes Foster, editor of the Liberator, Boston, who\nwas followed by Samuel F. Hubbard, superintendent of North End Union, Boston.\nThe chair then appointed the following as nominating committee of officers for the\nensuing year:\nCharles W. Parmenter, of Massachusetts. Charles R. Richards, of New York.\nSamuel F. Hubbard, of Massachusetts. C. M. Woodward, of Missouri.\nW. H. Sayward, of Massachusetts.\n\nProfessor Calvin M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo., was introduced as the \" father of\nmanual training,\" and spoke briefly.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report :\nFor President — Arthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nFor Vice-President— Q)\\z.x\\cs L. Kirschner, New Haven, Conn.\nFor Secretary — Frank M. Leavitt, Boston, Mass.\n\nUpon motion of Charles R. Richard, the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of\nthe department for the nominees. The ballot was so cast, and the president formally\nannounced the candidates elected.\nThe department adjourned to Wednesday morning, July 8.\n595\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "59^\n\nNATIONAL\nSECOND\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 8\n\nThe department met in the Old South Church in joint session with the Art and\nElementary Departments. On the platform with President Warner were Miss Clara A.\nWilson, Davenport, la., president of the Department of Art Education, and Miss M.\nAdelaide Holton, Minneapolis, Minn., president of the Department of Elementary\nEducation. The meeting was called to order by President Warner at 9:35 A. M. The\nfollowing program was presented :\nTopic: \" The Relation of Art Teaching to Manual Training and Industrial Training.\"\n1. \"Craftsmanship in Education,\" by Leslie W. Miller, principal of the School of Industrial Art of the\nPennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia, Pa.\nDiscussion by Laurin H. Martin, instructor in applied design, Massachusetts Normal Art School,\nBoston, Mass.; Robert D. Andrews, architect, Boston, Mass.; Walter S. Goodnough, director of art and\nmanual training, public schools, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n2. \" Art Instruction as Related to Manual Work,\" by Alfred Vance Churchill, director of Department of\nFine Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city.\nDiscussion : («) with relation to elementary schools, by James Frederick Hopkins, director of drawing,\npublic schools, Boston, Mass.; {^b) with relation to the high school, by Fred H. Daniels, supervisor of drawing, Springfield, Mass.; (c) from the point of view of the manual training teacher, by Luther W. Turner,\ninstructor in manual training. Hill School, Pottstown, Pa.\n3. \" Indian Basketry: Its Poetry and Symbolism,\" illustrated by historic baskets from the speaker's\nprivate collection, by George Wharton James, Pasadena, Cal.\n\nThe department then adjourned to Thursday morning, July 9.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9\n\nThe department met in the Old South Church in joint session with the Indian and\nElementary Departments. The meeting was called to order at 9:45 A. M. by President\nWarner.\nThe program for the morning was as follows :\nTopic: *' Practical Suggestions on a Wide Application of the Manual-Trainjng Principles.\"\n1. '\"Some Reasons Why Elementary Schools Should Include Manual Training in Their Courses of\nInstruction,\" by Elizabeth Euphrosyne Langley, assistant in manual training, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n2. \"The Boy and His. Handicraft,\" by George H. Bryant, president of the Eastern Manual Training ,\nAssociation, Newport, R. I.\nGeneral discussion by Frank M. Leavitt, supervisor of manual training, Boston, Mass., and Carroll G.\nPearse, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Neb.\n3. \" Hand- Work for High-School Girls,\" by Miss Abby L. Marlatt, instructor in domestic science,\nManual Training High School, Providence, R. I., chairman of the Lake Placid Conference on Home Lconomics.\nDiscussion by Miss Lillie Collamore Smith, instructor in domestic science. High School, Brookline,\nMass.\n4. \" Manual Training z/^rj^^ the Manual Arts,\" by James Parton Haney, M.D., director of manual\ntraining. New York city.\nDiscussion by Calvin N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nUnder the order of business Professor C. R. Mann, of the University of Chicago,\npresented the following, which on motion was adopted :\nTo the Cotincil of the National Educational Association :\nWhereas, The reports of the National Commissioner of Education show that over 95 per cent, of the\npeople of this country receive all the education they have in the public grade schools, and thai about 70 per\ncent, of these people do not pass entirely thru these schools ; and\nWhereas, These people compose the classes who work with their hands in the production of the wealth\nof the country ; and\nWhereas, About one million of these people are annually registered in correspondence schools endeavoring to learn late in life, at their own expense and in an indirect and unsatisfactory way, things which the\nstate should teach them in the public schools ; and\nWhereas, The educators and governments of other nations are fast developing systems of industrial and\ntechnical education for the working classes, so that this nation, if it desires to retain its commercial supremacy,\ncannot afford longer to ignore this serious condition of affairs; therefore be it\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTRADES\n\n597\n\nResolved, That we, the members of the department of Manual Training of the National Educational\nAssociation, in meeting assembled, do hereby i etition ihe Council of the said Association to appoint a committee of ten to prepare and submit a report upon the following points:\n1. What are the present and the possible future educational needs of the working classes in this country?\n2. What are the provisions now made by the state and otherwise for meeting those needs?\n3. What is being done by other nations for the technical and industrial education of the working classes?\n4. What steps, if any, should be taken in this country toward providing adequate technical and industrial\neducation for the working classes?\n\nThere being no further business, the department adjourned sine die.\nCharles L. Kirschner, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nEDUCATION\nMILTON\n\nFOR\n\nAND\n\nTHE TRADES: FROM THE STANDPOINT\nOF THE MANUFACTURER\n\nP. HIGGINS,\n\nPRESIDENTOF\nWORCESTER,\n\nAmong\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE\n\nNORTON\n\nEMERY\n\nWHEEL\n\nCO.,\n\nMASS.\n\nthe many troubles and anxieties of the manufacturer not the\n\nleast is the need of \"effective skill\" in his factory. It is now pretty\ngenerally agreed that we must look to the schools for our future skilled\nworkmen. The apprenticeship system can never return, and if it could\nreturn in its best form, it would be entirely inadequate to meet our\npresent demands. The modern intensified system of production is\nunfavorable to any system of training for the trades in our shops.\nIn recent years the requirements upon the workman have greatly\nadvanced, contrary to the opinion hastily formed by some. The introduction of modern methods of manufacture, duplicate and interchangeable parts, automatic machinery, division of labor, piece work, etc., have\nnot lowered the demand for the skill of the mechanic, but have raised it.\nNever before was the machinist called upon to make so many quick, accurate computations, to use such exact knowledge of the nature of\nmaterials, or to fit metal parts with such extreme exactness of form and\nsize as now. He must needs have superior training to enable him to make\ndecisions quickly and accurately.\nPerhaps the wonderful development of American industry, approaching industrial supremacy, has been possible thru the peculiar natural\ndexterity of American skilled workmen ; but it is estimated that already\nover 50 per cent, of all our skilled mechanics are born and trained in foreign countries, and this proportion will rapidly increase unless some\nmeans is adopted to educate American boys for the trades. While we do\nnot object to this removal of our hi^h-grade mechanical work from the\nhands of American young men to foreig,n hands on account of any prejudice against the foreigner, yet a real objection is this:\nThe require-\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nments are so high and so exacting for skilled mechanics that nothing but\nthe very best special natural ability will meet the requirements. And it\nis quite possible to prove that the American boy is by far superior in\nability and fitness for mechanical employment. Another reason for\ngetting mechanical industry and skill into the hands of American boys\nis the great value of so promising a field for our sons. Our young men\nare likely to overlook this grandest opportunity and turn their attention\nto a less promising calling.\nThe specific needs regarding the education and qualifications of\nworkmen are as follows: first, last, and always, we are looking for effective, productive, profitable skill. The manufacturer will employ the skillful\nman at good pay, even if he be untidy, coarse, ignorant, profane, and\ndrunk on Sundays. I make this extreme statement to show at the start\nthat any trade-school system, any education for the trades, in order to\nmeet the reasonable needs and demands of the manufacturer must make\nskill the central part of the enterprise. The educational system must\nstart from the shop, and all other elements of the school must radiate\nfrom the shop, because the power and success of the pupil's life are to\ndepend upon his shop knowledge and dexterity. The engineering college, the university, and the technical school may, for obvious reasons, be\na school with a shop attachment, but not so with the future trade school.\nThat must be a shop with a school attachment. The system of education\nfor the trades, ever to meet the needs of the manufacturer, must make\nskill first. With this order of things positively in mind, it becomes very\neasy to review all the American attempts to educate for the industries,\nand determine just why and in what degree success or failure has resulted\nin various directions.\nIn order to understand our needs clearly, let me review briefly the\nvarious types of American schools and educational institutions, which to\nsome extent have attempted to educate young men for mechanical industries.\n1. The kindergarten and manual training in the public schools.\n2. The type of institutes of which the Pratt Institute, the Drexel Institute, and the\nArmour Institute are representatives.\n3. The practice departments in engineering colleges, universities, and technical\nschools, which, with their different methods, are represented by such schools as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute.\n4. Those schools that aim more directly at teaching trades, making skill and dexterity the primal and central motive, such as the New York Trade School and the\nWilliamson Free School of Mechanical Trades near Philadelphia, l*a. With these\nalso may be classed the textile schools.\n\nFrom each and all of these institutions the manufacturer had hopes for\naid with varying degrees of confidence.\nRegarding manual training in the public schools, we find that we\nWe find that\nreally never had any good grounds for our expectations.\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTRADES\n\n599\n\nall this outlay for shops and equipment is not intended to make workmen, or fit boys for the industries, or to develop useful skill, but simply\nto lay a \"broad foundation for a better manhood,\" and possibly to help\nthe boy who has not succeeded in the regular school \"to find himself.\"\nBut these schools make no pretensions at helping the boy to do something with himself after he has found himself; and, furthermore, it is\nfound that manual training in the public schools does not lead any\ngreater number of boys to follow or seek a life of mechanical industry.\nFrom the type of institutions represented so well by the Pratt Institute, the Armour Institute, and many others, there are great grounds for\nthe manufacturer's hope in this direction, and we are able to fill, with the\ngreatest satisfaction, many positions from the graduates of this type of\nschool. Still, for our greatest need, and for the place of our greatest\nanxiety, we look in vain for help in this direction. The best sort of\nskilled workmen are not likely to come from these institutions until the\nmethods of teaching skill are made more effective by making the mechanical practice a larger proportion of the course, the course somewhat\nlengthened, and the shop practice more real and thoro.\nRegarding the mechanical skill taught a't the engineering colleges, such\nas the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, there is a wide difference in the method and character\nof shop practice. But, putting all the good of bath and of all similar\ninstitutions together and taking the average resultant, it is certain that the\nmanufacturer, after he has filled with entire satisfaction all the important\npositions with engineering graduates, still finds his unmet need for skilled\nworkmen as great as ever, and he cannot expect any relief from the technical schools which confer engineering degrees. These schools are doing\na higher work, but a work not one whit more important.\nThe schools represented by the New York Trade School and the Williamson Trade School are a forcible demonstration or indication of what\nis possible in education for the trades. At the New York Trade School\nthe aim is intensely direct toward the attainment of working skill in the\nshortest possible course, and there is no attempt made for general education outside of lectures and the directions pertaining to the work in hand,\nand to a statement of those special principles directly underlying the skill\nwhich is being taught. The Williamson Free School of Mechanical\nTrades is not open to this objection, for the time in a four-year course\nis generously divided (about half and half) between work and study.\nFrom a manufacturer's point of view, the organization of this school\nis nearly ideal, with one exception, and the results are, indeed, all that\ncould be expected. The exception is the unreal character of the shop\nwork. A thoughtful person visiting this school is most forcibly impressed\nwith the enormous loss to the students and the financial loss to the institution when two hundred\n\nstrong, energetic, interested young men are\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nrequired to work metal and other good materials into excellent parts of\nuseful machines simply as practice, and to see the results of fheir painstaking, skilful labor either put into glass show-cases or thrown into the\nscrap-heap. So long as the endowment meets the financial loss, the school\ngoes on, but it cannot be enlarged by funds that might otherwise be utilized. However, the financial loss is not so serious, but the loss to the\nstudent, as compared with working upon real machinery and so getting\nthe experience of four years, as well as better skill, is certainly very great;\nand this is a loss that I am confident can be remedied.\nProbably there is no line of manufacturing where the trade school has\nbeen more thoroly organized for teaching the practical skill required than\nthe textile schools, such as those at Philadelphia and at Lowell; and I\nthink no attempt has yet been made where the results are more satisfactory\nto the manufacturer. This is largely because, owing to the nature of the\nindustry, these schools have been conducted under conditions as real and\nalmost exactly the same as the pupils will meet upon leaving school. We\ncan offer but one objection to the general plan adopted by the textile\nschools, and this is the same as applies to such schools as the New York\nTrade School, inaugurated by Colonel Auchmuty, viz.: the education is\nextremely special and direct, consequently it must be narrow, and it is\ngenerally given-to young men after they have received all the schooling\nthey expect to receive. There will be great economy when the tradeteaching can begin in a boy's life as early as the beginning of the high\nschool. The class of boys who are to be mechanics cannot wait till the\nhigh-school period is completed.\nThis brings us to the consideration of education that will, if possible,\nmeet the requirements of the manufacturer — a system which shall retain\nthe excellent features of the various schools referred to and shall give an\nearnest boy, who has completed the grammar grades, a good, liberal education, and at the same time a thoro training for a trade, from which he\ncan immediately upon graduation earn a good living at journeymen's\npay, say, %2 per day.\nThe proposition is to take one hundred boys, selected for their natural\nfitness, to become skilled, educated mechanics. At the age at which they\nwould enter the high school they are to begin to learn a trade. During\nthe high-school period of four years they are working in a shop one-half\nof their time under the most favorable conditions, spending the other half\nof their time in the department of the high school somewhat modified to\nmeet their needs; and thus the boys will obtain an education which may\nnot be of less value in the life they are to follow than that which a regular\nhigh-school course now gives.\nTho I have said that the manufacturer cares but little or not at all for\nanything in the workman aside from his skill to produce, we have come\nto understand that we cannot have the skill of the order and grade we\n\n%\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n• ■— •\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTRADES\n\n■\n\n60 1\n\ndemand unless science and general discipline are the basis of the skill and\nthe accompaniment of the skill.\nThe system for this training must consist of two parts. The first is\nthe shop. It seems that the manufacturer has every reason to be satisfied\nwith the work of the public schools so long as they adhere to teaching\nsuch science and such knowledge as are properly taught from books and\notherwise in our schoolrooms. We do not wish to duplicate this schooling at personal cost, so long as we pay to support it at such great expense\nand with such excellent results, especially so long as our school boards and\neducators are willing to change, and, in fact, are constantly changing, the\ncourses to meet the needs of various classes of citizens.\nWe have good high-school courses for those who fit for college,\nfor those who wish a business training without much foreign language or\nliterature; and we have courses for pupils who must work during the day\nand are willing to study in the evening. There are many other attempts\nto meet the needs of the industrial portions of our communities. Is it\nasking too much, then, of the school board to make a half-tirne course,\nwhere one-half of class can be in the schoolroom one-half of the hours\nin a week while the other half of the class is at work in a shop ? If this\nis reasonable, it will be granted ; and if it is granted, we have secured the\nbook-schooling and the science-teaching without additional cost to anyone, and with less cost for teachers and for room, because a room will\naccommodate twice as many pupils coming one-half of the time as it can\nif they come the whole of the time.\nNow, to provide for the shop instruction constituting the other half of\nthis proposed half-and-half school. Since we give the highest credit to\nteachers and educators for the great work they accomplish in the high\ncalling of teaching school, and for giving mental training in all that pertains to the schoolroom, I assume that when an enterprise of a compound\nnature is to be undertaken jointly, consisting of one part book work and\none part shop work, we do the school-teacher no dishonor when we propose to delegate the different parts to specialists. The mechanic or\nmanufacturer cannot assume to teach school, while he may assume to be\nquite able to teach shop work and the highest skill of mechanical trades.\nHerein lies the promise of sure success in education for the trades. It\nwill come thru division of labor, followed by co-operation. Do not let us\nask a school-teacher to teach trades or a mechanic to teach school. If we\ndo, both will continue to fail. Even if we could find a combination man\n— a good mechanic and a good school-teacher — he will fail because he\ncannot teach trades — such as the machinist's trade — in a schoolroom,\nany more than he can grow ship timber in a flower-pot or raise a cedar\nforest in a greenhouse. You may play at it, and you can do something\nat it, but you cannot make a business ot it.\nIn order to provide for successful shop instruction we must have a real\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "602\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mapual Training\n\nshop. Do not be frightened at this ! A real shop in the hands of shopmen— of manufacturers — is not difficult or impossible, but in the hands\nof teachers it is a burden and something to be feared. We want schools\norganized and conducted with a four-year course that will give us thoroly\nskilled men, with minds somewhat trained and disciplined. We cannot\nteach trades in our factories, no matter how good material you may give\nus for apprentices.\nThe shop for instructing the half-time school pupils must at present be\nowned and conducted as a private enterprise, incorporated as an educational institution, with the avowed purpose of teaching certain trades in a\nreal, productive, commercial shop, where mechanics of known skill and\nability for imparting skill and understanding regarding shop work are\nemployed to make salable products, with the aid of the students, and with\nthe sole purpose and aim of producing a class of mechanics of the highest\nskill pertaining to the mechanic arts.\n\nTHE\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nTRADE\n\nEDUCATOR'S\nARTHUR\n\nHENRY\n\nCHAMBERLAIN,\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nSCHOOLS:\n\nPOINT\n\nPRINCIPAL\nINSTITUTE,\n\nOF\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nVIEW\n\nOF\nNORMAL\nSCHOOL,\nPASADENA,\nCAL.\n\nTHROOP\n\nA decade past it would have been impossible to have assembled a\n\"corporars guard\" at the National Educational Association to take part\nin such a discussion as we are having today. Is the increased interest a\ngeneral one, or are we for the most part following the lead of the few ?\nIs the movement due to a more intensive belief in trade schools as such,\nand to a closer study of their methods and the results for which they are\nresponsible, or is there something more back of it all — something deeper\nand fundamental in its nature, which calls for a readjustment of presentday conditions, thru changed practice, to fit more exactly the demands of\nsociety, and which looks to a wiser and more rational application of\nproblems and knowledge to the facts and forces of everyday life ?\nOne has but to follow the line of the present tendencies in education,\nin any particular field whatsoever, to be made aware of a great change\nthat has been taking place within the past few years. Perhaps it is not\ntoo much to say that we are now at the very threshold of an educational\nrenaissance, and indications seem to point in the direction of an overthrow of much that has been held dear to the heart of the educator.\nThis fact has peculiar significance in the field of industrialism and tradeteaching. What are some of these changes, and what their bearing upon\nour present topic?\n\" New times \" do at least \"demand new measures.\"\nI have suggested that the thought of the value, purpose, and methods\nof the trade schools is changing.\nIt has. by most of us been considered\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department^\n\n,\n\n■\n\nTHE\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nTRADE\n\n,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n603\n\n.\n\nalmost heretical to think of trade-teaching as existing side by side with\nso-calfed educational work, and many of those present today would\nundoubtedly take the ground that the elements going to make up educational practice cannot have a place in trade instruction. This leads us at\nonce to the distinction between the two methods — trade-teaching on the\none hand, and educational training upon the other.\nThe education we have had in mind, unconsciously perhaps, is such\nas for the most part has had no real, vital, or intrinsic connection with\nlife, or has played little or no part in the future of the individual. Those\nof us who have stood for educational training — and this has probably\nbeen shown more clearly in the field of manual training than elsewhere in\nschool work — seem almost to believe it a crime to prepare boys to earn\ntheir bread and butter. Education has somehow seemed distinct from\nliving, and work having a direct bearing upon the industrial life in its\nmany phases has been kept well away from the boy.\n* * * *\nThe work of the trade school, on the other hand, we have classed as\nbeing possessed of a narrowing influence. The pupil of public-school\nage is of necessity unable to determine his fitness or capacity for special\nwork. He must first get that broadening which comes from a general\ntraining, and upon this foundation he may later specialize.\nThere is, to be sure, much justice in the distinction as drawn, especially when we consider the work of the trade school of the past as contrasted with what it promises to become. What I shall say, then, as to the\nvalue and demand for trade schools will not be so much from the standpoint of such schools as now exist, but I shall have in mind a somewhat\nnew type of institution, that would, in my judgment, prove an energizing\nelement in the industrial and social life of the day.\n* * * *\nThe trade school is, to my mind, essential, and its numbers should\nincrease; but just as we must, if you please, industrialize hand-work in\nschools, so must we educationalize the trade school. What I mean to say\nis this : The demand for trade schools carries with it the demand for a\ncertain content in curricula for such schools, brought about, in part, by\nour intricate and intensive industrial system, specialized and organized as\nit now is. The work must be educationalized by injecting into it the\nthought element to a greater extent than has formerly been the case. As,\nin dealing with traditional subjects, thought without action brings partial\nresults only, so in the trade school, action, mechanical work, dissociated\nfrom thought, is uneducational, and in that sense not the best trade\nteaching. In a trade- school graduate is demanded more and more not\nonly one who can perform his particular service, but one who can plan and\ninitiate as well; who can see reason in action, and who can, thru wise leadership, guide others successfully to perfotfm allotted tasks.\n* * * *\nIn the manual-training school we are finding scores of boys who, by\ntraining or by nature, are fitted to enter one or another of the industrial arts\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nand to engage in some gainful occupation demanding mechanical knowledge and skill. The grammar or high-school work has not given such\nboys, nor can it do so, the necessary mechanical ability demanded in\ntheir work ; such, for example, as was gained under the old apprenticeship system. What it has given them is a point of view, a perspective;\nor it has perhaps merely suggested to them certain lines along which they\nmight successfully specialize. But what shall be done with boys of this\nclass who are financially unable to pursue a three- or four-year highschool course, that they may then enter a technical or engineering school,\nor that they may have opened to them a drafting room, a machine or pattern shop, or a testing laboratory ?\nThe manual-training high school, or polytechnic institution of secondary grade, creditable tho its technique be, will not properly fit these\nboys for their future work, even should they be financed during their\nschool residence. It is also a question as to how far it is desirable to\ncarry forward the general education of a boy of this character after he\nhas shown peculiar adaptability along certain specific lines. At present\nbut two courses seem open to such boys : they must either drop out of\nschool before finishing the grades (as happens in the large majority of\ncases), and take up some line of work for which they may not be at all\nfitted; or they may, perhaps, find an opportunity to enter some shop or\nfactory, or some commercial pursuit, and learn, finally, the practice of\nonly a particular phase of handicraft. They have thus failed utterly to\nget at that richer purpose of life which underlies the purely mechanical\nside of industrialism, and which makes it meaningfuU, interesting, and\nuplifting. In many cases, to be sure, financial gain may result, but our\nstandards of success are certainly not to be confined wholly to this field.\nBesides, it is needless to suggest that the individual made alive to both\nthe theory and practice of his vocation is more likely tQ succeed than is\nhis neighbor schooled in the latter only.\nI have passed over entirely that vast army of boys who, failing to find\nin the common schools that which is satisfying, or at least not in sufficient\nquantity or intensity to hold them, and finding no school of trade or\nmechanical practice open to them, turn to the street. Here at once is the\ninterest caught by industrial life in its many manifestations. The rivers\nand wharves, with their bustling activity, the loading and unloading of\nships and cars, engines and machines in their various services, street work,\nbuilding construction, and manufacturing — all are engaging at first; but\nthe immature mind, without guidance or suggestion, soon turns to other\nthings. And so are kept full the ranks of the improvident and unemployed— enemies to themselves and a menace to society.\nManufacturers and tradesmen will tell you that it is well-nigh impossible to find those who are competent to occupy positions of prominence\nand responsibility in their establishments.\nSuch men are no longer\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n605\n\nwilling to take boys as apprentices, and coach them thru several years;\nand those who now come to them are, for the most part, only partially\ncapable of following the explicit directions laid down for them. The\nmanual-training school graduate, on the other hand, while possessed of\nless skill than the boy of the trade, has back of his knowledge of practical\nthings something of the theory underlying it all, and can more readily\nmodify his work to meet present requirements. He can also lay out,\nsuggest, create, initiate, new lines of action, which is the crying need of\nthe time. Neither of these two classes of youth, however, seems to fit\nexactly the conditions as they are found to exist, or to fulfill the demands\nmade upon them.\nThey are too often misfits.\nMay not Germany offer us a suggestion as to a possible line of improvement? Ihave in mind the Fortbildungsschulen, or continuation schools,\nwhich are proving one of the most important educational elements in\nGermany today. There, as in America, it is the favored few only who\npass from the elementary into the secondary school. Many boys must of\nnecessity earn their own living at an early age, and are thus forced to\nenter some gainful pursuit. Time cannot be spared them to further carry\non academic education as such, nor is it always possible or desirable to\nenter a trade school proper. Then, again, many boys, and even men of\nmature years, already in the trade, avail themselves of both scholastic and\npractical phases as offered by the continuation school. Permit me to quote\nMr. H. Bertram, of Berlin, who writes in December, 1899, as follows:\nAmid the developments of civilization among the nations, the idea of the continuation school is making its way with increasing strength. Urgently required by the conditions ofsocial organization, and in its turn acting on them, the new institution appears\nin many forms.\nIt claims its place side by side with the church and the school.\nAmong the great number of those who enter early on the practical business of life,\nto whom the primary school has given only a meager education, there awakens, sooner or\nlater, the desire to share in the stores of knowledge which human intelligence has won,\nin the insight into the working of the forces of nature which it has acquired and applied\nto industry, in the arts which ennoble and support human action ; in short, to participate\nin. the spiritual treasures which are, as it were, the birthright of those born under a luckier\nstar. This desire, which opens to the diligent the way to material prosperity and inner\ncontentment, seems for society as a whole an important incentive to industrial progress,\nand turns the discontent of the slaves of machinery into the happiness of men conscious\nof their own success. The more the old order changes, which held the work-people in\nthe narrow bonds of tradition, the more is customary prescription replaced by education\nand independent judgment, by insight into existing conditions, by special excellence\nwithin a particular sphere. For this reason, the elementary school, however efficient and\nmethodically correct its action may be, cannot suffice for the happiness of the masses, nor\nfor the preservation of society. The instruction must come into close contact with the\nlife of the future citizen, and must be at the command of anyone desirous to learn, as long\nas he seeks it. But the seeker, born amid such conditions as these, needs guidance.\nPublic libraries, newspapers, magazines, help him the more he pushes forward ; but without expert assistance he hardly finds the beginning of the path.\nSuch is the object of the continuation school.\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nExact definition of these schools is difficult. Courses of various kinds are\noffered, the work being carried on during the weekday evenings and on Sunday mornings.\nThey are in reality supplementary schools.\n* * * *\nWhile the work of these schools, then, is of a somewhat general\ncharacter, and for the most part of a theoretical nature, drawing, and, in\nsome instances, shop courses are carried on. When a certain industry\npredominates in a locality supporting a continuation school, it is only fair\nto suppose that the work done, general tho it may be, will be colored, to\nsome extent at least, by the demands of such industry. In some instances\nthe classes are arranged according to the various trades followed, as bookbinders, printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers, workers in wood\nand stone.\n* * * *\nThe newly opened Manhattan Trade School for Girls, to which reference has already been made, also offers a suggestion as to what is\ndemanded in the future trade school. It began in November, 1902, with\na half-hundred girls in attendance. Today, after eight months' successful\nwork, the attendance has more fhan doubled, the school being crowded to\nits utmost capacity, and scores of deserving girls clamoring for admittance\nare upon the waiting list. Not only is the training of these girls entirely\nfree, but scholarships are also given to help maintain the pupil, and the\nfamily perhaps, while the education of the former is going forward ; for in\nmany instances such girls are the sole support of one or more members\nof a family.\nAlready this school has shown what can be done thru thoro, scientific\ntrade-teaching. The trade is sympathetic and enthusiastic. Girls who\nbefore entering the school were receiving three dollars or less per week,\nwith little or no opportunity for advancement, have from time to time\nbeen sent out on probation. In all such instances the employers of these\ngirls ask to be allowed to retain them at salaries ranging from four to five\nand six dollars per week. The earning power of the girls has thus been\nincreased 100 per cent, in six months, and in many cases advancement is\ncertain. * * * * With increased skill in technique and increased\ncapacity on the quantitative side there comes also the ability to- plan and\ncarry forward^ new lines of work. Nor is this all. The view is broadened ;\nthe work becomes less of a burden, and loses its aspects of drudgery; and\nthe individual is led to see her place in, and necessity to, the great social\nwhole.\nExistence becomes life.\nIt is not necessary to dwell upon the work of any particular institution of the trade class offering training to boys, for with these we are all\nmore or less familiar. * * * * I would in closing, however, repeat,\nfor the sake of. emphasis, my hearty belief in the value of the trade school, as\nwe today have it. Those who are guiding and directing such schools are\npointing out numbers of their graduates who are occupying positions of\nprominence and trust, and who are helping, in their own way, to work out\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDEMAND\n\nFOR\n\nthe problems being thrust upon them.\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n607\n\nSome of these men rise superior to\n\ntheir surroundings, and despite a lack, in some cases, of a liberal education, make names and places for themselves. Let us, I say, have more of\nsuch schools. In addition to these schools I am pleading for a school,\ncall it what you will, that shall be broad in its tendencies and thoro in the\ninstruction offered; a school that shall have as its dominant idea such\ntraining in the industries as shall fit the boy to accomplish in the least\ntime the maximum of work ; a school that projects into its instruction\nthought and reason ; a school that shall lead the boy to a more complete\nknowledge of the industries and of that for which they stand, and that\nshall help him to appreciate the lives, words, and deeds of his fellows,\nthat they may serve as a stimulus in the enrichment of his own life.\nI believe it is practicable and that the time is upon us when the educational trade school is to come and contribute toward the working out\nof our educational problem ; and that this school, while teaching a trade\nto those who so desire, will at the same time place within the boy's grasp\nan appreciation of, and ability to deal with, the most important and\nessential elements with which life has to do. I believe further that it will\nhelp many to become self-supporting, self-respecting citizens, able to rise\nfinancially and advance industrially, and to take their places as contributing elements in the great social order.\n\nDISCUSSION\nL. D. BuRLiNGAME, chief draftsman, Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co., Providence, R. I. — In the papers to which we have just listened we have had two phases of\nthe trade-school question presented. Mr. Chamberlain shows the need of trade schools\nfor those already employed at a trade. He emphasizes the importance of \" continuation\nschools\" to give further instruction to those at work during the day. Mr. Higgins, in a\nwell-thought-out plan, aims to train boys that have not been employed so that they will\nacquire sufficient skill to work at a trade. Each need is real. Mr. Higgins asserts that\nthe present manual training and trade schools are inadequate to produce skilled workmen. My experience leads me to agree with this view, at least as applied to machinists\nand draftsmen. I believe, however, that our present schools, when properly conducted,\ngive a training that aids a boy to start later in practical work, even tho the start be at the\nbottom, and to make more rapid progress and progress to a higher point than would otherwise be possible.\nWhen work is specialized as it is today, when the experience of the shopman is often\nlimited to the running of a single machine, the evening trade school can give him needed\nauxiliary tra;ining, without his giving up his employment. Such a school in its day classes\ncan help the man that, reaching a point in his work where he realizes his deficiences, finds\nmeans to go back to school. A school for both classes of men should approach problems\nfrom the shop side rather than from the technical standpoint, even when dealing with the\nacademic branches ; it should adapt its teaching to those that either never have learned\nor have forgotten school methods. The \"continuation school,\" as outlined by Mr. Chamberlain, can give such instruction to meet the needs of this class of men.\nThe two ends sought, that a boy obtain a higher education and yet be able to earn a\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC I A TION\n\n\\ Manual Training\n\nliving at an earlier age, while opposing, are both desirable, and I heartily agree with Mr.\nHiggins in the spirit of his plan to attain both these ends. It is, however, no simple-task\nto carry thru such a plan to success. Pointing out difficulties does not condemn. It is by\nlooking difficulties in the face that we can be sure of success.\nLarge school shops would be required to give satisfactory shop practice, necessitating large financial investments. The product must be such that there would be a ready\nmarket. Other trades aside from that of machinist would have equal claims for attention, and each of these must have its own experts as instructors, who must keep up to the\nlatest practice.\nThe free labor of the students would come into competition with the paid labor of the\nHarmonious working would be required between the two divisions of the school.\nMr. Higgins looks for no help from the apprenticeship system, which he regards as\nobsolete; one reason given being that shop work is to so great an extent specialized at\nthe present day. This objection to an apprenticeship cannot, however, be greater than\nin the past. We should go away from this convention with a mistaken idea, if we go\nthinking the apprenticeship system is dead.\nTwo impartial investigations to learn the facts regarding this matter have been made\nshop.\n\nwithin a few years: one by the editor of the American Machinist^^ and one last year by\nMr. E. H. Parks for Gassier' s Magazine.\"^ These included reports from several hundred\nmachine-tool, engine, and electrical machinery builders in this country, and show from\n70 to 80 per cent, employing apprentices, about 50 per cent, of these being regularly\nindentured by a written agreement. In connection with the investigations, leading manufacturers expressed themselves as strongly in favor of and dependent upon such a\nsystem.\nMr. Parks says, in his investigation just referred to, speaking of the technical and\ntrade schools, that \"they have in a measure attempted to supply the lack of skilled workmen ;but the results, while excellent, in many ways do not bring out a class of men with\nthe training and experience needed, so that at the present time it seems as if there were\nbut one way to fill this want, and that by returning \\o the old apprenticeship system as\nnearly as it can be do.ne in a large factory.\" This statement by Mr. Parks wiH, no\ndoubt, appeal to Mr. Higgins as an additional argument for the adoption of his plan.\nAt the works of the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co., even tho the Work is\nspecialized to a great extent, the boys have a varied experience in the four years of their\napprenticeship, which includes lathe work, drilling, milling, assembling, screw-cutting,\nscraping, planing, and general work. A large number of these boys study evenings,\ndevoting the time to drawing and mathematics. The drafting-room apprentices at the\nsame works have six months of real shop work included in their time of service; that\nis, in cases where they have not already had shop practice.\nThe conclusion we must draw from these facts is that the apprenticeship system is\nalive today and must be reckoned with in any discussion of the trade-school question.\nAn objection to many graduates of our schools is that they have a mistaken idea of\ntheir value. Many of them make good men after they have had experience, tut they\nhandicap themselves when, on leaving school, they are unwilling to start at the foundation, thinking that in school they have already elimbed high on the ladder of experience.\nThe responsibility for this misconception may lie sometimes at the door of the teacher.\nIt is perhaps natural that he should magnify the importance of his wOrk. In fact, it may\noften seem to him necessary to do so in order to inspire the student to do his work well.\nIn conclusion, I would say that the function of the trade school should be to extend\nthe work of the manual-training school by a training in the skillful use of tools and in\nthe operating of machines, teaching the underlying principles in such a manner as to fit\nthe student\nto advance as a skilled workman ; or to fill the position of foreman or\n^American\n\nMachinist, December\n\n24, 1896.\n\n« \"Machine Shop Number,\" November, 1902.\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nORGAN IZA TION\n\nOF\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n609\n\ndesigner, if his natural abilities be in either of these directions. Its office should be to give\na preliminary and auxiliary training, shortening the time and increasing the value of an\napprenticeship ; also to help those that have missed early opportunities, or that have\nthe ambition and determination to excel.\nThere is certainly a demand for the extension of schools of the Pratt Institute type,\nto do work along the lines of the \"continuation schools\" recommended by Mr. Chamberlain. There is also a field for schools of the type proposed by Mr. Higgins, to impart\ntrade skill to a boy as a part of his school training. The carrying out of both plans,\nhowever, should be with due regard for the apprenticeship system as it now exists.\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION\nOF TRADE\nPOINT OF VIEW OF A SCHOOL\n\nTHOMAS\n\nM. BALLIET,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSCHOOLS:\nFROM THE\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nOver thirty thousand students are enrolled today in the evening\nclasses of the Y. M. C. A., and several hundred thousand in correspondence schools, receiving instruction in technical subjects. These facts,\ntogether with others like them which might be cited, emphasize strongly\nthe great need of trade schools and of technical schools of a lower grade\nthan engineering schools. We must not be prejudiced against trade\nschools as a part of the public-school system because they emphasize the\nutilitarian element in education. Our forefathers who founded the\npublic-school system were altogether utilitarian. Their motive for establishing high schools was to fit young men for colleges which would\nprepare them for the ministry. They established elementary schools\nfor the children of the masses to teach them ''to read, write, and cast\naccounts.\" Their aim thruout was utilitarian. If, in their day, there had\nexisted the need for trade schools which exists at the present time, their\nfirst thought would have been to provide for such schools and to give\nchildren an education which would prepare them to earn their living after\nleaving school. We must revise gur ideas of educational values. The\neducational value of any subject must be determined, not only by what\nit does for the pupil while in school, but also by what it contributes to his\nfuture development all his life. A study may have high educational value\nwhile it is being pursued, but if it is completely dropped when school\ndays are over, and does not connect very directly with anything in practical life, it may have less educational value than the learning of a trade\nwhich is pursued thru life. The school ought to begin a development\nwhich is afterward continued by the environments in order that the process\nof education may be a continuous one. To teach a man a trade by which\nhe may earn all his life a dollar or two^ollars a day more than he otherwise might have earned is to put his whole life and that of his family on\na higher plane than it would otherwise have been.\nIt means more of the\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6lO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\namenities of life for his family; it means pictures, and music, and education, as well as social opportunity and social position.\nHow may trade schools be organized under the industrial conditions\nexisting in this country ?\n1. Our manual-training high schools should be converted into technical high schools. We have enough technical schools of college rank\nfor present needs, whose function is to train engineers. There is great\nneed, however, of technical schools of high-school grade, whose function\nshould be to train foremen and superintendents of shops; and, in short,\nthat whole group of men who come between the engineer and the\nmechanic, and whose duty it is to direct the work of the latter under the\ngeneral superintendence of the former. Such men must virtually know\nthe trade of the men whom they are to supervise, and they cannot receive\nthe shop training necessary to make them sufficiently expert, in a school\nof technology of college rank. Furthermore, these technical high schools\nshould have one four-year course in manual training, solely for educational purposes. Possibly students might also be allowed to specialize in\ncertain lines of shop work to enable them to learn the principles of the\nmachinist's trade and become experts in one of its branches. This latter\nis a question of which no one can as yet speak dogmatically, and it may\nultimately be found inadvisable to teach the trade requiring the highest\nskill in a manual-training high school. The future must decide this\nquestion.\n2. There ought to be organized in the shops of every well-equipped\nmanual-training high school evening classes in trades, consisting largely\nof men already engaged at their trade, either as apprentices or as journeymen. The function of such evening schools should be, in the main,\nto make men more efficient who already know their trade in part, and to\nbroaden their mechanical training. Such schools would meet with the\napproval of manufacturers, because they would train their men to do a\nhigher quality of work; they would be approved by the workmen,\nbecause they would enable them to get promotions and increased wages ;\nthey would, furthermore, be approved by the labor unions, because they\nwould accomplish all this without adding materially to the supply of\nlabor in the labor market.\n3. Our evening drafting classes should be reorganized. At present\nthere is usually only one such school in a city, and the class is taught by\na professional teacher of drafting, or by a draftsman employed in the daytime in some manufacturing establishment. The result is that, while he\nis able to teach the elements of mechanical drawing very successfully, he\nis not competent to teach its applications to the various trades. What is\nneeded is an organization of the evening drawing classes in such a way;\n{a) that all students may take a common course in the elements of\nmechanical drawing to lay the foundation for specialization ; (b) that for\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION-\n\nOF\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n.\n\n6il\n\nspecialized instruction men may be grouped in classes, according to their\ntrades; {c) that they may be given a teacher of drafting who knows the\ntrade and can show the application of drawing to the details of the trade.\nThis is the plan on which the so-called trade classes and trade schools of\nGermany are organized. There is very little shop work in these schools\nthat requires machinery. There is shop work in the schools for sadlers,\ntailors, etc., but only in rare cases in those for mechanics. Men work at\ntheir trade in the daytime and receive technical instruction in drawing\nand other subjects in the evening classes. We could double the attendance in our evening drafting schools, I feel sure, by organizing them on\nthis plan.\n4. We ought to organize evening classes in mathematics for men\nengaged in the mechanical trades, grouping them in classes according to\ntheir trades, and giving each class a teacher who not only knows mathematics, but also knows the trade of the men whom he is instructing and\ncan apply his instruction to that trade. Such classes can easily be organized in any of our evening high schools, and it is entirely feasible to\norganize them in connection with evening trade schools conducted in the\nshops of manual-training high schools.\n5. We ought to organize, in like manner, evening classes in applied\nphysic^, grouping the men again in such a way that those of the same\ntrade, or closely related trades, are put together in classes by themselves\nand are taught by a teacher who can teach, not only physics, but also its\napplications to the trade.\n6. We ought to organize similar classes in chemistry, in which, besides\nthe rudiments of chemistry as a basis for specialized instruction, its various applications to the manufacturing industries should be taught.\n7. We ought to organize classes in electricity, where students may\nreceive, not only theoretical instruction, but also have an opportunity\nto do laboratory work and fit themselves for practical work as electricians.\n8. There is a great need of a trade school for boys fourteen years old\nand over, who are not prepared to enter a high school, and are obliged to\nlearn a trade, or to leave school and engage in some gainful occupation.\nStatistics show that a large majority of men engaged in the wood-working\nand iron-working trades have never attended a high school. Quite a fair\npercentage of them have never completed a grammar-school course. These\nstatistics show that there is need of a trade school of lower rank than a high\nschool. Such a school ought to take boys at the end of the sixth or seventh\nyear of the elementary-school course, after they have reached the age of\nfourteen, and keep them three Or four years, as may be necessary, requiring\nthem to do as much academic work, both of grammar and of high-school\ngrade, as they can carry. No trade school for boys of this age should\never be established which does not require academic work.\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "612\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nED\n\nUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC\n\nI A TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAll the instruction of mature men who are already engaged at their\ntrade should be specialized, for in this way alone can it be made to appeal\nstrongly to their interest. Such men come to an evening school for the\npurpose of gaining the ability to do something which will have commercial\nvalue, and not, as a rule, for instruction which will only broaden in a\ngeneral way their education. They may be able to run one or two\nmachines in a shop in which they are engaged and come to the trade\nschool to learn how to run another ; but they come to learn to run this\nother machine with sufficient skill to do work with it which shall have a\ncommercial value. In order to secure attendance and interest at an evening school of any kind, where attendance is not compulsory, it is necessary\nto teach the student that particular thing which brought him to the\nschool.\nWhile in the case of men already engaged at their trade a high degree\nof specialization must be allowed, the reverse is true of a trade school in\nwhich young boys are to learn a trade. Such boys ought to be given, in\nthe first place, a broad course in manual training, making them familiar\nwith mechanical principles and with mechanical processes of various kinds;\nin short, with the underlying principles and processes of a number of\nspecific trades. They should be required to study mechanics, physics,\nand mathematics, and their applications to the mechanical trades, with all\nthe thoroness of which they are capable. In other words, before they are\nallowed to specialize minutely, they should be given the broadest training\npossible in their case. The one thing which the American mechanic\nneeds, and fortunately possesses, is versatility. With the rapid changes in\ntrades, and the rapid displacement of one piece of machinery and one\nprocess of manufacturing by another, the ability to adapt himself readily\nto these changes is absolutely necessary to the mechanic.\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION OF TRADE\nSCHOOLS:\nFROM THE\nPOINT OF VIEW OF A TRADE-SCHOOL DIRECTOR\n\nARTHUR\n\nL. WILLISTON,\nTECHNOLOGY,\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF DEPARTMENT\nOF SCIENCE\nPRATT\nINSTITUTE,\nBROOKLYN,\nN. Y.\n\nAND\n\nI think that all persons will agree that public education should, in a\ngeneral way, reflect the spirit of the age and the life of the people. There\nnever has been a time when industrial activity and the application of\nscientific and mechanical principles to the arts have so pervaded every\ncommunity as at present. More than one-fourth of the entire population\nof the United States having any regular employment now finds it in the\nbuilding trades, in manufacturing, and in similar mechanical pursuits. In\nMassachusetts and the north Atlantic states the proportion of those thus\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n613\n\nemployed is much larger even than in the country at large, being 46.9\nand 34.5 per cent, respectively; and the requirements, too, for skill and\nintelligence on the part of the workers are becoming correspondingly\nmore exacting. Yet, even here, where the school system is best organized and developed, it has not yet expanded to meet their needs, even\nthough the demand for this is more than a quarter of a century old and\nhas been growing more urgent every day.\nAs a nation we have a long-cherished idea of having every boy and\ngirl in the land receive at least a complete elementary-school training. I\nwonder how many appreciate how far we actually come from realizing\neven this modest ideal. Less than one-third of all the children who enter\nthe schools in the United States ever graduate from the grammar school\nor its equivalent. On an average, American boys and girls now receive\nonly a trifle over five years of school training, and three-fourths of them\nall start their life-work with almost no education — with nothing but the\nmost meager knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic.\nIn at least two important particulars — in their failure so to expand\nas to reflect the mechanical and scientific spirit of our times, and in their\nfailure to educate and train the whole people — the common schjools of\nthe United States have failed in what the nation has expected of them.\nI do not wish to underestimate the value of what has been accomplished,\nbut my work for the last ten years has brought me in contact with a class\nof individuals for whom the existing schools are able to do little, and I\nhave come to see and feel their needs more keenly as I have realized what\nit was possible to do for them. I believe that it is worth while asking\nwhether our plan of popular education cannot be so extended as to aid\nfurther this vast horde of individuals t! at does not know its advantages\nbeyond the most elementary grades.\nThere are many causes that combine to make the pupils leave the\npublic schools in such large numbers so early in their courses, but in the\nmajority of cases two causes stand out clearly. A few leave because of\nabsolute necessity, but a much larger number, I am convinced, leave\nbecause they do not believe that another year or two of school will be of\nenough practical benefit to them, in the fierce competition foe a livelihood\nthat they will have to meet, to pay them for the sacrifice. They prefer an\nearly start. It is not wholly poverty that causes, even in prosperous years,\nover 85 per cent, of all American children to be withdrawn from school\nupon the completion of the preparatory-school course. It is quite as\nmuch, I believe, the conviction that education of the kind that they can\nget will not increase their efficiency in their life-work. When the American\npeople pass this judgment against our schools by such an overwhelming\nmajority, it is, to my thinking, time th^t we seriously consider what may\nbe done to make our system of popular education in reality a system of\neducation for the whole people.\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6 14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe remedy, it seems to me, is most apparent. We need not alter\nour existing schools, but rather to supplement them with others that will\nmeet the needs of those who are at present unprovided for as squarely as\nthe present high schools meet the needs of those preparing to enter college, or as the professional schools do those of the doctor, the lawyer, or\nthe engineer. The idea is not new in this country. The Lowell Textile\nSchool, the Williamson Free Trade School near Philadelphia, the New\nYork Trade School, the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn are examples. Some\nof these have been in existence for fifteen or twenty years — all of them\nlong enough to prove beyond question their value from every point of\nview. In Germany the idea is older; or, if not older, at least it has\nreceived more general adoption. In Berlin, for example, in 1901, 55 per\ncent, of all of the boys in the city between the ages of fourteen and\neighteen years were enrolled in evening schools of this practical character, in addition to all those who were enrolled in the trade aud elementary technical schools during the day.\nTo have our system of popular education in the United States effectively reach the great mass of wage-earners, we need to organize at least\nfour types of schools to supplement the existing schools, or a single school\nto embody the four distinct types of courses of education.\n1. Day trade schools of a very practical character, where young men, to whom another\nyear or perhaps two of school is possible, (^an acquire a technical skill and efficiency in\nany one of a very large variety of trades, which will give them immediate help in securing\nprofitable employment, and so ground them in the principles underlying their work that\nthey may hope soon to become intelligent and skilled mechanics.\n\nSuch schools may not aim to graduate finished mechanics, but they can\nturn out advanced apprentices, trained in method, understanding the\nrelation between cause and effect, and the simple principles of science as\napplied to their work, full of ambition, and skilled enough, to make them\nsought by employers. In the short time available, what type of education\ncould hope to do more ?\n2. Elementary day technical schools^ for those who can devote the necessary two or\nthree years, after completing the elementary schools, for teaching the applications of\nscience and art to all manner of industries.\n\nThe Lowell Textile School is an example of this type of school. It is\nwell known that the truths and methods of modern science are immensely\nhelpful to the leaders in the industrial world, but it has also been demonstrated that, if taught rightly, they are no less helpful to the men in the\nranks. These two types of schools will have a very large enrollment from\nthose who otherwise would receive no further educational advantages.\n3. Evening trade schools, to give those for whom further education during the day is\nout of the question — and the number of these will always remain very large — the practical skill necessary to enable them to become skilled mechanics and intelligent workers\nin the large number of trades in which they are employed during the day.\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n615\n\nThe course of instruction in these schools should embrace even a wider\ngroup of trades than the day trade schools. They should include, not\nonly the usual building and manufacturing trades, but also such trades as\nthat of the upholsterer, the tailor, the lithographer, the engraver, the\nwatch-repairer, and many others besides.\n4. Evening technical school, for young men of greater intellectual capacity than those\nincluded in the evening trade schools, who are employed as skilled workmen, draftsmen,\nclerks, and the like, and who wish opportunity to study these technical subjects which\nwill help to broaden them in their Tarious lines of work and give them instruction in\nthose branches of applied science or art which are directly related to their several callings.\n\nThe course of study here should include, among others, such subjects\nas practical mathematics, technical chemistry, physics, applied mechanics,\napplied electricity, machine and architectural drawing, and applied design\nrelated to many crafts and industries.\nIn these schools, as I have hastily outlined them, I have referred only\nto the needs of men employed in mechanical occupations, but it is my\nthought that they should also provide courses of instruction leading to\nevery well-defined vocation in which there are a sufficient number of\neither men or women employed to make their establishment sought. I\nbelieve, too, that all four of the classes of schools which I have described\nshould be highly specialized, differing in the courses of instruction that\nthey offer in different places, according to local industries and the\nprinciple occupations of the people.\nThe practical advantage that would be derived from having trade and\ntechnical schools, with day and evening classes, generally established\nthruout the land would be almost beyond calculation, but their educational\nbenefit in the development of intelligence, manhood, and good citizenship\nwould, in my judgment, be still greater. The demand for such schools\nis unquestionable, and at present in most places the only way in which\nthis demand can be satisfied is thru correspondence schools, which today\nenroll more students than all the colleges and professional normal schools\nin the United States combined. The large majority of these students are\nmechanics and laborers, and to me it is a sad reflection of our national\nsystem of education that the earnest pleading for knowledge on the part\nof the wage-earners of the land has become a profitable field for business\nenterprise.\nIn describing what may be accomplished thru these schools I am not\nspeaking without knowledge. I am speaking from experience of*over ten\nyears in this field of education, where I have seen young men under my\ncharge grow and develop intellectually in a way that would surprise most\nteachers. I have seen evening classes in elementary mechanical drawing,\nwith but six hours per week for twenty-four weeks, do work that I would\nwillingly compare — that of every memb^ of the class — in quantity and\nquality with that of any college in this country, in thirty-six weeks of the\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nsame number of hours per week ; or with ahuost any high school in twice\nthat length of time. I have seen evening classes in technical chemistry,\nwith fewer hours per week, surpass day students who had much better\npreparation and training. I have seen young apprentices, with instruction equivalent in hours to only three weeks' work at their trade, do\nthings that journeymen mechanics, with four or five years of experience,\ncannot equal. And these things are not unusual or exceptional. They\nmake one have faith in what patience and perseverence and determination can accomplish. They have taught me to believe in the young men\nwho come to the trade and the technical school for help; and if every\none of you present here today had had the same opportunity to see them\nand to know them, you would believe in them too. In theory, we all of\nus agree that it is from the great class of the people who work with their\nhands that the flower of the nation comes, when given half a chance ; but,\nin the present state of our social development, the means for them to rise\nhave been largely cut off, and today they are sadly in need of the\nstepping-stone which the trade and technical schools will afford them.\nSome persons fear the attitude of organized labor toward these\nschools, but my experience leads me to have confidence in its support.\nAll unions of skilled labor desire to restrict admission to their ranks.\nAnd they are wise and right in wishing to make this restriction as rigid\nas they can. .Every professional organization does the same. No lawyer\ncan practice in this state until he has passed a difficult examination at the\nbar, and no engineer can obtain any business until he has finished a\nsevere course of training or completed an apprenticeship of practical\nexperience even more difficult. The members of the unions realize that\ntheir power and their safety come from having the gap between skilled\nlabor and the unskilled just as wide as possible ; and any agency that will\nhelp to widen this gap by making skilled labor more effective and efficient\nthey will welcome, for they understand that with them, just as much as\nwith the doctors or lawyers or engineers, the only lasting and effective\nrestriction is that of education and ability. They will oppose any school\nthat seeks to turn out large numbers of half-trained men, who will tend\nto lower their standard of average ability and capacity — and rightly; but\nI think we can safely trust the good judgment of the American workman\nto see in the schools, such as I have described, that help to lift and\nuphold the standard of his trade, the most potent aid and ally that has\nbeen offered him.\nIf, however, these schools are to realize their possibilities, those who\norganize and direct them must appreciate the fact that they can succeed\nonly by supplying the needs of the people who are taught, and set aside\ngiving them something else which is believed to be just as good or\nperhaps better for them. The teaching of the industrial classes is not\ndifficult, if it is commenced at the right end by going down among the\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "DcpartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n617\n\nworkers and finding out what they actually need to make* them more\nefficient. The methods of teaching must be adapted to the people\ntaught; conventional methods will not answer. The teachers must be\nmen who know those whom they would teach, who are chosen because of\ntheir enthusiastic belief in their work, who have unusual skill and\nproficiency in their particular calling, and who are such masters of their\ncraft as to command respect from all who are competent to judge.\nThe equipment, too, in all practical lines of work must be modern and\nthe equal of that found in the best plants of the same character ; for the\nstudents will judge the standard of instruction largely by the standard of\nthe things that they can see and are familiar with. But the greatest\nessential of all is directness and singleness of purpose in all the work. If\nthe object is to help a certain group of individuals in a practical way, they\nshould be told so frankly, and then all energies should be devoted to the\naccomplishment of that one aim. To deviate from the object for which\na course is planned will decrease confidence in the sincerity of the school,\nand everything which is not in the direct line of giving the students the\nexact kind of practical help which they seek in the courses of instruction\nthey enter will be found to be detrimental. It may sometimes seem as\ntho more good could be accomplished in the direction of general culture\nand good citizenship if something specific were introduced into the\ncourse for the accomplishment of this end, but I think that it has been\ndemonstrated beyond a doubt that by helping young people to help\nthemselves in a practical way, thru such practical means as I have here\ntried to describe, more is actually accomplished in the way of character\nbuilding and the development of citizenship than could be done in any\nother way. The time is too short to accomplish more than one thing\nwell, but it is not too short to give these earnest workers just the help\nthat they need, and, in giving it, to show them a goal worthy of their best\nambition, which they can reach if they will continue to apply thru life the\nsame scientific spirit that they have used in their school work : first, the\nbelief that there is more truth and a better way than they have ever found\n'which is worth their striving for; and, secondly, faith that, if they apply\nall their knowledge and experience toward finding it, they will succeed.\nIt is this spirit that gives enjoyment to toil; and what greater blessing\ncould a nation bestow upon the multitude of people who must spend the\ngreater part of the waking hours of their lives in working with their\nhands, than an opportunity to learn to do their work in this spirit ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nCharles A. Bennett, Bradley Polytechnk Institute, Peoria, 111. — When considering so great a proposition as the one before us this morning, it is well to look at the\nobstacles in the way as well as the end to be attained.\nThere is unquestionably a\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "6 I8\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\ndemand for trade schools, but who is to furnish them ? Will the manufacturers ? Will\nthe trade unions ? Shall they all be maintained by private endowment, or shall they\nbecome a part of the public-school system ?\nA few have been established already by private endowment. If the demand grows\nmore urgent, I believe the manufacturers are likely to combine for the maintenance of\nsuch schools. In my estimation the trade unions are making a great mistake in not\ncoming forward and establishing trade schools. A few trade organizations already do\nsomething in this direction. I am expecting there will soon arise some far-sighted leader\namong the unionists who will point out the great advantage of union control of such\nschools, and will start a widespread, but carefully regulated, movement for trade instruction of the immediately practical sort. I now refer to training in trade processes and\nmethods, not to woik in applied science and mathematics such as is given in continuation\nschools. But the most vital question before liiis body is: Shall the public schools of our\ncities and towns furnish this trade instruction ? What are the obstacles in the way of\nsuch a plan ?\n1. Trade instruction of the kind in question seems to be opposed to the traditions of\nour American free school system. It has been the aim of our public schools to give the\ngeneral education needed by every man, and, with rare exceptions, no subject has been\nallowed in the curriculum unless it furnished a contribution to the general education\nof every boy and girl ; in other words, each subject must have in it a large proportion of\neducative elements substantially as valuable to one person as to another. On the other\nhand, the highly specialized knowledge, or the \"tricks,\" of any trade have not been\nconsidered a reasonable part of public instruction.\n2. It is contrary to the spirit of our public schools to allow a high degree of\nspecialization at an early period in school life. In the words of another: \"Every boy's\neducation must remain open at the top.\" He must ever be in line for something higher\nin education. I can conceive that it would be possible to retain this feature in such a\ntrade school as has been proposed, but it does not exist in some of the trade schools of\nthe present day. Each pupil in an American public school should have the opportunity,\nso far as the school can control that opportunity, to receive the highest general education\nthe public schools can give. No impassable barriers shall be thrown in his way.\n3. Trade schools, if established at public expense, might produce a surplus of workmen in one line of activity at the expense of another. This is what the trade unions\nfear. They fear that such schools would not be regulated to fit their ideas of adjusting\nsupply to demand. In a given locality the demand for tradesmen fluctuates more or\nless. It would be difficult to keep the output of the school in harmony with the demand.\nThe public school, as now constituted, does not have to consider this question.\nMiss Jane Addams, of Hull House, when investigating the condition of the poor on\nthe West Side in Chicago a few years ago, found that in a large majority of cases it was\nthe skilled and highly specialized tradesmen who were out of work, not the handy men\nwho could turn themselves to any one of the several lines of work.\n4. There is danger of favoring one class in the community at the expense of another.\nThe manufacturer of machinery wants a school for the machine trades. If this is\nestablished, the builders will want a similar school for building trades. Then the clay\nworkers, and the textile industries, and the jewelers, and the barbers, and all the rest will\nwant a school, or will have a \"bone to pick\" with their neighbors who have a school.\nMr. Burlingame has recognized this fact in his paper. The wire-pulling in school boards\nat the present time is nut to be compared with what might take place if a half-dozen\ntrades were clamoring for their rights and privileges.\n5. The cost of such schools would be an important factor and would render it\nimpossible to have a school fur many different trades in a city of moderate size.\n- All these obstacles I see in the way of establishing municipal trade schools supported\nby public funds.\nI do not say that it is impossible to overcome these obstacles, but\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n619\n\nI do say they are serious obstacles that must be considered. Many of these would be\nmore easily removed, tho not different in principle, if the trade schools were to be\nmaintained at the expense of the state and distributed thru the state where most needed.\nI come from an institution where a pure trade school is flourishing. At Bradley\nPolytechnic Institute, in Peoria, 111., we have a school of horology that is well equipped\nand is doing good work. Here we train watchmakers, jewelers, engravers, and\nopticians, who are in demand all over the country. It is particularly significant, it seems\nto me, that this school practically pays all its expenses out of the income from tuitions.\nThe demand for skill in the jewelry business is so great that young men in large numbers\nfind it profitable to come to us and pay a high rate of tuition for instruction. Many\nstudents cannot afford to follow the course thru continuously, and so they come for a\nfew months, which gives them a start in their trade ; later they return to take up a special\nbranch, as engraving or optics, devoting their entire time to one or two subjects. Often\nthey return a third time, each time going away with increased skill of the most practical\nkind; which means, in turn, increased salary.\nI recognize the need of trade instruction, but I believe that, as a rule, it should\nnot be supplied by our public schools. In this connection I wish to express my belief in\nthe ability of the manual-training work to do all in this direction that should be expected\nof the public schools. Manual-training schools are doing much more to relieve the\npressure for trade schools than many persons are willing to admit. Most gratifying\ntestimonies have come from leading manufacturers. The manual-training schools are\ndoing this without departing from the fundamental principles of our public-school system.\nLet such schools be multiplied, and let them get into closer and closer touch with local\nindustries, and I believe thty will meet the legitimate demand for industrial training,\nso far as the public schools are concerned.\nArthur A. Hamerschlag, consulting engineer. New York Trade School. — A\nbrief history of trades education in the United States would be very largely a history of\nthe development of the New York Trade School. Founded in 188 1 by Colonel Richard\nAuchmuty, it marked the first distinct movement along educational lines to provide a\nsubstitute for the declining apprenticeship system, to which system both Europe aud\nAmerica have for many decades depended for their skilled mechanics.\nAfter careful stuly and investigation of the numerous European systems of manual\ntraining, and technical and trade instruction. Colonel Auchmuty arrived at the conclusion\nthat none of these systems were applicable or practical to handle this most important\nproblem in this country, and with fortunate foresight designed the so-called \" Auchmuty\nsystem of instruction,\" which has produced such remarkable results. This system of\ninstruction has become, during the past twenty or more years, the recognized American\nstandard, and at the recent world's fair at Paris it was awarded the grand prize, in\ncompetition with all the schools of a similar character in Europe and America.\nBefore entering into a detailed explanation of the courses of instruction at the New\nYork Trade School, it should be clearly understood that the aim and purpose of this\ninstruction are quite distinct from the manual-training and technical institutions, and that\nwhat may be applicable to them from an educational standpoint may be both obsolete\nand impracticable to the trade school. In order to understand and define its organization, the length and breadth of its courses, and the manner of imparting information,\ndue consideration must be given to the economic problems to be solved and the result to\nbe attained. The marked deficiency in the number and capacity of American trained\nskilled mechanics, and the continuous and hazardous importation of European workmen,\nmust likewise be given careful thought.\nThe absolute and irretrievable extinction of the apprenticeship system, brought about\nby the changed methods of doing work, the corifhig of labor-saving machinery, and the\nharsh and unjust attitude of the labor unions dominated by ignorant and misinformed\nagitators, are serious problems that must be met by institutions of this character.\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "6 2O\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[M anual Training\n\nAn educational system embodying the best features of the old apprenticeship system,\nadapted to more modern conditions, is a vital necessity. To train the American youth\nalong specialized lines, leading to a gainful occupation, is a duty that must not be\nshirked or belittled by the educator.\nThe New York Trade School is not unmindful of the welfare of the journeyman\nmechanic, and has its courses of instruction for journeymen well developed and in operation, with five years of experience along this phase of trade education to guide it in\nits future growth.\nThe records of its more than six thousand graduates, whose homes are in every state\nof the Union, and who are occupying positions of trust and responsibility, are sufficient\nevidence of the widespread demand and the urgent need for a concerted movement on\nthe part of the educational fraternity in support of trade education.\n\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nATTITUDE\nH.\n\nSAYWARD,\n\nOF TRADE UNIONS\nSCHOOLS\nSECRETARY\nBUILDERS,\n\nTOWARD\n\nOF\nTHE\nNATIONAL\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nTRADE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF\n\nTrade unions, as a rule, are opposed to the trade-school idea, and a\nsumming up of their reasons for this attitude may be expressed as fear of\nthe creation of too large a supply of workmen thru the operation of such\nschools. Many other reasons, more or less superficial, are given, but the\nreal underlying objection is that unrestricted training in the trades will\nflood the market, which, it is claimed, is already overcrowded.\nWhile this, as a general statement of the expressed attitude of trade\nunions, seems to me wholly correct, it is likely to be misleading unless\nqualified by a statement of certain conditions which examination of the\nfield will show.\nIn the older communities — notably Austria, Belgium, Germany,\nSwitzerland, and France, and even in Great Britain — the attitude of\nunions has been materially modified within recent years, and a tendency is\nmanifested to encourage the trade school where its operation is restricted\nto training only those who have taken up some trade as a positive vocation. In these countries, as well as in some other parts of Europe, the\n\"continuation schools,\" or schools for extending the knowledge of the\nactual workman or apprentice into the theory and technique of his trade,\nare not only looked upon with favor by unions, but are often established\nand maintained by them, and in some cases even by workingmen's clubs\nand friendly societies of workingmen whose membership is general rather\nthan specific.\nWhile, therefore, speaking in broad terms, unions do not look with\nfavor upon the trade school per se, one cannot fail to notice evidences of\ngreat and increasing interest among workmen at large, as well as in their\norganizations, in that application cf the trade-school idea which gives\nopportunity for development in their chosen trade to those who have\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n621\n\nthrown in their lot with the actual workers and propose to earn a living\nin their company.\nNext to the fundamental objection which I have cited, the most\nclearly expressed opposition to unrestricted trade-school training is that\nit has a tendency to produce insufficiently trained mechanics, who go\nfrom the school into the community, proffering themselves and being\nreceived and employed as full-fledged workmen, thus proving not only\ncompetitors of the ''underpaid and generally handicapped mechanic,\" as\nthe unions almost universally claim them to be, but also undesirable for\nthose ^yho employ them, inasmuch as they cannot deliver the skilled service which they profess to be able to supply. Associated with this second\nexpressed objection is the claim that the attempt to teach trades in their\nentirety in a school is futile ; that, therefore, schools which endeavor to\ndo so are of little, if any, real value as far as furnishing mechanics fitted\nto undertake practical work is concerned.\nAnother reason given why trade schools are not a benefit is that\n\"employers no longer desire the thoroly trained, all-around man, but\nwant only the specialist,\" and that therefore a trade school which can at\nbest teach a young man to perform the general operations or manipulations of a trade only fairly well is of little real value to him, since he is\nnot fitted to compete with the specialist in any department of that trade.\nIn some of the minor trades, such as cigar-making, the objection to\ntrade schools is most strenuous on the ground that the training in such\nschools has a tendency to increase child-labor.\nThen there is always the jealousy, which I think unions unconsciously\nfoster, which expresses itself in the belief that trade and technical schools\nare designed to help the rich and not the poor — to provide opportunity\nfor young men of means, who intend to go into manufacturing or to conduct some business, to secure a technical training in and command of the\nelemental movements of a trade; rather than to help young men who\nintend to become real workmen.\nMany other specific \"grievances,\" to use a common union idiom,\ncould be stated, but they are all closely related to the main causes of\nobjection which I have cited.\nIt is to be noted that all of these attitudes of objection are at the\npresent moment more pronounced in the United States than in older\ncountries. Consideration of trade-school conditions as existing in the\nUnited States, and also in Great Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, and\nSwitzerland, will be helpful in demonstrating where diminishment of\nfriction begins.\nIt is necessary at this point to emphasize the fact that this discussion\ndoes not relate to the technical or manuai-training school in any respect,\nbut to the trade school proper — the school which purposes so to teach a\ntrade that the student will be fitted to use it industrially.\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "62 2\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nT/ONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThere are many schools of combined academic and practical character known as manual-training and technical schools in this country,\nboth private and public, and to these there is no expressed objection\nby unions; but there are few trade schools pure and simple, and to\nthese, unions as a rule are at present strenuously opposed. The idea and\npurpose in these schools is to turn out finished mechanics, as far as\nknowledge of the science and practice of the trades is concerned, it\nbeing usually frankly admitted that the graduates will not be commercially equal to skilled workmen in point of speed of execution or\nadapiabili'.y until they have had sufficient experience with real work to\ngive them these qualities, and therefore should not obtain full wages\nuntil they have had this experience. In practice, however, it turns out\nthat the graduates of these schools have attained enough science and\nenough practice, to enable them to pass current as skilled workmen,\nparticularly when there is great demand, and that they therefore seek\nand obtain the going rate of wages as readily as men who have worked\nfor years at the trade. In these schools of ours there is no attempt, I\nbelieve, to restrict the opportunity to those who have chosen a special\ntrade as their vocation.\nThe industrial- or trade-school system in foreign countries, whether of\nsemi-private or of public character, seems to be founded on the presumption that the young man has determined pretty definitely the career into\nwhich he expects to. enter, and will shape his education accordingly;\ntherefore the trade school addresses itself to those who have either already\nbegun as apprentices or are about to do so^ or to workmen who desire to\nmake themselves more proficient in one or another department of a trade.\nIt is this generally prevailing attitude in Europe which has disarmed the\nunions there of their opposition and presents the distinction to which I\nwish to draw attention.\nThe demonstration is narrowed down to this; when trade schools limit\nthemselves to improving the theoretical, technical, and practical knowledge and skill of those who are already entered upon a trade, unions\nseem to approve, and in many cases to participate in conducting them.\nHere, then, seems to be very clearly marked the point at which friction\nbegins to diminish. The next step should be to determine whether this\npoint is well taken by the unions, and therefore whether they should be\nsupported in it.\nIt will be readily admitted that any school for the higher vocations,\nor professions, which pretends to turn out at graduation the completely\nqualified practitioner assumes too much ; and, whether or not there be any\norganized opposition to this assumption or any concerted disclaimer set\nup,, it still remains true that the graduate is not so received by the public,\nand he is practically compelled to pass thru quite an extended season of\nsevere experience before he is accepted\n\nat full value — \"going rate of\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nTRADE\n\nSC HOOTS\n\n623\n\nwages\" — by the community in which he attempts to practice. It apparently needs no union to produce this effect.\nWhen, however, we consider the mechanical planes of occupation,\ncommonly classed as laborious, we find that the public fails, either\ninstinctively or with definite purpose, to set up any such test; and therefore organizations in these vocations have addressed themselves to the\nprotection of their class from indiscriminate competition.\nThese organizations have very good ground for their assertion that\ntrade schools tend to demoralize the trades when managed on the ** wideopen plan\" — that is, free to anyone who wishes to attend, regardless of\nwhether he is committed to a trade or not, and with no control or supervision set up, within or without, to prevent him from passing himself off\nas a full-fledged practitioner. This possibility, which, as I have already\nindicated, has in practice developed almost into a certainty, is surely not\nto be looked upon with complacency, even by the intelligent tho unaffected\nobserver, and therefore it is not to be wondered at that those most affected\nshould demur and somewhat strenuously criticise the source from which\nthe possibility springs. They may well claim that if the learned professions, such as the medical and legal, and sometimes others, are safeguarded\nwith greatest care, in the skilled trades there should be some method of\ncontrol which will at least guarantee that insufficiently trained workmen\nshall not be given full standing and full wages simply because they have\npassed thru, or perhaps only partly thru, the courses of a school.\nWhile this attitude is natural and perhaps defensible, it is not at all\nreasonable or wise to condemn the trade school itself; for I think it can\nbe conclusively shown that upon schools of this character the trades, as\nsuch, must depend for their own preservation. The effort should be, not\nto destroy the trade school, or blindly to oppose it, but to modify its\nmethods and then utilize it as a means to regulate and control the output\nof workmen — which is really the point at issue, as far as trade unions are\nconcerned — and to protect the community as well against the untrained\nand inexperienced. Under existing conditions — for some of which the\ntrade unions themselves are to a considerable extent responsible —the\npublic is in some danger of losing altogether the all-around artisan, the\nmechanic skilled and interested in his calling.\nI have said that the preservation of the trades themselves depends upon\nthe proper development of Ihe trade-school idea. This is evident for two\nreasons: one, the passing of the old method of apprenticeship, and the\nother, specialization in the trades.\nThere is no probability that the old method will be re-established.\nStrenuous efforts, it is true, are being made in Germany to preserve the\napprenticeship system in those trades for*which it is adapted, much legislation having been enacted in this direction, in recent years; but, while\nit is possible, under a government as paternal and positive as that of Ger-\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIO.Y\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmany, to reinstate even the old guilds with all their power and influence,\nit is hardly conceivable that under freer forms of government employers\ncan be commanded in such matters to the extent that they apparently are\nin some of the European monarchies — Germany in particular.\nSpecialization has sought out almost all the trades, even those connected with building, where it has seemed least likely to get a foothold.\nThat these two movements, which may both be classed as commercial\nmovements, threaten the trades, as trades, is beyond question, and under\nthe commercial demand it seems to be inevitable that the trades will be\nsplit up endlessly, so that no one workman will eventually be capable of\ndoing more than a fragmentary portion of a trade. The trade school\nfurnishes the one measure of protection by and thru which these separate\nportions may be kept in one consistent whole, and the relation of the\nparts be so taught, and the capacity to combine the parts be so developed,\nthat all-around men, capable of understanding and executing a whole\ntrade, will not entirely pass out of existence.\nIt behooves the unions, as custodians of the interests of the workmen in the trades, to look more deeply into the function of the trade\nschools, and to consider more carefully how much the interests they have\nin charge depend upon the existence and operation of these schools; and\nit behooves employers to concern themselves more effectively, to the end\nthat they may reap the benefit which will surely come thru their wise\nadministration.\nIt is evident that there are some weaknesses in trade schools as at\npresent developed. I am inclined to think that one of these is indicated\nin the somewhat crude objections made by unions. I am convinced\nthat a comprehensive and effective system should be established, utilizing\nthe trade-school idea, which shall prevent floating upon the market an\nunfinished product which, if it ever becomes finished, becomes so in spite\nof conditions, rather than by virtue of or purpose in them.\nI do not believe for a moment that our privately established trade\nschools were ever intended or expected by their founders to produce too\nlarge a supply of mechanics and thus flood the market, or to incite youn^\nmen to half perfect themselves and then deceive the public; but the function\nand purpose of the schools were distinctly expressed to be \"to furnish as\nsystematic and favorable a method of instruction and training as possible,\"\nto fill a void created by the decay of an old system which, while sufficient\nin its day and generation, had vanished, never to return. This function\nand purpose, to my mind, are more emphatically evidenced year by year,\nand as this instruction and training can best proceed in conjunction with\npractice in real work in which employer and workmen are engaged, I\nbelieve that the most complete method of operating that function and\nrealizing that purpose lies, as I conceive it does in all matters affecting\nlabor, in a more complete co-operation between organizations of\nemployers and organizations of workmen.\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRADE\n\nUNIONS\n\nAND\n\nTRADE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n625\n\nThe policy of this co-operation should be to create good workmen —\nthe best, the most skillful, the mo::t complete — and then to have the\nunions composed of these and these only. By carrying out a policy of\nthis nature, which could be carried out only by a joining of hands of\nemployers and workmen in the management and direction of trade\nschools with this end in view, the unions would be relieved of the most\n'telling criticism now used against them, and their reason for being would\nbe more clearly evident. By this measure the unions would be\nstrengthened by \"recognition\" in the best sense, inasmuch as they would\nbecome the gauge and standard of excellence; and instead of coercion\nbeing necessary, as now, to keep the organizations up to that efficiency\nwhich numbers are felt to indicate, membership would be eagerly sought\nbecause desired as a sign of selection, and as a safeguard against being\nherded together, as now, in one mass of good, bad, and indifferent. The\n\"non-union\" man would then be the inefficient, the unreliable, the dishonest, the quarrelsome, the disturber, the dissolute, and the generally\nunworthy ; and non-union he would have to remain until he should so\nreform as to make himself desirable. Then would there be the true line\nof demarkation between union and non-union — a natural and proper\none, not the artificial and dangerous one which now exists. Unions\nwould then become clearing-houses for workmen, as a sure source of\nsupply of trustworthy, efficient, and skilled workmen ; and not, as now,\nan aggregation of anything and everything that will simply swell an\narmy, the leaders of which assert that \"labor is a force militant,\" and\nthat \"as such its victories are to be achieved.\" Until this dispensation,\nlabor has been supposed to be of the essence of peace and not of war;\nand it has not been until the forces of labor, as demonstrated thru\ncheaply conceived, unrestrained, or poorly administered organizations,\nhave been diverted from their true channel, that the world has witnessed\nthe commission of acts, under the impulse of this force, which have been\nunworthy of humanity, and which have roused the self-respecting in all\nour communities to most determined resistance.\nIt is my belief that the trade school, properly utilized as suggested,\nsupplemented by further intelligent co-operation of real employers and\nreal workmen in all affairs of mutual concern, may be one of the greatest\nconservators of safety. But these agencies for good must not be left to\ndilettante exploitation, nor to the equal danger of too general usage.\nLet employers and workmen engage in this service with the glad\nseriousness of conviction, and hope will succeed despair in all these\nrelations.\nIn conclusion I would state that in my opinion the trade school does\nnot offer a privilege which anyone shc^uld be permitted to enjoy without\njudicious supervision and control. It is an opportunity which should be\nchiefly available for those who determine upon a trade as their life-work\nand have a reasonable degree of fitness for it. In other words, the trade\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "62 6.\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[ Manual Training\n\nschool should be considered a training field for actual workers, and its\noperation should be reasonably restricted and controlled to the end that\nits graduates may have definite standing and the community, as a whole,\nbe protected against partially perfected workmen.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrank Keyes Foster, editor of the Liberator, Boston, Mass. — Before one undertakes\nthe possibly somewhat hazardous task of presenting to this audience what has been called,\nfor the sake of argument, the negative side of the trade-school question, from the tradeunion point of view, it appears only fair to insist upon a precise definition as to what\nconstitutes a trade school.\nIt is not assuming too much to assert that the idealized trade school so highly commended in the very interesting paper of the secretary of the Master Builders' Association\nis not antagonized by thoughtful trade-unionists. The organizations of labor have to do\nwith the actual and present condition of affairs. 1 he trade-union conception of trade\nschools is in the concrete rather than in the abstract form. When, therefore, Mr. Sayward advances as his general premise the statement that \"trade unions as a rule are\nopposed to the trade-school idea\" I am inclined to believe that the assumption is not warranted bythe facts in the case. Opposed, with good reason, to certain specific incidentals\nof trade-school management and practice, they unquestionably are, but the records of the\ntrade-union movement of America may be thoroly searched in vain for any declaration of\nopposition to the trade-school idea.\nThe purpose of the trade-unionist is to maintain the American standard of living for\nwage-earners, and to elevate this standard wherever possible. The general diffusion of\neducation has developed in the American wage-earner a standard of wants, desires, and\naspirations beyond that of workmen in any other country, while our superior natural\nresources and free institutions have furnished him with larger resources with which to\nresist the bearing-down pressure on the wage-rate.\nThe trade-unionist is not so blind as to fail to realize that knowledge is power, Ilis\ncontention is not against the man who knows or the institution which teaches greater\nknowledge ; it is solely against the individual who thru gross ignorance or selfish malice,\nlends himself to the breaking down of that defense, erected laboriously and painfully, by\nassociated labor against the forces in the industrial world which make for the lower levels\nof living. If we are expected to welcome in free competition those who enter the artisan\nworld by the short way, may we not fairly insist that these newcomers shall not lower the\nstandard of craftsmanship or of recompense of craftsmen ? As has been accurately\nnoted by Mr. Sayward, the professions are jealously guarded against the influx of those\nwho would enter them except thru the accredited paths and with the passport of approved\ncompetency.\nThe present attitude of trade-unionists as to trade schools has an analogy in their\nattitude toward the introduction of labor-saving machinery, once so bitterly opposed by\nthem. Now no up-to-date labor organization attempts to prevent the extension of machine\nwork. Its endeavor — as in the case of my own trade, the typographical — is directed\ntoward securing for the machine workman a portion, at least, of the benefits accruing\nfrom the cheaper processes of production, and in this it is in a degree successful. The\nunion recognizes the inevitable. It knows that the introduction of a machine which performs the work of several hand craftsmen causes distress for a time, during the transition\nperiod, the period of industrial adjustment, to many individuals who have had their trade\ncapital abolished by new methods.\nIn like manner, the trade union is willing to make the most of trade instruction, when\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCRAFTSMANSHIP\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n627\n\nthe instruction is honest and competent, and not a mere recruiting station for the forces\nwhich tend to neutralize the uphfting work of the union. Hence the desirability of the\ndefinition insisted upon at the opening of the address.\nSamuel F. Hubbard, superintendent of North End Union, Boston, Mass. — Mr.\nSayward's statement of the attitude of trade unions toward trade schools is, I think,\neminently fair and impartial. The situation, brieflly stated, appears to be this : We, who\nare outside of the trades, believe that workmen require the training of trade schools to fit\nthem properly for their vocations. To me, the attitude of trade unions toward trade\nschools is one of hope, rather than one of discouragement. The mere fact that trade\nschools are opposed by those whom they are designed to benefit is no new experience.\nMost reforms, whether of theology, education, politics, or what not, have had their strenuous opponents; but when once their adoption became general, the marvel is that there\nwas ever any opposition to them.\nTrade schools, like the Williamson School of Pennsylvania, or the Lick School of San\nFrancisco, that have a four-year course of day work, that give thoro instruction in the\ntheory and practice of a trade as well as instruction in academic branches, and whose\ngraduates are received into the trades as junior workmen to get the necessary practical\ninsight, do not need to place the same limitations upon their applicants as do the evening\ntrade schools. I am of the opinion that all evening trade schools should be limited to\nthose already engaged in the trades. My reasons are : (i) There should be no doubt in\nthe mind of the boy that the trade chosen is the one he intends to follow thru life ; the\nbest assurance of such decision is that he is already in that trade. (2) The boy, so committed, has an eye singly to the purpose in view, and he will work to achieve it. (3) He\nhas a chance, during the day, to observe in actual practice, and possibly to apply, the principles taught in the school, and, being in the atmosphere of his trade all day, he more\nreadily comprehends the work of the school. (4) Being in the trade, he does not have to\nlook for a job on leaving school, which otherwise he would be obliged to do, with most\ndiscouraging results. The work of the schools should be in keeping with the best practices of the trade. To insure this, each trade taught should have its board of supervisors,\ncomposed of the best men in the trade, both of employers and workmen.\nThe trade schools thus far established in the United States have, with few exceptions,\nbeen started and are maintained by private means. In all probability not one of those\nwho have contributed the money for them, or have been instrumental in promoting them,\nwill ever be benefited, directly or indirectly, by the instruction given. These men are not\nto be charged with an unwarrantable interference by doing that which of a right properly\nbelongs to others, or with meddling with things which are none of their business.\nThese experimental stations will continue to do their work of developing and\nrefining the processes of trade-training, until such time as organizations of employers\nand of workmen shall realize their value, shall reach out the glad hand to possess\nthem, and shall say: \"This is our work; henceforth we will do it.\" When that day\nshall come, the National Educational Association will not be discussing \" The Attitude\nof Trade Unions toward Trade Schools.\"\n\nCRAFTSMANSHIP\nLESLIE\n\nW.\n\nMILLER,\n\nIN EDUCA\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF SCHOOL\nPHILADELPHIA.\n\nOF\n\nTION\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nART,\n\nOf all the tasks which have been^set for the school-teacher since the\nbeginning of recorded time, probably none would have sounded more\nstrangely to him a couple of generations ago than the statement that he\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwas expected to make it a prominent part of his duty to teach his pupils\nto do the very thing the necessity for which had for ages furnished the\nprincipal, if not the only, reason for keeping them out of school; or, in\nother words, that he should be told that the children were tb come tG\nschool in order that they be kept at work. The very combination ot\nwords would have been unintelligible. They would constitute in themselves a contradiction of terms. And yet we have changed all that so far\nas to feel sure now that by far the most important step in the advancement of educational ideals that has been taken in the last quarter of a\ncentury has been the recognition of manual work as a proper subject of\ninstruction in schools and colleges alike, and we have come to regard the\nattendant agitation in favor of such education and its corollaries as the\nchief means of promoting industrial efficiency and maintaining industrial equilibrium in the state itself.\nIt has come to be fairly well accepted that no education for either boys\nor girls of any class or condition can henceforth be regarded as satisfactory and complete that does not include a certain amount of contact with\nthose fundamental manual processes which underlie all production ; that\nthis contact ought to take place in the schoolroom itself, and be made an\nessential and organic feature of the instruction imparted there ; and that\nsuch work deserves to be treated on quite as high a plane of dignity and\nculture as anything that can possibly be learned from books, or that concerns itself with mental processes alone ; that bench-work, for example,\nought to have as equitable a rating and be accorded just as honorable a\nplace among the requirements for entrance to college as Greek, or\nalgebra, or anything else.\nFurthermore, it is evident that the public duty in regard to professional education is coming to be interpreted in much more liberal terms\nthan was formerly the case. Among the qualifications for citizenship\nwhich the state recognizes as essential, and for which in mere self-defense\nit is inclined to assume a larger share of responsibility each year, industrial efficiency is looming up as something of tremendous importance,\nwhose claims no state can afford to ignore.\nTo some of us — and among them are to be reckoned a good many of\nthe most earnest and enthusiastic members of the teachers' profession —\nthe new movement means, first, perhaps mainly, the rehabilitation, as far\nas the school is concerned, of certain simple, but fundamental, forms of\nhandicraft, such as weaving, basketry, and pottery-making before the\ninvention of the wheel, as they are practiced by the more primitive races,\nuntil they disappear as the inevitable result of contact with what we\ncannot very well help regarding as an advancing civilization, whose infinitely cheaper productions quickly replace the results of the earlier and\ncruder efforts.\nThe promotion of craftsmanship by means of systematic instructioi?\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCRAFTSMANSHIP\n\nIN ED UCA TION\n\n629\n\nin the schools is, however, hardly to be regarded as to any great extent\nan effort to rehabilitate the industrial methods of a century ago. Silas\nMarner with his single loom in the little cottage out there in the fields,\nand the peripatetic shoemaker who went from house to house and made\nshoes for one family after another in our grandfathers' days, are, at this\ndistance, picturesque and interesting figures; but we are not seriously\nregretting their passing, or attempting to bring them back to life ; and\nthe true sources of our interest in handicraft must be sought somewhere\nelse. They are to be found, as it seems to me, in the fact that all good\nwork depends for its interest on the intimacy of the relation which it\nrepresents between the mind which conceives it and the methods by\nwhich it is executed; good work is interesting to the consumer in just\nabout the same degree that it is interesting to the producer, and it interests him to just the extent that it enlists his thought. As the natural and\ndirect means of expression of thought in terms of material is the hand,\nit is apparent that hand-work must of necessity remain the basis of all\nindustrial endeavor and the source of all industrial power.\nThe keynote of the new movement is, then, to be found, not to any great\nextent in the kindly disposition which leads us to want to play with our\nlittle Indian brothers, altho this is entirely right and proper as a childish\ninstinct ; nor in an affectionate communing with the ghosts of our grandmothers, altho this, too, is perfectly permissible and praiseworthy in its\nway ; but in the determination to make a better use of existing opportunities and to accomplish more with existing agencies than the results with\nwhich we are familiar and of which, in so many cases, we are so much\nashamed. No, the fault, such as there is, is not so much in the modern\ntendencies toward mechanical invention or industrial and commercial\norganization, after all, but mainly in the failure of our growth in spiritual\nthings to keep pace with the progress which we have made in material\ndirections on a lower plane. The changes which the years have wrought\nare, on the whole, beneficent, in spite of all that has failed of accomplishment, and in spite of the inevitable sacrifices with which all progress is\nattended ; and whatever other expedients are resorted to for still further\nimprovement, the forward movement is certainly not to be hastened by\nturning back the clock. If we cannot make as satisfactory goods with\naniline dyes and power-looms as our grandmothers made with indigo\nand by hand, we must know the reason, and must see to it that the\nfaults are corrected and the necessary improvement made. First of all,\nwe must be sure of our reasons for preferring the old work. When this\npoint is settled, we shall be well on the way toward doing better things\nourselves. If the indigo and the hand-loom are found to be indispensable to excellent production, we shall certainly retain them and find an\nentirely honorable place for them in our new scheme; there need be no\nuneasiness about that ; only we must know what we are about, and not\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNATTOMAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCTATIOM\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthrow away any real advantages already gained in our eagerness to recover\nthe charm that has been temporarily lost.\nWe have got to rewrite our definitions of art and restate the principles on which its significance depends. When we speak of the unity of\nthe arts, the expression must really mean something to us which it cannot\nmean if we hamper and restrict it as we have been rather fond of doing.\nRead into the term the meaning that Emerson insisted upon, that all\n\"conscious utterance of thought to a definite end\" is art, and you\nsimplify the whole problem immensely. It is not the play of fancy or\nsentiment alone; it is not the aesthetic charm or the stimulus of emotion\nthat is the essential thing. It is the constructive effort, the conscious\nutterance to some purpose, that is the real thing. If we can make art\nmean that, then multiply art schools, and industrial education will take\ncare of itself; but as long as it is the main business of the art school to\nmagnify the ofifice of the designer at the expense of the dignity of the\nworkman, something else will be necessary.\nAs a matter of fact, the whole theory that regards good design as something that emanates from the studio and is imposed upon the workman\nfrom without, instead of being developed from within, out of his own\nexperience as a craftsman, is fundamentally wrong, and the mistake of\nholding it is itself enough to account for most of the errors into which we\nhave fallen.\nArt education — yes certainly, properly understood and applied, it is\nthe solution of the whole problem ; but this means acceptance of the truth\nthat craftsmanship is itself the very foundation of art, and that familiarity\nwith it in one or more forms must of necessity constitute no inconsiderable\npart of the experience which leads to knowledge and appreciation of the\nthings on which its significance depends.\nWhat we want to do in the schools, then, is to treat our crafts as arts\nand to regard our craftsmen as artists. This means that each pupil should\nassume toward work of any kind that first-hand kind of attitude which I do\nnot know how to describe more exactly than in this way; for I think we\nall feel that, whatever else he is or is not, the true artist is less hampered\nby precedents and less overawed by conventionalities than almost anyone\nelse, and has a way of getting at the essentials of things about as directly\nas anyone.\nI hope I can make myself understood about this attitude toward work\nof any kind which I designate as artistic, and which I regard as of so\nmuch importance. In some respects it is just the opposite of the scholarly\nattitude, and is therefore a little hard to understand for most of those who\napproach the subject from the scholar's point of view; but it is just because\nof this difference that the matter is so important. Education has always\nhad the scholar ; it needs the artist as well, and is finding a place for him ;\neach supplements the other, and both are necessary.\nMoreover, we are\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nCRAFTSMANSHIP\n\nIIV EDUCATION\n\n631\n\nrevising our conception of learning itself, as well as taking note of the\nthings which it alone cannot accomplish.\nThe wisdom of the world is by no means monopolized by those\nwho write the books or deliver the lectures, and the masters of craftsmanship in any form, even that of speaking or writing, have, as often\nas not, been men who have owed least to scholastic influences. This is\nnot intended as in any sense a disparagement of the schools, but only\nas a reminder of how much ground they have hitherto failed to cover,\nand to which it is the very first duty of the new movement to direct\nattention.\nIn a recent address President Eliot characterized architecture as perhaps the most learned of the professions. He was quite right, as he\nusually is. Probably no one else has to know so much about so many\nthings as the architect; but let us not forget, on the one hand, how much\nof his knowledge has come thru channels other than those which are\nassociated with the discipline of the schools, and, on the other, how conspicuous an example he is of the inadequacy of the scholastic method\nalone to develop the qualities which are most worth having in any profession which is first of all. an art. In no profession is there greater\ndanger that respect for precedent and authority will stifle inspiration, and\nthat vivid and ingenious expression will be sacrificed to rule, than in architecture. The architecture whose charm outlasts the centuries and which\nwe make voyages to see is not that which owes its character to respect for\nthe traditions of the schools. Judged by the standards set by the academies,\nthe facade of St. Marks is the play of riotous infancy, but yet it remains\nthe most delightful structure in the world, outweighing instantly, with any\nmind that is sensitive to beauty, all the cold correctness that was attained\nby the Renaissance after its living current had begun to crystallize into\nschools. Of the vigor and splendor of the early Renaissance I have already\nspoken, but that is another story.\nI have nothing to say against learning. It is, and must always remain,\nthe greatest conservative influence in the world, and the principle means\nby which the mind is kept from wild and unprofitable undertakings; but\nart alone keeps the original sources of interest open and supplies at first\nhand the elements which constitute enduring charm. The foundations\nof taste are laid in respect for material and in appreciation of function;\nstyle is the dignity with which genuineness carries itself. It must be\ninherent in things as part of their very structure; it cannot be assumed\nlike a mark, or stuck on like a veneer. Abiding interest in things, then, is\nnot to any great extent a matter of superficial ornamentation; and one of\nthe worst mistakes which we have made in our efforts to make art instruction universal has been the exaggerated importance which has sometimes\nbeen given to purely decorative design*considered as surface ornament\nalone, and as something, therefore, which might be effectively studied\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwithout reference either to the object to which it was to be applied, or to\nthe methods or materials in which it was to be expressed.\nIt is putting the cart before the horse to make designs in that way.\nNor is good ornament to any appreciable extent a matter of abstract principles, such as are embodied in the formulas about rhythm and symmetry\nand balance, in which the academic mind has so often claimed that it had\nbeen imprisoned. Ornament, like anything else, is good if it means something, ifit expresses something that is worth expressing. Rhythm and\nbalance are well enough, of course, and are very often present, altho in\nnumberless cases they are not present at all ; but if they are, they come of\nthemselves for the most part thru the mere necessity of repetition which is\nthe first condition of so large a part of manufacture. They are not by any\nmeans essential elements in the interest of the pattern. The real interest\nlies a good deal deeper than that, and is inseparable from the associations\nand meanings which all these rudimentary abstractions completely ignore.\nNo, it is not the surface, it is the thing itself that we want to get at; and we\nwant to make it ourselves; we want to learn to think in terms of material,\nof wood and leather and cloth and iron and clay. We want to know and\nappreciate and enjoy the qualities which are characteristic of each, and we\nwant the things which we make out of them and the ornament which we\napply to them to express this appreciation and to celebrate the interest\nwe feel in them and the pleasure they give us.\nThere is no longer any serious question regarding the admission of\nthe craftsmanship principle into the general educational scheme. What\nremains is to decide how far the idea is to be carried, and what methods\nare to be adopted to make it effective. For one thing, I feel pretty\nsure of this, that we have no right to expect results at all commensurate\nwith the importance of the movement until we have at least a few central\nschools providing thoro professional instruction of the most advanced\ncharacter in the more important forms of craftsmanship, especially those\nin which the artistic possibilities are most pronounced, whose influence\nand example shall react everywhere on the more elementary instruction,\nand set the standards by which the aims of the lower schools may be\ninformed and directed.\nI prefer the expression \"professional schools\" rather than \"trade\nschools,\" because the term seems not only to be more comprehensive, but\nto leave open, in a sense that the other name does not, some rather\nimportant questions of immediate function and ultimate aim.\nTake the case of textiles. When Colbert bought out the old Gobelin\nestablishment in 1662 and set the best men to be found in France, or\nanywhere else, to making tapestries, upholstery, and all sorts of fabrics,\nnot as cheap, but as beautiful, as it was possible to make them, he set the\nstandard by which public promotion of industrial interests will be tried\nforevermore.\nThe fabrics that have been produced there have shown the\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCRAFTSMANSHIP\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n633\n\nworld how perfect such things can be, and have given France a reputation\nwhich the rest of the world acknowledges as supreme ; but far above and\nbeyond that in importance is the fact that their production has meant the\ntraining of a set of men who have carried with them, when they left the\nestablishment, a kind of attainment that has set high standards and made\nexcellence possible wherever they went.\nWe are learning the lesson — may we learn it speedily ! — that something besides cheapness is worth striving for when work is to be done and\nwants supplied; that the whole duty of statesmanship is not included in\nthe discussion of protective tariffs; and that the teacher has not done his\nduty while industrial inefficiency remains the heritage, as it is today, of by\nfar the larger part of the generation that is under his care.\n\nDISCUSSION\nLaurin H. Martin, instructor of applied design, Massachusetts Normal Art School.\n— Principal Miller says in his address that \"the foundations of taste are laid in respect\nfor material,\" and also that \"we want to learn and think in the terms of material.\"\nAll of those who have looked into the subject will fully appreciate how true this is ;\nfor the character of a design depends upon the material employed. Therefore it is of\nthe greatest importance that a designer should think in the terms of material. It is my\nopinion that no designer can think with any great degree of intelligence, unless he has\nhad actual work with different materials as a part of his training. If he has done work,\nit will enable him to take advantage of what different materials have to offer, and teach\nhim to respect their limitation. It will also teach him construction, and his design will\nbe planned with this in view, and will be a complete working drawing which can be\neasily carried out.\nI quite agree with Mr. Miller in saying that \" nothing could be more harmful in its\ninfluence than the distinction between the designer and the workman.\" This is where\nthe whole trouble lies at the present time. If more designers would cairy out their\ndesigns, the greatest improvement would be noticeable. A design on paper at the best is\nonly a suggestion, and, if given to another to work out, many things would not be understood, and a deterioration would consequently follow. These points, I am sure, will be\naccepted by all.\nI think that there is only one remedy for the present conditions. This remedy is to\nincrease technical work in the schools. Let pupils have an opportunity to carry out their\ndesigns. We shall then have designers in the full sense of the word, and we shall see\nfewer designs which are studies without reference to the object to which they are to be\napplied or to the methods or materials in which they are to be expressed. Our designers\nwould have a respect for materials, and would not make a design for cast iron to imitate\nwrought iron, which' under the present conditions is apt to be the case.\nHand-work, of course, has much greater artistic qualities flian machine-work ; but at\nthe same time the machine is indispensable, altho I do think that our machine-made\nobjects might be made much more beautiful. I think that, if more hand-work were done\nin our art institutions, our industrial arts would soon be in a healthier condition.\nWalter S. Goodnough, director of drawing and manual training in public schools.\nBorough of Brooklyn, City of New York. — The idea of craftsmanship in education, at\nleast in public elementary education, is comparatively new. It can be justified, I believe,\non educational, sociological, and, above all, industrial grounds.\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe craftsman of old was one who not only thought out the whole thing, but carried\nhis thought into execution. The impress of individual mind, of creative and loving\neffort, was everywhere apparent in his work. The craftsman was an artist; and the artist\nwas most frequently a craftsman. The citizens of former times believed that certain\nbenefits arose from the cultivation of beauty; that the pleasures of private life and the\ndignity of public life were increased materially by the aid of the arts. One cannot roam\nthru the mediseval towns and the museums of industrial art of Europe without feeling\nstrongly the art spirit which pervaded the old work, and which, thru modern machinism\nand commercialism, but more largely thru lack of trained public taste, is so frequently\nabsent from modern work.\nArt has been too often divorced from production and construction, and in the minds\nof people has come to be associated almost entirely with the product on canvas, in marble, or in bronze. Instead of the craftsman, we have had the mechanic or operative,\nworking in his specialized, often limited, sphere. The condition has reacted upon the\nindividual. He has not the right interest in his work; he has become more of a\nmachine.\nAfter four hundred years or more, the craftsman is again to take his place among\nartists ; and art is to permeate industry and the daily life and surroundings of the people.\nTo this all must agree who have watched the trend of events.\nThe need of the hour is for the art teacher and the teacher of manual training to get\ntogether.\nArt teaching, particularly in the matter of design, should require more general application to definite purpose in material or construction.\nManual training should be characterized by less formalism in plan and method.\nThere should be less of the directed or imitative, and more of creative effort, under\nwise guidance. As I have studied the subject of manual training in different sections\nof this country and in Europe, attention has been given largely, until quite recently, to\nthe matter of exact reproduction, from direction or copy or drawing, of set exercises or\nmodels. The art element, so far as the pupils' initiative is concerned, has been absent\nor at a minimum, with a few notable exceptions. I refer more particularly to the manual\ntraining with tools in the upper grammar and high-school grades.\nLet the art teacher, the shop-work teacher, and the sewing teacher work in harmony,\nmaking the work of each aid the others.\nThis is the true craftsman spirit.\nThe particular work done in the elementary schools should be such as will appeal as\nlargely as possible to the pupils' interests, and at the same time provide proper advancement in process and difficulty. Under certain general limitations that will not hamper,\nand with such guidance and suggestion as will insure proper ideals and standards, pupils\nshould design the form and decoration, and, when sufficiently advanced, determine the\nmode of construction or kind of material best suited to the purpose. All instruction\nshould lead to individual or creative endeavor, to proper regard for material and its right\nuse, to proper construction, and to appreciation of beauty of line, proportion, relation, and\ncolor.\nIn the high-school grades handicrafts and machine-work should be introduced, as\nhere both the art and the science elements should have place ; and we must remember\nthat the craftsman of today has both steam and electricity as his aids, and various fruits\nof science as well. Indeed, tho handicrafts and household arts may appear in our\ncourses as giving more free, personal, and artistic results, the great problem for us today\nis so to train the individual as to make beautiful and perfect the product of the machine.\nThe problem of what should be done in manual or industrial work is more readily\nsolved in the case of the manual-training high school, then in the usual high school,\nwith its classical, literary, and commercial courses. In the first-named case the course\ncan well become more special and technical, and be adapted more particularly to mdustrial requirements.\nIn the laiter schools we have our drawing rooms, free hand and\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nWORK\n\n635\n\nmechanical, our laboratories for science, our gymnasiums. In the near future we shall\nrequire our crafts rooms ; for in such schools, incidental to or as a part of the art instruction, Ibelieve we can well introduce certain forms of handicraft that will give proper\nmeans of application of the art instruction in a material form, and at the same time supplement the teaching of the elementary schools, without being of quite the special or\nscientific nature of the course of manual-training high schools. Only in this way will\nthe full fruit of the elementary course be gathered. The whole burden cannot be\nplaced upon the normal and training schools, as would happen if there were a gap of\nfour years during the course of the regular high school in which there was no adequate\nform of applied or industrial art or handicraft.\nIn closing I will quote Bishop Ireland :\nHe who fails to appreciate the beautiful remains a mere piece of matter; he has never put on the wings\nof the soul and soared upward. Religion, I think, can do nothing for him who lives on such a sordid plane ;\nreligion requires a fertile, prepared soil. Without the sense of the beautiful the soul is lost to the region of\nthe purest ethics. Beauty is needed everywhere — in the homes of the poor as well as of the rich. As the\nbeautiful in great works of painting and the masterpieces of sculpture cannot be in the homes of the poor, let\nit be there in the humble furniture, in the utensils, in the textiles, in the dress. See that the sunshine of\nbeauty comes into the home of the poor. We are doing religious work if through art we lift men up and make\nthe world happier.\nThe beauty of this world is linked with the beauty of the next.\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAS RELATED\n\nTO MANUAL\n\nWORK\n\nALFRED VANCE CHURCHILL, DIRECTOR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FINE ARTS\nFOR NORMAL TRAINING, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,\nNEW\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nThe time has come when art and manual training must join their\nforces. You have heard it said that these two are one and the same\nthing, and there are several senses in which the saying is true. Both are\nconcerned with the expression of thought thru form and color ; both rest\non practically the same basis, as educative subjects; while in their technical processes the line of demarkation is in some cases hardly recognizable. Clay-modeling is manual training and original construction is\ndesign. The two subjects may be said to occupy adjacent territories\nwhose boundaries are not clearly marked and tend to overlap. Some of\nyou have been eyewitnesses of battles waged over rights of discovery\nand possession of disputed frontiers.\nIt is worth while to spend a few minutes in examining three of the\nbonds which bind the two subjects together, for art and hand-work were\nbrothers long before they began to go to school, knit by ties more close\nand vital than the twins of Siam.\nThe art of man, in the broad sense, embraces all his expression — the\nexpression of his bodily needs and the needs of his spirit, his emotions,\nhis thoughts, his aspirations. It therefore includes spoken language —\nthe language of his tongue — and painting, music, and architecture, which\nare the languages of his hands. Art \\^uld seem to include, potentially\nat least, every expression of man's mind, from the least to the greatest.\nIt is superfluous to try to decide which form of expression is the more\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ManualTraining\n\nimportant. The human hand has had its use in providing for the physical necessities of life; and it has proved not less useful nor less glorious\nthan the tongue in the higher spiritual expressions of our race.\nFor there are whole systems of ideas, as definite as those expressed in\nlanguage, which cannot be expressed in word symbols at all. The symphony, the color scheme, the architectural monument are examples, but\nnot the only examples, of such. The manual-trainiug project is as much\nan expression of thought as the spoken sentence, and so is the drawing of\nthe biologist, or the physiographer, or the landscape painter. The powerful traditions of mediaeval education have led us to overemphasize the\ncomparative value of verbal thought. The bookish character of school,\ncollege, and university training fosters this error. I believe that a time\nwill come when art and music will be required for college entrance;*\nbecause men will one day perceive that reality of culture is the reality of\nart in life. And that unknown art which we have ignorantly worshiped\nis the art of life. Vital art means the beautiful expression of beautiful\nliving. It is not to be achieved merely by reading, in a wonderful old\ntongue, about a certain ancient people who once were wise enough to place\na proper value on the expression of their lives in marble and poetry and\nmusic.\nWe turn to a second aspect of our theme, one of not less profound\nimportance. The teaching of genetic psychology has revealed to us the\nprocesses by which the child learns to know the world. Tactile and\nvisual percepts are the basis of ideas. Therefore the child must have\nactual bodily experiences. Making and doing provide means of acquiring true and adequate notions of things.\nIn close connection with this important generalization, and partially\nin consequence of it, we find that we have in manual activity a key to the\nchild's interests, for manual expression gives play to those instinctive\ntendencies of child-life — motor activity, imitation, the desire to construct\nand decorate, the instinct for personal ownership, pride in overcoming\nphysical difficulties, and the like; to say nothing of the very real opportunities itoffers for social effort, \"doing things together\" and ** doing\nthings for others.\" Perhaps it is stretching the word, in the case of some\nchildren at least, to call altruism an ** instinct\" or instinctive tendency.\nWith the appreciation of these large truths of education and of life,\nart instruction and manual training are again seen to have a common\nground, and are slowly beginning to take their true place in the curriculum.\nThere is another deeply rooted instinct in this race of ours. It is the\ninstinct for harmony, beauty; pitiably crushed and chilled, perhaps, but\nliving in hope like a flower beneath the winter snows; and everywhere in\nI After this sentence was penned, my attention was called to the fact that in President Eliot's latest\nreport music had been added to the list of electives in Harvard's admission requirements.\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nWORK\n\n637\n\nour national life — in the home, the mart, the schoolroom — it is beginning to show itself, crude as most of its manifestations may seem. I call\nespecial attention to the fact that desire for beauty in all the products of\nthe child's hands is knitting the third natural bond between art instruction and manual training.\nIt is also the introduction of the factor of beauty which makes the\nteaching of the new manual training a matter of such immense difficulty,\nand which leads to that puzzled loork which one frequently sees on the\nfaces of men who were, a few years ago, confident of their powers. When\nmanual training meant little more- than the copying of a series of the old\ninartistic and colorless models for purposes of \"discipline,\" the problem\nof teaching was simple.\nEven now, when the idea, at least in the minds of advanced educators,\nhas broadened and involves the entire cycle of the child's interests, it may\nseem to some that intelligence and sympathy, and a technique somewhat\nextended to include the rudiments of basketry and weaving, of metal and\nleather work, would be a sufficient equipment.\nIt is not immediately perceived by the majority that, in undertaking\nthese things in a way which demands individual, creative effort, the\nteacher of manual training has made his entry into the field of art production. The teacher who attempts these subjects without sufficient\npreparation in drawing and principles of design has caught a Tartar (or\nany metaphor you may see fit to employ in this connection).\nOn the other hand, the special teacher of art has often found the\ngreatest difficulty in teaching handicraft, even after familiarizing himself\nwith the technique. As a matter of fact, the view of the average art\nstudent is about as surprisingly narrow as it can be. He seems to think\nart a sort of synonym for oil paintings, and if he ever heard of any principles of composition in the studio, he does not remember them clearly,\nor at least is unable to translate them to new conditions. For the making\nof the \"simple\" basket or the \"simple\" bracket, as they are called, the\ninstant it leaves the beaten track of copying the model becomes a creative\neffort, involving all the elements of the problem of art, all its magnificent\npossibilities for success or catastrophe. To name such a problem \"simple \"\nis the purest irony, as no one knows better than he who has tried to give\nbeautiful form and color to even the most insignificant object. It may\nalmost be said with truth that the simpler the problem, the more grievous\nthe difficulty. Ask the dressmaker whether it is easier to make a \"simple\"\ngown or one with plenty of trimming and fancy work. You will get an\nilluminating answer. I have heard teachers of manual training complain\nthat no problem was so hopeless as that which involves pi;oportion only,\nthe bare relation of mass to mass. It ^s astonishing how the sesthetic\naspect of the subject gets left out of all sorts of discussions. And is it\nnot strange that no prominent\neducator\nof the time has failed to\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nacknowledge the importance of the branches under discussion, and that\nno one has studied them faithfully and treated them adequately?\nThese facts have led, in my estimation, to a very critical state of\naffairs. Thruout the entire country a mass of work is being turned out\nwhich is calculated to give little ease to the eye of the man who has\nlearned to see. From the beginning of the experiments in school crafts,\nwe have had to contend against the fact that teachers and educators have\nhad little or no training in form and' color.\nIt is not enough to give play to motor activity and other tendencies of\nthe child. The instinct for harmonious and beautiful forms is every whit\nas important. It is more important in the school than almost any of them,\nbecause the child is going to get a lot of motor education, without any of\nour help, thru the means that nature supplies. He is going to learn to\nknow the world by running up against it and by tumbling down upon it,\nand feeling of it, and listening to it, and smelling and tasting of it. But\nthe seed of beauty, without proper assistance, will have little chance to grow.\nThat population of 85 per cent, of children who leave the public schools\nbefore they have completed the eighth grade, who are practically to constitute this nation fifteen years from now, and who ought to be occupying\nmost of our thought as teachers — those children are going to have exercise\nenough for their motor instincts and too much, Heaven knows, for their\nimitative instincts, long before they are middle-aged. But if they do not\nget started in the appreciation of beauty in form and color and sound, to\nsay nothing of conduct, while they are children, they shall never attain\nunto it. ** Blessed is he,\" says Goethe, \"who has learned in his youth\nwhat art is.\"\nWe are told that \"technique must be held subordinate; self-activity\nand creativeness are the all-important things.\" I am not speaking of\ntechnique. Please do not let that word interfere with our thought. Not\nskillful nor exact execution, but the manifestation of the spirit of beauty,\nis, as I believe, the most important, the highest, the most irreplaceable\npart of the education in hand-work.\n\nIf I am right, then the danger most\n\nto be feared is the \"zealous ignorance,\" to quote Goethe again, of those\nwho try to teach beauty without understanding — those who work at\nexpression thru form and color, without comprehension of the essentials\nof the subject. It is to this we must devote our attention with heartfelt\nenthusiasm and endless study, if we are to bring this matter to a successful issue. That we shall be successful is not to be doubted for a\nmoment — or at least not more than a few minutes at a time. And this\nbrings me to the consideration of the difficulties which stand in our way.\nFirst among them is the fact that our subject alone, of all the common subjects of human thought, has been unformulated. It has had no\nbody of conscious knowledge, such as is possessed by even the least\ntangible of the other arts — music or language, for example.\nIn this\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nWORK\n\n639\n\nregard our subject is unique in its misfortune; there is none other in the\ncurriculum — most fortunately for the cause of education — that has had\nsuch a gaping abyss in its path. You may read thru whole books\nexpressly written on design and composition, and not find the statement\nof a single principle that you can use in teaching proportion. You may\nread all the books that have ever been written on color, so far as I have\nbeen able to read them, and fail to find some of the most elementary\nprinciples of harmony in tone and color. Our heartfelt gratitude to any\nman who gives his time and his thought to original investigation in these\nlines ! The scientific investigator, the biologist, and the psychologist have\ntheir honor and rewards. The research worker in this field may depend\nupon it that he will gain little honor, and thanks from but a few. Those\nwho are successful producers in form and color are generally working on\na purely subconscious basis of unformulated knowledge, known as\n\"artistic feeling.\" This indispensable requisite of the creative artist is\nbut a broken reed to the teacher of children, unless supported by a body\nof conscious, formulated knowledge. You can't get up and teach your\nfeelings.\nThe situation is further complicated by error in regard to the nature\nof art. There are men of high character in the teaching profession who\nseem to \"think that art is a matter of good sense and conscientious workmanship. The disciple of \"honest work\" is sure of his ground. \"There\nis something better than beauty,\" says he, \"and that is character.\" If a\nchair be useful, structural, not pretending to what it is not, it is an\n\" honest chair.\"\nI decline to be lead into a discussion of moral and aesthetic values.\nThe point that character is more important than beauty is well taken.\nBut admitting the point, beauty still remains to be appraised, and beauty\nis highly important. As for that honest chair, I believe that, morally, it\nis a beautiful chair, but it may still be bad in color, bad in proportion,\nbad in its curves, just as an honest woman may be ugly in shape and\nmay use vulgar forms and colors in her dress and vulgar English when\nshe speaks. Our forefathers whose work we so much admire and love, the\nproducers of the beautiful colonial furniture, were either mere workmanlike imitators — in which case they were perpetuating an art, but not\ncreating one — or else they were endued with a love of beauty and knowledge of it to a degree which we are too slow to acknowledge.\nA parallel error is committed by those who suppose that because\nbeauty is a subjective sensation it is useless to reason about it. A few\nweeks ago I heard a prominent representative of manual training address\nan audience to this effect. The constructive design problem in his\nopinion had two distinct phases. Th^ first was intellectual, being the\nconsideration of structure in its relation to material and function.\n\"Here,\" said he, \"we have something tangible, something that can be\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nreasoned out and presented clearly.\" The second phase was that which\ndeals with the aesthetic aspect of the work. \"In this,\" said he, *'we have\nonly feeling to guide us. Beauty is purely a subjective matter. It is\nuseless to reason about it.\"\nThe confusion and error here arise thru the failure to perceive that,\neven tho our feelings are subjective, the qualities which produce them are\nobjective. It is possible to reason about them. And just as in English\nwe can analyze the structure of the paragraph, and teach the student to\nmake a beginning, a middle, and an end, with subordination and climax,\nconsistency and unity, so we can analyze and teach the principles of\nformal beauty in the language of the hand. That some of the most\nprecious aesthetic qualities are too subtle to analyze I, for one, should\nnever think of denying. The personal elements which the student puts\ninto the work are presumably of this character. And the individual must\nbe left free to put his personality into the work. Class results must be\nstrictly individual; otherwise the teaching of principles would be worse\nthan useless; it would be fatal. We do not want rules and recipes for\nmaking beauty. What we want is to perceive that beauty means order in\nits highest sense. What we must understand is the large principles which\ncontrol in the organization of shapes and colors, wherever beauty\nappears; in the transient glory of man's art, and in the infinite manifestations of order in nature, which are the revelation of the divine.\nManual training and art instruction have approached a common\nproblem from widely different standpoints. Co-operation is seen to be a\nnecessity. Before we can co-operate intelUgently, the art teacher must,\nfor his part, understand the typical ideas of structure and material; he\nmust know how things are made and put together. A few months' work\nin the shop will teach him more about function and material than talking\nthe rest of one's life. At the same time, I feel that there is a crying need\nfor competent exposition, from the teacher's standpoint, in this field. Its\nliterature is very deficient.\nOn the other hand, the teacher of manual training must understand\nthat there are certain definite qualities which invariably appear in\nanything which has formal beauty ; that these qualities rest on a basis of\nprinciples which can be taught ; and that, until they are taught, the work\nwill continue to affect the trained observer like an ungrammatical\nsentence. Here again is a crying need for competent exposition. Those\nwho could write on this subject have a duty to perform to their fellowteachers. The principles are simple enough in themselves, but broad and\ndifficult in their application.\nSuch a unification of the two subjects as that which I have briefly\nsuggested can take place but slowly. ■ We have a wonderful city to build,\nand the city must have foundations. It cannot be done suddenly, as\nRome could not be built in a dav.\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nMANUAL\n\nWORK\n\n64I\n\nDISCUSSION\nFred H. Daniels, supervisor of drawing, Springfield, Mass. — A visitor to the\nmanual- training high school is shown the free-hand drawing-room where the students\nare drawing from life, making decorative designs for carpets or wall papers, or experimenting with landscape composition. He then goes to the wood-working shop and\nfinds the same students making joints and patterns in wood tor iron castings; next to the\nforge shop, to find bolt-heads and bars and rings and other hammerable products of no\nconceivable immediate use to the maker, but which will in due time, it is hoped, enable\nhim to make something of actual material value. The visitor wonders at the number of\nuseless things produced in the drawing and shop departments of this school. In real life,\ndrawings are a means to an end, not an end, nor a \"make-believe\" end, in themselves.\nIn real life, people do not make a lot of useless things in order eventually to make one\narticle of real value. In real life the drawing and shop departments of an institution\nare vitally related.\n\"Art is the expression of joy in work,\" is an old proverb; but how many of us\nreally comprehend its significance ? A class deficient in geography, music, drawing, or\nmanual training means that it takes but little pleasure in that subject, which condition\ncan usually be traced to the teacher's inability to make the lessons interesting. To obtain\nexcellence in any subject — and excellent expression is art — the lessons must be a source\nof pleasure to pupil and teacher. All persons express themselves best at play. Work\nhas been defined as the doing of something for an end which is to the evident advantage\nof the worker. Drudgery consists in doing something of no value to the doer. School\nlife should consist in work and play, and it will sometime, when we know how to make it.\nThat subject which is finished with a sigh of relief was unsuited to the temperament of\nthe pupil or was poorly taught. The creative artist in any trade, profession, or art thanks\nGod that he has another day in which to work, and this is the ideal life in school or out.\nThis is the true work. Viewed in this light, designing and drawing — art — becomes an\nintegral part of a manual-training course.\nWe are familiar with the objections raised in regard to this plan. Here they are:\"\n(i) it cannot be done; (2) the boys must have a series of exercises in the use of tools;\n(3) manual-training teachers do not have time, nor could they, as a rule, teach constructive\ndesign, while designs made under the supervision of the drawing teacher are not practical\nfrom the manual-training standpoint; (4) lack of time ; (5) the boys might make objects\ndesigned by the previous year's class. In reply we would say : (i) It has been done, not\nwith all shop-work, but one or two objects each year have been designed and made by the\nboys in the several classes. (2) Employ the exercises in making useful objects. (3) The\ndrawing teacher must learn by actual shop practice the manual part of the problem, or\nthe manual-training teacher must study the art side. (4) Instead of unrelated free-hand\nwork, or infinite problems in projection and theory, substitute an occasional problem in\nconstructive design, carrying it thru the preliminary study and sketches, completed design,\nperspective rendering and finished object. This is the only full teaching of constructi^'C\ndesign. (5) Failure in constructive design is often evident only in the process of making\nor in the completed object itself; hence the necessity of the individual working out\nin material form his own design. Far less pleasure and interest are noted in making\ndesigns for an object not to be made, or in making an object designed by another, than\nin the problem entirely completed by one pupil.\nAs for the method. First : The teachers in the drawing and shop departments should\nwork in harmony, each desiring to aid the other by receiving and givmg honest criticism and\nby working in the other departments. At preseril a rare teacher is he who understands\nartistic constructive design and can carry out the design in wood or metal to the satisfaction of art and manual-training critics.\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nED\n\nUCA\n\nTIONA\n\nL ASSOC\n\nI A TION\n\n[ M anual Training\n\nSecond: Pupils apparently dislike to do original constructive-design thinking. The\nreal difficulty is that thru inexperience they have no definite constructive design concepts.\nThe necessity for illustrative material in teaching the subject is as great as for data in\npreparing an essay. These illustrations should include (i) a stereopticon with lantern\nslides showing (a) constructive design in nature and its relation to the art of man, {b) good\narts and crafts products of ancient and modern times; (2) objects, good in design\n(rarely obtainable in any considerable number); (3) printed illustrations selected from\nmagazines, catalogs, etc.\nThird : There may be definite teaching of the principles of constructive design :\n(i) Teach the abstract principles underlying all art by means of problems to be worked\nout on paper. (2) Give definite, practical talks, fully illustrated with objects or lantern\nslides — that all may have clear seeing — especially selected to show the application in\nmaterial form of the principles studied ; also have criticisms of good and bad designs\nby the same means. (3) Class criticisms should be held of designs made by pupils, the\ncriticisms to be based upon such principles as fitness to purpose, harmony, rhythm, balance, stability, variety, contrast, etc.\nJames F. Hopkins, Boston, Mass. — I feel that there should be deeper enrichment in\nevery direction with definite, thoughtful co-operation between art and manual-training\nteachers. They have for a long time had similar aims. Indeed, the two branches tend to\nembrace each other. Art study no longer means mere drawing; in fact, it never did, save\nin the narrowest sense. Manual training is no longer content without creation and\nbeauty. In the coming together of the art teachers and the manual-training teachers\nthere must be a mastery of construction and material on the part of the first, and an\nunderstanding of principles of design on the part of the manual trainer.\nMr. Hopkins closed his talk by giving an outline of the unique organization of this\nsubject brought about by Boston principals with the result that under the well-known\ndepartment system specially well-trained teachers are assigned to teach these subjects.\nLuther\n\nWeston\n\nTurner, instructor in manual training. Hill School, Pottstown,\n\nPa. — \"When I was a schoolboy, the only method of teaching drawing was from a book.\nThis book contained drawings of objects grading in difficulty from the simple to the complex, and we worked from the book. There was no chance for original thought or\nexpression. We simply copied as near as we could what was in the book. When the\nteacher was not looking, we often drew pictures of her in characteristic attitudes, and\nmany of these drawings contained more real merit than the book drawings. Why?\nSimply because we drew what we saw, not what another had seen and put on paper for\nus to copy.\nThe copy work was dead.\nIt lacked the one essential thing, vitality.\nWhat a glowing tribute to the value of self-expression properly directed in its beginnings is the present status of drawing, as it is taught here in Massachusetts, and as it is\ngaining ground in other parts of this country ! It is beginning to be educational, and\nwe are doing what Dr. G. Stanley Hall has so long been advocating, namely, \"getting\nback to nature.\" One who has no insight into the beauty of nature should have no place\nas a teacher of drawing ; and I hold the same to be true of the teacher of manual training. Too little care is given to the teaching of it as an art. When manual training has\nas its basis of teaching the combined principles of art and mechanical process, then, and\nthen oply, shall we have a more universally sane manual training.\nAt present things are chaotic. Some correlate with this, and others with that.\nThere is not enough original work ; but, for all that, we are slowly progressing.\nAs a rule, we lack the principles of good constructive design more than we lack\nmechanical ideas and processes. Good constructive design should be the basis of any\ncourse in manual training. Hegel rnhis Philosophy of Fine Art i?iys: \"Fine art is the\nfree and adequate embodiment of the idea in a form peculiarly appropriate to the idea\nitself.\" How do your models stand the test ? Had you any idea when you made them ?\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nART\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nAND\n\nMANUA^\n\nWORK\n\n643\n\nAre they appropriate in form for the use to which you put them ? The teacher should\nget ideas from the pupils as far as possible, and when the pupils' ideas give out, or if one\nis found who has none, then it is the teacher's duty to supply them. These ideas, once\nunderstood in all their relations, will determine laigely what must be the plan of the\nmodels, their medium of construction, and their detail.\nMethods of construction and sequence of tool-work should be taught at first, and\nafter that determined by the reflection and common-sense of the pupil. Originality is\nwhat is wanted. Subordinate self, and watch the pupil as an individual, only correcting him\nwhen something radically wrong is about to be done. In every way let the pupil express\nhimself. Don't try to impress him with your own ability. If you have any, it will gradually dawn upon him without its being put forward. We make a great mistake when we\ntry to impress pupils. Let all school work be' the expression of minds which have been\nled to think independently. Let the pupil be himself. Cultivate proper taste for manual\ntraining by surrounding him with good examples of applied art excellent in workmanship.\nDo not misunderstand me about applied art. I do not in any sense mean decoration.\nThere is at present too much decoration added to that which would otherwise fulfill its\npurpose better. The oldest rule of structural design is still potent : *' Ornament construction ;do not construct ornament.\"\nAll ornament must be appropriate to the material used, the character of whatever is\nmade, and the use to which it is put. Sometimes the essential elements of a piece of\nwork may be admirably used as ornamental features. The Germans and the Swiss make\ngood use of round-headed nails, both as medium of construction and of artistic enrichment, and but little skill with the file is required to change a common square nut into a\ndistinctive piece of artistic ornament ; such treatment being frequently given by the old\nDelft workers in iron.\nIt is a general truth that many times the secret of effective ornamentation lies already\nhidden within the material to be used. Take notice of the grains of wood and colors of\nmetals, and embody all into harmonious pieces of applied art. While this is true, it is also\ntrue that the limits of ornamentation lie either within the object itself, the form it must\nnecessarily take, or the material used in its construction.\nAll about us are seen the products of the mechanics' arts. Do the majority fiulfill the\nuse for which they were intended, and that use only? Do they please the eye without\none's knowing quite why they do ? Are they structurally sound and made of proper\nmaterial to stand the wear and tear of everyday use ?\nOur duty as teachers of manual training is to try to create a sentiment in favor of less\nof that which is superfluous and inartistic in the home. The duty is with the rising generation. We cannot educate the masses except thru the children. Get hold of the child\nand give him all the means of self-expression which are possible. It is as much the duty\nof the supervisors of drawing and of manual training to work together toward material\nexpression as it is for reading and grammar to be taught together for the gaining of correct oral expression.\nThe principles underlying all educational work are, after all, but few, and have been\nused in every generation. All of our boasted improvements are but improvements in\nmethod, and not improvements upon the vital principles which are perpetual.\nWe are coming to recognize the fact that in all our progress we seem to be putting\nmore and more importance upon the human element in all our work. Teachers are being\nsifted finer.\nIn the final analysis, the victory is always gained by the men behind the movement,\njust as the value of any product is determined by the men behind the machinery. Personality counts. One should never be carried along in the wave of any movement. Be a\nmotive power! Look well to the nature, environment, and moral tendency of the pupil.\nAssist each individual one.\nStudy the ideas which the pupils put forward, and let the\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\n'educational\n\nASSOCIAT/O.V\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfinished products, whether constructed of one material or another, be the embodiment of\nthose ideas in a form which is appropriate. Look within any model or finished piece for\nits proper ornament, and have such ornament subordinate. Hold fast to that which is true.\nRemember the words of the great Master, and be a servant of all who need your peculiar\nability: \"Give and it shall be given unto you.\"\n\nINDIAN\n\nBASKETRY— ITS POETRY\nGEORGE\n\nWHARTON. JAMES,\n\nAND\n\nPASADENA,\n\nSYMBOLISM\nCAL.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nAs a teacher, nature has been too long neglected. The greatest\nartists, poets, statesmen, and philosophers have all gained high, if not\ntheir highest, inspirations from nature. The Indian woman has no art\nbooks, no treatises on aesthetics, and yet she produces in her baskets works\nof art as perfect in shape, weave, design, and finish, without the aid of\ntools, as anything the white man has ever yet produced. She has been an\ninventor and adapter, availing herself of what nature has offered.\nUntil recently it was scarcely believed that the Indian woman had any\nother thought in incorporating designs into her baskets than merely to\nplease the eye. Many years of close and personal contact with the\nIndians have revealed to me that in most cases designs have a distinct\nand definite meaning. Into them are incorporated the aesthetic desires,\npoetic aspirations, religious, legendary, and mythological lore, together\nwith the ceremonial suggestions uppermost in the weaver's mind at the\ntime of the making of the basket.\nThe \"superior race\" has its poems, paintings, sculptures, palaces,\ncastles, and cathedrals, into which it has woven all the sentiment and\nreligion of its varied life. The Indian has none of these things, and the\nbasket has had to serve for the enshrinement of all these higher faculties\nof the soul. He who deems the Indians the dull, stolid, unemotional,\nunpoetic beings they have been so long thought to be will find a study of\nIndian basketry a complete revelation. Behind a rough and uncouth\nexterior, they often hide as beautiful and noble a character as any\ndepicted in fiction. Fenimore Cooper knew the Indian and characterized\nhim aright. It is bad enough that we steal from these helpless people\ntheir homes, without slandering and abusing them and endeavoring to\ngive them a bad reputation.\nA careful study of Indian basketry reveals the Indian in a new light.\nAs we look at these baskets and listen to the aboriginal weaver's own interpretations ofthe designs, we find much of the keenest interest. Here are\nrepresented objects in nature which she imitated — the rainbow, the\nflowing water, the zigzag lightning, the flowers, the trees, the animals, the\nbirds, etc. This law of imitation is the prime law in all aboriginal art.\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n645\n\nIt is followed by conventionalization. Here is the conventional diamond of the rattlesnake; below are the conventionalized steps of a mountain, with flowing water, by the side of which are quail. This basket was\nused as an invitation to a valley tribe to come to a thanksgiving dance in\nthe mountains, and the symbols mean that water and quail will be found\nin abundance.\nThis St. Andrew's cross is a conventional splitting in half of the diamond of the rattlesnake.\nHere is a conventional representation of the water flowing from below\nand the water flowing from above (springs and rain). These meet and\nform the Greek fiet and the swastika. The Indian weaver reproducing\nthese symbols creates by that simplest of all art laws, imitation, these\ndesigns, which are supposed to have an esoteric eastern meaning.\nThen, too, the weaver, puts into her basket her emotions, her longings,\nher aspirations, her prayers.\nFrom the speaker's private collection of historic baskets these various\npoints were fully illustrated, one design being a Havasupai woman's\nprayer that the tornado be kept from devastating her home, another that\nthe flying bats do not \"suck away her breath;\" and still another the\nlonging for rest of.Ramona up among the stars.\n\nMANUAL\nELIZABETH\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEUPHROSYNE LANGLEY, ASSOCIATE IN MANUAL TRAINING,\nOF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO\n\nSCHOOL\n\nThe topic announced for my paper is \"Manual Training in the Elementary School,\" but I desire to limit what I have to say to hand-work\nin wood, and to put my chief emphasis on the work below the sixth grade.\nI choose this phase of the general theme because I can find few schools\nwhere elementary wood- work is given fair trial. It is either not put in\nuntil after the fifth grade, or it is given to each grade but once in two\nweeks, or it is made an isolated subject, or the classes are too large to\nhandle, or the equipment is entirely inadequate. Those who plan courses\nof study have yet to realize that if elementary manual training is to bring\nin large returns in the development of the child, it must be rightly\nequipped and managed. And may I be allowed to make the prefatory\nstatement that whatever I have to say about manual training applies as\nwell to girls as to boys? I have yet to find the place, from the first to the\neighth grade, where the kind of work or the kind of interest would justify\nthe separation of the sexes.\nThe problems that confront the elementary manual-training teacher\nhave to do with the choice of articles to be made and the methods to be\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nemployed. Both of these arc conditioned by the ideal toward which the\nteacher works. Back of all problems, and determining their solution, is\nthe idea that manual training should not be an isolated subject, not merely\n\"something different,\" the chief purpose of which is to relieve the strain\nof other work, but that it should be closely interknit with the general\nschool life, a part of the method of self-expression. The conception of\nmanual training as thus bound up with the life of the school must\nlargely determine the answer of the manual training teacher to all important questions.\nThe question that meets the teacher at the outset is : What articles\nshall the children be allowed to make? Our answer is that each child\nshould, with certain limitations, be allowed to make that which he wishes\nto make ; that is, the child, in so far as he is able and eager, suggests what\nhe wishes to make. This choice is, if possible, accepted, and the plan is\nworked out in conference with his teacher. But if, considering the child's\nage, strength, and skill, the choice is an unsuitable one, and must be\nrejected, the rejection is not autocratic. That, too, is the result of conference with the child, so that, while working under guidance, he has yet\nthe consciousness of working along lines of his own choice. The first\ngrade in the School of Education chose, for instance, this year to make\nplayhouses. The second grade made bird-houses, seed-boxes, and flowerboxes. The third grade co-operated in the making of a large chickenhouse ; while the fourth grade made as its co-operative work a train of\nfreight cars with roadbed and ties. Both of these grades have done individual work of many sorts, including such articles as fern-stands,\ntabourets, footstools, picture-frames, bookcases, and small tables. The\nfifth and sixth grades have made furniture of the colonial type, including\ncorner cupboards with glass doors, bookshelves, etc. They are also\nmaking other individual articles, such as an eight-foot scow for use on the\nlagoons, a child's chair, wall cabinets, etc. These grades are also doing\nsimple relief carving. The seventh grade is making boats — not large boats\nfor actual use, but miniature models to represent the boats of various\ncountries and of various periods, such as a Viking boat, a Chinese boat of\nstate, a Venetian gondola, and various sorts of American boats from the\nraft to the houseboat and yacht. The eighth-grade children have made\noak folding screens, oak bookcases,' an oak couch, tabourets in cherry and\nmahogany, and other similar articles, while their community work is an\neighty-foot arbor for the school garden.\nFrom this rapid illustrative summary of articles actually made it is at\nonce apparent that we have paid no attention to a logical sequence of\nmodels, as in the sloyd system, according to which all children make the\nsame articles in the same order. No one trained under Herr Salamon\ncan fail to see the value and beauty of that system, with its definite and\norderly progression of diflficulties, and its comprehensive and clever intro-\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n647\n\nduction of wood- working tools; and I would advise any teacher to take\nit — especially if he wishes to depart from it in the interest of correlation or\nof the child's individuality. But experience convinces me that with young\nchildren the idea of \"logical sequence,\" as that phrase is ordinarily interpreted, must be thrown to the winds. The more definite and orderly and\ncomprehensive the knowledge of the teacher, the better; for such knowledge gives him a point of view, gives backbone to his work, saves him\nfrom irrational adaptations; but the child must be left free to find himself and to express himself. As Colonel Parker says: \"It is only when\nwe get into the child's own motive that we have the true, logical scheme.\"\nIn other words, logical sequence based on subject-matter should give way\nto the natural, and therefore truly logical, development of the individual.\nThe governing principle in the choice of articles to be made must be,\nthen, the interests of the child, but much of the work done centers naturally about the general work of the grade at the time. The playhouses of\nthe first grade grew directly out of the fact that all the work of the grade centered about domestic life. Eskimo huts in clay and Indian wigwams in raffia\nand twigs led the way naturally to the more elaborate life of civilized man\nas expressed by the wooden house. The interest in the house and the life\nit represents has really come to dominate the hand-work of the grade. The\nwork in weaving has resolved itself into the making of rugs for the floors,\nthe art work has contributed wall-papers designed and painted by the\nchildren, while the study of color has been given a great impetus by the\npainting of the outsides of the houses and portions of the interior, and\nsome ambitious children have even levied on the clay-modeling department for chimneys and fireplaces. The latest work of the grade is in the\nmaking of simple wooden furniture for the houses. The henhouse of the\nthird grade was^the apparently imperative outcome of the decision of the\ngrade to adopt a hen. The cars of the fourth grade and the boats of the\nseventh grade were the natural expressions of an interest aroused by a\nstudy of transportation. The colonial furniture was a choice of the fifth\nand sixth grades after they had become interested in the life of the colonial\nperiod, and after visits to large furniture shops where they were able to\ncompare furniture of different periods and styles. The choice of individual articles is made for personal reasons. It will be seen that in these\ncases — and they are but typical — the controlling principle of choice is\nthe interest of the child, but guided and developed by the work of the\ngrade.\nOne result of allowing the work to follow the desires of the child has\nbeen that a surprisingly large number of the articles made have not been\nfor individual ownership. For instance, the third grade made paper knives\nenough for the first and second grades and sent them as valentines; the\ncup-racks, knife-boxes, and plate-racks needed by the grades for the\nlunches are often made by one grade and presented to another.\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWhat is true of the first grade in matters of interest and observation\nholds thru all the grades. This arises not merely from the work in\nthe manual-training room, but it is the outgrowth of all the influences\nbrought to bear on the child. His interest in his boat, or house, or\ncar is intensified by what he learns in the grade room about transportation and domestic life, and his hand-work in turn vivifies and makes\nreal the study he has done. Much emphasis is put on correctness and\nfullness of observation in connection with any of the articles to be made.\nThe manual-training department, in carrying out the work of the grades,\ninsists on keeping as close as possible to real conditions. The fourth\ngrade, for example, before making its cars, spent a day in visiting car\nshops, so that the cars when made were not mere toys, but were real\ncars in miniature. One sort of observation comes especially from the\nmanual-training work, and that is a child's knowledge of wood and his\nfeeling for it. He has already studied trees and painted trees perhaps,\nbut in the manual-training room he learns to know the tree under its new\nform as lumber. There is much incidental talk on forestry, and there are\nmany pictures shown illustrative of the processes of lumbering. A\nspecial point is made of having the stock delivered as it. comes from the\nmill. The lumber is not cut up into lengths, but the children saw from\nlong boards the pieces they need. They learn about the seasoning of\nwood, the difficulties in working up certain sorts of wood, possibilities in\nthe way of beauty and finish, differences in expense, and the appropriateness of making certain articles out of certain woods. And the children\nhave a real, unaffected love for wood, a genuine appreciation for its grain,\nor texture, or color. In stores and cars and houses they are not only able\nto identify woods, but have a positive joy in coming upon an especially\nfine piece.\nThe attitude of the teacher of elementary training toward technique is\none of fundamental importance. The child must be allowed to express\nhimself freely. Must he express himself also accurately ? What should\nthe teacher demand of the child in the way of workmanship? In the first\nplace, the actual work on any article should be done by the child. The\nfunction of the teacher is to put her knowledge at the service of the child's\nidea. She must meet each child open-mindedly, and help him to work\nout the thing he has in his mind. She must show him how to stand, how\nto use the appropriate tools. She must point out principles of construction, and warn him of possible difficulties or mistakes. She must go in\nadvance of his plan, showing him how to work it out most economically\nand effectively; but the plan must be his and the work must be his.\nBut a certain amount of actual assistance, as well as constant guidance\nand instruction, is necessary with beginners. Let me illustrate by the\nwork of the first grade. Naturally more help is given by the teacher here\nFor instance this, year the size of tl.c\nthan in any succeeding grade.\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nh\"^ ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n649\n\nhouse and the shape were determined upon by the teacher, tho in close\nconsultation with the class ; then dressed half-inch pine was cut for the children into the proper lengths, and the pointed pieces of board for the gables\n(on which they had insisted) were also cut for them. From this point on,\nthe children did all the actual work themselves. They planed the edges\nof the boards ; they sawed from long quarter-inch stock the boards for\ntheir partitions, and from half-inch stock the boards for their floors ; they\nnailed the houses together ; they nailed and put up the stairs; they put in\nthe partitions ; they cut windows and doorways ; they painted and papered\nthe interior of the house, and they painted the exterior. From the first\ngrade on, the work, however crude the outcome, should be entirely the\nchild's own. If it is his best effort, it is for him perfect work, and should\nbe so considered.\nIf the children do the work themselves, they learn of necessity the use\nof tools. In the construction of their houses the children of the first grade\nmade intelligent use of a ruler, a try-square, a plane, a hammer, a\ncross-cut saw, a keyhole saw, and an auger; and tho they did not know\nthe meaning of the word \" construction,\" they nevertheless had gained\nan honest scorn for a house that \"wiggled\" and an honest respect for a\nhouse firm enough for them to sit on. The children had also made rough\ndrawings for these houses, and tho the uncertain,^ apparently haphazard,\nstrokes on the paper might convey no idea to an outsider, to the child it\nwas unquestionably the picture of what he had in mind. He would point\nto parts of it and say : \"See, my house must be so.\" His drawing was a\nvaluable part of his self-expression, however chaotic and unmeaning to\nanother.\nBy the fifth grade the children know theoretically and practically all\nthe common wood-working tools, and they have learned simple, mechanical drawing. Thru the three later grades the advance is that which comes\nfrom constant practice. More complex constructions are attempted;\nthere is growing attention'to detail and finish, and harder woods are used.\nRough designs for outline and proportion are made, and from these,\nmechanical drawings for all articles. Some emphasis is placed on\noriginal designs to be used in wood-carving, but on the whole few\nnew tools or principles are brought in after the fifth grade. The work\nconsists in the practice and application of what is already known.\nIn the matter of technical skill the advance from. the simple use of the\nsimplest tools in the first grade to the really excellent work of the eighth\ngrade has been a long step, but the point to be \"insisted upon here is the\nway in which this ability to do difficult and even elaborate work has been\ngained. There has been no prescribed progression of tools to be used;\nno prescribed order of difficulties to be met ; there has been no emphasis\non technical skill as such, and no work done merely for the sake of\nacquiring such skill. And yet it has come to pass that the most ingenious\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nand orderly system devised by the manual-training teacher for the sake of\nsecuring technique has been outdone in its own field by the unclassified,\nunlabeled, and apparently unordered process of development achieved by\nthe child in the pursuit of his own plans. How does this come about?\nHe achieves technique, not because he seeks technique or realizes its value\neven, but because of his eagerness to express in the best fashion the ideas\nhe has in his mind. His enthusiasm for anything he has to make begets\npatience, perseverance, carefulness, and attention to instruction ; and these\nqualities in turn beget technique. He has never sawed to a line for the\nsake of sawing; he has never planed for the sake of planing; he has\nnever chiseled joints for the sake of chiseling joints ; but he has performed\nall these operations in making his chosen articles. He has gained technique incidentally, as it were. He has co-ordinated hand and brain; he\nhas bent his muscle to the service of his will ; but almost unconsciously\nand in the interest of the article he has made.\nThe emphasis put by instructors in secondary schools on the educative\nvalue of the process/^/' se may be the only sound principle for manual\ntraining in secondary schools, but in the elementary schools such\nemphasis would be fatal. Formal routine and discipline in manual\ntraining caiinot be ad'vantageously applied to young children. With\nregard to the attitude of the elementary manual-training teacher toward\ntechnique I have, then, two settled articles of belief : first, elementary\nmanual training can never be approached from the point of view of\ntechnique, and can never be based on the value of processes as such ; but,\nsecondly, the elementary manual training approached from the point of\nview of individual interest can, and indeed will, result in a technique of\nsurprising excellence. The work is not in any sense forced or unnatural.\nThe excellence of technique comes thru the joyous energy i)f the children,\ntheir gay competition, their affection for the work, and their pride in\ndoing it well.\nMay I say a word as to the equipment of the manual-training room\nand of the manual-training teacher? That tools and benches should be\nof the best quality; that floors should be of wood, not of cement; that\nracks for lumber should be safe and convenient; that locker space should\nbe ample; that the room should be dry and light — all this perhaps goes\nwithout saying. There should be also small movable platforms that fit\nunder the benches, and of varying heights, so that the benches may be\nproperly adjusted to the height of the pupils. The room should not be\nsmall and mussy and shop-like, but should be made inspiring and beautiful\nin various inexpensive ways. There should be floor space enough to keep\non hand various suggestive completed articles. There should be wall\nspace enough for samples of wood, finished and unfinished, and for\npictures of trees. The room should, indeed, be both workshop and\nstudio, with a happy combination of the artisan and art elements.\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nBOY\n\nAND\n\nHIS\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\nAT\n\nHOME\n\n65 1\n\nIn regard to the manual-training teacher, I object to the grade teacher\nminus technical skill, and even more to the artisan minus culture. It has\noften been said that all sorts of hand-work should theoretically be taught\nby each grade teacher to her own grade, in order that the relation of the\nsubjects may be kept more perfectly in mind. But her hands are already\nfull. Probably the idea of perfect fusion of the different parts of a child's\nwork can be more effectively accomplished by haying the special teachers\nidentify themselves with the interests of each grade. The mere artisan,\nthe easily available, inexpensive man, clever with his hands, but ignorant\nof the other work of the school, incapable as teacher or guide or\ncompanion of the children, outside of his specialty, is absolutely out of\nhis place in the manual-training room. He could be justified only on the\nunjustifiable basis that the proper aim of manual training is to teach a\ntrade. But if the true conception of manual training does not put the\nemphasis on \"manual,\" but on \"training,\" then it is clear that the\nmanual-training teacher should have an admirable equipment of culture\nand scholarship as well as technical knowledge in his own line.\nTo sum up, I have tried to say that manual training should be put\ninto the elementary grades; that it should be thoroly co-ordinated with\nthe other work of the grades; that it should be carried on with a flexibility\nof system which would allow the child's individuality free play; that\ntechnique should be attained, but that technique and finished products\nshould not be the ultimate objects of the work; and that the best results\ncan be obtained only when schools have adequate equipment, full time,\nand competent teachers.\nNow, I recognize that I have been presenting the possibilities of the\nwork when done under advantageous conditions, and I know that I shall\nbe met with the criticism that what I advocate is not practicable in public\nschools. I admit this, and I know that any teacher in public schools\nwould be compelled to modify what I have said according to his restricted\nconditions. But if manual-training teachers have ideals, and refuse to\naccept present conditions as final, we may hope that the opportunities\nnow offered in only a few private schools may be more nearly reached in\nall schools.\n\nTHE, BOY\nGEORGE\n\nH.\n\nBRYANT,\n\nAND\n\nHIS HANDICRAFT\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE\nEASTERN\nASSOCIATION, NEWPORT, R. I.\n\nAT HOME\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n[an abstract]\n\nThe obstacles to spontaneous home activities are met in the condensed\nand restricted home life of the city, rather than in the freer life of the\ncountry.\nTherefore it is in the city that the influence of the school\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmanual training is likely to be most beneficial in stimulating home\nactivities. The chief problem at the outset is how to offer some counterattractions to those of the street, which shall combine a useful occupation\nwith a healthful recreation.\nThe need of some form of hand-work is often manifested in various\nforms of fancy work, such as jig-sawing and pyrography, in which the\nchief motive is show, rather than use or hand-training. Such work sometimes is useful as art, but it often lacks the two essential qualities, construction and utility. A gain is made if the boy can be made to see that\nit is the useful things, rather than the purely ornamental, that are within\nhis capacity.\nWith boys of ten and twelve years much work is undertaken without\nincentive or aim, and is consequently abandoned before it is completed.\nBoys of another class are o'verambitious in their projects, and fail in\nproducing results from lack of appreciation of the technical or constructive\ndifficulties, or from a lack of perseverance.\nOne chief incentive to continuous and intelligent effort is the making\nof something of use for self or others. The' boy should be induced to\nundertake the simpler things first, but to do them as carefully as he is\ntaught in his school work. The manual-training school should help to\nsupply the constructive ideas and direct the aim. The influence of the\nschool manual training is shown in the desire to work in the school shops\nout of school hours, in the greater use of any tools to which he may have\naccess at home, in the more definite character of construction pieces\nundertaken, and in the use of the school models in the home.\nThe correlation of home and school may be developed by more\nsystematic reporting of home work and consulting with the teacher at\nschool ; certain lines of home work, such as chair-caning, basketry, rugand hammock-weaving, may be undertaken as extra or busy work at\nschool ; suggestions may be made by the teacher by means of lists of\nseasonable pieces, with sketches, which are within the constructive abilities\nof the boys and the capacities of the home outfits.\nThe most important thing is the disposition in the boy to use his\nhands. It is the office of the teacher to guide that disposition into\nconstructive rather than destructive channels.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrank M. Leavitt, supervisor of manual training, Boston, Mass. — When I first\nnoted the general topic for this morning's meeting, I expected that we should have\noutlined for us some plan for employing manual-training methods in what is commonly\ncalled the regular school work, and showing that the constructive principle is applicable in the teaching of language and literature, arithmetic, geometry, and physics.\nInstead we have had an excellent illustration of how the entire school curriculum,\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBOY\n\nAND\n\nHIS\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\nAT\n\nHOME\n\n653\n\nunified by the child's natural interests, may be made the basis of the manual-training\nwork, determining to a large extent the form and content of its course of study. By\nthe adoption of either scheme there would result a correlation which is not only\ndesirable, but is fundamentally necessary for the realization of the highest ideals of\nmanual training.\nIt is probably fair to assume that the work outlined by Miss Langley is not entirely,\nor immediately, possible under the average conditions now obtaining in our large cities.\nHere is, however, abundant food for reflection for both the regular and the special\nteacher. There is also a wide field for both teachers in the work of inspiring the pupil\nto useful and constructive activity outside of school. It is, in fact, one of the best\nproofs of the real benefit of manual training that it possesses this dynamic power — that\nby its compelling interest the boy is driven to give up his leisure, often his play, and\noccasionally, it must be confessed, the study of some lesson, that he may gain time to\ndevote to some constructive problem in hand either inside the manual-training room or\nat home. Bryant's paper clearly shows that manual training does possess this dynamic\npower.\nManual training has had many advocates, and many widely diversified objects of\nmanual training have been advanced. Whether our application of the manual-training\nprinciple is to be broad or narrow will depend far more on our conception of what manual\ntraining stands for than it will on the conditions under which we work. Let us assume,\nfor example, that we believe the object of manual training to be the development of the\ncreative instinct. Our work will then be broader than it will if we deem its object to be\nthe development of care and accuracy, of orderly thmking, of the logical doing which\ncomes from working by plan, important as all this may be. With the creative instinct as\nan end, manual training will concern itself with the process of materializing ideas, with\nthe hope that not only will the process itself be of value to the pupil, but that in some way\nconsciousness may enter the heart and mind, even if only vaguely, that every material\nthing must first have existed as an idea and that any idea capable of expression in\nmaterial may possibly be materialized by him. Other objects manual training undoubtedly has, but the paramount importance of this object must be evident to every\nteacher who has had the opportunity of observing very young children, and also those of\nfourteen years and upward.\nIn computing the value of the various agencies that assist in the development of\nany of the human faculties, it would be well-nigh impossible to estimate too highly\nthe potency of the imagination. We well know the power of the imagination in the\nformation of character. \"As a man thinketh so he is.\" The artist is not he who can\naccurately copy, even if his model be the most beautiful work of nature, but he who\ncan build a picture or a cathedral after the pattern which he has seen in the mount\nof his imagination.\nBut is it not possible that we have laid too great stress on the process, as Miss Langley\nhas said — on the training of the hand, on the development of a high degree of proficiency; and have we not even dwelt too fondly on that theory of the training thru the\nhand — that theory, accepted by all, which has its basis in physiological psychology?\nIs it not possible that we have neglected our opportunity of encouraging the individual\ninitiative of our pupils ?\nI confidently believe that here is to be found the most promising opportunity for the\nimmediate improvement of our work, without throwing absolutely to the winds that which\nwe have again and again seen to produce excellent educational results. I mean the carefully planned course of study.\nIt seems to me that Miss Langley's paper i^best summed up in her own statement,\n\"responsibility educates.\" Let us see to it that we as teachers do not take all the responsibility, and consequently receive all the education.\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe one thing most necessary, I had almost said the only thing necessary, to enable\na teacher to carry out Mr. Bryant's suggestions is that he shall secure to the pupil a\nsense of personal achievement. The rest is mere detail. President Eliot said recently:\n\"That is the best motive in all education — the joy in achievement.\" I have seen class\nwork which made me wonder how the teacher could achieve such results. But let us not\nforget that it is the pupil who must achieve — not the teacher.\nWith the thoughts contained in the two papers, and represented by the two words\n\"responsibility\" and \"achievement,\" clearly in mind, we cannot fail to widen our horizon and to secure for our pupils a larger development.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Neb. — Manual-training men\nare all emphasizing the importance of manual training for the city boy. They contrast\nthe life of the city boy with that of the country boy and try to show that the latter has a\ndecided advantage over the former, in the rural manner of life he is living. Now, I want*\nto put in a plea for the boy living in the small town, village, or country. This boy is not\nreceiving the hand-training that he is generally accredited with. He has not the opportunities today of developing those traits of resourcefulness and ingenuity that his father\ngained on the farm. Hence I plead for manual training for the village and country boy,\nand pray that he be given the same chance as the city boy.\nThe discussion has been a most instructive one. Mr. Bryant's paper on manualtraining employments in the home was comprehensive and suggestive. He is right that\noutside certain rural communities there is little to employ the child's energies when he is\nnot in school. There are Bohemian or French-Canadian villages or settlements in larger\ntowns in which in this respect the children are far better off than most children of nativeborn parents. He has told us of all sorts of work the boys may do. It is not quite true\nthat anything will answer for these boys to do ; but it is, after all, true that it is most\nimportant for them to do — to feel the impulse to do — something.\nMiss Langley has given a charming account of the results in the University of Chicago\nschool — that school where the creative instinct is developed, under the most skillful and\nexpensive teachers. The class of children, too, is picked. They are by no means ordinary\nclay. If children were to be educated in the public schools, in manual training or in anything else, at anywhere near the price per pupil that it costs to educate them in the school\ndescribed by Miss Langley, we public-school people would be promptly read out of the public employment. I suspect that for many years we shall have to use, in the public schools,\nsome systematic series of exercises or undertakings for children's work in manual training.\nI do not know what these exercises will be ; I do not think anyone knows yet just what\nthey will be. Many plans and many different sorts of work are being tried the country\nover, and many different sequences experimented upon. Out of this experimenting, after\na while, we shall evolve at least a good and fairly satisfactory manual-training course.\nMr. Leavitt has gone into the prof ounder phases of the subject and has philosophized\nfor us. We shall all, I think, agree with him as to the value of cultivating the creative\ninstinct. I am inclined to think, however, that most of us are yet to be shown that this\ncannot be had in connection with a carefully arranged and graded series or sequence of\nexercises or pieces of work to be taken in order, with, added to this, stimulation of the\nchild's initiative, either thru freedom or thru encouragement, that, as fast as skill is\nacquired, will suggest the undertaking, decided upon by the child if practicable, into\nwhich he shall put his best thought and most painstaking handiwork.\nIn other words, the element of interest is to be preserved and the child's initiative to\nbe encouraged and strengthened.\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHAND\n\nHANDMISS\n\nABBY\n\nWORK\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nHIGH\n\nGIRLS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGIRLS\n\nL. MARLATT, INSTRUCTOR\nIN DOMESTIC\nTRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, PROVIDENCE,\n\nSCIENCE,\nR. I.\n\n655\n\nMANUAL\n\n[an abstract]\n\nDr. Harris would divide all education into two kinds: (i) \"education\nby means of memory — by authority\" and (2) ** individual or scientific\neducation — insight as opposed to authority.\" That there is danger\nfrom excessive use of either system is pointed out. Again quoting:\n\"Silence, punctuality, regularity, and industry are fundamental parts of a\nsubstantial education, as much as the critical study of mathematics, literature, science, and history is a part of the education of insight. These two\nkinds of education, that of authority and that of self-activity, should be\nmade complementary.\"\nThe secondary school of the past has put the emphasis upon the\n\"substantial,\" the \"memory\" education, to the exclusion of the scientific\nor individual education, as the only means of fitting the pupil to pass the\nrequired examinations for entrance to college. That this point of view\nis now felt to be erroneous is evident when the courses of study in\nsecondary schools are examined. Gradually the self-activities of the child\nare being utilized thru the introduction of fuller courses in the sciences\nof chemistry, physics, botany, biology. That even with this addition\nthere is room for improvement is granted. The methods used in instruction are not those involving much laboratory work in which pupils gain\nknowledge thru personal experience. This is in some cases due to a\ndesire to fit pupils to answer a set of test questions when the time allotted\nfor the subject is too short or the equipment is not adequate. More often\nit is due to the lack of teaching ability, which finds it more easy to pour\nin than to draw out, which causes the use of the college lecture method\nwithout regard to the mental development of the pupil.\nThe \"learning by doing\" may be carried to an extreme, just as a\ndesire to correlate may produce a mental nausea on the part of the\nvictim ; but in both cases it is an undue use of a right principle of education. No problem in either laboratory or workshop should be done by\nthe pupil if it does not call into activity the higher intellectual powers,\nand does not make its demand on reason tracing back to causes and forward to results. Hand-work should be carried only to the point where\nthe higher nerve centers are involved. As soon as skill becomes a factor,\nit means that the manual processes have become \"spinal reflexes,\" and\ntherefore there is no further gain in will power.\nThe desire to work for others — the spirit of altruism — must be cultivated during the period of secondary education. If thru lack of its right\nintroduction the hand-work fails to foster in the child the altruistic emotion, ithas failed of its highest good.\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nUnless the hand-work is first of all artistic — that is, good in color,\nform, and design — it cannot have its reflex effect upon our industrial\nactivity. And as a nation we are not artistic. The fault lies in not realizing the economic law that what we demand we get; that the product is\nwhat the majority like, not what is best. The remedy must lie in training\nthe aesthetic taste thru study of the beautiful and in more general creation\nof the beautiful during the formative period of adolescence.\nFor girls in our high schools the value of hand-work may not lie in\neconomic gain, but in keeping the right balance between memory education and scientific education, to develop the reason and judgment, and\nthus fit them to grapple with the complex problems of modern life and\nto master them. Home industries have become relegated to shop and\nfactory, with the result of loss of dignity for the home as a productive\ncenter, which means a loss to the girl of any personal experience in the\nkind of labor that made home work in the past so inspiring, because the\nresults were so varied and so lasting. The study in the school of the\nindustries which have been removed from the home will help to an appreciation of the social problems in modern industrial life, and of the conditions which threaten the home life of the future.\nSewing, millinery, dressmaking, may teach the girl the value of such\nlabor and make her an intelligent consumer — an enemy to sweat-shop\nlabor. Study of textiles and practical knowledge of designing and\nweaving will, again, aid industrial evolution, directly, by creating a\ndemand for more artistic products; indirectly, by creating a demand for\nbetter financial and social conditions for the workers. The modeling in\nclay, the working with woods and metal, may develop artistic power which\nwill be felt in our furniture, pottery, and jewelry industries, and individually broaden the worker thru gain in breadth of view and mental power.\nThe respect for labor, the realization of the value of time, the greater\ninterest in the aesthetic value of our industrial products, the broadened\njudgment, the sympathetic insight gained thru hand-labor in our highschool courses for girls, are arguments enough, even if they were not the\neconomic side which demands that the woman of today be an intelligent\nproducer as well as a wise consumer.\nTextiles, wood, clay, and metal may be the group of materials\nselected for the basis of the hand-work. This omits the work with food\nmaterials, which, tho in part manual, is not applied art so much as\napplied science, under which head it is classed.\nIn teaching principles the interest of the pupil is more easily held, and\nfar better work is done, when each principle and set of principles is\nembodied in some complete, artistic product which has a definite use. By\n\"artistic\" is meant that the proportion, line, color, and design are suited\nto their purpose and conform to the laws of beauty as understood by the\nbest workers.\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nHAND-\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nGIRLS\n\n657\n\nThe following is a suggested course in hand-work for girls in all our\nhigh schools :\nWork in Textiles.\nSewing — 75 hours.\nHand- and machine-made articles which illustrate principles.\nAprons used in laboratory work; design as applied to wash dresses (suggestions).\nWeaving — 50 hours.\nRaffia used in making a hat from original design.\nOn hand-loom to illustrate different weaves (dish or face cloth).\nRaffia into basket from sketch of original design, showing use of color in decoration.\nMillinery — 50 hours.\nTrim raffia hat.\nWinter hat from original design.\nMake a sewed straw hat and trim.\nDressmaking — 100 hours.\nMake sketch for gown.\nCut, fit, and finish a lined dress.\nLeather Work — 50 hours.\nBook covers in tooled and stained leather work.\nBookbinding,\nClay — IOC hours.\nClay-modeling :\nSimple form and ornament.\nSimple pottery (design).\nSimple pottery ornamented with original design.\nWood — 100 hours.\nSimple joinery applied in making articles which may later be decorated in woodcarving.\nWood-carving.\nAdvanced wood-work — furniture construction and wood finishes.\nMetal-work — 100 hours.\nHammered copper in simple forms — bowls, boxes, buckles.\nEnamel applied as decoration.\n\nSuch a course would lead the pupil from simple creative work in\neasily manipulated material by gradual stages, as he grows in power\nmentally and physically, to creditable design worked out in durable\nmaterial\nDISCUSSION\nMiss LiLLiE CoLLAMORE Smith, instructor in domestic science, High School, Brookline, Mass. — I have been much interested in the paper on hand-work for high-school\ngirls. Without reference to the proposed course of study, I shall take up some points in\nthe main body of the paper.\nEducation should fit the pupil for life and should give a fuller understanding of the\nmeaning of life. It should give an all-around training and attain the ethical end. A\nstudy of present conditions shows a definite aiW positive need of a larger opportunity\nfor girls, more especially along the lines of manual training.\nThis year the Committee on Elementary and Secondary Schools of the Lake Placid\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nConference is investigating hand-work for high-school girls, particularly with reference\nto home industries. The results show an increasing interest in this kind of training.\nClay-modeling, sloyd, mechanical drawing, joinery, and wood-turning are already, to\nsome extent, taught to girls. Recent investigations show that no less than nineteen high\nschools have courses in domestic science and twelve in needle-work.\nAs has been pointed out, food-work is largely an application of science, as are sanitation and hygiene. Accuracy, skill, and dexterity are acquired in food laboratories as\nwell as in those for physics and chemistry. Food-work possesses as much educational\nvalue as other science work, and is of great importance from a practical and an ethical\nstandpoint. Domestic science is a practical combination of physics, chemistry, economics, biology, and elementary mathematics, and should be treated as such.\nManual training recommends itself to us for these reasons: (i) thru such training\nthe pupil learns to overcome difficulties and so gains in balance and power; (2) the girl\ndevelops into a better home-maker, with a realizing sense of the values of time, strength,\nand material ; (3) by aiding in the formation of a clear general concept, it prepares for\nan intelligent and comprehensive view of affairs ; (4) Thru the sympathetic understanding of what manual labor really is, justice is rendered more sure; (5) by increasing\nrespect for work which must be done, it dignifies and ennobles life itself.\n\nMANUAL\nJAMES\n\nPARTON\n\nTRAINING\nHANEY,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nVERSUS\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMANUAL\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nNEW\n\nARTS\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nThose who examine closely into the development of the elementary\ncurriculum in this country can scarce but come to the conclusion that the\nprimary force in the introduction of motor education was an economic one.\nThe strongest supporters of drawing — the first of the motor branches to\nsecure recognition — offered it as hand- and eye-training invaluable to\nthe artisan, while construction, at its introduction, was advocated as a\nform of preparation also necessary for the future craftsman. It is true\nthat the disciplinary value of both was urged, but such plea was secondary\nto the plea for skill — for work which should prepare the child for manual\nlabor and should rouse his respect for it and for the laborer. The direct\noutcome of the industrial plea was the establishment of a number of\nso-called \"manual-labor schools,\" equipped to give certain elements of\nindustrial training.\nBoth the drawing and the shop schools date back a generation. Introduced to the school system from without, they naturally could experience\nno quiet and uneventful development. As adventitious elements their\nexistence was bound to be questioned and combated. The drawing languished, and the manual-labor schools themselves died in the fierce flame\nof educational criticism against the introduction of industrial aims in\nelementary teaching.\nBefore, however, the intermediate grades had experienced the full force\nof these perturbing charges, other factors had appeared in the problem.\nFroebel, with keen insight into the phases of child-growth, had in the\nkindergarten made a system in which symbolism centered about motor\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nVERSUS\n\nMANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n659\n\nprocesses, while the technical institute, with strictly utilitarian ends in\nview, had risen to supply the demand for the trained artificer, and had\nmade haste to adopt a scheme of instruction aimed to give direct knowledge of constructive methods thru formal exercises. This scheme\npowerfully affected the constructive work of the elementary school.\nIn the grades the constant iteration of the plea for hand- and eyetraining served in time to secure for certain of the forms of motor work a\nmodest foothold, but one so precarious that every flurry of financial\nstringency or curriculum reform served to make its advocates tremble with\napprehension. The new subjects, with their contributions of skill and\nartistry, stood alone in a course of study dominated by the R's. In this\ncurriculum each study was pursued for its own sake, and each was highly\nspecialized. Under the circumstances it was not surprising that the\nmanual branches were formalized from the start, and that so root-bound\nthey soon showed signs of arrested development. The methods of the\ntechnical school resembled much more closely those of the grades than\ndid the free practice of the kindergarten ; the manual work, therefore,\ninstead of ramifying upward from the earliest years along the lines of\nchild-growth, grew from above downward along other lines designed for\nthe training of the young mechanic or engineer.\nManual-training ideals thus took their color from technical ideals.\nThe practice exercise was early made the rule, and the work in construc-\n\n^^\n^K\n^B\n^H.\n^B\n^B\n^K\n^K\n\nI.\n\n^B\n^K\n^B\n\ntion was looked upon by its teachers as done for construction's sake.\nDrawing and design were sirnilarly developed. Examining the older\nmethods, one finds thruout the same formaHty and the same effort to\nemploy in the lower grades processes suitable only to students of mature\nyears. Everywhere practice exercises appear separated from their applications; squares and triangles are drawn — the dry chips of geometric\nprocedure; and side by side prim designs are made, but for no specific\npurpose. Insular and apart, such work in the training of hand and eye\nfailed to make evident its developmental and culture value. It lacked\nvital interest in all its forms. Its disciplinary elements were employed to\nthe exclusion of its human elements. Technical knowledge was given\nwithout conscious power to direct it to useful ends.\nAlmost within the last decade an entire change has taken place in the\neducational\nsituation.\nThe philosophy\nof elementary\neducation\nhas\nseen some of its chapters revised and some rewritten.\nMotor training\nhas received recognition in such form as to establish the subjects which\nrepresent it on a very different footing before the educational tribunal.\nSuch change of ideas in regard to the function of the elementary school\nhas already markedly affected the curriculum and the mutual relations of\nthe subjects in it. In the language of D^. Dewey, '* the center of gravity has\nbeen shifted from the curriculum to the child.\" Upon the child's instincts\nthe course must be founded, and about his interests it must revolve.\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nMotor education must clearly become a part of general education, and\npreparation and realization in school studies be brought close together.\nThis is in measure but a restatement of the philosophy of the kindergarten. The very present, indeed, is witnessing in motor training a reversal\nof that process of downward development from the technical school to\nan upward development from the kindergarten. Manual-training ideals\nhave necessarily been much affected by these changes. The necessity of\ngreater unity and vitality in the related branches has become urgent. The\npast has seen the different motor branches separated and unrelated, with\nthe emphasis in each upon technique. The present demands a greater\nvariety of materials and far more intimate relations between the drawing,\nconstruction, and design, which are seen to be but means to a common\nend.\nManual training in the past has been construed too literally. It has\nmeant just what it says — hand-training, sensory training, the practice of\nsome form of constructive work designed to give muscular co-ordination.\nFor the great majority of teachers and for the public at large it has meant\nbut shop-work — the handling of certain tools and the making of certain\nprescribed exercises. Too often the special teachers by their attitude\nhave served to strengthen this view. They have aided to segregate their\nsubject, whatever form it took, by their emphasis upon its technique.\nTheir aim has been the perfect model, and the thing made, whether\nuseful article or mere practice exercise, has appeared as a requirement,\nwith the child's relation to it formal — a model produced at command\nand not by virtue of a real peed ; a model, the product of the child's hand,\nnot of his brain.\nWe are now thinking ourselves away from this view of manual training\nas a schooling in any special practice, toward one which conceives it as a\n\"principle,\" or what might almost be termed a \"mode,\" of education;\none which looks to see the child given, thru his desires, an opportunity to\nexpress himself constructively and to develop clear notions of his relations\nto his surroundings.\nThe term \"manual training\" has, however, been so long identified\nwith formal practice that as a term it cannot now be divorced from such\ninterpretation. It has meant constructive work alone, has meant special\ntraining rather than general training, has disregarded the aesthetic side,\nand has aimed to give schooling in processes rather than to respond to the\nchild's first instincts to build and decorate. As a term \" manual training \"\nis narrow and insufhcient. In default of a better, each who employs it,\nrecognizing its restrictions, feels it necessary to assert that it does not\nmean what it says, \"hand-training,\" but something far broader. For\nthe rewritten creed there should be a new name. \" Motor training *'\nwould, indeed, be a better term ; but better still would be one which\nincludes all possible practice in the arts — one which recognizes require-\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nVERSUS\n\nMANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n66 1\n\nments aesthetic as well as constructive. Manual training must become\ntraining in the manual arts.\nAs a broad title the manual arts should include all forms of drawing,\nconstruction, and design which may be taught. The term recognizes the\nintimate relationship which exists between the subjects named and sees\nthem as definite educational means working toward the common educational end. Defining in a general way the different branches, it at once\nemphasizes both the motor and artistic elements in their performance.\nDrawing the arts regard not as a special training, schooling the\nhand and eye to dexterity in reproduction: over and above its manual\nvalue it stands as a medium of expression in the illustrative work of the\nlittle child and in the nature sketch or the plan of his older brother. To\nthe younger pupil it is a form of language — a picture writing, a cursive\nscript, in which he clearly mirrors back the ideas he has gained in the\nform in which such ideas have been pictured in his mind.\nTo the older pupils such drawing should be made of constant service.\nThe illustrations in science lessons must not be made for illustration's\nsake, but because they are facts of form and proportion to be remembered ;\nthe plans not made as mere exercises with the T-square and ruler, but\nbecause such plans are needed for the constructed model which is to\nfollow. And the model itself must stand as the definite center around\nwhich the dozen lessons in planning, construction, and decoration must\nrevolve.\nWhat shall the nature of the model be and what its material ? Such\nquestions can be answered only in the light of the conditions which\nprevail in any given locality. It is to be made plain that the manual arts\ndo not contemplate any uniform series of models to be repeated in a\ndozen different cities, or even in a dozen different schools of the same\ncity. The form to be made in each case should be one which rises out of\nthe real need of that particular class-room. The associated lessons in\nfree-hand drawing, in mechanical drawing, in color, and in constructive\nand applied design, will then have direct points of application. To the\nteacher with the constructive point of view the range of such models is\nextensive. Furnishings for the school may be made, pieces of apparatus,\nand scores of that host of lighter appurtenances — note-books, covers,\nportfolios, and the like — which every class-room must have. Other\nforms may serve to make clear, the historical development of industries\nwhich the child reviews in his study of the rise of the race from the forest\ndwellers to the people of great cities, or may serve as useful household\narticles to introduce the child to the fruitful field of home industries and\nto the minor crafts. The teacher impressed with the value of the arts\nwill thruout her daily work seek for opportunities for motor expression,\nand will feel no satisfaction for any lesson which may be so emphasized\nuntil it has been made a constructive as well as a mental memory.\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe materials in the arts should be varied. The child should learn\nhis power of control over many plastic and pliable things, over many\nthings which may be cut and shaped — string, yarn, clay, raffia, paper,\nleather, wood, and thin metal. The occupations offered should be typical.\nGiven the occasion for any form, it should if possible be m.ade then, that\nit may lend its aid in giving to the child the constructive point of view.\n\"Every good occupation,\" says Dr. Hall ''should be curricularized.\"\nEvery model should\" show to the child the relation of plan and design to\nfinished form, and as his power of appreciation grows, every form should\nreveal to him the possibilities of its refinement in obedience to the laws\nof taste. The search for beauty in the arts is one of the roads whereby\nthey lead to culture.\nTaught thus with a common purpose and without undue emphasis\nupon technical ends, the arts act and react to mutual advantage. Ability\nto draw and to plan is seen to lie at the basis of construction, while the\nlaws of beauty speak in every well-planned form about us. The arts\nregard the desire for beauty as instinctive — a passion to adorn. Thru\nsuch instinct they would lead the child to learn the laws of fitness of form\nand decoration, and to see such laws as they appear in the fine painting\nor in the lowly form of daily use. The arts should be conceived as\nrepresenting but varying phases of one idea. They are not to be\ndissociated, not to be betrayed from their position as indispensable\nmediating agents between the child, his studies, and the social life about\nhim. As co-ordinate and co-ordinating forces their value may be stated\nin definite terms for pupil, teacher, curriculum, and school.\nFor the pupil they are primarily \"developmental\" in that they offer\nto him from his earliest years most valuable media for self-expression —\nmedia so adaptable that, at each change in his point of view from infancy\nto adulthood, they stand ready to respond to his desires to investigate, to\nfashion, and to adorn ; media so potent that at each higher level which\nhe reaches in consciousness they reveal to him broader knowledge of his\nown powers and keener insight into the activities of the world about him.\nThe arts present in the forms made elements of direct use and permanency ;\nthey practically acquaint the child with the laws of beauty as they enter\ninto the structure and decoration of things for use ; they offer activities\nwhich school him to habits of neatness, independence, and mental and\nmanual discipline; they -present instruments thru which he may be given\nknowledge and stimulus which cannot be conveyed in any other way.\nAs vehicles they serve to convey him on the road from social endeavor to\nthe domain of social experience. They seek to create in him, with a\nvaried ability, a power to see constructively — to realize, that is — the\nagents, the tools, the plans, and the processes which have built and are\nbuilding the world about him. They place him as a worker in the world,\nnot as a spectator. They quicken his sympathy and his interests. They\naid to make the school less school and more life.\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentj .\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nl/^ERSUS MANUAL\n\nARTS\n\n663\n\nFor the teacher the arts, when comprehended, act as a liberating\nagent. She gains the power to shape the details of the course of study.\nWith personal initiative for the child comes the possibility of personal initiative for herself, in the adaptation of the drawing, construction,\nand design to the development of her class work in a dozen different\nsubjects. To the teacher the arts give a direct method of approach to\nthe child ; they offer a disciplinary agent controlled by interest and of\nunrivaled power. In regenerative work — in reclaiming the dull, the\nbackward, the truant irked with learning without doing — the arts have\nno peer in the studies of the class-room. In their practice the child\nbecomes a willing co-operator, who may be called upon for suggestion\nboth for problems and for their solutions. Mutual interests breed -sympathy. The arts become a bond between the teacher and the taught.\nSuch sympathy is gained in no other way. They cause the teacher who\nrealizes their value to seek constantly for relations between learning and\ndoing; or better, for opportunities to teach thru doing. Insensibly,\nunconsciously, the teacher who has grasped this vitalizing principle\nbecomes broad and yet broader in her point of view. She sees her work\nfrom without as well as from within. Self-activity on her part becomes as\nnecessary as on the part of the child. She becomes much more truly a\nstudent of the child and of his education.\nIn the elementary curriculum the arts stand as a center and startingpoint, from which the child can proceed by way of his immediate interests to his immediate surroundings. Relating themselves as well to work\nin number, language, or nature study, they serve as a flux to weld the\nprimary curriculum into one common whole. The educational philosophy\nwhich preaches the arts preaches the child as the motive force in the curriculum. It offers, in place of an imperfect system of correlation, a\ndefinite scheme of work based on the pupil's mental processes and on the\ndevelopment of his mental powers — a distinct and comprehensive scheme\nin which the different subjects jointly aid in giving to the pupil that\ncomposite view of the world which he is at the moment prepared to\nreceive. The arts would introduce the direct, the objective, methods\nof science-teaching to the pupil ; would make the schoolroom itself a\nlaboratory where plans would be thought out and experiments tried; would\ncultivate the child's active, not passive, attitude ; and would transform the\nclass-room from a place of listening and rigidity to a place of doing and\nactivity. Thruout childhood and adolescence they would seek in every\nway to be identified with the child's life; only when thus identified can\ntheir peculiar functions be made of highest service.\nTwo broad and general deductions may be drawn from the foregoing :the first, that the successful development of the arts depends upon\ntheir natural growth in the curriculum ; the second, that they must not\nbe confined to the schoolroom, but must become part of the life and\nactivities of the child — must, in other words, pass over into the home.\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIn thus passing from the school into the home, the arts will help\nto bridge the inevitable gulf between the two. In our modern city\nlife the school would seek to usurp many functions of the home. It\nwould not only train the child to labor, but would now also essay\nto train him to play. The play spirit like the work spirit grows best\nin an atmosphere of freedom. The arts respond to the play spirit —\nthey represent pleasure in labor. The best freedom of the school is\nrestricted when compared with the more perfect freedom of the home.\nKeener individuality is to be developed in the latter — a fuller realization of independence and self-help. The arts in the home become\nmore closely identified with the inner life of the child — the life the\nteacher can see as but thru a glass, darkly. The home suggests a hundred problems scarce visible in the atmosphere of the schoolroom. To\nthe child each of these is of vivid interest. The arts taken over into the\nhome serve to link the school life to the family life ; the class-room stands\nthem for no drill-room, but for a place wherein desired knowledge of\nplan and process is to be gained. Taken over into the home, the arts\nlend distinct aid in making education in school and out one continuous\nprocess.\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION. — Wednesday, July 8, 1903\n\nThe first meeting of the department was held Wednesday morning, July 8, at 9 :30\no'clock, in joint session with the Manual Training and Elementary Departments, Mr.\nCharles F. Warner, president of the Manual Training Department, presiding.\nThe topic for the morning was \" The Relation of Art Teaching to Manual Training\nand Industrial Training.\"\nFor the full program and minutes of the joint session see minutes of the Department\nof Manual Training.\nAt the close of the joint session Miss Clara A. Wilson, president of the Department\nof Art Education, announced the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nMiss Bonnie E. Snow, of Minnesota.\nMiss Alice Hipp, of Nebraska.\nWaher S. Goodnough, of New York.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nMiss Josephine Littig, of New York.\nMrs. M. E. Riley, of Missouri.\nCharles M. Carter, of Colorado.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 10\n\nThe second meeting of the department was held in the New Old South Church and\nwas called to order at 9 : 30 A. M., President Clara A. Wilson, of Davenport, la.,\npresiding.\nAfter the opening remarks by the president, Denman Waldo Ross, lecturer on the\ntheory of design. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., read a paper on \" The Teaching\nof Art.\"\nThe reading of the paper was followed by questions and discussions.\nMiss Bonnie E. Snow, supervisor of drawing, Minneapolis, Minn., read a paper on\n\"Considerations for a Practical Study of Drawing in Public Schools,\" which was\ndiscussed by Charles M. Carter, director of art, city schools, Denver, Colo. ; Solon P.\nDavis, director of art, city schools, Hartford, Conn.; and William. A. Mason, director of\nart, city schools, Philadelphia, Pa.\nUnder the order of business, the report of the Committee on Nominations was\npresented as follows :\nMass.\n\nFor President — James\n\nFrederick Hopkins, director of art instruction, public schools, Boston,\n\nFor Vice-President— ChaxlciS M. Carter, director of art instruction, public schools, Denver, Colo.\nFor Secretary — Miss Lillian Cushman, instructor in art, School of Education, University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111.\nFor Member of the Executive Committee for term expiring July, 1906 — Miss Clara A Wilson, supervisor of drawing, Davenport, la.\n\n665\n\nThe report of the committee was accepted, and the secretary instructed to cast the\nballot of the department in favor of the persons n^inated. The ballot was so cast, and\nthe officers were declared elected.\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nPresident-elect Hopkins, being called upon, responded in a graceful speech, cordially\naccepting the office to which he had been elected.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions, thanking those participating in the\nprogram as well as the various bodies that had assisted in the proceedings, was read and,\non motion, adopted.\nThe following resolution was then offered by President James Frederick Hopkins:\nResolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be respectfully petitioned\nto confirm the appointment and provide appropriations for the Committee of Five to be appointed by the\npresident of the Art Department of the National Educational Association to investigate and report upon the\nfollowing fields :\n1. To investigate, tabulate results, and report upon the courses of study of the art schools offering\napplied art training («) in Europe, {h) in this country.\n2. To investigate, tabulate results, and report upon the centers of art-industrial production {a) in\nEurope, {b) in this country.\n3. To offer such suggestions as to schools, courses of study, national direction, and annual exhibitions\nas shall serve to arouse public interest and provide remunerative fields in art industries for the youth of\nAmerica.\n\nThe resolution was adopted by a unanimous vote.\nThere being no other business, the president, Miss Clara A. Wilson, declared the\nmeeting adjourned.\nWilliam H. Vogel, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nDENMAN\n\nWALDO\n\nROSS,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS'\n\nTEACHING\n\nLECTURER\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nOF ART\nTHEORY\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nOF\n\nDESIGN,\n\nHARVARD\n\nMASS.\n\nI am here, as a teacher, to talk to you about teaching — the teaching\nof art. What is art ? It is our struggle for existence ; it is the effort we\nmake to convert our needs, our desires, our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and\nideals into realities. Art is all that. Art is, therefore, the expression of\nlife ; and the arts are the many and various modes, the ways, means, and\nmethods, of our thought and activity. Our thoughts find their definition,\nas well as their expression, in the terms of art. Take art and the arts out\nof our life, and it becomes a sequence of vague emotions, of formless\nsensations. Life without art — we see it in the mere impulse, the dull\nhabits, the automatic activities of the lower creatures. Art is, therefore,\nnot only the expression of life, it is very nearly life itself. It is certainly all that makes life interesting and worth living. It is a mirror in\nwhich we look for all the wisdom and all the inspiration of life. It is the\nmeans by which all our purposes are fulfilled, all our ends achieved, all\nour ideals realized.\n\"The papers contributed by this department to the joint session with the Departments\nof Elementary Education and Manual Training are so closely related to manual training that they are printed in connection with the papers of that department.\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF ART\n\n667\n\nIt will be best for us, however, to consider life as distinct from art, and\nto regard art as the expression of life — life's work, life's achievement.\nTake anything that anyone has done in gymnastics, in music, in language, in construction, modeling, or carving, in drawing or painting, in\nany of the arts ; anything that anybody has done or said, worked out or\nthought out, and you will find in it two elements ; the motive which\nrepresents the life of it, and the performance, which represents the\nart of it. It is very important that the motive, representing the life,\nand the performance, representing the art, should not be confounded.\nIt often happens that the motive is good when the performance or art is\nbad, and it often happens that the performance is good when the motive\nis bad. We all know how frequently people fail to do well, fail to succeed, when they have the best intentions in the world, simply because they\ncannot do the thing they have undertaken to do. They are ignorant of\nthe materials perhaps, or the tools. The right method is unknown to\nthem.\n\nThey have no knowledge, or insufficient knowledge, of the principles of design. So they fail, because they have not mastered the art.\nOn the other hand, we often find an achievement of art in work which is\n\nnot only without value, but adverse to human interests — injurious, even\ndestructive, in its tendency. We might say of a thief ; his plan was\nadmirable and admirably carried out; what he did was really a work of\nart, a masterpiece, tho he was afterward put in prison. We might\nsay of a murder that it was planned, designed, and executed with\nconsummate skill, with the very finest art, tho the artist was afterward\nhanged for it. He was hanged, not as an artist, but as a bad man. He\nwas hanged because the motive of his work was so bad, not because he did\nhis work so well. In other cases it happens that art gives a value to work\nwhich has no other, as when Ching-Ling-Foo, the Chinese juggler, waves\na silk handkerchief in the air, turns a somersault, and rises before us with\na large basin brimful of water — to our perfect astonishment. The whole\nvalue of such work lies in the manner of doing it — so perfect, so\nwonderful.\nWhat we value in any work of art, apart from its motive — its use, its\ntruth, its righteousness — is the design of it, which is revealed in its performance. By\"design\" I mean the form in which the work is achieved,\nthe terms or materials used, the arrangement of the terms or materials,\nthe composition and connection of the parts, the relation of the parts to\nthe whole, the organic unity of the whole. There is a certain work which\nyou propose to do. How is it to be done ? What plan are you going to\nfollow ? You know what you want to do. Let us say that it is something\nnecessary, or useful, or true, or right, or beautiful. There lies your motive,\nand it is a good one, but the problem of following the motive of\nachieving the thing technically, remains. That is the problem of design.\nThe problem of design is the problem of art.\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nI find this passage in Plato : \"The artist disposes all things in order,\nand compels one part to harmonize and accord with the other, until he\nhas constructed a regular and systematic whole; and this is true of all\nartists.\"^ The idea of design is well expressed also by Walter Pater in the\nphrase: ''The rational control of matter everywhere.'\"' Reason, regularity, order, system, unity, harmony — when we are able to bring these\nelements into our work we are designers and artists. Without these ele-'\nments our work has only the value of its motive or purpose; it has no\nvalue as art. To teach what is necessary, what is useful, what is true, what\nis right, what is beautiful — that means teaching science, philosophy, the\nwisdom of life. To teach people how to yield to necessity properly and\ngracefully, how to produce what is useful, how to speak what is true, how\nto do what is right or beautiful — that is the teaching of art. The teaching of science, philosophy, and the wisdom of life is one thing; the\nteaching of art, another; but they must never be separated. We must\nnever teach people what to do without at the same time teaching them\nhow to do it, unless we wish them to become mere critics, calling upon\nother people to do what they cannot do themselves. Nor do we wish our\npupils to become actors without a motive, or performers without a purpose.\nIt is a grave mistake to give men motives without power or power without\nmotives. It is a mistake we have made ; and, as a result of it, we find in\nour community a so-called educated class monopolizing all the motives of\nscience and philosophy, and a working class with all the power, all the\ntechnical knowledge and technical skill, that lies in art and the arts ; and\nthese two classes have but little association, but little sympathy, with one\nanother. Idealism, with its love of righteousness, truth, and beauty, and\nits technical ability — the two elements which go to make up the artist and\nthe artistic life — are separated; so much so that they cannot act together\nas they ought to. The problem of education is to bring them together\nand keep them together. We must give our pupils the finest possible\nimpulses, the highest possible ideals, but with the impulses the ability to\nfollow them, with the ideals the power to realize them. That is the problem of teaching, whether in the school, in the college, or in the university.^\nAs I understand it, the purpose of all teaching is twofold : to give to\nthe child, to the youth, fine impulses and high ideals, and with them the\ntechnical ability, thru technical training, to follow his impulses and to\nconvert his ideals into realities. We have been too well satisfied in the\npast when we have given to the student merely an impulse or an abstract\nideal. The side of technical training has been disregarded and neglected.\nWe are beginning, however, to realize its importance, and are now giving\nto technical training the place it ought to have in our system of education.\nI Gorgtas, Jowett cd., II, p. 383,\n\n2 Greek Studies, p. 233.\n\n3 An article of some length oii this subject by the author of this paper will be found in the January (1903)\nmimber of Handicraft;\npublished by the Society of Arts and Crafts, 14 Somerset street, Boston.\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nART\n\n669\n\nConsider the principal or typical arts, with which all the arts of life\nare more or less closely connected — gymnastics, music, speech, \"construction, modeling, carving, painting. Taking each one of them, let us work\nout for it a system of instruction and training which will give, first, the\nknowledge of the terms, whatever they are ; secondly, exercises in the use\nof the terms; thirdly, a thoro knowledge of the practice of the great masters; fourthly, exercises in original composition with the idea of exercising\ntogether the power of imagination and the power ot expression.\nI know it will be argued that, considering the short period of childhood and youth, the short period which we can devote to education,\nit will be impossible to carry out this plan which I propose: to teach\neven the principal arts in such a very complete and thoro way. I dare\nsay, or rather it goes without saying, that we shall not succeed in doing\nthis at once ; but if we decide that it ought to be done, that it is the right\nthing to do, it will be done, and, in due time, well done. Nothing so\nfundamental, so comprehensive, so far-reaching as this is to be accomplished in any short period of time. It may take us a hundred years to\norganize and perfect such a system of teaching, but that is a very short\ntime in the course of the ages. If we can be sure that the system proposed isthe right system, we must go to work and establish it, no matter\nhow much time it takes. The more energy we put into the work, the\nmore intelligence we exert in it, the more money we are willing to spend\nfor, it, the sooner we shall bring our work to its^nd — if, indeed, there is\nan end to any such work. As we approach the horizon which we have\nconsidered the end, other horizons will appear which we cannot now\nsee; and so our progress will be a progress without end. The only\nthing to worry about is that what we are trying to do should be the\nright thing to do ; for if it is not the right thing,\" we shall be spending\nthe energy, the intelligence, and the resources of life in vain ; we shall be\nturning the forces of life in wrong directions in which they will be wasted\nand come to naught.\nWhat I propose for consideration is this : to give to all men, so far as\nwe can, the knowledge and understanding of life as a whole, of its principal modes of activity, of the best thought that has been expressed in\nthese modes ; a knowledge of the world's finest impulses and highest\nideals, so that our motives may be the right ones, our aims the best ; and\nwith this knowledge, which we may call the wisdom of life, we must give\nwhat I have called the power of life — the power which lies in art and\nthe arts to follow our impulses and to realize our ideals. Thucydides says\nof the Greeks (in the funeral oration of Pericles) that \"they had the\nsingular power of thinking before acting, and of acting too.\" That is\nwhat we want, as the outcome of our teaching. We do not want an\nmpotent idealism, but a potent one. We want all that idealism means —\ndiscrimination, right judgment, high standards; but, more than that, the\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nability, the power, to achieve our ideals technically. Then we may expect\nto reg-lize them, when the philosopher goes to work and the workingman\nbecomes a philosopher.\n[Dr. Ross then described, at some length, his teaching at Harvard as a specific illustration ofthe method to be followed in the teaching of art : \" Not what I really do, but\nwhat I try to do ; my motive, not my performance.\" ]\n\nCONSIDERATION\n\nMISS\n\nBONNIE\n\nE.\n\nFOR A PRACTICAL STUDY\nIN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nSNOW, SUPERVISOR\nMINNEAPOLIS,\n\nOF DRAWING,\nMINN.\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nCITY\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe study of art will come in time to be considered by all educators\nas a subject not less important than the study of literature. Theoretically,\nit is now so considered by many, but no one has as yet possessed the\ncourage or the ability to organize upon that basis a school supported by\npublic funds. Friends of the new education are loud in proclaiming in\nassemblies like this, thru the educational press, and upon the lecture platform their belief in the prophecy that the school of the future will provide\nintellectual pursuits for half the time of the daily program, and industrial\nand artistic training for fhe other half; but these friends go back to their\nexecutive and official positions and do little toward bringing about a realization of their eloquently expressed hopes. The influence of tradition is\nstronger within us than is faith in our own convictions. We are afraid.\nWe know that the older conception of education made it the more valuable\nin proportion to its remoteness from ordinary life. Going to school and\nto college in the past has been an intellectual and a moral discipline. We\nare fond of saying now that the highest aim of man is to realize his faculties in acts, and we know that the education which enables him to do this\nis best. We know that the teaching of art in its true sense has a greater\ninfluence upon practical life than the teaching of mathematics; yet we lift\nno protesting voice when the program in the universal common school\nprovides, not only a daily recitation in number, but a daily study period\nas well. We see to it that she who is to teach reading knows how to read,\nand we should consider it the height of the ridiculous for one not versed\nin number to attempt to give instruction in that science ; yet we are\npassive when confronted by the teacher who knows nothing of art, yet who\nwould essay to initiate others into its mysteries.\nThe teacher of art sees, for instance, an elaborate and thoroly up-todate system of geographies, profusely illustrated, carefully graded, and\nfurnished with addenda of maps, globes, sand tables, and all the rest,\ncheerfully provided for all children in the graded schools.\nThere are,\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF\n\nDRAWING\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n671\n\ntoo, a daily recitation and a daily study period for geography. Yet we\nbelieve that the study of art is not of less importance than a knowledge of\nthe earth's surface. The school board that would fail to provide a system\nof readers — or a course in literature, as it is now called — for children\nfrom the entering room thru all the grades to the high school would be\ncalled derelict or behind the. times; but the teacher of art must content\nhimself with such scrappy material as he can glean from libraries, museums, books, and magazines, and the wonderful wilderness of nature. Yet\nwe of the faith believe that the study of art, with all that it involves, is\nequal in importance to the study of English.\nThe proper test for any subject permitted on the school program is\nits effect upon the child and its attitude toward it. In the light of our\nexperience, handicapped as we have been by meager equipment, short\nperiods of recitation time, and insufficient preparation on the part of the\nteacher, proof that drawing with its related art work has stood this test is\noverwhelming. But it will never be placed upon its proper footing until\nteachers of art demand and receive for their subject equal recognition\nwith branches that are indicated in the epithet \" the three R's.\" Such\nrecognition will mean :\n1. As thoro preparation in drawing on the part of the grade teacher as is now required\nin English or mathematics.\n2. A complete equipment of art text-books — not books in which the drawings of\nchildren are to be placed, but books containing lessons to be learned, related reading matter, beautiful pictures in color and tone by the best artists, and any other material helpful\nto the cause, which is now supplied, if at all, by the supervisor, at an undue expense of\nlife, energy, and money.\n3. Much additional material in the way of portfolios of fine examples of work from\nthe masters, past and present, from the world of architecture, sculpture, and craftsmanship, and from the best designers and illustrators of our day.\n4. A daily recitation period, varied in length to suit the age of the child, and in all\ngrades where such time would be of advantage, a daily study period.\n\nIs this asking too much ? Not if we believe, as we say we do, that\nAmerica is not only to be the leader in all departments of industrial life,\nbut is also to be the scene of a great artistic movement, the outcome of a\nnatural form of democratic life under modern conditions, and of a national\nappreciation of the value and beauty of aesthetic ideals and artistic work.\nThe art teachers of this country are not as yet a very numerous body,\nbut they cherish high ideals and can wield a mighty influence for good in\nthe direction of the educational work of today. In spite of unfavorable\nconditions surrounding the teaching of drawing and related subjects in\nmost localities, I believe that art teachers have a sounder philosophical\nand psychological basis for their work than has yet come to any other class\nof workers in the educational field. If w^ mia^ht only realize a little more\nfully our ideals! I do not forget, in thus harping upon our deficiencies,\nthe good that has come into the education of the common people thru\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfArt\n\nwhat may be called the art impulse. I know that schoolrooms are today\nmore beautiful ; that the architecture of the schoolhouse is improved ;\nthat we pay more attention to the beautifying of our school grounds ;\nthat school gardens of interesting flora are becoming a necessity; that\nschoolbooks grow daily more attractive and inviting because of improved\nillustrations, binding, and text arrangements; that the whole world of\nbeautiful nature has been opened up to the children very largely thru the\ninfluence of the art teacher and his paint-box; that the whole movement\nfor industrial education and manual training has been put upon a living\nbasis because of its union with art principles; that millions of homes in\nour land have felt the uplifting influence of the love of all things beautiful developed in the children; and all this, I know, is directly traceable\nto the teaching of art, poor as it has been, in our public schools. It\nis because I believe so fully in the greatness of art that I plead for a\nfuller recognition of its power from those who have the shaping of\ncourses of study and the apportionment of time in the arrangement of the\ndaily program.\nThe art teacher of today has much to consider in laying out the work\nof eight different years to be carried on simultaneously in the different\ngrades. He must bear in mind the needs and desires of the children ;\nthe limitations of the regular teacher, upon whom, in great measure, he\nmust necessarily depend ; the meager equipment as to materials he deems\nto be absolutely essential to successful work; the short and infrequent\nperiods of recitations or class time; and the absence of any suitable textbook to be put in the hands of the children for definite study of\nprinciples. Remembering all this, he must be true to his artistic ideals\nand aspirations. These conditions must be met, and in a measure overcome, before anything like successful results can be obtained. His course\nof study must be such as will command the interest and respect of the\ngrade teacher. She must be willing, by study and practice, to overcome\nin some degree the deficiencies of her own education in this regard. She\nmust feel that she is indeed the teacher of drawing, coming in direct\ntouch with the children themselves. She must be led to value its\ninfluence upon the children and to depend upon it as an indispensable\nfactor in their general development of mind and soul. The art teacher\nmust, therefore, not only possess opinions which will be respected by his\nconfreres and superiors in the general work of supervision, but he must\npossess the ability to shape opinions, and to carry his points, because of\nhis belief in the dignity and greatness of the work which he is fortunate\nenough to represent.\nWith the interest and co-operation of the grade teacher, the principal,\nand the superintendent, a more flexible program may be secured, and\nperhaps a more nearly just apportionment of time. School boards are\nbecoming more generous in the provision of books, papers, pictures, and\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n673\n\nStill-life material ; and if the right system of text-books ever does come\nto light, there is hope that purchasers will not be found wanting.\nIf my dreams could be realized in this respect, I would make those art\nbooks the most beautiful schoolbooks that ever were published. They\nshould be eight in number — one for each of the eight grades below the\nhigh school. The books should contain no blank pages for the\nchildren's drawings; these should be placed on separate sheets of paper\nof ideal quality and tint. The book for the little folks in first year should\nbe a combination picture-book and primer. There would be in beautiful\ncolor the first presentation of the landscape — blue sky, green field, the\ndistant line of hazy foliage, the big tree or quiet pool in the foreground.\nThe brief text accompanying the pictures should be of such simple\nnature and interesting style that the *' A ist\" child could read it, as from\na delightful story-book. There would be illustrations in color and tone\nof flowers and fruits, birds and insects, toys and objects of childish\ninterest, pictures of the human figure, in mass, in line, in color, expressing\nthe games and occupations dear to the childish heart. There should be\npictures of cats and dogs and rabbits and squirrels. There should be a\nfew lessons in geometry — yes, even in the first grade — illustrating ideas\nof form and shape, me'asures of distance, and names of certain conventions so cunningly related to fascinating exercise in modeling and making\nthat the understanding of the term and the learning of the name would\nbecome a natural and inevitable outcome of the lesson. I would begin\n— yes, in the first grade — the first simple lessons in pure design, drawing\nupon my knowledge of the child-mind and childish interest to help me\nin guiding his dawning sense of rhythm, balance, and harmony. In this\nfirst-year book I would have bright-colored illustrations of Indian pottery,\nrugs, and blankets, and pictures of primitive looms. I would photograph\nprocesses of modeling, weaving, and making, so that I might make vivid\nthe imagination and bring to it a wealth of suggestion.\nThe text-books of the other grades should be modeled after a similar\npattern. I would introduce by precept and illustration the more difficult\nand technical lessons as the years progressed. There should be an eightyear course in the subjects so familiar to us all — in landscape, flowers\nand fruits, birds, animals and insects, the human figure, still-life and\nperspective, light and atmosphere, geometry and design, and construction. In this last I should affiliate all my art principles, as far as possible,\nin the making of things, and in the study of things not possible to make\nin the schoolroom. Thruout my whole course there should be shown\nexamples from the masters, both classic and modern, in connection with\nthe various steps in the development of the subject.\nWithin the limits of a twenty-minute^aper it is impossible to be more\nthan general in suggestions bearing upon a topic so broad. In the past\nwe have been narrow in our methods of presenting art principles.\nWe\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nhave been bound by the letter, and not sufficiently imbued with the spirit.\nWe have felt that the teaching of representation, for instance, was a\ndistinct division by itself, and that its principles had little to do with the\nprinciples of design. We could trace a relationship, it is true, between\nthe study of objects and the study of perspective, and lately we have\nendeavored to dignify our objective work from nature, life, and the world\nof manufacture, by uniting it with the consideration of what we have\ncalled composition. But it has remained for Dr. Ross and Mr. Dow to\nshow us that the great mass of objective material which we have handled\nso confusedly and with so much awkwardness and misunderstanding is\ngoverned by very simple but very comprehensive laws, so that we have\ncome to see that it does not so very greatly matter whether we study landscape or still-life, or model drawing or construction, so long as we\nrecognize the unity of the laws which govern all these different manifestations. Can you imagine any art subject which cannot be submitted to\nthe consideration (i) as to its measure in space, (2) as to its shape in\nspace, (3) as to its position in space, (4) as to its tone value in space ?\nLet us express it in common terms : Every element presented by the\nlandscape, every object, every manifestation of distance, light, and\natmosphere, every problem in perspective, design, 'or construction, can be\nstudied in the light of these simple considerations. What is the space\nin which I am to place this thing ? What shape is this thing ? What is\nits position in relation to me, and to the other elements under consideration ? What is its tone ?\nAn understanding of the principles of design should permeate and\ninfluence the presentation of every division of the great subject of art.\nIn the past we have thought of design as affecting decoration only. How\ndifferent is our understanding of the idea today ! Design used to mean\nto us little else but some expression of ornament, historic or mode,rn.\nNow design means conception, purpose, production. We need to study\nnature, not less but more than formerly, but in the light of clearer\nconception, stronger purpose, and with the thought of its influence in the\ncreation of beauty. We need to study the representation of objects, in\nall the interesting detail of form, color, arrangement, and expression, not\nas ends in themselves, but in order that we may learn to look upon\nthe world of things as subject to laws of order and beauty. We need to\nknow more of geometry, to dig into its wonderful harmonies, and to see\nthere revealed the marvelous manifestations of law and order — indispensable factors in the creation of beauty. Emerson declared that he studied\ngeology that he might better write poetry. We cannot dispense with\nconstructive work in which design — that is, conception, purpose, and\ncreation ^is evidenced in concrete form; but here again we must not\nconfuse the end with the means. The making of things is not for the\npurpose of glorifying things, but to the end that the faculties of creative\nimagination may find opportunity for development and growth.\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nPR A CTICAL\n\nSTUD\n\nV OF DRA\n\nWING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n675\n\nMany interesting questions present themselves to the practical teacher.\nA \"round-table \" discussion as to the actual ways and means of presenting art principles to children of various ages is sure to be helpful. As the\nrequest for this paper was accompanied by the very pointed suggestion\nthat it be made as practical as possible, I will tell you how the work is\ncarried out in the particular field of my own operations, not because I consider the plan there evolved to be of especial merit, but because it may\nserve as a basis for definite discussion.\nWe begin in all grades with the study of the landscape. The little\nchildren learn in these very elementary exercises the use of water color,\nin simple washes, by dictation. Those older express different moods and\naspects of nature, and study various elements in the landscape, such as\ntrees, roads, rivers, houses, etc., according to their ability. They work\nfrom suggestive illustrations, from imagination and memory, and from\nnature. In the upper grades a large part of this landscape work is done\nin pencil and in flat tones of color. Pupils are taught in the fourth grade\nto use \"finders,\" and below that the teacher fosters the idea of composition by the judicious use of various shapes and sizes of paper. Charcoal\nmass and pencil outlines are also used as media in the various grades in\nconnection with landscape study. More time is devoted to landscape in\nthe lower grades than in the upper.\nFall flowers and plants must be used while the season offers them, and\nwe try to practice our own preaching in the effort to show that different\nmaterials and motives, such as landscape and plant life, teach the same art\nprinciples. Briefly, the work in all grades for September and October is\nbased on the study of landscape, plant life, flowers, and fruits. In connection with the study of fruits and seedpods, much interesting work in\ndecorative design is done by pupils in all grades.\nThe November work emphasizes the study of still-life forms, presented\ndifferently to children of different ages and interests. In the lower grades\nall nature and object- drawing is pictorial in its tendencies. Much brushwork is done here, making representations in mass rather than in line.\nWith older pupils, the effort is to get away from mere pictorial drawing.\nMore serious work in composition is done, working away from literal\nrepresentation into a more subjective character or style ; for instance,\nstill-life forms are put into decorative compositions in color and into\npencil values.\nDecember work is dominated by the constructive idea. There are\nChristmas gifts to be made, involving the use of many different materials,\naccording to grade. The little ones use paper, clay, soft yarns and wools,\nfor folding, modeling and weaving. The older ones are working out\ntheir exercises in basketry and simple ^ood-work, involving the making\nand decorating of boxes, book-racks, calendars, etc. Lettering and\nilluminating texts form a definite part of the work of the intermediate\ngrades at this time.\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nJanuary brings a more noticeable differentiation of the work, according to grade. The primary children draw toys and other objects attractive\nto them, and make studies of winter landscape and of whatever material\nin the line of winter nature work is at hand, such as the growth of pine\ntrees, the study of different kinds of evergreens, cones, etc. The older\nones take up the study of perspective principles, from models and objects,\nfrom houses and streets, from steeples, housetops, and towers, from interior\ncorners of rooms and exterior corners of buildings, according to grade.\nMany different media are used in this work, and it is treated sometimes\nin line, sometimes in mass, sometimes with reference to decorative composition, and sometimes with pictorial tendency.\nFebruary is devoted to the study of the human figure. This is varied\nin the lower grades with the study of such domestic animals as are available at the season, principally cats, dogs, and rabbits. Both color and ink\nwashes are used for this work in the lower grades, as well as charcoal or\nsoft pencil outline. Line, pencil tones, and flat tones of color are used in\nthe upper grades, the effort being here always to get away from purely\nobjective work as much as is possible. Some study of geometry follows.\nThere is a place here for elementary work in mechanical problems in the\nupper grades, if time allows.\nDesign, both pure and applied, follows in March and April, and the\nspring nature work from landscape, flower motives, birds, and insects\noffers a wealth of material until the close of the year.\nThis, in brief, is our course of study, but how meager and bare it looks,\nseparated as it is here from the rest of the school interests with which it\nis so closely connected! The drawing lesson must be a vital part of the\nday's work, and cannot be sundered from its sister-subjects \"without\ntears.\"\n\" I buy the pictures of Mauve,\" remarked a clergyman in Paris, \" because\nhe puts into them what I try to get into my sermon — simplicity, suggestiveness, and logical sequence.\" Is not this a test also for any suggestions\nbearing upon the course of study in art ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nCharles M. Carter, director of art, city Schools, Denver, Colo. — The first consideration is that the director or supervisor of art should have a clear conception of\nwhat he is to accomplish. That there may be some confusion in this direction is not to\nbe wondered at, when one considers the various raisons d''etre which have been advanced\nfrom time to time as a warrant for placing drawing in the school curriculum. From the\ntime when Walter Smith based the claims of the subject upon its industrial value to the\npresent, we have had varying points of view, many of which still remain with us. At one\ntime we emphasized the fact that drawing is most important as a means of developing\nhand, eye, and mind ; then it was the spiritual and creative activities of the child that\nwere advanced as the greatest outgrowth of the study; then again importance has been\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nPR A CTICAL\n\nSTUD V OF DRA WING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n677\n\ngiven to the study of sesthetics thru pictures ; and now composition is advanced as a matter of leading importance ; while some of our radical friends would have us believe that\nthe development of the manual arts is the great end, and, if I may judge the signs of the\ntimes, there are directors who would devote to this work time which previously had been\ndevoted simply to art study. Incidentally, as the years have gone on, we have seen various minor fads assume importance. For instance, Walter Smith showed us elementary\ndesigns by primary children which at the time seemed wonderful. Then again we were\nvery much interested in the possibility of primary children making simple working\ndrawings. Once type forms were the fashion ; the same was true of historic ornament.\nThen, as you know, colored papers, life drawing, water colors, chalks, crayons, etc., have\neach had their periods of special importance.\nThe most radical change in method was, perhaps, when we attempted to substitute\nfor exact representation less accurate but more artistic representation, which in our\nexperience has often been a cover for imperfect instruction by ignorant teachers.\nThe result of all this is that we find our courses of study filled with a little of a variety\nof subjects, each having had its day of importance, and with our meager time we can barely\ntouch on any one. It is like an elaborate table d'hote dinner in comparison with a meal\nof healthful simplicity.\nAll of these considerations lead me to believe that a \"fad\" for simplicity is very\nmuch needed. That there have been excellencies in each of the subjects attracting attention in the past cannot be doubted, and above all it is apparent that drawing or art in the\nschools is a subject of considerable vitality, if it can stand so much tampering with its\nfoundation.\nWe are led to ask which are the most important of these fads or subjects. As near\nas I can determine, after conversations with teachers, superintendents, and people in\ngeneral, the study of art in the public schools should develop, first, ability to observe ;\nsecondly, ability to express ; and thirdly, appreciation and application of art ideas thru\ncomposition, pictorial, constructive, and ornamental. The proper presentation of these\nfeatures presupposes that the teacher has had good training in these directions. Generally\nshe has not ; for, according to a report recently made to the Western Drawing Teacher's\nAssociation, the normal-school graduate generally has an imperfect training in art;\nconsequently time and strength are consumed in overcoming deficiencies. As a general\nthing, graduates have a smattering of the various \"fads,\" but their ability to observe and\nexpress is very defective, and it is in these directions that special training has to be given\nin teachers' meetings. Say what we will, there is nothing more important for the teacher\nof drawing than to think, see, and express accurately. By these powers they are able to\nunderstand errors of pupils instantly, and to lead the pupils in their turn to think, see and\nexpress truly. We believe in downright hard study, whether it is agreeable or not — that\nthe power thus gained is the only sure foundation for subsequent free, artistic expression.\nBut I would not have this discussion deal altogether with generalities. I should\nlike to gain ideas of practical methods of supervision. For instance, what is the best\nmethod of giving directions to teachers ?\nWe have made a study of directions as given by supervisors in various large cities of\nthe country. Some are type-written, others printed. Some are extended, others brief.\nSome are sufficient unto themselves, while others refer to books for more detailed directions ;and a few approach very near to complete treatises on drawing. In a general\nway it seems to us that a moderately brief outline of the work arranged in a clear manner,\nso as to be easily consulted, should be the principal guide, while, for more detailed information, reference should be had to published manuals of drawing. The supervisor, with his\nlimited time and funds, cannot hope to produce complete illustrated printed directions\nwhich can compare with those from a publisher. Experienced teachers will not need\ndetailed directions, but in cities and towns where there are constant additions of new\nteachers it is important that they have some source of detailed information.\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nMy experience is that too many directions often prevent the careful consideration of\nthe information they provide. The average teacher, with several subjects to teach many\npupils, with perhaps the added affliction of two or more grades in a room, must have\ndirections that are quickly and easily understood. I would not disparage the thinking\nout of plans of work by the teacher, but experience shows that the majority must have\ntheir work very definitely indicated by the supervisor.\nAs to methods of securing good work from the pupils, I would commend particularly\nthe idea of having what I term \" special exercises ; \" that is to say, in the second to the\nsixth year I would have one each month, except the first and last ; while in the seventh\nand eighth years one each term will be sufficient. The special exercises are selected\nfrom the regular exercises. Each pupil does the same subject, and spares no effort to\nhave it express in every way the best work of which he is capable. If the first attempt\nis not successful, the pupil is to try again and again, until the teacher is satisfied that the\nbest result possible for the pupil has been gained. These results are preserved in special\nenvelopes properly labeled, and subsequently submitted to the art director. In the high\ngrades the works are not considered approved until marked \" accepted.\"\nTreating these exercises as of special importance results in securing the best efforts\nof both pupils and teachers, and helps to establish good habits of work which show their\ninfluence in all other exercises. The underlying idea thruout should be: \"Not how\nmuch, but how well.\"\nSolon P. Davis, director of art, city schools, Hartford, Conn. — To one who has\nfor thirty years been in accord with the first proposition of the able paper which has been\npresented before this body, the privilege of discussion resolves itself mainly into an opportunity publicly to approve its points. No one who has closely watched the development\nof art instruction in the public schools since its first adequate introduction into the curriculum of serious studies in 1870 can fail to understand its value for the masses from\nthe standpoint of either utility, economics, culture, or ethics. Its place is secure; its true\nrelation to the other subjects, its method, and its equipment for effective service are not\nyet fully determined.\nThe experience of over a quarter of a century in the schoolroom has borne in upon\nmy mind so strongly the fact that \"art is long\" that I must confine myself, in the brief\nmoments at command, to a few suggestions as to immediate possibilities by emphasizing\none point in the paper.\nWhile the growth of public opinion as to the value of art training as a constituent\nfactor in public education has been marked, we are still at a considerable distance from\nthe time when it can successfully claim a place in the curriculum so conspicuous as that\naccorded to it, rightfully, in the address. The subject of art will^ever attain its rightful\nand adequate place among the fundamental subjects in our public-school course by the\npath of a claimant. It will do it by recognizing the great ethical law : \" He that will be\ngreat among you shall be servant of all.\" It is thru service to the other departments of\nschool work, and the gradual recognition that they cannot be completely effective without\nit, that art is to perfect its standing and recognition as a vital factor in public education.\nLove for and practice of the beautiful must penetrate every activity of the schoolroom\nbefore that feeling for beauty can be developed in the mass of children which is the basis\nof art appreciation and the only hope of any satisfying art expression.\nThe effect of the most carefully conceived and conducted art period, whether weekly\nor daily, will be largely dissipated if it has not the same vital relation to the other work\nof the school that the study of English, when rightly conducted, has in the way of influencing verbal expression.\nTherefore I would say that it is the present duty of the director of art education to\nplace himself in touch with the entire work of the schoolroom, and to lay hold of the\nmaterial there with an effort to infuse into its routine the spirit which he tries to beget in\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n679\n\nthe drawing period. While we abate not one jot of our effort to enrich that period with\nthe sorely needed material set forth in the paper just read, let us not forget that measure\nin space, shape in space, position in space, and tone value in space have as direct a relation to the appearance of the written exercise in English or the printed page of a textbook as to a landscape composition, and that balance, rhythm, and harmony are just as\ndesirable in an illustrated essay on insect life as in an \"Evening\" of Corot.\nI would add to the sorely needed material suggested by the paper as desirable for our\nwork a permanent exhibition room or museum for each school building, in which should\nbe found for constant display and for circulation thru the schoolrooms the best examples\nof the embodiment of the beautiful in all the work of the school. I would charge the\nvision of the children with these things from the kindergarten upward, until their ideals\nfor the common round should lead them into an enchanted realm, and design should\nbecome a part of daily life.\nThe writer of the paper under discussion has well said that \"the drawing lesson\ncannot be sundered from its sister-subjects without tears.\" Is it too strong a statement to\nsay that where it is so sundered it will sue in vain for permanent place and power among\nthe fundamental educational forces in our public schools ? I am sure that along this path\nlies the possibility of leading the regular teachers into full sympathy with the subject and\na desire to equip themselves for the proper presentation of it.\nFollowing the present endeavor on the part of educators to make the life of the\nschoolroom an integral part of the child's whole day and not a separated experience,\nquestions of the particular subject of a lesson or a series of lessons — nature drawing,\napplied art, constructive design, representation, picture study — will come to have a\nnatural relation to the day's work, and will partake less and less of the nature of a\n\"special\" subject. The inspirational and disciplinary features of art training will be\nmore perfectly adjusted and the progress of art appreciation in the mass more surely and\nhealthfully attained. The results will, possibly, be less exhibitory, but more sane, and\nwill contribute more helpfully and genuinely to the great art movement now in progress.\nI do not forget that in many of our cities this is recognized, nor that good work is\nbeing done toward this end ; but that its recognition is sufficiently general I am far from\npersuaded. Let it not be inferred that I would abrogate or minimize the influence of the\ndefinite period of art study in the course ; far from it. It should, however, mean far more\nthan it does now. In the future it will have a larger place in the scheme of study, and\nthe supervisor will have a richer influence and power and wider responsibility than is yet\npossible. But the subject must first justify its claim by saturating the entire curriculum\nuntil it claims art instruction as an essential element in its work.\nIn this work we must have the sympathy and co-operation of the regular teachers.\nThe work must be made of such a nature that they will feel that they can undertake it.\nWe must be ready to simplify, to readjust, to wait. In short, I am aware that I have\noutlined a work of infinite tact and patience — of self-sacrificing foundation work.\nBut —\n\" In the elder days of art,\nBuilders wrought with greatest care\nEach minute and unseen part,\n\n•\n\nFor the gods see everywhere.\"\n\nWilliam A. Mason, director of art, city schools, Philadelphia, Pa.— The function\nof drawing in the public schools, while it is generally educational and makes for\naesthetic culture, aims also to develop many future artisans and not a few artists.\nThe course in drawing consequently must be both practical and aesthetic — training the\nmany to become productive artificers, and all to be appreciative admirers of art productions. More time should be given to the study of art and manual training in the\nschools, and teachers should be better trained in drawing. President Butler says:\n\"No person short of a genius can command\n\nthe scholarship to teach wisely and eco-\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nnomically the whole series of subjects which are represented in the upper, elementary,\nor grammar grades.\" Department teaching, which he advocates, is the remedy for\npoor work in our branch of study. Despite the amount of experimenting and the\nvariety of propaganda that have buidened the subject, drawing is better taught today\nthan ever before. It is becoming more and more a living' factor in the educational\nlife of the child. It is more closely correlated than ever before with all the school activities of the child and has become the ready instrumentality for self-expression in all his\nwork. It is a mistake in any branch of the subject to pursue its abstractions beyond their\nimmediate application to his wants. The work should be concretely applied from day\nto day.\nA few suggestions under the three general topics of drawing are briefly submitted.\nThe drawing of leaves, sprays, and plants is practicable from the earliest school days.\nThe exercise is incomparably more interesting and valuable than line drill. The best\nway to begin this kind of drawing is with colored chalk or colored crayons. Water color\nshould be substituted just as soon as it can be mastered. Mass treatment is fctf more\ndirect and pedagogical than pencil outline, which is more analytical and belter adapted\nfor advanced work. Free cutting of pictures with scissors is sometimes advocated ; but\nwhen brush and ink are at hand, why use a dressmaker's tool ? Would the child with the\nhoe be more incongruous ? Borders often improve drawings. They should be drawn\naround the drawing, not around the paper. Every drawing should be made artistic,\ndecorative. Our rnission as teachers of art should be the banishment of the commonplace\nand the transfiguration of manual products by the touch of art.\nOne of our difficult problems is to maintain a reasonable balance in pictorial representation between objective and subjective expression. It is becoming the fashion to\ndisdain object-drawing as being too sensuous and to establish pictorial representation\nupon the basis of creative imagination. I contend that the effort should be, not to get\naway from objective drawing, bat to keep the balance of power on that side of representation. Rigorous drill in drawing from objects should precede imaginative effort.\nLandscape-drawing is entirely practicable from the first year. It must necessarily be\nlargely imaginative. The boundless variety of nature lends itself with graceful flexibility\nto the vicissitudes of individual treatment. It is a source of inspiration from which\nultimate truth may be evolved. The exercise offers the very best opportunity for developing an artistic appreciation for tone and the relationship of size, shape, and position of\nobjects.\nThe drawing of fruits and vegetables can profitably be begun in the second jear,\nwith grouping in the third year. To defer grouping to the grammar grades seems conservatism of the most timid and old-fashioned order. Why drill for four years on\ndisconnected units ? It is not so much good lines that we need as the cultivation of\ninsight and comprehension which is gained by drawing related objects. Groups should\nfrequently be drawn from imagination. Only when these imaginative groups show that\nperspective principles are well understood should any serious attempt be made in the\ndirection of artistic composition.\nOtherwise it is as pearls cast before swine.\nIn the matter of decorative design it looks as tho the \"abstract spot\" were in danger\nof becoming the concrete whole. In my opinion it is too abstract for. the average pupil.\nBesides, it is opposed to the prevailing motives in our manufactures, which for decades past\nhave been, and probably for decades to come will continue to be, natural plant forms\nmodified by geometry and historic ornament. We cannot teach everything that is good,\nbut must concentrate on a few exercises from which to get the utmost educational worth\nwith the least effort. I subscribe to all that has been said in regard to the great artistic\npossibilities in the application of the principles of design in landscape composition, in the\npleasing arrangement of shapes and sizes of masses, in balance and harmony as to form\nand tone, in conjunction with lettering for titles, book-covers, calendars, programs, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF DRAWING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n68i\n\nConstruction-drawing may be made a dry, abstruse subject by limiting its range of\nex*ercises to the traditional working drawings of the geometric forms ; or it may be made\nin'teresting and vital to the pupil by applying its method to the construction of the various\narticles made during the school year — as boxes, receptacles, racks, etc. Only as the\nexercises in drawing relate themselves to the immediate interests of the pupil and take\ntheir rise in his activities do we secure the happiest results. The desire to make the work\npractical, and at the same time to infuse into it the spirit of creativenessand imagination,\nhas led some to advocate constructive building in the ordinary school models. Think of\nthe violence done to art and reason by attempting to represent the Taj Mahal, Notre\nDame, or any other architectural structure worth any consideration with such limiting and\nunimaginative materials! If we could furnish our schools with the \"Anchor\" stone\nbuilding blocks, no exercise could be more stimulating to the imagination or more practical, constructively, than building according to the plans, elevations, and sections shown\non the plates accompanying these blocks.\nThe constructive imagination should constantly be appealed to, as the faculty of\nconstructiveness thus strengthened leads to invention, upon which depends the supremacy\nof our American manufactures.\nConstruction-drawing should be correlated with pictorial representation, not separated\nfrom it and deferred to the grammar grades. The two subjects are complementary and\nshould be taught together. We need fewer fences around the respective fields of our subjects of study and more common avenues of approach to them.\nThree final words of advice in \"regard to the practical course in drawing : correlate,\ncorrelate, correlate.\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 8, 1903\n\nThe meeting was opened by President Sterrie A. Weaver, who made a brief address\nof welcome and several important announcements.\nP. C. Hayden, Keokuk, la., moved that when the meeting adjourn, it adjourn to\nmeet at 3 o'clock, to discuss the papers of the morning, and to conduct such business as\nmight come up. The motion was carried.\nT. L. Roberts moved that the chairman name a nominating committee. The chairman then announced the following as members of that committee :\nP. C. Hayden, of Iowa.\nGeorge E. Krinbill, of Illinois.\nT. L. Roberts, of New York.\n\nThe following constituted the program of addresses for the session :\nt. \"The Training in Sight- Singing and Song Interpretation Which Normal-School Students Should\nReceive\" — C. A. Fullerton, teacher of music. State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la.; Miss Julia E. Crane,\nNormal Institute of Music, Potsdam, N. Y. ; A. Stanley Osborne, teacher of music, State Normal School,\nNew Paltz, N. Y.\n2. \"The Real Purpose of Teaching Public- School Music\" — Samuel W. Cole, supervisor of school\nmusic, Brookline, Mass.; Miss Mary MacSkimmon, principal of the Pierce School, Brookline, Mass.\n3. \"School Music — Has it Made Music Readers?\" — George W. Wilmot, supervisor of music, New\nBrianswick^ N. J.; Ralph Baldwin, supervisor of school music, Northampton, Mass.\n\nAdjournment was then taken until 3 o'clock P. M.\nThe afternoon session was opened by President Weaver.\nProfessor Leo R. Lewis, of Tufts College, then made an informal report of the work\nplanned to be done by the New England Education League for the cause of music in\npublic education. He said that a circular letter had been sent out to prominent musical\nand educational people in various parts of the country, asking answers to four pertinent\nquestions. Many favorable answers were received, and later a committee was appointed\nto draw up a course of study in music, for future consideration. The members of the\ncommittee are :\nProfessor H. C. MacDougall, Wellesley College, chairman.\nProfessor L. R. Lewis, Tufts College.\nProfessor S. W. Cole, New England Conservatory of Music.\nProfessor J. M. McLaughlin, Boston.\nA. T. Manchester, president of National Music Teachers' Association.\nProfessor E. D. Hale, New England Conservatory of Music.\nProfessor W. R. Spaulding.\nW. Scott, secretary of conference.\n\nIt was moved and seconded that a committee of three from this body be appointed to\nco-operate with the committee of the New England\nEducation League. The motion was\n683\ncarried, and the following members were appointed :\nBenjamin Jepson, New Haven, Conn.\nC. A. Fullerton, Cedar Falls, la.\nMiss Julia E. Crane, Potsdam, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\n\nP. C. Ilayden, of Iowa, then moved that a committee of ten be appointed to\ndraw up a course of study for the grades. After some discussion, the motion was withdrawn \\\\\\favor of one made by Professor Leo R. Lewis, who moved that a committee of\nten be appointed to state results to be expected from the grade work. After extended\ndiscussion by Robert Foresman, Dr. Rix, Mrs. Hosmer, P. C. Hayden, F. E. Howard,\nand others, the motion was carried. A motion made by Henry M. Butler, that this committee be appointed by the president of the department, was carried, but the president\ndeclined to accept the responsibility. F. E. Howard then moved that the president appoint\nfive members who should report at the next session a list of ten names for membership on\nthe committee. This motion prevailed, and the president appointed P. C. Hayden, George\nE. Krinbill, T. L. Roberts, A. J. Gantvoort, and Ralph Baldwin to serve as a nominating\ncommittee.\nThe meeting then adjourned until the following morning at 9: 30 o'clock.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9\n\nThe meeting -was opened promptly at 9 : 30 a. m. by President Weaver, who, after\nmaking some announcements, introduced Frank Damrosch, supervisor of music, New\nYork city, who addressed the audience on the subject of \" Music as Part of Life.\"\nThis was followed by a paper read by Eugene D. Russell, principal of the Classical\nHigh School, Lynn, Mass., on \" Music as a Subject to be Counted for Admission to\nCollege.\"\nThe remainder of the session was devoted to business.\nThe report of the committee appointed last year to formulate a plan of study for\nteachers of music in the public schools was then called for. Mr. Gantvoort, speaking for\nthat committee, said that, owing to the illness of Mr. O. T. Corson, and the extended\nabsence of Mr. Thomas Tapper in Europe, the committee was unable to report, and asked\nfor further time.\nP. C. Hayden then moved that two members be added to that committee, and that\nthe chairman appoint them. The motion was carried. The chairman appointed Samuel\nW. Cole, Brooklilie, Mass., and George E. Krinbill, Dixon, 111., as the two additional\nmembers.\nThe chairman then called for the report of the Committee of Five which was to present the list of ten persons as nominees for membership on the Committee of Ten on\nResults to be Expected of Grade Work. The committee reported thru its chairman, Mr.\nHayden, the following ten names :\nSterrie A. Weaver, Westfield, Mass.\nMiss Anna M. Allen, Peoria, 111.\nMiss Estelle Carpenter, San Francisco, Cal.\nA. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, O.\nMiss Julia E. Crane, Potsdam, N. Y.\n\nE. B. Birge, Indianapolis, Ind.\nF. E. Howard, Bridgeport, Conn.\nH. M. Butler, Newport, Ky.\nC. A. Fullerton, Cedar Falls, la.\n\nThe report was unanimously adopted, and the nominees were declared elected as\nmembers of the committee.\nThe report of the Committee on Nomination of officers for the ensuing year was then\nmade by T. L. Roberts, of New York, as follows :\nFor President— ^ttrxxfi A. Weaver, Westfield, Mass.\nFor Vice-President—'^. A. Wetzell, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nFor Secretary— Y. C. Hayden, Keokuk, la.\n\nThe secretary of the department, on motion, was instructed to cast the ballot of\nthe members for the nominees. The ballot being so cast, the nominees were declared\nelected.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIGHT-SINGING\n\nAND\n\nSONG\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\n685\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions offered the following report, which, upon motion,\nwas adopted unanimously:\nResolved^ That it is the judgment of the supervisors here present that it is a wrong method to have the\nchildren below the third grade study the details of the notation of music, separate from their use while\nsinging.\nResolved, That this body memorialize the school committee of the city of Boston, in behalf of a high*\nschool elective course in music.\n\nA motion by Benjamin Jepson that the School Music Monthly^ ot Keokuk, la., be\nmade the official organ of the association was, after discussion, referred to the next convention.\nAt the closing session a class of Mr. Weaver's pupils from the Torrington schools gave\nan exhibition of individual sight-singing and chorus work, with reference to which the\nfollowing resolution was offered :\nResolved, That the sight-singing by the class from the ninth grade, Torrington, Conn., was a remarkable exhibition of proficiency in the sight-reading of music; and that the sincere thanks of this audience is\nextended to the children, to Miss Langdon, and to President Weaver for this delightful and convincing performance.\n\nThe resolutions were adopted by a unanimous and enthusiastic rising vote.\nThe meeting then adjourned sine die.\nHelen W. Trask, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTRAINING\nSHOULD\n\nC. A.\n\nAND\n\nFULLERTON,\n\nIN SIGHT-SINGING AND SONG INTERPRETATION WHICH NORMAL-SCHOOL STUDENTS\nRECEIVE\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\nVOCAL\nMUSIC,\nCEDAR FALLS, lA.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIf the conditions were ideal, it naight be the true mission of a normal\nschool to give professional training only. Students of adequate scholarship upon entering the school could then give their whole attention to\nthe study of the principles of education and to acquiring skill in the art of\nteaching. These ideal conditions are seldom supplied, however. The\nlarge majority of normal schools find an additional burden imposed upon\nthem. The students when they enter the school are in need of thoro\nacademic work, either prior to or in connection with their professional\ntraining. The necessity for this elementary work is specially emphatic in\nregard to vocal music; for, while the American people have an abiding\ninterest in music, the masses of them have as yet given very little serious\nattention to cultivating the art. With the purpose of ascertaining as\nnearly as possible what the actual problacis are which confront the teachers\nof music in the normal schools, the writer sent out a series of twenty\nquestions to every state normal school in the United States.\nOf the one\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nhundred thirty normal schools eighty reported.\nreports the following data were obtained :\n\n[Music\n\nBy summarizing these\n\n1. Over 60 per cent, of all the students in these schools have had no previous\ntraining in sjght-singing.\n2. On an average there are only about 5 per cent, of these students who practically cannot learn to sing.\n3. Of the eighty schools that reported seventy require vocal music in the course,\nAnd the average time given to it is seventy-three hours.\n\nThese facts furnish a basis for the discussion of the subject in hand.\nAltho circumstances vary somewhat in the different schools, there is a\nstriking similarity in the conditions with which the music teacher has to\ndeal.\nThe problems in the various schools are almost identical. The music\nteacher finds a body of earnest, intelligent, well-disposed students who are\nreasonably ambitious and who have natural capacity to succeed in music,\nbut who, in common with students in other educational institutions, are\nmainly without much musical training, and consequently without a very\nlarge degree of efficiency in music. These students come into the music\nclass three hours a week for a period of twenty^four weeks. When we\nconsider that \" art is long,\" this time seems rather short, but when we\nconsider how full the normal-school course usually is, and how much is\nrequired of the students in other lines of activity, we have reason to take\ncourage. Every supervisor of music in a normal school is brought face to\nface with a double problem. He must determine (i) what to attempt, and\n(2) by what means he can best bring about the desired end. Both of these\nare vital issues. From my experience and observation I have a strong\nconviction that in all such work as this, where adults are beginning the\nstudy of music, much more could be accomplished if much less were\nattempted. There are almost boundless possibilities in normal-school\nmusic work. The future of general music development in this country is\ndependent in a large degree on the attitude of the public-school teachers\ntoward music and their equipment for teaching it successfully in the\nschools. The urgent need in the normal schools is that the students\nthemselves get a good start in music. The study of methods for presenting music to children is of supreme importance, but it should not precede\nthe other important consideration of getting something to present. Since\nthe time given to music in the normal schools is so short and the students\nare generally beginners, success depends on omitting some phases of the\nwork, treating others incidentally, and focusing the energy in the beginning classes on those of vital importance. As a practical means for getting music on its feet in a normal school, under existing conditions, I\nsubmit the following suggestions :\nI. Make it the main object of all class work to have students acquire the ability\nto read music.\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSIGHT-SINGING\n\nAND\n\nSONG\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\n687\n\n2. Master the few essentials in the elements of music, but spend no time on definitions, etc., till note -reading and song-singing are well underway.\n3. Give students careful and thoro training in singing songs, working specially for\nmusical tones and an easy sympathetic rhythm.\n\nMake sight-singing the principal aim in beginning classes. Spend\ntwo-thirds of the entire time in persistent work along this line. Master\nthe major scale so that all the intervals can be sung readily and accurately.\nUse the syllables Do, Re, Mi, etc., beating time with the hand, not merely\nfor some easy exercises at the beginning of the book, but for every song\nin the book, and continue to use them till the students can read music at\nsight as readily as they can read a newspaper. If normal students learn\nto read syllables merely as something to teach to children in school, the\nresults will mean very little to both them and the children ; but when\nthey recognize the syllables as the means whereby they can learn the language of music, and thus come into possession of the works of the\nmasters, they will bring to the work a spirit that will make for success.\nIndividuals who take special interest in music may, by continuous\nstudy, acquire the ability to read independently without the use of the\nsyllables, but it is not so with the masses. I wish to emphasize this point.\nThe great storehouse of rich music bequeathed to us by the masters is\nlocked up from the rank and file of the people, and I believe the syllables\nDo, Re, Mi, etc., furnish practically the only key. If this is true, it is a\nfact of extreme importance. Music was intended for the people in\ngeneral, not merely for a few, and it is in keeping with the altruistic\nspirit of the times that they be given the benefit of its refining influence. Why is it that in the large majority of the Sunday schools.\nChristian Endeavor Societies, Epworth Leagues, etc., in our country such\ncheap, claptrap music is used ? There are various reasons, but those who\nhave had much experience in such work know that the principal reason is\nthat the people cannot read music. They can pick up the catchy tune\nthat has the characteristic chuck, chuck, chuck, movement, but if they\nundertake to learn a real song, their patience is exhausted before they are\nable to sing it effectively. It is a fact that a depraved taste is responsible\nfor the trashy stuff so often sung in the churches, but it is also a fact that\nthe most effective way to improve the taste is habitually to sing good\nmusic; and this cannot be successfully done by the general public unless\nthey can read. If the only hope of escape from this deplorable state of\naffairs is in educating the general public to read music — and the only\npracticable way to do this is thru the public schools — how tremendously\nimportant it is that the normal schools get their students on a good footing for carrying on the campaign. The public-school teachers have it in\ntheir power practically to banish trashy 4|:msic from the church ; and what\na triumphant day it will be for Christianity when that is accomplished!\nIn public-school work music is always in a crude state till the pupils can\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Music\n\nread it independently, and in general pupils are not likely to advance far\nbeyond their teacher in musicianship. The normal student, then, who\ngoes out into the public schools incapable of reading even simple music\nis not much of a guarantee for the future in a musical way, as she has\nfailed to get the start essential to her musical development.\nIf the success of music, then, in the churches and in the public\nschools is dependent on sight-singing, it is equally true in the normal\nschool itself. If there is any institution on earth that should have a good\nmusical atmosphere about it, it is a normal school. For students to learn\nfacts about music and methods for teaching music is important, but infinitely less important than for them to form good habits in singing, to\ngrow into real acquaintance with good music, to be born into the musical\nkingdom. Listening to good music has much to do in attaining to this\nend, but having a personal part in rendering good music is the real, educative process. But no one knows better than the supervisor of music\nwhat a fruitless task it is to try to do music work of a high order with\npeople who cannot read. The energy and patience are absorbed in doing\nbattle with time and tune, till the final outcome is likely to be the abandonment of the enterprise or such trivial work that little is gained by\ncontinuing it. The question, then, of whether a normal school will give\nits students the advantage of fine musical culture or have them live on a\nlow musical plane is to be determined largely in the sight-singing\nclasses.\nThe second aim — to master the essentials in the elements of music — is\nby far the least important of the three. In fact, there is relatively too much\nbeing done in that line now. One of the most disheartening forms of\nheresy that are abroad is that beginners in music should proceed to learn\na list of facts about music and definitions of musical terms before they\nget hold of music itself. Definitions ought not to be even mentioned in\nthe beginning work in music. It would be just as sensible to require\na man to define a chair before he sits down in it as to require him to\ndefine a scale before he sings it. And are we not thankful that we are\nnot required to pass the chair test ? How many of us could frame a\ndefinition that would include all chairs and exclude everything else ?\nAnd still we are not handicapped in the use of chairs. I would not\nbelittle the value of information in regard to music, or definitions of\nmusical terms, but I cry out against taking the precious time in a first\nterm class for such irrelevant work. What theory is attempted in a\nbeginning class should be presented in such a way as to appeal to the\nstudent's understanding. If the major scale be diagrammed in the form\nof a ladder, and a diagram be made of the keyboard of a piano, by applying the scale to the keyboard, there will be settled once for all in every\nstudent's mind the problem of different keys and the necessity for sharps\nand flats. If the theory work in music be arranged into blackboard\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTGHT-STNGING\n\nAMD\n\nSONG\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\n•\n\n689\n\nexercises, with daily drill, the students will soon grow into familiarity\nwith it, and it will remain in the mind as a permanent possession.\nThe third suggestion — to give the students careful and thoro training in song-singing — concerns the final object of all public-school music.\nSkill in note-reading is valuable only inasmuch as it contributes to good\nsinging. From the beginning in class work some time should be devoted\nto the singing of songs. Not many songs should be sung. They should\nbe carefully chosen, special care being given to select those that will take\na fine finish. These songs should be worked upon till the class can sing\nthem together with an easy sympathetic rhythm, with a spirit that accords\nwith the words and the music, and with at least a fairly musical tone.\nAt the last analysis music is dependent on the quality of the tone.\nHarsh tones are powerless to convey a musical message of any value to\nthe world. But it is a constant surprise to find what a large proportion\nof students there are who can sing a musical tone if they are careful to\nsing a light tone. Over 90 per cent, of the students are capable of doing\nvery effective light chorus work, if they are given time to learn^the music\nand the leader can get them into the right mood. It is not enough that\nthey merely avoid harsh tones. Some soft tones are lifeless. There is a\nsort of musical fervor that constitutes the real charm in chorus-singingThe conditions for obtaining it are rather unyielding. The voices must\nbe smooth. The rhythm must be sympathetic. The singers must be\nunified in spirit, and they must meet the conditions for singing with\nmusical expression — i. e., they must feel something to express. While\nnote-reading is essential to success in singing, it is also true that good\nsinging is essential to sustained interest in note-reading. The most\neffective stimulus to music study is the thrill that people feel when their\nown voices blend with other votces in producing good music. If the\nstandard is maintained of singing good attractive songs, and singing\nthem uniformly well, there will be no lack of interest in music' At the\nbeginning of the class work, when scale drill and note-reading are absorbing so much of the time and energy, the time used in singing will necessarily be short; but as soon as the class can read notes well enough to\nuse songs as note-reading exercises, it should do so, and continue it thruout the course. Occasional exercises' for developing special points are\ndesirable, but, in the main, songs should be used for note-reading.\nDead exercises are poor musical food for either children or adults.\nSinging experience is what makes note-reading easy. The whole realm\nof music, from the kindergarten melody to the opera and the oratorio,\nis open for note-reading work, and why should note-reading exercises be\nmade up of disjointed fractions of tunes, or, worse than that, of combinations of notes which form no p^t of any tune? It is too much\nlike using a spelliAg-book or a dictionary for a text-book in reading.\nThe individual note is not the unit in sight-singing.\nThe group of notes\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nor the strain of music is the unit, and what better strains can be found\nto practice on than the real songs? If songs of musical merit are used\nfor note-reading, there will be better interest in the class and the notereading work will have a more intimate relation to real singing. Apart\nfrom the regular class work in the normal school, there should be considerable singing done. If the note-reading has been successfully done,\nthere is nothing to prevent the students from singing the best music.\nIf they study the poetry of Shakespeare, why should they not study the\noratorios of Handel ? The sublime music of the masters will react and\ninspire them to further musical development. A permanent interest\nwill soon be aroused in music. Voice teachers will be called for, and\nthey will be forthcoming. More advanced work in music will be called\nfor, and it will be supplied. Methods of teaching music will become\na theme of real interest, and students having special qualifications for\nmusic work will prepare themselves for supervisors of music in the\npublic schools (and where should they find a better place to do this\nthan in a normal school?). Music will come to be a real vital force in\nthe life of the school, and thru the school in the life of the state; for\nthe leavening process obtains in music as well as in religion.\n\nII\nMISS\n\nJULIA\n\nE.\n\nCRANE,\n\nNORMAL\n\nINSTITUTE\n\nOF\n\nMUSIC,\n\nPOTSDAM,\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\nThe distinct province of a normal school is well understood, and yet\nfew, if any, of these schools have been able to confine their work strictly\nto pedagogy. Even tho the high schools have done efficient work,\nteachers have never thought it necessary to make the supreme test in the\nhigh school : \" Have you fluency enough to use your knowledge as a\nteacher must use it?\" As it is often said: \"It is one thing to know a\nsubject, and it is another thing to know it well enough to teach it.\" For\nthis reason, normal schools have been obliged to teach subject-matter,\nuntil in some of the best schools a very rigid academic course precedes\nthe normal training, and students study from the beginning with the\nthought that this subject-matter which they are learning they must themselves teach.\nIf this plan has seemed necessary for the proper preparation of\nteachers of language, mathematics, and the sciences, how much greater is\nthe necessity for such teaching of music in the normal schools ! For,\nwhile in every primary school in the country reading, writing, and\narithmetic are taught, it is the exceptional school in which music is\ntaught, and students enter the normal schools, not simply with inadequate\nmusical training, but often with none at all.\nAs Mr. FuUerton has said, \"It is felly to give methods of teaching to\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIGHT-SINGING\n\nAND\n\nSONG\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\n691\n\none who has nothing to teach;\" but we may so teach the subject-matter\nin the first instance that students in learning it acquire that skill and\nunderstanding which make up the most important elements of scientific\nteaching. For this reason a normal-school music teacher needs a broad\ntraining and wide experience. That such a teacher must be a musician\ngoes without saying; but he must also be a teacher, and acquainted with\nthe research work of the most advanced thinkers along psychological and\npedagogical lines.\nSo I understand that we are here today, not to set stakes beyond\nwhich no one dares think, nor, on the other hand, to theorize vaguely\nupon future possibilities ; but to discuss practical plans of work, to bring\nto each other the fruits of our labors, and to say frankly: \"Here is a\nthought that has been useful to me ; does your experience agree with\nmine ? \" rejoicing if disagreement show a better way.\nOut of my experience, out of my study of the results of the investigation of others, one thought has come of late, which seems to me to bear\ndirectly upon the study of methods of teaching music, which those of us\nwho work in normal schools ought to consider most carefully. Whether\nwe decide that in our particular school we teach sight-reading, songsinging, methods of instruction, or all three, one thing we must do : we\nmust teach, that this teaching be well, done is certainly of the highest\nimportance. Can we all agree as to when teaching is well done ? I think\nso. I doubt if anyone would disagree with me when I say : A child is\nwell taught when he has learned to use his powers for the highest good of\nself. Since the highest good for self is possible only thru the truest\naltruism, I trust I am not misunderstood. Modern customs, modern\nluxury, and sentimental folly regarding child-life are proving an enervating influence in modern education. To be sure, we hear a great deal of\ntalk about letting the child do the work ; we see numerous plans for\ncultivating the inquiring spirit, the constructive habit ; and one might\nalmost say : The theories sound correct enough, but for some reason they\ndo not seem to work. This, however, must be false, for a true theory must\nwork; it is the incorrect theory that proves impractical.\nNo subject taught in the public schools is more capable of giving to\nthe child real, active, independent work than music rightly taught. In its\nstudy he may see himself day by day acquiring power — the power to do\ntoday what he could not do yesterday. He may find himself skillful\nwhere once he was awkward, quick where once he was slow. He may hear\nfrom his own voice pleasant tones where once were only rough noises ;\nand later he finds himself a useful member of society, helping in the\nchurch and Sunday school, joining with the family in the home singing,\nor even teaching his younger associates the songs he knows.\nOr music. may be taught on the amusement plan ; and no subject lends\nitself more readily to false methods than this same subject — music. The\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ntemptations to this kind of teaching are many and sore. The freshness\nand beauty of the child-voice are always attractive, the public gives great\npraise to the teacher who brings out her pupils, and the public asks no\nquestions as to methods or future results. It is easy to do the work for\nthe children, to make the pretty toy and present it complete, in the form\nof a beautiful song. But it takes skill, tact, real teaching ability, to make\nthe child an independent worker in the field of music. There is much\ntalk of the elevating and spiritualizing influence of music, and I should\nbe the last one to deny any good thing that can be said of it ; but I cannot\nrefrain from uttering my Beware ! Beware of any method of teaching\nwhich has as its basis an effort to amuse. Our race must be educated to\nsturdy effort, and whether we teach music or the carpenter's trade, our\nsuccess is in proportion to the desire for independent effort which we\nawaken in our pupils.\nI hear the shocked surprise with which some say : \" You seem to forget\nthat a man has an aesthetic nature. Would you bring the lofty art of\nmusic to the level of the trades ? \" On the contrary, I remember that art\nis often degraded to a debasing instead of an elevating influence, for very\nlack of the sturdy qualities of character in the artist which a right study\nof his art might have brought him. Sensuous enjoyment of the fruits of\nanother's labors is not elevating either to taste or to morals. Every art is\nbased upon a science, and while I must not necessarily learn the science\nin order to be proficient in the art, I must learn the art scientifically in\norder that it be true art. To be sure, some artists seem to be born with\nmuch of the technique of their art already in their possession. This seems\npeculiarly true of composers and of the greatest vocalists ; but plans of\nteaching are never made to fit this class of students. The best methods\nare those which awaken dormant talents; and public-school work must be\nfitted to the needs of the average intellect ; those of great talent need little\nteaching.\nMy paper may deserve the criticism that it makes no definite statement as to what are the best methods of teaching music. That criticism\nis quite correct, and would apply to the writer as well as to the paper. I\ndo not know the best methods ; but I have meant to say that; in all\neducation there seems to be a tendency to an enervating sensuous habit\nof work, which is as destructive to good results in teaching as the life\nwhich leads to it is to the progress of the race. In all our search for\nright methods we need to remember that showy structures are not\nalways based upon stable foundations, and that, while time and storms\nmay wear off the gilding and chip off florid ornamentation, the house\nthat is built upon the rock will stand. And it seems to me not an indefinite or vague standard that I am setting up, for in simple language it\nreads : Keep your eyes open for the light ; work with sincerity of purpose ;have no fear when your pet theories are demolished ; for nothing\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIGHT-SINGING\n\nAND\n\nSONG\n\nINTERPRETATION\n\n693\n\nthat is right can be destroyed, and the destruction of the false makes way\nfor the true.\nThe normal school which sends out teachers who work in this spirit\nmust start a new center for real progress, wherever a teacher is placed, and\nthe student, in Browning's words, will seek \"To know not for knowing's\nsake, but to become a star to men forever.\"\n\nIll\nA.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nOSBORNE,\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF MUSIC,\nPALTZ,\nN. Y.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEW\n\nAs the result of inquiries made from 154 students of a normal school\nin New York state, I find that ninety-seven entered the school on highschool credentials and fifty-seven on examination. The number of years\nspent in the graded and high schools averaged ten. An average of one\nperiod a week was devoted to the study of music. Thirty-four claimed\nability to read music at sight, but subsequent experience showed that\nmany were wrong in their claim. The general impression was that\ntheir musical training had been of little value.\nLet us consider the amount of time given to the subject of music in\nthe normal schools. In many states the subject is supposed to be covered\nin from 160 to 200 recitations,or about forty full weeks of teaching. This\ntime includes the teaching of the elements of music, sight-singing, and\nthe methods of teaching. The average student cannot master sightsinging in that time (forty weeks), or in twice that time; that is, the\nability to sing all common harmonies at sight, such as hymns and\npatriotic songs.\nAnother difficulty which the teachers of music fail to consider is the\nperiod of adolescence thru which the majority of students are passing.\nOr, if conscious of tnis condition, they utterly ignore its psychological\nand physiological bearing upon their subject and its presentation. Still,\nbetween the ages of thirteen and nineteen a greater change occurs in the\nphysique of a child than at any other period of his life. The form of the\nface, neck, and throat undergoes a great change, and a young man must\nrelearn the use of the muscles and cavities of his head and throat in singing. But we must not fail to attempt to solve these problems, nor fall\nback upon song interpretation ; for that condition, as Miss Crane has\nsaid, has been endured too long, and the church, Sunday school, and\npatriotic meeting furnish good examples of its results.\nLet us give the student power to teach something of value. In the\ngiven time (forty weeks) he cannot piaster sight-singing, but he can\nmaster enough of time and tune and the elements of the art to understand thoroly, even if not able to execute, its difficulties.\nHe can at\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nleast learn the scale and its intervals. But, you will say, every student\nof music can sing the scale and its intervals. A short time ago I\nvisited a prominent normal school in the New England states. After\nhearing several classes, I asked permission to test a class in sight-singing.\nI took as my test the scale and its diatonic intervals. Out of a class of\nfifty I found only two who had any mastery of them. I do not believe\nthat one can learn to sing at sight if he does not thoroly know the intervals; yet many teachers attempt to develop sight-singers before their\nstudents can sing the scale.\nIn other words, the mechanics of music, and not the aesthetic, is\nof more value to the normal student. For one who is thoroly grounded in\nthe elements of his subject will always have an abundance of material\nfrom which to teach. With a thoro knowledge of the scale, time and\nits divisions, keys and their relation, conducting and phrasing, he\nwill handle the subject in an intelligent manner, while his teaching\nwill be his training. By \"phrasing\" I mean not only an intelligent\nphrasing of the music, but particularly the phrasing of the words. The\nproper use of music is to convey a stronger impression of the sentiment of\nthe words to the listener, and if this is overlooked, the beauties of both\nwords and music are lost.\nBut, someone will say, if so much stress is laid upon the mechanics\nof music, the student loses the influence that the interpretation of\nbeautiful music has upon the mind and soul. Would not our music\nbe better if we were ready readers ? Would not we appreciate a great\nmusical composition more Jully if we could read it ? Would we be\nsatisfied with poor music if we could read the more difficult? Can\nwe expect an artistic interpretation of music if we are not well versed\nin the foundation of the subject? Therefore I advocate for the normal\nstudent a constant repetition of the elements of music, and as much\nsight-singing as will grow out of their application.\nAs for song interpretation, what material have we to give the normal\nstudent ? Someone has yet to develop a historic order of musical works\nwhich will be suited to the student in each stage of his training from the\nprimary grade to the close of the school life. I would make a plea for a\ncourse of musical literature as carefully worked out as that of English\nliterature, and correlated as nearly as possible with the other subjects of\nthe curriculum. Practically every subject except music is now correlated,\nand by this correlation it has gained materially in its effectiveness.\nI think it would be well for this Association to appoint a committee\nwhose duty it shall be to recommend a course of musical literature suitable\nfor the pupil in each period of his school life and correlated as far as\npossible with the other subjects of the school course.\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department ]\n\nTHE\n\nPURPOSE\n\nREAL\n\nOF TEA CHING\n\nPURPOSE\n\nW.\n\nCOLE,\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nPUBLIC\nSAMUEL\n\nMUSIC\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMUSIC\n\n695\n\nIN THE\n\nSCHOOLS'\nOF\n\nMUSIC,\n\nBROOKLINE,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe province of the public school is to give all the boys and all the\ngirls an equal opportunity to develop what is in them. Let us inquire\nwhat music in the public schools does for the many, considering them\nindividually. Does it teach them to read music fluently at first sight ?\nEvery musician knows that such persons are almost so rare as to be in\ndemand for purposes of exhibition, and why ? Because they lack the\nnative gift, the musical heredity. Does it teach them musical interpretation, to make music say something ? It is equally well known that even\namong those who style themselves artists one who can really interpret\nis a rara avis^ and why? Because they lack the native gift. If to sing at\nfirst sight or to make music interpreters is the real purpose of publicschool music, then it has been a miserable failure ; but it has not been a\nmiserable failure, even if it has not, up to the present time, been a commanding success. But what about the sight-singing tests you and I have\nbeen, instrumental in exhibiting before a somewhat indifferent public ?\nWell, I will not answer for you, but I will say for mine that they were\ngenuine so far as they went ; but they did not accurately represent the\nwork of the average class, much less the musical ability of every individual scholar.\nAn incident from my European experience will fully illustrate their\nvalue. I had heard much about the sight-singing contests between the\nclasses drawn from the English board schools. I had seen the tests\noffered, and I knew them to be severe enough to stagger the average\nquartette of professional singers, not to mention a class of children, and\ncompared with which the most difficult tests I have ever seen offered in\nthis country dwindle into insignificance. I was very anxious to hear such\na class sing, and I anticipated the opportunity afforded me with the keenest interest. I am happy to say that my expectations were realized in all\nmatters relating to musical intelligence and rendition, but by whom ?\nBy a class of sixty children carefully selected from a school numbering\nsix hundred put under special training for the entire school year. This\nwas not what I crossed the ocean to witness, and it in no way represented\nwhat I heard as I went from class to class through the school. Neither did\nit represent what they could do as individuals, and why should it ? They\nhad been trained as a class, not as individuals. The inference the public\nnaturally draws is that music in the^public schools pays because such\nI By request of the author, the amended spellings adopted by the Board of Directors do not appear in\nthis address, (See tesolution of the Board of Directors adopted July 13, 1899.)\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nresults are possible in the average class — an inference which you and I\nknow to be false and misleading. I understand that such exhibitions\nhave since been discontinued because of their manifest unfairness. This\nfully confirmed my own experience, and caused me to readjust carefully\nmy own point of view.\nWhat, then, is the purpose of teaching music in the public schools?\nI answer: the creation of a musical atmosphere in America; the establishment ofa musical environment in every home ; the development of a\nnational type of music; the realization in this democratic nation of all\nthe musical opportunities of the aristocratic nations of the Old World,\nincluding the governmentally endowed opera and orchestra. In short,\nthe real purpose of teaching music in the public schools is to lay the\nfoundation for all that we can hope or wish to realize, musically, in the\nUnited States of America, How is the teaching of music in the public\nschools to do all this, do you ask ? I answer, first, by getting all the\nchildren to singing; and, secondly, by making the singing musical even\nto the point of artistic excellence. ''Impossible,\" says one. ''The\nwords of an enthusiast!\" says another. But not so fast, my friends! let\nus see how these things look when carefully examined. Why do we live\nin a government of the people, by the people, and for the people?\nBecause somebody, sometime and somewhere, thought — far ahead of his\ntime — that all, as well as a few, might learn to read, and tried to realize\nhis thoughts in his own small circle of influence. As Emerson says :\n\" Every revolution was first a thought in one man's mind, and when the\nsame thought occurs to another man, it is the key to that era. Every\nreform was once a private opinion, and when it shall be a private opinion\nagain it will solve the problem of the age.\"\nWhy have we not already realized a musical atmosphere in America,\nincluding a governmentally endowed opera and orchestra ? Because,\nfirst, we are too young ; for we are yet but little more than an infant among\nthe nations, and this is most apparent in the domain of music. The comparison of a few dates will make this very plain. Our government may\nbe said to have actually begun when Washington was made president\nin 1789; Handel composed his oratorio the \"Messiah\" in 1741; Mozart\nwrote additional accompaniments for the \"Messiah\" and also his three\ngreatest symphonies, 1788 and i789,whileourfirst census was taken in 1790.\nThe Erie Canal was opened in 1825; Beethoven's great \"Choral Symphony\" was first performed in 1824. Thus you see that when the greatest composer the world has ever seen was closing his career, our nation\nhad not made a beginning in artistic music. It is well for us to recall\nalso that it is only about thirty years since Beethoven's symphonies\nreceived their first adequate performance in this country, and even yet the\nperformers and the conductors are not Americans. We forget the long\ncenturies of musical growth in Italy, Germany, and France; we forget the\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURPOSE\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n697\n\ntremendous influence exerted by the Roman Catholic church in her lavish\npatronage of architecture, sculpture, painting, and music.\nSecondly, we have not yet realized these great musical privileges\nbecause those who manage our affairs, including many of our most prominent educators, have never known the joy of participating in a musical\nperformance. They lack the heredity, the musical strain in the blood ;\nand they will always lack it until you and I get all the children to singing.\nUo you think it impossible ? No, not impossible if you will get down low\nenough. This I have proved to my satisfaction in the schools of two\nwell-known Massachusetts towns, and I can prove the same to you when\nyou can find time to investigate the living, breathing, singing evidence.\nDo you not see that, if the same could become true in every town and\ncity, but a generation or two will be required to make the change in this\ncountry, where centuries were required in the Old World ?\nI know of a concrete illustration of this principle: A teacher of penmanship of my acquaintance has held his position in a New England city\nfor many years. He is a faithful, competent teacher, who has done his\nwork well; nevertheless he has suffered much from scheming politicians\non the school board. At length some of his pupils came upon the stage\nof action as members of the board, and to their credit be it said that they\npromptly took care of their old teacher, because they knew his worth by\nexperience and not by hearsay. If the teachers of music in the public\nschools will make it their first business to get all the children to singing,\nwill give'them the joy of participating in a musical performance, the children, when they come upon the stage of action, will support by their influence, their money, and their votes all the interests of music. Not only\nthis, but you may realize something of the nature of a musical heredity\nduring your career, as I have in mine.\nChildren are unmusical, not so much because they are physically incapacitated asbecause they have wholly lacked a musical environment. The\nlittle boy or girl who first comes to school from such a home, and is taught\nto sing, becomes a musical missionary of the most effective kind. The\nsongs they learn at school they sing at home, and thus they create a\nmusical atmosphere. Baby brother or sister is lulled to sleep with the school\nsong; and lo ! when the baby reaches school age and is sent to your\nschool, you do not find a monotone as before ; your good work has already\nborne good fruit ; the little one can sing. Would that I could herald it\nfar and near through this good land of ours that a child's nmsical development begins with the lullaby sung by mother, sister, brother, or nurse.\nBut to get the children to singing is not all ; it is only the beginning.\nThe singing must be musical ; otherwise it will not command either the\nattention or the respect of the musical^Drofession. At present I fear the\naverage professional musician looks with something like disdain upon the\nwork of the public-school music teacher.\nIf this be so, it is because he\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbelieves that musical results are not evident ; that the singing is rather\nnoisy than musical. I cannot avoid the impression that this description of\npublic-school music is far too true, and that it is because the real purpose\nof public-school music has not been clearly seen. But are musical results\npossible where so many of the participants must be unmusical in both\nnature and voice? I answer that musical results are entirely possible, as\nmay be easily proved by visiting the schools of any supervisor who has\nbeen working for musical results. Let it be understood that in all concerted singing it is neither the poorest voice nor the best which is heard,\nbut what Mr. Damrosch has well called the composite voice, with which\nsurprisingly musical results can be accomplished if the teacher has the\nrequisite skill.\nBut what about musical technique — would you leave this important\nmatter out of the account? By no means; how can you teach music\nwithout it ? I would simply make it the means, not the end. I cannot\nescape the conviction that most public-school teachers have made it an\nend rather than a means ; hence the unmusical results and so many children\nshut out from music.\nI have said that the public schools are not conservatories of music from\nwhose doors should emerge a host of expert musicians. This is the\ntrouble with too many of us : we have been striving to realize conservatory\nresults from public-school conditions; therefore we have been off the\ntrack ; we have been working for results which are impossible to achieve in\nthis generation, with any except the very few. Look at the conditions for a\nmoment : classes of from thirty to sixty children, and at the very most not\nover twenty minutes a day devoted to music. How will you spend those\nprecious minutes — on the dry bones of musical theory, or in attempting\nto make soloists of the individual members of your class ? If so, you will\nyourself miss, and will at the same time rob the children of, a brief period\nof association with delightful music. Some day, if you and I do our\nduty, all these results in the line of individual musical intelligence will be\nrealized in the public school, but it will be when a musical atmosphere has\nbeen created, and when those who manage the schools will see more of\neducation in an hour of music than in an hour of struggle to find out\nthe value of an unknown\nwill be then.\n\nquantity — a thing which is as true now as it\n\nBut what about the ethical side of public-school music ? I must leave\nthat to ray colleague, contenting myself with one question, viz.: How can\nmusic have any ethical effect upon one who cannot tell the difference\nbetween *' Old Hundred\" and \"Yankee Doodle\"?\nTo sum it all up : The real purpose of teaching music in the public\nschools is not to make expert sight-singers nor individual soloists. I\nspeak from experience. I have done all these things, and I can do them\nagain; but I have learned that, if they become\nan end and not a\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPURPOSE\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n699\n\nmeans, they hinder rather than help, because they represent only the\nabilities of the few. A much nobler, grander, more inspiring privilege\nis yours and mine: to get the great mass to singing and to make them\nlove it. Let us look out with joy then upon our splendid task, and,\nlaying all personal consideration aside, build worthily and well upon\nthe foundation which has been laid by the noble men and women who\nhave preceded us and who have made our opportunity possible.\n\nII\nMISS MARY\n\nMACSKIMMON,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF PIERCE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBROOKLINE,\n\nMASS.\n\nIt is now two generations since music gained its recognized place in\nthe schools of this our city whose musical inheritance descended from the\n\"Old Bay Psalm Book.\" We owe this debt largely to Mr. William C.\nWoodbridge, whose splendid work thru the American Annals of Instruction, based upon his observation of school music and folk songs in\nGermany and Switzerland, forced upon public attention the service that\nmusic might render in translating into the life of the American school\nthe Pestalozzian principle of development. There was infinite gain to the\nschool system thru this entrance of music, but nothing comparable in value\nwith this idea, that the character of the nation was to be elevated by music.\nMartin Luther has said : \"The youth must always be accustomed to\nthis art, for it makes good and virtuous citizens.\" During the sixty-five\nyears that music has been a recognized branch of work in the school\ncourse we have proffered almost every other reason for teaching music,\nrather than dare to claim the noble one whose behests it is our plain duty\nto follow. We have claimed great benefit to accrue to the child thru the\npower of music in training observation, or judgment, or memory.\nIndeed, the heavenly maid has been called upon to do the drudgery of\nthe maid of all work for the other branches of the course of study. \"Oh,\nhave you heard geography sung,\" and the multiplication tables set to a\njingle, were some of many such devices to sugar-coat the pill which our\nignorance of the child's nature was constantly forcing upon him.\nThis great ethical principle of development, the awakening of the\nchild's possibilities, the fostering of every impulse of the higher nature,\nthe nurture and encouragement of the good to the exclusion and atrophy\nof the evil — this was the great principle for which Mr. Woodbridge\npleaded so well and which, radiating from him in a vast wave, reached\nother men, making them his followers ; so that the practical solution of\nmusic's place in education was won among thoughtful men and women\neverywhere. Nor did the principle of*development end with music. It\nspread thence thru the other branches of study, and the Pestalozzian\nbeauty and dignity were felt to the circumference of educational work.\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "700\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThis masterful power of music to awaken and strengthen those\nimpulses that lead to high and noble endeavor was not the discovery of\nour modern American philosophers, nor of the Middle Age prophet\nLuther. To that nation, the discovery of whose long-forgotten treasures\nof glorious literature gave us the new birth in art and letters thruout\nChristendom — the Renaissance — to that grand people, the Greeks, we\nowe the highest appreciation of the great, true use of music. Plato and\nAristotle each taught the importance of the cultivation of the emotions.\nThis education, thru music, of the aesthetic nature was not only an end in\nitself, but was the indispensable basis of all moral and religious culture.\nWe of today do not deny the value of music as intellectual training, but\nwe are beginning to realize its far nobler work in cultivating right feeling— the guide and soul of all our moral being.\nIn this age of vast material prosperity, of keen competition among\nequals, and of the relentless thrusting to the wall of inferiors, of expansion of trade and of fierce fighting for barbaric luxury, the social conscience of man needs awakening, and the human spirit as never before\nneeds to be brought into the shining presence of the eternal verities of\npeace and faith and simple goodness. The fortune of the republic is in\nthe hands of the schools. It is there that boys and girls must get the high\nvision of strong and purposeful living. As in the days of old, the voice\nof God comes not in whirlwind of contending sects wrangling over a\ncourse of study in morals ; nor in the thunder of opposing schemes for\ninstruction in ethics. It is in the still, small voice of music, waiting at\nthe threshold of every little schoolhouse in our land.\nWe have long known that in order to make an impulse permanent we\nmust give it expression in some form. Our Puritan training is yet strong\nin one form in us all, regardless of youth or age. We shrink from\nexpressing our emotions in words. When this emotion is wedded to the\nrhythm of a poem, and set to true music, the natural expression is found\nthat reacts upon the feeling and makes it permanent.\nWe have all seen a noisy, disorderly class-room, where the air seemed\nto grow thick and dark, as with mutterings of an approaching storm,\nchange as completely as a mountain lake changes when the angry storm\ncloud passes, and the June sun smiles over it in joyous splendor. So has\nchanged the troubled spirit of those children, when the gentle music of a\nsong breathed its blessing over them, and to whose peace-bringing\ninfluence they responded as sweetly as tired flowers drink in the rain after\nthe thirsty dust of a midsummer's blazing heat. We have seen rough lads\ngrow gentle in word and manner, in response to the pure, sweet tone\ngained in a music lesson, where the teacher made the simplest singing\nmusic instead of measured noise. This is even now a daily miracle, but\nwe are only as yet on the outer wall of the palace we might enter.\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nGEORGE\n\nMUSIC— HAS\n\nMUSIC— HAS\n\nW. WILMOT,\n\nIT MADE\n\nMUSIC\n\nIT MADE\nI\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF MUSIC,\n\nREADERS?\n\nMUSIC\n\nNEW\n\n701\n\nREADERS?\n\nBRUNSWICK,\n\nN. J.\n\nMy paper is entitled, \"School Music — Has it Made Music Readers?\"\nMy answer is in the negative. School music, as it has been generally\ntaught in the public schools, has not made music readers. If you will\npardon some personal allusions, I will give you some of my reasons for\nso saying: I have been a choirmaster for twenty years, and in all of that\ntime I have never had a singer that was a music reader. I have been the\nleader of one of our college glee clubs for a number of years, and there\nI have never found a music reader. I have conducted choral societies in\na number of places for several years, and have never had a chorus that\ncould take an ordinarily difficult piece of music and read it at sight, with\nall of the parts, without a piano, and without trying over the parts first.\nIn my choir work the fact that all of the singers had been pupils in\nthe same schools would perhaps have led me to think that the fault lay in\nthe system employed in those particular schools; but in my college work\nthe same argument would not hold, because the young men come from all\nparts of the country, and a great many of them have been educated in the\npublic schools. I might have thought that I had found all of the dull\nones ; but, as a matter of fact, these young men are chosen for glee-club\nwork because they are naturally musical. If these gifted ones have not\nlearned to read music in the public schools, in what condition are the\nmusically dull ones ?\nI think the work of a choral society is a very fair example of the\nresults of the work of the public schools in sight-reading. In most\nchoral societies the greater part of the time is taken up with the purely\nmechanical part of the work — that is, learning the notes — leaving very\nlittle time for the artistic part.\nWhat do we hear when we go to church ? We hear a very large number\nof the men and women singing the melody in octaves, and I have often\nsat in church and heard a lady on one side of me trying to improvise an\nalto ; behind me, two men, one trying to improvise a tenor, the other a\nbass part. This picture, I am sorry to say, is not overdrawn. You may\nhear such singing in any church, on any Sunday.\nConsidering that music has been taught in the public schools in my\npart of the country for fourteen years and that a large number of the pupils\nwho have taken the music course are grown up and are very largely the\nattendants at the churches, why should we hear such singing ? I think\nbut one answer can be given : They do not know how to read music, in\nspite of their public-school training; and if they do not know how to\nread music after from six to twelve years of school life, then there has\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o 2\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Music\n\nbeen something wrong with the system of teaching school music. I am\naware of the fact that there are a great many people who say they can\nread vocal music at sight, but in a great many cases their reading is what\nhas been called \"clever guessing.\"\nWhat is sight reading ? I should call a person a sight-reader who can\ntake an ordinarily difficult piece of music — for instance, a four-part\nsong — and sing his own part fairly correctly the first time, without\nassistance in any way, and without accompaniment. Why should we not\nexact the same standard in reading for a singer as for a pianist or a\nviolinist? We do not expect the violinist to have any outside aid, when\nhe plays a piece of music at first sight ; then why the singer ?\nIn visiting schools, I have found that the teacher almost invariably\nattempts to demonstrate the children's musical powers by class singing of\nsongs. That children can be taught to sing songs very nicely without any\nknowledge of music is a fact known to all; but what I wished to discover\nwas their real knowledge of music. This information can be obtained only\nby individual singing; but, for some reason, such a test, except in a few\ncases, was never given for me. This absence of individual singing may be\ncaused by fear of criticism on the part of the grade teacher; if that is not\nthe cause, then there is but one other conclusion to which I can come :\nthe pupil is unable to read music at sight alone; and if he cannot read it\nalone, I fail to see its use to him.\nI see no reason why the small child should not understand the first\nprinciples of music, if they are presented to him in a simple, straightforward manner, and one thing at the time, not giving him a half-dozen\nthings to think oi at the same time. It has always seemed to me that it\nis too much to expect the child of seven or eight years to understand that\na quarter note, a half note, an eighth note, or a whole note can each stand\nfor a beat; and that, when a half note is a beat, a quarter note is a half\nbeat; that when an eighth note is a beat, a sixteenth is a half beat, etc.\nTeaching music in classes has been one of the principal drawbacks to\nsuccessful sight-reading. We do not teach the child his ordinary reading\nby letting him read in concert with others, and not have him make any\nindividual effort unless he so chooses. Then why do we expect a child to\nlearn to read music by this method ?\nWe hear a great deal about the artistic side of school music, and it is\nundoubtedly a very important part of the work; but I think we often\nforget that the child must learn to read music fluently, before he can sing\nunderstandingly, and either appreciate or enjoy the artistic side; just as a\nchild must learn to read fluently before he can enjoy his story-book. And\nyet the child is often expected to do artistic singing before he has\nmastered even the elements of sight-reading.\nPeople often tell me that school music is not artistic, and I never try\nto argue that it is, because it is not, judged from the standard of a\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC— HAS\n\nIT MADE\n\nMUSIC\n\nREADERS?\n\n703\n\ntrained musician. The children's efforts in music are no more artistic\nthan are their first attempts in drawing.\nOur business is first to give the children the necessary knowledge and\nskill to use their tools — which is the ability to read music; afterwards,\nthe benefit of our own artistic training and experience ; and then we may\nexpect artistic results from the upper-grade classes.\nIt has always seemed to me that too much has been done for the children, instead of by the children. We should teach a child a principle,\nand then let him go alone; if he stumbles, take him back to the principle,\nand then let him try again. There is always a great temptation to help a\nclass or an individual over a hard place by doing the work for him ; but\nit is ruinous to the pupil, and is an impulse we should fight against; for\nthe pupil only stumbles again when he meets the same difficulty.\nIf the individual cannot read music independently, as an individual,\nthe class cannot do intelligent, artistic work as a class. It has often been\nsaid to me by a grade teacher: \"This child is not interested in his\nmusic.\" When I have inquired, \"Is he up in his music?\" the answer has\nbeen almost invariably, \"No.\" In that answer I had the key to the situation: the child did not care for music because he did not know music, and\nhe did not know music because he had not received enough individual\nattention. My experience has been that a child likes to do that which he\nknows how to do well. I see no other way except to work with the\nindividual. I believe that at least four-fifths of the time allowed for music\nshould be devoted to individual work.\nI believe that every pupil should have the chance to sing alone every\nday. I have found the individual work of immense value in eliminating\nso-called monotones. I have several cases in mind. One of these is of\na boy who had been in school for five years and never sung. He had\nalways been considered a monotone, and was told to sit still and listen.\nHe obeyed religiously, but he did not learn to sing, and never would, by\nlistening to others. He never showed the slightest interest in his music\nwork; but after three months of individual work he can sing four tones\nof the scale in tune and is intensely interested. If a supposed monotone\ncan accomplish as much in four months, what could he not have\naccomplished in his previous five years, if he had received individual\nattention for that length of time ? This is but one of many cases.\nIn visiting schools I have often seen, in a class of forty, six or eight\nso-called monotones sitting together and doing nothing. The teacher has\nsaid to them every day: \"You cannot sing, so you must listen.\" The\nchildren have listened, but have not learned to sing, any more than they\nwould learn to read by simply hearing the others read. But what an\nabsurd position to take ! Because the ch^ld cannot sing the tone correctly\nthe first time, or even the fiftieth time, must he sit still and never make an\neffort ? And yet this very thing is done in scores of places today.\nIf a\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\npupil is dull in arithmetic, do we tell him to stop work and watch the\nothers work their examples, and perhaps, some day, he will learn how to\ndo them by looking on ? No we do not; we give the dull pupils the most\nattention; weknow they will not learn by simply looking on; then why\nexpect to teach music in that manner ?\nSupervisors and musicians in general are largely to blame for the\nstrange ideas a great many people have about music. They think of music\nas being a mysterious sort of something, to be comprehended by only a\nfavored few, and that the laws governing the teaching of music are\nmysterious and intangible, and not at all the same laws that govern the\nteaching of other subjects. It is time that such nonsense was abandoned,\nand music taught by common-sense methods. I do not wish to disparage\nthe splendid work that some of our supervisors are doing, but we all know\nthat there are a great many places where the music-teaching is a sham,\nand where the only results are the singing of a few songs on special\noccasions, with no real knowledge beneath.\nOf course, we cannot make of everyone a great musician, but we can\ngive pupils a good working knowledge of music; and that is all that can\nbe expected in the public schools.\nWhat is the cause of the difficulty experienced in getting boys and girls\nof from thirteen to sixteen years of age to sing alone ? Why do they hang\ntheir heads and become embarressed if asked to sing a short passage\nalone ? They do not act in this manner if asked to read a sentence out of\na book. What is the reason they are afraid to hear their singing voice,\nand are not afraid to hear their speaking voice ? Simply because they have\nbeen required to stand on their feet every day and read out of a book,\nfrom their first year in school, and hear the sound of their own speakihg\nvoice; they are familiar with it; but they are strangers to their singing\nvoice, and always will be if they sing only as a class. They should hear\ntheir own singing voice every day, and get as accustomed to hearing it as\nto hearing their own speaking voice, and they will no longer be ashamed\nto sing alone. I do not ^^ish to give the impression that I think class\nwork should be abandoned ; it is very valuable ; in fact, it is indispensable ;\nbut I do think that four-fifths of the time should be given to individual\nwork, especially in the first five grades.\nAs large a percentage of the children can be taught to read music as\nto read print; but not by depending on their neighbor's leadership. It\nis no great credit to us to develop only the brightest children in the class\nin any subject, including music. The bright ones will develop themselves\nwith very little help ; let us get at the dull ones. Then, when we have\nbrought them up where they should be as individuals, when they can\nstand alone, and we do not have to drag them along, either by our own\nefforts or by the means of leaders, we shall have good and intelligent class\nsinging, and not before.\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC— HAS\n\nIT MADE\n\nMUSIC\n\nREADERS?\n\n7o5\n\nThe training of the grade teacher, under present conditions, is a\nproblem. Most of the normal schools do not give their pupils enough\ninstruction in music to make them competent to teach the subject. What\nshall we do about it, and how shall we best train our teachers under the\npresent conditions ? These are questions very difficult to answer. I should\nlike very much to hear the opinions of my brother supervisors on the\nsubject. I hold grade meetings frequently, and try to instill the principles\nof music into the teacher's minds, and also to show the best way to present\nthese principles to the children; and then, of course, they have to go alone.\nI hope the time will soon come when we shall have a larger proportion\nof the people music readers ; it will mean much for the development of\nmusic in this country. And I think, if we do earnest, honest work, that\nmusic will not be looked upon as a sort of frill, to be tolerated, but not to\nbe considered by any means as important as any other subject taught in\nschool.\nIt is the part of the supervisor to place it on a high level.\nWhen educators see that we are in earnest, and our results are equal\nto the results in other subjects, they will no longer place music at the\nbottom of the list of subjects necessary to an education, but rather near\nthe head of the list.\nII\nRALPH\n\nL. BALDWIN,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nMUSIC,\n\nNORTHAMPTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nIn its educational aspects music is to be considered as a language, an\nart, and a science. Being elementary instruction, public-school teaching\nis engaged chiefly with music as a language and as an art. In our treatment of the subject of music instruction in public schools we must\nremember the truth that from language is born art, which could not exist\nwithout it; which maybe amplified to mean that there can be no art\nwithout language, and that a true appreciation of art is dependent in large\nmeasure upon the knowledge of the language. Rubinstein wisely said :\n\"The study of the musical language is like that of all other languages.\nHe who learns it in his infancy can become master of it, but at an advanced\nage it is almost impossible to acquire it.\"\nOne would be led to suppose, then, that the first step in musical\ninstruction should be the teaching of the language, its sounds and signs,\nthoroly. But this is not always the case in public-school work. The great\nstress, in many places, is laid on the attempt to teach music as an art\nto the exclusion of language-teaching. This calls for a consideration of\nthe relative importance in early instruction of the mechanical and aesthetic phases of music. Both are important and essential, but the language\nis fundamental. The aesthetic must fallow the mechanical. Many\nteachers assert that we must avoid the mechanical side, the study of scale,\ntone, and time, and teach the beautiful in music; that the child must not be\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nallowed to struggle with the dry problems of musical notation, but that the\naesthetic nature of the child must be awakened. It has even been advanced\nthat it is not worth while teaching children to read music, because they\nwill forget it after leaving school.\nLet us restore the equilibrium and find the true relationship between\nthe mechanical and the aesthetic. We know best and enjoy most those\nthings which we can do. The person who can read music is more interested in it, and led to make more of a study of it, than the one who has\nnot mastered the language. Much less would be our enjoyment of good\nliterature were we dependent upon someone else to do our reading!\nI reason that the language must precede the art, as learning to read\nEnglish precedes the true appreciation of literature. The spire of the\ncathedral is not a part of the initial construction, but the foundation is\nfirst laid deep and strong. A true appreciation of the artistic and aesthetic\nside of music is largely dependent upon a knowledge of the mechanical.\nTherefore it seems that the language should be taught first and taught\nthoroly.\nHas school music made music readers ; that is, has it taught the language ? Now, what shall be our standard of measure? I maintain that\nit should be the ability of the individual to sing, and to read and write the\nlanguage with facility equal to that which he possesses in reading and\nwriting English or any other language. The success of any system of\npublic instruction must be measured by its ability to develop the individual. This in many cases is overlooked in music. If schools are able to\nsing songs well in chorus for exhibition, the system is acknowledged a\nsuccess. It does not suffice in English that a child is taught to speak; he\nmust also read and write; and the success is not measured by the ability\nof the class to read in concert. But in music we are satisfied if the pupils\nsing, and we do not stop to examine the individuals as to their ability to\nread and write the music language. As to the standard, I believe nine\ngrades of public-school music should produce 80 or 90 per cent, of\nthe pupils able to read and sing music at sight and alone. If this were\nthe case, those pupils in concert would be able to read at sight many of\nthe oratorio choruses. Other results, such as knowledge of harmony and\nmusical history, I shall not discuss, as it is not within the scope of this\nsubject.\nAre we producing any such results in the mastery of the language ?\nI think our work of today in schools generally is open to a scathing\narraignment on this ground. There are few systems that can actually\nshow 25 per cent, of results measured by this standard. In many places\nthe language work in music is a farce, both as regards results obtained and\nmethods of teaching pursued. Give a test to ninth-grade classes or to\ngraduating classes in high schools — such a test as that given in English\nin this state to seekers after work certificates (fourth-grade standard);\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC— HAS\n\nIT MADE\n\nMUSIC\n\nREADERS?\n\n70?\n\nnamely, a new piece of music to read at sight and alone. Sing a fournieasure music sentence and have it written. I dare to affirm that 25 per\ncent, correct results would be above the usual percentage. The class may\nbe able to sing in chorus if propped up by a strong leader and a loud\npiano accompaniment, but how will the class or the entire school read at\nsight ? Further evidence of the failure of the schools to teach the language can be found in any singing society, chorus choir, church\ncongregation, or Sunday school. Give your average church choir a new\nanthem by Stainer. Sound the keynote, and have the anthem read at\nsight a cappella, and note the result, especially if the music is contrapuntal.\nPublic schools are teaching singing or teaching songs, but are not\nproperly or thoroly or seriously teaching the language, at least as results\nindicate. This is further shown by normal-school examinations, and by\nobservations and tests given by college instructors. A system of teaching\nthe English language which produces but 25 per cent, results in independent reading and writing would not be tolerated an instant ; yet this is\nthe condition probably in the vast majority of places in this country where\nmusic is taught in schools. Moreover, teachers in music conservatories,\ninstructors in colleges, and instrumental teachers complain of the lack of\near-training, and the absence of knowledge of fundamental principles of\ntime and musical notation on the part of pupils who come to them from\nthe public schools.\nI shall not attempt to present a panacea for all the ills which produce\nthis condition, but rather to call attention to some of the primary causes.\nOne chief cause seems to be the lack of system in the presentation of the\nsubject, as to the simplification and classification of the main essentials and\nfundamental principles, and as to the logical and reasonable arrangement\nOif these principles in the course of study. Much of the theory concerning\nkeys, key signatures, and scale structure needs to be simplified for presentation to primary grades, and analysis avoided. Our complicated and\ncumbersome system of time symbols needs simplification. Time teaching\nby analysis should be superseded by teaching by imitation. Time in\nmusic, as generally considered, is motion reduced to law. Specify what\nmotions are fundamental, and teach those by imitation, giving to each at\nthe outset but one symbol for its representation. Many things are done\nin musical instruction that are pedagogically wrong, owing to lack of\nknowledge of the real fundamentals of our own subject and poor discernment of the mental capabilities of the child. Hours are spent at the outset\nin attempting to teach the theory of musical notation, requiring analytical\npower to understand; questions relating to keys, scale structure, time and\nrhythm, which later can be grasped in a single lesson. Is it commonsense to attempt to teach a first primary grade tetrachords and expect sixyear-old children to comprehend them?\n\nIf possible, of what advantage\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nis it ? The language needs serious study on the part of the supervisors\nfor simplification. Then there is urgent need of a better arrangement of\nprinciples and an adjustment to the possibilities of the child. There\nshould be a clearly defined, logical, and progressive outline of principles\nto be presented which should be plainly understood by Ihe teachers.\nFifth-grade teachers know, for example, what principles in arithmetic\nthey are to develop, but I dare say they are not so sure of the exact music\nprinciples they are expected to teach.\nAllow me to suggest some more specific causes which militate against\na successful mastery of the language. There is too much teaching of songs\nof the rote-song order, and too little teaching of principles and their\napplication. If school music is to result in sight-reading of the language,\nthere must be practice in sight-reading. Part-singing is introduced too\nearly, before pupils can even read readily a single melody. One of the\nprincipal causes which prevent successful results in reading is that which\nteaches dependence instead of independence. But over and beyond all\ncauses is the failure to teach music individually, as every other subject is\ntaught. Not until this antiquated and uneducational method of class\ninstruction and concert recitation is supplanted largely by individual\ntraining can we expect any considerable improvement in the results of\nteaching the language of music.\nThe advancement of the art in this country is conditional largely upon\nthe work in the public schools. From the ranks of the public schools are\nto come our future composers, performers, teachers, members of singing\nsocieties and choirs, and above all the support of musical enterprises. If,\ninstead of 20 or 25 per cent., 80 or 90 per cent, master the language of\nmusic, the art in this country will be stimulated and supported as it never\nhas been in the past ; and for this we are directly responsible.\n\nMUSIC\nEUGENE\n\nAS A SUBJECT\nD. RUSSELL,\n\nTO BE COUNTED\nCOLLEGE\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF CLASSICAL\n\nFOR\nHIGH\n\nADMISSION\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLYNN,\n\nTO\n\nMASS.\n\nSince at creation's dawn the morning stars sang together, music has\nentered into the life of gods and men alike — of divine accomplishments\nthe most human, of human the most divine. Apollo's gift of the lyre to\nman has been more potent to raise him from the savage state of the race's\ninfancy than has Prometheus' stolen fire. Without it, mute and inglorious\nhad been the bard by seven cities claimed, the sweet singer of Israel, and\nall the sacred brotherhood which, of every race and in every clime, has\nstruck from the hard flint of human experience the intellectual spark that\nkindled the fires sacred to the Muses. Difficult as it is to conceive of\nliterature originating in any other way than it did — i. e., from minstrelsy\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nCOUNTED\n\nFOR\n\nADMISSION\n\nTO COLLEGE\n\n709\n\n— Still less can we conceive of a religion, pagan or Christian, destitute of\nmusic. Strip mythology of the lyre and pipe, the Hebrew sacred feasts\nof the harp and psaltery, the Christian cathedral of its chimes and organ,\nand all, of the solemn chants and psalms of praise, and religion would be\ndeprived of its main avenue of approach to the emotions. In war, no\nvictory was ever won without music either to inspire or to reward the\nvictor. In peace, David lays aside the buckler for the harp. In short,\nmusic tempered to his needs has at all times and in all places put man in\ncloser harmony with the mood that sways him, whether merry or sad,\ndevout or wanton. He was a philosopher, then, who said: *'Let me\nmake the songs of a nation, I care not who makes the laws.\" No wonder\nthat Plato, in the Republic and later in the Laws, makes music one of the\nfundamentals in the education of youth. Their education should begin,\nhe argues, with grammar and letters; afterward the use of the lyre and\ngrave and simple melodies should be taught them ; and their education\nshould conclude with the rudiments of science.\nNow, if music plays so important a part in the drama we call life, are\nwe giving it due prominence in our scheme of education, considering that\neducation is a preparation for the enjoyment of rational existence ? This\nbrings us to the theme we are here to discuss : \"Music as a Subject to be\nCounted for Admission to College.\"\nHarvard College, which under the guidance of President Eliot always\nleads in educational progress, has added to its list df elective admission\nrequirements harmony and counterpoint, each to count two points toward\nthe twenty-six demanded for admission. This means that the corresponding courses, now given in the college, may be anticipated by the candidate\nand credited to him in meeting admission requirements. The significance\nof this act is great. It is a proclamation to the educational world that the\nstudy of music, at least of harmony and counterpoint, may well occupy\nthe attention, not only of the few who wish to specialize, but of the many\nwho seek culture and self-mastery. Taken with what it presupposes, it is\nthe twentieth-century recognition of a vital factor in Greek civilization —\nthe civilization which has dominated all subsequent civilizations.\nOur first impulse is one of exultation and thanksgiving. We would\nvote another crown for the head of that educational imperialist who still\nfinds worlds to conquer. But we have suffered beneficence from the same\nsource before. We are, for instance, still wrestling with Harvard's \"new\ndefinitions.\"\nSo we examine somewhat cautiously the proffered boon.\nIf the study of harmony and counterpoint will be available and attract\npupils of the secondary schools in numbers, the study and what it stands\nfor on the art side will prove a blessing to all, salvation to the musical\nwho would enter college, a welcome Addition to the program-maker's\ntask, and an unbegrudged levy on the taxpayer. But if the study is not\navailable, if it attracts only the few who would specialize, it will prove for\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthe program-maker and the taxpayer a white elephant, and for the interests\nof education and music a delusion.\nThe courses in Harvard which this requirement anticipates occupy in\nthe college program two years of three hours per week. This means\ndouble that time in the secondary schools, where the average pupil sets\nthe pace and must stand or fall on the result of a single examination at\nadmission, and hence must be given thoro drill and frequent reviews. So\nto obtain the four points' credit given to harmony and counterpoint as\nmuch time, or more, must be given as to obtain four points in other\nsubjects. This means that schools must provide additional instruction\namounting to twelve hours a week. Hence the introduction of these\ncourses will be unpopular with the taxpayers. But still this objection can\nbe overcome if there is a demand for the introduction.\nMoreover, twelve hours must be provided for in the already complicated\ndaily program. This means that the difficulties of program-making in\navoiding conflicts between the recitations of groups of pupils who always\nmake all the combinations, in any election scheme, that mathematics\nallows, will be increased. Hence the introduction will be unpopular with\nheads of schools. But this objection also can be overcome, if there is a\ndemand for the introduction.\nThe framers of the requirement undoubtedly assumed that hand in\nhand with the study of harmony and counterpoint in school would go the\nstudy of piano, organ, or some solo instrument out of school, and that\nPlato's ideal, ''the lyre and grave and simple melodies,\" would be gained\nby indirection. But pupils are overworked now, and almost without\nexception drop music lessons and practice when they decide to fit for\ncollege ; and I have already shown that the new requirement as a substitute\ndoes not economize time. This means that comparatively few pupils will\nbe able to find the time to take the music requirement, loaded as it is\nwith uncredited out-of-school demands. Hence classes will be very small.\nThis objection will be found insurmountable, as it takes away the demand\nfor the introduction of the study.\nIs it likely, then, that the public schools will find the present music\nrequirement available, or that, outside of a few wealthy communities, any\ntrial will be given it ? My own answer to the question is : I doubt if the\nproposed requirement is available, and I feel that a condition in our\nsystem of education that I have long regarded as intolerable is not\nrelieved in the slightest degree. I believe that the cultivation of music\nshould be fostered in every way consistent with sound educational\nprinciples, and I think that boys and girls of great musical promise should\nnot be compelled, as they are now, to choose between music on the one\nhand and letters and science on the other, but should find it possible,\nuntil they reach the professional stage of their education, to carry along\nthe three side by side.\nI am grieved to see a youth with great musical\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nCOUNTED\n\nFOR\n\nADMISSION\n\nTO COLLEGE\n\n71I\n\npossibilities immolate his talent on the altar of a liberal education, while, in\nview of the importance of a liberal education, I am equally grieved to see\na youth of good intellectual parts wedded in his educational teens to any\njealous mistress, since when too late, he may discover that youthful impulse\nled to an unfortunate union. I contend that the system of education that\nforces this immature choice and robs the victim of his birthright is faulty,\nand I shall attempt to outline a possible escape from the dilemma.\nAltho I recognize the value of vocal music and the mastery of any of\nthe solo instruments, still I place the piano before all as the instrument\nthat may well form the foundation of any and all specialization in music,\nbecause its mastery depends less on special talent than that of other\ninstruments — as, for example, an absolutely accurate ear in violin playing and singing — because it offers a wider scope for the study of\nharmony and has a richer literature of compositions, and because it is,\nwith the exception of the voice, the most widely distributed instrument.\nNow, probably two-thirds of the pupils who would naturally take a college\npreparatory course are taking piano lessons on entering the high school.\nThey rarely continue them beyond the first year. To be sure, a considerable number who have musical ambition drop into easier courses or out\nof school altogether. But of those who persist in fitting for the colleges\nof high requirements, few find that they can carry on their preparation for\ncollege and music lessons and practice at the same time. If, however,\nthese elementary music lessons can be made the basis of an elementary\nentrance requirement of two points, as reckoned at Harvard, the best\ninterests of music can be conserved, the coming generation of musicians\nwill not be debarred from a college education, the courses in harmony and\ncounterpoint will attract students in numbers, and no insupportable hardship will be imposed upon the schools. We in the schools shall have\nmerely to arrange for the supervision of outside instruction in order to\ngive it credit toward obtaining the school diploma; for it would, of course,\nbe given the value of some elective of the present school program. That\ndifficulties will be encountered here I am sure, but not severe, not insurmountable. That school authorities, aided by the school instructor of\nmusic and reinforced by college specifications and definitions, can accomplish this I do not doubt. In any case, the colleges can protect themselves against inadequate preparation, for they will have in their own\nhands the setting of the examination. Let the requirement be proficiency\nin playing on the piano, both difficult compositions prescribed for\nmastery and unprescribed simple compositions for sight-reading, together\nwith so much of the theory and history of music as should accompany\neven an elementary course of piano lessons. This requirement could\nstand in the relation of an elementary subject to harmony or counterpoint, just as elementary algebra, physic^, and French, for example, stand\nto advanced algebra, physics, and French.\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nHere the colleges can help us and serve their own interests as well, if\namong the subjects set for admission elementary music is given a place;\nif, for instance, it can be offered in place of physics, or history, or any one\nof the optional subjects. Before any such substitution can be allowed, it\nmust be shown and admitted that music, as I am considering it now, is a\nfair substitute for the optional subject, and that it can be made the basis\nof an adequate examination.\nOn the first point, I submit that in acquiring the ability to play at\nsight on the piano compositions of average difficulty much the same\npowers of discrimination, comparison, and combination are called into\nplay that the sight translation of a language demands, while the power of\nexpression and interpretation, depending in part upon phrasing and\nshading, affords as wide a field for independent judgment and choice as\nany translation; and, further, the elaborating of a theme or motif offers\nmuch the same opportunity for developing the power to express original\nideas without violating fixed conventions of expression that written composition offers. It would, of course, be absurd to claim that music can take\nthe place of all language study, but I do claim that where five languages,\nall imperfectly learned, are now accepted for admission, the discipline to\nbe obtained from music is not so different or so inferior to that obtained\nfrom the fifth language that it may not take its place in the education of\nsome pupils. And I deny that the number of such pupils is extremely\nlimited, or that the limitation due to incapacity need be greater than in\nmany other subjects.\nThe technical skill required to manipulate the' keys, carrying along as\nmany as four parts, often intricate and involved, is in itself no mean training of hand and eye, while the mental process involved in transferring the\nscore from eye to hand — one of mathematical exactness and lightning\nrapidity — has no counterpart in language.\nMusic offers, moreover, a substitute for literature and history in the\nstudy of its famous compositions, the biographies of distinguished composers, and the story of its development as an art. It has a culture side\nas well. I am not sure that ignorance of the masterpieces of music should\nbe any more excusable than ignorance of literary masterpieces, at least to\nthe extent of recognizing them when rendered. We might easily enlarge\nupon this side of the subject, designating music as the universal language,\nread and known of all men, and appealing to what is best in all; but we\nhave yet to consider the second point.\nCertainly examination papers can be set on the theoretical, biographical, and historical sides of music as readily as in mathematics and history;\nwhile the test of technical skill is no more difficult to make than that now\ngiven in laboratory physics. Ten minutes at the piano for each candidate\nwould suffice to show his ability to read at sight, and also to interpret set\ncompositions requiring careful study.\nFor I should suppose that, just as\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nAS\n\nPART\n\nOF\n\nLIFE\n\n7^\n\nsome books in English are prescribed for careful study, so certain classic\ncompositions would be prescribed for thoro master)^ in addition to the\nunprescribed elementary work necessary to attain the power of reading at\nsight.\nOne other question may be raised here : Can any of the present\nrequirements be given up to make room for music ? The present\nrequirements seek two ends : first and foremost the development of\nmental power ; and, secondly, the grounding of the pupil either in subjects to be continued in college, but in which elementary instruction is\nnot given by the college — e. g., Greek and Latin — or in subjects leading\nto allied subjects in the college curriculum — e. g., algebra, physics, and\nhistory. The first end has been considered already to some length, and\nthe second requires a brief consideration only. All colleges have elementary classes in the subjects required for admission, except Latin, Greek,\nEnglish history, algebra, and geometry. Now, there is no reason in the\nnature of subsequent work in college why anyone of these, or history or\nGreek as well, may not be postponed till entrance, provided something\ntakes its place that affords a like means of mental discipline.\nIt is obvious that it would not be wise to make music a prescribed\nrequirement, for that would make the schools directly responsible for\npreparation in it, and we seek no increase in the number of subjects\nwhich the public schools may be required to teach. But it would be wise\nand beneficial if preparation in music, which parents would gladly undertake independently of the public schools, or gladly pay extra for at the\nprivate schools, should be recognized as an option in admission requirements. Then it will be possible to continue music lessons out of school.\nSupplementing these lessons, the majority of girls and many boys will be\nable and eager to take harmony in school in completing their preparation\nfor college. Thus the demand for the introduction of harmony will be\nimperative.\nIn conclusion, if the harmony and counterpoint option offered by\nHarvard is to be made available, if it is to prove other than a Tantalus\ncup to our thirsty lips, the college must go a step farther than its present\nproposition : it must give recognition to what we can offer, namely,\nelementary music; and then we can hope in time to enjoy the full\nmeasure of the benefaction.\n\nMUSIC\nFRANK\n\nDAMROSCH,\n\nAS PART\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nLIFE\n\nMUSIC,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nThe question today is not: What qjethod shall we employ in teaching\nmusic in schools? Volumes have been written, thousands of debates\nhave been held, bitter warfare has been waged on the subject (the latter\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Music\n\nchiefly by rival publishers of text-books) ; and the result is that today\npractically all the principal methods of teaching in vogue in the United\nStates are good — that is, based on sound psychological and pedagogical\nprinciples — and are applied by means of carefully arranged textbooks\ncontaining, for the most part, good or fairly good musical material.\nNor are teachers lacking who have been well trained to do their work, at\nleast in so far as the methods of teaching are concerned ; the real musical\nequipment is often deficient. The question at issue is a much deepen\none, namely: How shall music become a part of the life of the individual,\nthe home, the school, the college, the community, and the nation ?\nIn its highest function, music is a language, the language of the feelings, of the spiritual and of the ideal in man. Where words end music\nbegins. We cannot express ourselves in a language with which we are\nunfamiliar. What wonder, then, that our deepest feelings, our highest\naspirations, often fail of expression, because our only, poor method is\nspeech, while music, the only adequate medium, is either unknown to us\nor so slightly known that we have only a superficial, smattering acquaintance with it ?\nThose who have tried to learn a foreign language know that the\neasiest and best way to learn it is to live among people who speak it ; the\nmost difficult is to learn it, unaided, from books. In order to enter into\nthe spirit of a language it is nec-essary to know its idioms, to live in its\natmosphere, so to speak. Similarly, in order to make music our true\nlanguage, we must live in an atmosphere of music ; we must hear it and\nuse it constantly ; it must become a second mother-tongue. K mothertongue ! That means that we must begin in the cradle. Blessed the\nchild whose mother sings him to sleep ! His ear will never lack the\npower to appreciate musical sounds. His voice will begin early to\nimitate, and thus produce correct musical intonation. We must, therefore, train the mothers of the future to sing correctly and with a sweet,\nmusical tone ; and, above all, we must teach them to discriminate between\nthe good and the commonplace, the true and the false, between sentiment\nand sentimentality, i r: equipped, the child at school will have no\ndifficulty in learning to read, to spell, and to write music properly, in\norder that he may proceed to acquire independently all that is beautiful\nand appropriate to his heart and mind.\nHere, again, it is essential that the teacher should have true musical\nculture. The influence of music in the school must be refining and\nelevating. Many teachers believe that because the child of the tenement\nsings music-hall and street songs he cares only for this so-called popular\nmusic, and they permit such songs to be used in the school. Yet even\nsuch a teacher would hesitate to use a dime novel as supplementary reading matter. The more beautiful the song, the better liked and the better\nsung will it be by the child.\nIn this, as in all other things which we give\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nAS PART\n\nOF LIFE\n\n7^5\n\nto a child's mind and heart, the rule holds : The best is only just good\nenough. We must remember that everything done in school becomes a\nlife-habit. Doing anything every day for eight years, even for but a few\nminutes at a time, becomes part of one's nature. How important, then,\nthat the school should introduce only the best in all things !\nWhen the child leaves school, he should be so equipped musically\nthat he can appreciate and enjoy good music, can sing fifty to a hundred\ngood songs, can read at sight any simple melody or a second or third\npart in a chorus, can write a melody from hearing, detect impurity of\nintonation, and sing with a clear, true, musical voice and correct\nenunciation.\nHe now enters the third stage, adolescence. His mind is opening\nwide to the v/ondrous powers of life ; he plans great things ; he exults in\nhis youth and strength ; he dreams of a golden future ; his soul is full to\noverflowing; he is unable to express, even to himself, all h'C feels, all he\nhopes; but, if he has song, he jubilantly sings, as the lark carols in the\nether. No matter what the words nor what the tune — so they be but in\nharmony with his better nature, it matters little whether they be gay or sad ;\nfor joy and grief lie close together and complement each other. And\nwhat a bond of comradeship is forged by the power of united song ; how\nit promotes good-fellowship, and brings good-will and peaceful intercourse where, without it, there would often be misunderstanding and\nstrife !\nFew of our great colleges appreciate as yet the immense opportunities\nfor true culture they possess, were music to become a more integral part\nof college life than is now the case. With all due deference to the very\neminent musicians who comprise the musical faculties of our eastern colleges, Ithink that far too little is accomplished by them under existing\nmethods. It is the aim of the college to develop cultured men and\nwomen, to lay such a foundation of mental, moral, spiritual, and physical\nqualities that a strong tower of life may be built upon it. The love and\nappreciation of the beautiful in form, color, and sound are part of such\nculture, and it is this which should be given to all the students, if art is\nto enter deeply into the life of the individual and the nation.\nWhat wonderful choruses of men's voices could be heard at Harvard,\nif all its students united in singing songs worthy of such an assemblage !\nEven a nonsensical college song seems to gain a certain dignity when\nsung by a thousand voices. How much more impressive, not only to the\nlistener, but to all participants, would be a truly noble song correctly\nsung in four-part harmony! The kind of training which would bring\nthis about need not exclude that which alone is offered at the present\ntime — the teaching of theory to the f^w who wish to make a deeper study\nof music. This sort of work has hitherto produced results pitifully small\nin comparison with the ability of the teaching force and the possibilities\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "7i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCFATTON\n\n[Music\n\npresented by the student body as a whole. What could not a musician\nof ability, a man of personal force and magnetism, a man of noble ideas\nand high ideals, accomplish with the choicest human material which the\ncountry possesses ? With our youths and maidens trained to understand,\nappreciate, and love good music, we should rapidly approach the time\nwhen thruout our land our homes would be homes of refinement, love,\nand happiness, our communities composed of peaceful, law-abiding\ncitizens, and the nation an example of ideal democracy. Of course, I do\nnot offer music as a panacea for all earthly ills, nor as a charm that shall\nsecure to men uninterrupted happiness; but I do believe that life with\nmusic is infinitely richer than life without it, and that it helps to soften\nour sorrows and enhance our joys.\nI have not touched so far upon any other form of musical development\nthan the general vocal training, of which practically all persons are\ncapable, provided this training begins in childhood. Individual voiceculture, the study of instrumental music on a keyed, stringed, or wind\ninstrument, lies outside of the present subject of discussion, because it concerns chiefly the few who are especially talented, not the people at large.\nAt the same time, the influence of good instrumental music thru the\nmedium of popular band and orchestral concerts should not be underrated. They help to create that atmosphere which is absolutely necessary\nto musical development.\nSuch organizations as the Boston Symphony Orchestra can do and\nhave done a great deal in this direction ; but, in my opinion, they have\nnot accomplished the hundredth part of what they are capable of. They\nnow reach between four and five thousand people — for argument's sake\nlet us say ten thousand — of the class which already possesses cultured\nminds and tastes. These are filled with music to overflowing. O?\niroXXoL, the people who most need it, get nothing ! It is true, the doors\nof Symphony Hall are open to all, let all enter who will ; but most people\ndo not know what they most need and must be told. They are fettered\nby ignorance, by cares, and by false ideals, and do not realize that the\ngood things of life lie close to their hand.\nIt may be difficult to reach and teach the adults of this generation\nwhat good music could do for them, but that is not the case with the\nyouth. In every city there should be established a series of weekly\norchestral concerts for the pupils of the high schools. Each program\nshould be carefully prepared by the music teacher of each school in such\naway that the pupils would listen with understanding. That this is possible and of great value has been proved by the symphony concerts for\nyoung people which I have given in New York during the last five years\nIn Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, and Philadelphia, where permanent orchestras, liberally subsidized, are in existence, this should be\ndone as a matter of course.\nIn other cities it would not be difficult to\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nAS PART\n\nOF LIFE\n\n7I7\n\norganize such concerts on a smaller scale with local musicians, and would\nbe an impetus toward the establishment of regular orchestras. In this\nway thousands of our citizens would be brought under the elevating\ninfluence of music who would otherwise not even know of its existence.\nBut, excellent and necessary as are these influences which come to us\nfrom without, the greatest good comes from within — that is, from doing.\nThe music we make ourselves may not be equal in quality to that which\nis brought to us from the outside, but it is part of ourselves, the result of\nour own effort, and the exercise of functions which help us to rise to a\nhigher plane and in the use of which we are developing the nobler side of\nour nature. Opportunitfes should, therefore, be given to people to stimulate the exercise of these functions; and, in my opinion, nothing is\nbetter adapted to this purpose than choral singing.\nEleven years ago I invited the working people of New York to attend\nSunday classes in sight-singing. Thousands have taken advantage of this\ninstruction, which is now given in numerous classes in all parts of the\ncity, and which culminates in a People's Choral Union which has a membership of a thousand voices. The great oratorios — the \"Messiah,\"\n\"Elijah,\" \"Samson,\" \"Israel in Egypt,\" \"The Seasons,\" etc. — have been\nread at sight, studied and performed with orchestra. The movement is\nself supporting, the expenses of hall rents and music being met by a fee\nof ten cents for each lesson. The teachers accept no compensation.\nSimilar movements have been organized in Boston, under the able direction of Mr. Samuel W. Cole, and in many other cities, and they have\nstimulated an interest in good music in thousands of people who until\nthen had never heard of Handel, Bach, or Mendelssohn. And they carry\nthese works into their homes; these heroes of music sit at their tables in\nsqualid tenement houses, and by their intercourse transform the hovel\ninto a palace, the beggar into a king.\nHere again, I would emphasize what I said before in reference to the\nmusical education of children in schools : Give only the best 1 My Choral\nUnion likes Bach and Handel and all great music better than any that\nmerely tickles the ear. Great music plows deep into the soul, and it\nbrings forth fine and fair fruit. Little music merely scratches the surface,\nand the result is weeds.\nThe songs of a people express its character. What are our songs\ntoday? Most of them are borrowed from other nations ; of the rest we are\nnot proud. Our national hymn, \" America,\" is the union of a fine English\ntune with a fine American poem; but, oh, what a mesalliance! Where the\ntune demands an accent, the words refuse to give it, and vice versa; where\nthe words require an upward progression in the melody it promptly goes\ndown; in short, words and tune conMantly swear at each other. \"The\nStar Spangled Banner \" was an old English drinking song before it became\nour national song.\n\" Hail Columbia\" is, I believe, indigenous to the soil,\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "7i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbut it is nothing to be proud of. And yet, in spite of all, it is a splendid\nthing that our people's hearts cling to these songs, because they are part\nof their youth, their history, their national life. It shows that we can be\nstirred by music which represents great ideas, even if in itself it is not\ngreat music. Let us create an atmosphere of good music thruout our land\nwhich will elevate the people's taste, and we shall then sing songs which\nwill express our true feelings and of which we shall be proud.\nNo one can do so much to accomplish this as we, the educators of the\nyoung. Our seed falls on good soil ; it grows under our daily, watchful\ncaj-e, and it is, therefore, our fault if the results are unsatisfactory. Do\nnot tell me that you cannot do things because you are hampered by\nignorant school authorities. If you set yourselves high ideals, give nothing\nbut the best and accept nothing but the best. Your work will speak for\nyou, and you will win to your side all the best elements in the community.\nIf you believe that your town or village needs a choral society, organize\nit, teach the members to read from notes, and give them great music to\nsing. Do not lose time waiting for others to find out that they want it.\nDo not expect to get rich from the salary connected with the leadership.\nYou will probably get no money, but you will get other things which\nmoney cannot buy. If you need orchestral concerts, organize the instrumentalists ofthe town into an orchestra and give your concerts. As soon\nas people find out that you are working for high aims, you will receive\nhearty support. Do not expect to accomplish things in a hurry. It\ntakes years for a tree to grow.\nThings which ripen quickly die quickly.\nOur field of labor is enormous. Our opportunities are unlimited.\nThere is no nobler mission in the world than to bring beauty and happiness into the homes of the people thru the culture of good music, and to\nteach them to express their deeper feelings in the only adequate language— in songl\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 7, 1903\n\nThe department was called to order in the First Church in Boston at 9:55 A. m., by\nthe vice-president, Templeton P. Twiggs, director of the commercial department. Central\nHigh School, Detroit, Mich.\nThe following program was then presented :\nVice-President's Address, Templeton P. Twiggs.\n'* History in the Curriculum of the Commercial High School,\" Cheesman A. Herrick, director of the\ncourse in commerce. Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nDiscussion: I. O. Crissy, C. B. Ellis, O. C. Evans, Frank O. Carpenter, W. C. Stevenson, I. R.\nGarbutt, and Mrs. Sara A. Spencer.\n\" Mathematics in Commercial Work,\" E. L. Thurston, Business High School, Washington, D. C.\nDiscussion: W. C. Stevenson, Carl C. Marshall, and H. B. Brown.\n\nOn motion of I. O. Crissy, the vice-president appointed the following committee on\nresolutions :\nI. O. Crissy, of New York.\nW. C. Stevenson, of Maryland.\nB. H. Donnell, of California.\n\nAdjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 8\n\nThe vice-president called the department to order at 9:30 a. m.\nThe program for the session was as follows :\n\" Commercial Geography : The New Science,\" Frank O. Carpenter, master of the English High School,\nBoston, Mass.\nDiscussion: C. A. Herrick, Richard Waterman, R.T. Green, Jr., F. A. Tibbitts, and H. C. Hustleby.\n\" Science in Commercial Work: Its Practical Value, Character, and Place in High-School Work,\"\nFrank M. Gilley, instructor in physics and chemistry, High School, Chelsea, Mass.\nDiscussion: W. R. Butler and H. B. Brown.\n\" Disciplinary Value of Bookkeeping as a Study,\" Enos Spencer, president of the Spencerian Business\nCollege, Louisville, Ky.\nDiscussion: C. B. Ellis, H. M. Rowe, H. G. Green, and Carl C. Marshall.\n*' The Disciplinary Value of Stenography and Typewriting as Studies,\" W.\nstenography and typewriting, Commercial High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nDiscusfion: F.J. Stein.\n\nH. Wagner, teacher of\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions submitted the following report, which was unanimously adopted :\nThe Committee on Resolutions begs leave to submit the following :\nResolved, That it is the sense of the members of this department that the commercial course in the high\nschool should be equal in time of instruction, in educational content, and in disciplinary power to any course\nin the school, and that any commercial course falling below this standard is not to be regarded by this department as complete.\nThat we hail with satisfaction the increasing facilities for higher commercial education offered by\ncolleges and universities, which we believe cannot fail to redound to the prosperity and glory of our country.\nThat we respectfully but earnestly uige upon the normal schools of the country the necessity of at once\nundertaking the preparation of commercial teachers, to meet the growing demand for such teachers, which\ncannot even at the present time be supplied.\n719\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThat we fully appreciate the value of the better class of proprietary business schools, and recognize that\nthey have done and are doing a work which could not be performed by any other existing institution.\nThat we congratulate the commercial schools and the nation upon the establishment of the Department\nof Commerce in the cabinet of the president, in the belief that such establishment will prove of incalculable\nvalue in improving our commercial relations with all the nations of the earth, adding new dignity to commercial education and marking a new epoch in our national development.\nThat we cordially thank the officers of the department for the able manner in which they have done their\nwork, and that we especially congratulate the vice-president on the satisfactory performance of duties which\nsomewhat unexpectedly devolved upon him.\nThat we tender to the generous citizens of Boston, and especially to the President of the Association and\nthe local committees, our thanks for the many courtesies by which our stay in their hospitable city has been\nmade so notably pleasant and satisfactory.\nI. O. Crissv.\nW. C. Stevenson.\nBf H. DONNELL.\n\nThe following officers were unanimously elected for 1904 :\nPresident — Cheesman A. Herrick, Philadelphia, Pa.\nVice-President — H. B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.\nSecretary — Thomas H. H. Knight, Jr., Boston, Mass.\n\nAdjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nHISTORY\n\nCHEESMAN\n\nIN\n\nA.\n\nTHE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCURRICULUM\nOF\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nHERRICK,\n\nCENTRAL\n\nAND\n\nC. E. Stevens, Secretary.\n\nDIRECTOR\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nIN\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nCOMMERCE,\n\nAny treatment of the topic assigned to me must take into account two\nnotable reports on historical studies in secondary schools : that of the\nsubcommittee of the Committee of Ten, known as the Madison Conference Report (1892), and that of the Committee of Seven of the American\nHistorical Association (1898).\nThe reports just noted include some discussion of civil government and political economy. It has not been thought wise, however, to\nintroduce any treatment of these subjects in the present paper; they are\ndeemed of sufficient importance for commercial work to warrant an independent discussion of them. The report of the Madison Conference also\nincludes recommendations concerning historical work in the elementary\nschools; it does not seem advisable to introduce the elementary-school\nproblem in this connection.\nThe recommendation of the subcommittee of the Committee of Ten\nis for a study of Greek, Roman, English, American, and French history,\nwith one year to be devoted to the intensive study of some one period,\nand provides that European history be taught in connection with the history of England and France, or in the final year of intensive study. This\ncommittee favors the pursuing of historical studies continuously thru the\nfour years of the high -school course.\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN THE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n721\n\nThe Committee of Seven also recommends four years of continuous\nhistorical study in the high school, as follows : one year of ancient history,\ndealing with Greece and Rome principally, but also including some\naccount of the oriental nations. It further favors taking, in connection\nwith ancient history, the Middle Ages to the early ninth century; for the\nsecond year, general European history from the early ninth century to\nthe present time ; for the third year, English history; and for the fourth,\nAmerican history and civil government. In a supplementary suggestion\nthis committee advises that if but three years can be secured for historical\nstudy, general European history be omitted, and English history be so\ntreated as to include the most important phases of the continental history\nparallel with it.\nFrom the above reports, as well as from the experience in commercial\nschools, I make the following recommendation for history in the curriculum of the high school of commerce : Four years should be devoted to\nthe subject : first, ancient history to circa 800 A. D. ; second, English\nhistory, includmg the main movements in the history of continental\nEurope; third, American history; and, fourth, a general history of commerce. It is believed that this division will give at once the most rational\ngeneral survey of the historical field and the best practical results that\ncan be secured from the study of history in commercial schools.\nVarious explanations have been given for arrangements of historical\nstudies different from that above indicated. One principal of a commercial high school justifies taking English history before ancient, with the\nargument that English history has the greater practical value, and, as the\nlarger number of students are in the first year, they should be given the\nsubject having the greater value. I doubt if the first premise on which\nthis reasoning is based is sound. If students are to be but one year in\nschool, they will probably get a better educational result from a study of\nancient history than could be had from a study of English history without the ancient as a foundation. In any event, the reasoning is specious,\nand if adopted would lead to furnishing the narrowly technical short\ncourse.\nOthers have urged the teaching of the history of commerce in connection with general history, on the ground that by such an arrangement\nrepetitions would be saved and this division of the subject brought into\nits proper relations to history as a whole. This suggestion sounds plausible, but I believe there are practical difficulties in carrying it into effect.\nHistory may be considered as a texture into which there are woven\nmany threads. We cannot undertake to say how many of these there are,\nor to what extent they may be singled out. Amon'g the generally recognized threads of interest in history are : political and constitutional,\nmilitary, church, and economic history. The history of commerce is a\nbranch of the latter.\nIt would be a mistake for the student of commerce\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nto try to follow the thread of his interest without some knowledge of the\nwhole of which it is a part. Similarly, it would be unfair to deny him the\nprivilege of following this thread when he has been prepared to do so.\nThis should be to the commercial schools the year of intensive study ; it\nmay, however, be devoted to one topic extending over a wide period,\nrather than to many topics for a briefer period.\nThe history of commerce should serve as the vocational study of\nhistory for commercial schools. It should occupy in its special schools\nthe place occupied by the history of education in the schools of education, church history in theological seminaries, the history of law in law\nschools, and military and naval history in the academies devoted to the\neducation of soldiers and sailors. In these several treatments of history\neach has a different thread to disentangle from the great coil ; \" facts that\nare principal to one are often minor to another.\" Students in commercial schools should single out the phase of history dealing with their\nspecial work and study it, not lost in the mazes of other interests, but as\na distinct thing.\nI am not favorable to making history an elective subject. It has for\nthe high school of commerce a cultural and practical value that warrants\nits being made required work for the four years of the course. The\nCommittee of Nine may think it wise to offer an election in the fourth\nyear between the general history of commerce and a more intensive study\nof modern commercial history. I am frank to say that I incline to the\ngeneral course.\nThere are reasons for the preference just expressed that grow out of a\nconsideration of the recommendation made at the opening of this paper.\nFor classical and English high schools we may well question the wisdom\nof the Committee of Seven's recommendation covering the scope and\nmethod of treatment of the ancient period. But with a general sketch of\nthe history of commerce it will be possible to overcome disabilities that\nmight arise from a bad division of subject-matter and an improper relation of parts. Again, the general sketch can give the proper historical\nprospective that might be lost from the omission of European history.\nAnyone who has taught the history of Europe in connection with the\nhistory of England will understand what I mean when I say there is\ndanger that the student will regard the history of continental nations as\na mere tail to the English history's kite. The history of commerce will\nshow perhaps better than any other division of history that England was\ninfluenced far more by the continent of Europe than was the continent\nby England. Thus the hiistory of commerce furnishes at once the means\nof historical review and the principles of sound interpretation for history\nas a whole.\nConcerning the time requirement, I would suggest that three hours a\nweek should be devoted to history thruout the four years of the com-\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n723\n\nmercial high-school course. If it is thought wise to take the subject in\nhalf-years, five hours a week should be given to it for four half-years.\nI am asked to treat especially the value of historical studies in commercial schools. The value of history in general is well recognized; this\nphase of the subject has been ably handled in the two reports mentioned\nat the opening of this paper, as well as in several recent books on the\nstudy and teaching of history. I shall not take time, therefore, to discuss\nthe general phases of the subject. It may be worth while to remark, in\npassing, that the history taught in the secondary school is largely a matter\nof selection from ample and readily accessible material. Now, it seems\nwise for commercial schools to select for the first three years those phases\nof the subject that will best prepare for the fourth year's work.\nThe writing and interpretation of history are influenced consciously\nand unconsciously by the period in which it is written or interpreted. The\npresent distinctively economic age is having its effect alike on the interpretation of old historical writings and on the production of new ones.\nWe may congratulate ourselves that both our authors and text-book\ncompilers are giving economic history its proper place in relation to\nconstitutional, military, church, and other phases of historical writing.\nIndustry and commerce are claiming new attention in general history,\nand from what has been termed a \"melancholy record of human crimes\nand calamities\" history thus passes to be the \"animating register\" of the\nindustry and ingenuity of men. With the change in point of view from\nmilitary to economic history, there is less attention to the ways in which\nmen are killed and more to the ways in which they are kept alive.\nThere are special advantages in the economic interpretation of general\nhistory. More than any other branch of the subject, it contributes to\ncorrect notions of the unity of all history. Economic history deals with the\nbasal needs of men — food, clothing, and shelter; and these have been the\nsame in all ages. Teachers in commercial schools will not be slow to recognize the advantages that will come from a study of history in which the\neconomic aspects of the subject have been given their proper setting.\nIt remains to speak further of the value of the special history recommended for the fourth year. This is the distinctively vocational subject\nin the historical group. Its highest, tho by no means its sole, function\nis in the orientation it gives the student before he takes up his calling.\nEvery commercial man should find the highest pleasure and usefulness\nin his work. Knowledge of the past of any worthy calling ennobles its\npresent and makes for its future. The business man can ill afford to\nbe cut off from a knowledge of the development of the field of his\nactivity. It smacks of cant to say that an acquaintance with the histoiy\nof commerce will make of the man dt commerce at once a better man\nand a better commercial man, but it needs to be said.\nThe above statement is true because the history of commerce shows\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Business\n\nthe business man his true place in relation to the phenomena with which\nhe deals. To carry on a calling to best advantage one should know\nwhat those who preceded him did and where they left off. Two ends will\nbe served by such knowledge on the part of those in commercial life: it will\nmake them more humble, and it will exalt and dignify their work. Many\nof the self-important business men of the present should learn that they\nare only inheritors from the work of other men. Scarce a business custom\nbut is rooted in the past, and many of them come from the remote past.\nPresent commercial life cannot be cut off from its past, and business men\nshould recognize that they enter into the heritage of other men's labor.\nBut familiarity with the lives of great merchants and knowledge of\nthe accompliahment of other commercial peoples and times will do more\nthan to make business men humble. It will stimulate and encourage\nthem. In the grind of daily toil one needs to be lifted up with the\nthought that he is not the be-all or the end-all, the alpha and the omega,\nof his work. A conscientious minister of the gospel said to me recently\nthat he found great comfort in the doctrine of evolution. When pressed\nfor an explanation he said that he saw so little direct result from his\nlabor that he could not carry it on unless he was encouraged with the\nthought of an ultimate result to which he was contributing. The business\nman, too, will be encouraged to feel that there are within the realm of his\nwork ultimate worthy ends to which he may contribute. The division of\ncommercial history into ancient, mediaeval, and modern is misleading.\nWe can say of all these divisions as Dr. Arnold said of the sixth and\nseventh books of Thucydides : they are modern history.\nWith a proper study of the history of commerce, it becomes lo the\npresent economic age a great searchlight on the deck of a ship,411uming\nthe path over which the ship has passed and casting its beams forward\nto define a future course. There are many advantages from a study of the\nhistory of commerce, but if it should do nothing else than give future\nbusiness men a proper attitude toward their work, it would have a value\nsecond to no other subject of the curriculum.\nI am fully aware that there are differences among us as to what are\nthe essentials in the history of commerce, as there would be in determining\nthe essentials in almost any other subject. Commercial history is too new\nand ill\" formed for a profitable discussion of this phase of it. To me the\nmost vitally important thing about this, as about any other branch of\nhistory, is that it shall connect the present with the past. In our teaching\nthe present may be made to call back to the past, or the past to call\nforward to the present. It is \"the duty of every generation to gather up\nits inheritance from the past, and thus to serve the present and prepare\nbetter things for the future.\"\n\" Yet I doubt not thro' the ages one increasing purpose runs\nAnd the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nIN THE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n725\n\nDISCUSSION\nI. O. Crissy. — The advantages of the study of the history of commerce have been\nmore than hinted at; and while we are not prepared, perhaps, with any chart by which to\nbe governed in regard to the matter, it seems to me that Dr. Herrick's view in regard to\nthe advantages and pleasures of commercial history has been fully established. 1 wish\nmore to commend than to discuss.\nC. B. Ellis. — There has been too much of a feeling that commercial courses were\nto prepare for business or clerkships, and to fit a boy or girl to be a stenographer and\ntypewriter. Now, that is only a small part of what a commercial course is designed to\ndo; and if, as Dr. Herrick has said, the business men of the future are to fill the place\nwhich is rightfully theirs, and fill it as it should be filled, those business men must be\neducated. I hope that in the commercial course of the future we shall find an increasing\nprominence given to this subject of history, so that, instead of being relegated to a minor\nposition, it shall be a strong feature of every year's work. I think the subject has been\nwell outlined by Dr. Herrick, and that commercial history should be the last topic to be\nintroduced and should be taught by itself. I think the study of history will tend to\ndevelop broad men who shall be thoughtful of others and shall consider that when money\nis given to them it is a trust which they are to administer wisely and for the good of all,\nand not for the good of themselves alone.\nMrs. Sara A. Spencer. — The paper has very materially modified my own convictions\non this subject. I have been strongly opposed to devoting four years to the study of history\nin a commercial school, and yet I believe there should be a general knowledge by the\nbusiness man of the needs of human life. My reason for being opposed to devoting a\ngreat deal of time to the study of history was that it dealt largely with the destruction of\nmankind, and that the stronger emphasis everywhere was laid on the ability to destroy\nlife. Now, that was most admirably met in Dr. Herrick's appeal for the study of the\nhistory of commerce, and his declaration that it was a study of how life had been preserved and how men thru all the ages had been struggling for ways and means to protect,\npreserve, enlarge, and ennoble human life. That led me to see that the study of history\nmight well be continued thru a four-year course.\nO. C. Evans. — I do not quite understand what we are to select for the purely commercial side of history. It seems to me that the general history of Greece, for instance,\nis a history of colonization and the development of trade, and that it places comparatively\nvery little emphasis on the destruction of man. I might say the same of all the other\nhistory, for it seems to me that the greater part deals, not with war, but with the development of the finer and better qualities of life, and the ennobling of men and bringing\nthem up to their present state of civilization. I believe in this wider, freer, stronger course\nof history in our commercial courses. I am gratified to learn that our own course in history\nis almost exactly along the line sketched in Dr. Herrick's paper.\nFrank O. Carpenter. — As regards history, it is only a few weeks ago that I\nrecommended to the supervisors that they add this additional course in the history of\ncommerce, making it a secondary course, and also one in commercial geography and one\nin commercial law, to be preceded and followed by economics, making really a threeyear course along this line.\nThomas H. H. Knight, Jr.— Dr. Herrick thinks, and thinks very properly, that history ought to occupy a very important position in a commercial course. I have no doubt\nthat Mr. Carpenter will tell us tomorrow that commercial geography has not had anything\nlike the recognition that it ought to have. Th? truth is, we must prepare boys along all\nlines. Here in Boston we have only three years of history in the commercial course.\nWe could not by any possibility give the child history as Dr. Herrick has suggested, unless\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nthe course were revised. Perhaps it would not be altogether wise to make the history\ndistinctly commercial ; at the same time it does seem that a readjustment might be made\nwhich would recognize the history of commerce as being of just as much interest to the\nordinary student as it is to the commercial student. It has been said that the development of the colonies around the Mediterranean sea was a commercial development and\nthat many of the crises in history in the Middle Ages were to be traced directly to\nthe influence of commerce. Now, if history can be .taught in that way, the students will\nhave a correct idea of the part that commerce has played in the development of the world.\nW. C. Stevenson. — While fully in accord with everything that Dr. Herrick has\nsaid regarding the advisability of the broadest courses in history, I desire to call attention to one difficulty in the way of the adoption of these courses in the high schools of\nthis country, viz., that the teachers have not had the broad and comprehensive historical\ntraining that will enable them to sift the economic from the military and the purely literary features. The text-books which prevail are largely literary, military, and cultural,\nin which the economic phase of historical development is not emphasized. In fact, it\nis rarely referred to at all, and one must have a very broad and comprehensive training to sift the economic from the other phases of history.\nI. R. Garbutt. — I am very much pleased to know that the commercial course\nin the high schools of Cleveland coincides closely with the course recommended in\nDr. Herrick's paper. The students in the commercial course are not taught alone by\nthe commercial teachers, but by the teachers who have the subject of history in the\nother courses; so that they are not set apart in classes by themselves, but have the advantage of the regular teachers of the subject.\n\nMATHEMATICS\nERNEST\n\nLAWTON\n\nTHURSTON,\n\nIN COMMERCIAL\nBUSINESS\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWORK\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD. C.\n\nThere is need at intervals, in most general courses of study, to rediscover mathematics; to determine again and again, in the light of the best\nthought and method at the time, its educative, disciplinary, and purely\nutilitarian value, its relative place in the course, its proper subject-matter.\nWith a wealth of admirably developed new matter in pure and applied\nscience, constantly demanding an increasing emphasis in already overburdened curricula, mathematics has been relegated at times to a less\nimportant position than formerly. No doubt this is right in some cases ;\nin others, it follows from a failure to realize fully its value. In the larger\nscientific and engineering schools alone has it retained its relative position, because here it is regarded as the bed-rock on which to a large degree\nthe superstructure of technical training must be built.\nIn our modern secondary schools of commerce, however, we need not\nto ^-^discover but to discover mathematics, in the light of the purpose of\nthe school. We are only beginning to realize the possibilities of correlation of mathematics with other ■ subjects, and of such selection and\ntreatment of the subject-matter as shall be highly educative thruout,\nwhile strongly utilitarian in parts.\nThe subjects commonly required are not new, and no new ones need\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nIN\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n727\n\nbe introduced, altho opportunities should be given in the final year for\nelectives of a higher order. But these subjects should be commercialized,\nto a slight degree at least, where this is possible without decreasing their\nfull educational and disciplinary value.\nThat which is distinctively utilitarian in the course must be thoroly\npractical and in accord with modern usage. Business arithmetic, especially, isundergoing marked changes in system and development. The\narithmetic of today in method and application is not that of yesterday.\nEducationally, the greater results will come from those parts which\nappeal to the pupil's life, activities, and interests. Mathematics should\nbe live, and dead matter. The arithmetic we know is the outcome of\ndaily needs in every phase of life. It touches life at many points, and\nin this close contact interest will start and flourish. As has been well\nsaid : \" The mainspring of mathematical ability in a race is the attempt\nto adjust means accurately and economically to a given end.\"\nAs a whole, the course must give power, vigor, and strength to the\nmind, cultivating clear thinking and ability to see all sides of a question, and developing that individual capacity which is needed in every\n• form of mental activity. A magnificent exercise in logic, it may sacrifice\nat times the teaching of facts, if only it gives power to prove facts.\nIn the light of these requirements, commercial arithmetic must be\nabridged by cutting off obsolete subjects and complicated methods, and\nenriched by increasing greatly the quantity of simple calculations and of\nmodern, practical, concrete problems, especially those that deal with our\nactive participation in life. Altho business grows steadily more complex,\ndetails of organization and methods of work tend steadily toward simplicity. This tendency results in increased demands for accuracy in\nfundamental processes of arithmetic, and for a working knowledge of the\nprinciples of percentage and 6i elementary business principles, with\nability to apply them in an increasing number j)f ways. The arithmetic\nof actual business discloses :\n1. That common fractions are ««common;\n\nthose with denominators of two, three,\n\nfour, six, and eight alone finding extended use; for others, the nearest two-place decimal\nis the common substitute.\n2. That quantities are generally expressed in one or two denominations. The merchant sells i|^ yards, not I yard, 2 feet, 3 inches; the grocer, 1% pounds, not i pound,\n8 ounces; the engineer measures in feet and hundreds of feet, not in rods and feet.\n3. That the majority of numbers expressing quantity and value are exceedingly\nsimple. It follows naturally that ability to work mentally should be cultivated, even if\nthe volume of modern business did not demand it. Employees waste time, energy, and\nfrequently costly stationery in unnecessary paper calculations ; yet mental calculation,\nonce a habit, is always easier.\n4. That in actual business there is little recognition of text-book case or subject.\nA single real-estate problem may involve simple percentage, taxes, commission, insurance, interest. Solutions must rest on the bed-rock of fundamental principles, not on the\nshifting sands of arbitrary cases.\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n5. That actual problems are frequently so expressed as to make essential the\nability to understand them as well as to solve them. A book says : \" I bought 40\nchairs; $8.40, less 15 per cent, discount, paying freight of $\\\\.io. Terms: 30 days; 2\nper cent. cash. I paid cash. Find the marked price to gain 15 per cent.\" A similar\nproblem I overheard expressed in these words from dealer to clerk : \"John, we want to\nclear 15 per cent, on this invoice!\" (handing him a bill). And John noted terms, discounts, prices, allowed for freight and store burden, and marked his chairs. The employer\nsays : \" Do this.\" The clerk must make the problem and find or select the values necessary for its solution.\n6. That calculation tables for interest, discount, insurance, taxes, wages, earthwork,\netc., are commonly used to save time and insure accuracy.\n7. That the use of ruled forms, many requiring extensions and calculations for\nwhich text-book courses do not prepare, is increasing rapidly.\n\nThe course in arithmetic now, to meet business and educational\nrequirements, must be woven together by mental exercises. These may to\nadvantage cover one-half of each recitation period. Mental calculation\nfinds its first field in rapid reviews of fundamental processes in whole\nnumbers, and in common and decimal fractions ; its second, in exercises\nin numbers under 100, continued thruout the course, and in percentage\nand interest — all intended to develop speed, accuracy, and knowledge of\nnumber combinations. It is the tool for systematic review and for devel-'\noping shorthand arithmetic. Ready-made short methods must be handled\nwith exceeding care. There is danger that they will \"go off\" the wrong\nway, or at the wrong time, or — not go off at all. But those developed\ninstinctively by the pupil, thru increasing knowledge of number in combination, remain with him — a valuable business capital.\nMoreover, every practical topic may be introduced and developed\nthru brief, pointed mental problems, and drill secured by a series of\nrelated mental problems — a series with the same central idea, a statement on the board around which exercises may be woven.\nIn close co-ordination with the mental work, the written exercises and\ntest problems \"clinch \" the subject. These should be brief, practical,\nliving questions, at times expressed in memoranda or bill form, in order\nthat the problem may be determined as well as solved; at times grouped\nto relate to the same business or business condition, for related problems have far more educational value than those having simply the\narbitrary connections of the text-book case.\nFrom the principles and terms of arithmetic, in combination with\nbusiness terms and forms, has been evolved a business language in which\nbusiness transactions are expressed and business records written. Its\nliterature consists of notes, drafts, bills, estimates, books of record ; its\nphraseology, of symbols, business expressions, terms, forms of tabulation,\netc. Some knowledge of it the pupil gains from his bookkeeping, but it\nis acquired more effectively thru applied arithmetic, which should form\nthe next step in the mathematical course.\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nIN\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n729\n\nCommence with sales and order sheets, requiring horizontal and\nvertical addition ; follow with carefully graded bills of different kinds of\nbusiness, reading and solving the problems involved, studying the meaning and relative value of \" terms \" and the essentials of form. One wholesale bill, with discounts and choice of terms, contains several pages worth\nof text-book problems. Master, then, commission forms; use actual\nnotes for interest, discount, and partial payments. Solve office paper,\npay-rolls, requisitions, inventories — the field of arithmetic as recorded in\nbusiness paper. At every step, too, require the preparation of original\npaper, having it checked and audited by the class.\nFinally, later in the course, when the pupil has gained strength of\nmind, breadth of outlook, and a knowledge of business conditions, study\nin detail some of the greater problems based on arithmetic : those of\nbanking and finance, of insurance, annuities, and endowments, of taxation and duties; the use and proper design of working tables; the effective preparation of statistics; the great problems of \"cost-keeping\" and\nfactory mathematics. Here, in its highest phase, arithmetic may touch\nand interpret the work of most other departments of the school.\nThe course, thus outlined in salient points, is highly utilitarian ; yet,\nwhen one has taught it, he finds it also highly educational. The principle\nof fair settlement, which underlies so many business arithmetic processes,\nand other business and ethical principles, are constantly emphasized.\nThe unusual opportunities for individual and original work bring breadth\nof mind and training in system, form, and arrangement; while class discussions and rigid analyses give ability to judge before solving, to reason\naccurately, and to do away with that inaccuracy of statement which is the\nparent of inaccuracy of thought.\nAlgebra is not taught distinctively for its utility to the coming merchant, altho to the mathematician and to the engineer it is indispensable.\nIts greater value is as an exercise in applied logic, where it gives character to the teacher's work and raises it to the plane of true education. It\ndevelopes capacity to master subjects of kindred, or of totally different,\nnature.\nAlgebra in part is distinctively universal arithmetic, and the two subjects work well in double harness. Elementary algebra and arithmetic,\nin combination, should precede commercial arithmetic, for the methods\nof algebraic reasoning aid in mastering arithmetical problems — the\nmethod of the equation often solving easily what is otherwise difficult.\nThis suggests, too, the substitution of practical business-arithmetic problems for the many exercises in algebra now used.\nA scientific treatment of the subject should lead from the beginning\nto the equation, which should be introduced early, and emphasized until\nthe pupil is familiar with the principles on which the processes of operation are based.\nFactoring and its relation to equations and fractions\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "730\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nshould also be a strong feature. In work of this class the mental exercises should develop the same accuracy and facility in handling the literal\nas later the numerical. In all stages of the work methods of checking\nsolutions are important in cultivating a valuable business habit and in\nencouraging independence as well.\nThat part of higher algebra, less distinctively universal arithmetic,\ncovering the theories of combinations and probabilities has also sufficient\nvalue, from practical and disciplinary standpoints, to warrant its rigid\ntreatment. On problems of life insurance and in studies of various business conditions it will be found to have direct bearing.\nGeometry claims place, especially because of its value as an exercise\nin formal logic, altho in parts — in mensuration, for example — it has\nhigh utilitarian value. In class it is often effectively taught as a combination of the inventional and the demonstrative. The inventional, leading\nto a right conception of the truths to be established, introduces naturally\nthe deductive method of establishing them. Elementary ideas of logic,\nhowever, may be introduced from the beginning, and demonstrations\nmade exceedingly rigid — with the rigor contributing to soundness of\nlogical development, as well as to clearness and effectiveness of expression.\nThe field of demonstrative work should include plane geometry and\nthe principal theorems of solid geometry — many of the latter having\nunusual disciplinary value.\nThe field of applied work should be as broad as time allows, for here\nis possible correlation with other subjects and contact with actual life.\nThe practical problems of mensuration, the preparation of plans and\nestimates, designing, pattern-making, the geometrical representation of\nstatistics, suggest lines of development.\nThe value of geometry is measured to an unusual degree in terms of\nthe teacher. His insistence on rigid demonstration and clear statement,\nespecially in oral work, and on neat, accurate, effective figures ; his method\nand expression before the class ; his choice of original exercises for assignment at every stage of the work ; his methods of review, measure the value\nof geometry to discipline the mind, to arouse interest, and to inculcate\nhabits of neatness, order, diligence, and honesty.\nThe final year should offer opportunities for advanced elective work,\nconsisting possibly of trigonometry, or of problems relating to heat, light,\naad power, with which many business men need familiarity; but preferably of descriptive geometry. From experience with classes in this latter\nsubject, I regard it as the most attractive subject-matter mathematics has\nto offer. As a theoretical subject it has no mathematical equal in arousing general class interest, while it develops a high degree of mind-power.\nIts applications in practice, also, cover an exceedingly broad and interesting field. The Committee of Ten, speaking of projective geometry,\nwhich includes descriptive, says :\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nIN\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n73 1\n\nIt is astonishing that this subject should be so generally ignored, for mathematics\noffers nothing more attractive. It possesses the concreteness of the ancient geometry\nwithout the tedious particularity, and the power of the analytical without the reckoning,\nand by the beauty of its ideas and methods illustrates the aesthetic quality which is the\ncharm of the higher mathematics, but which the elementary mathematics in general lacks.\n\nEnough has doubtless been suggested to show the natural order of the\nsubjects. Details of the exact order and of number of recitations must\ndepend on the other courses of the school with which the mathematical\nwork must be properly co-ordinated. It is safe to add, however, that in\na time no greater, and more probably less, than the average period devoted\nto the other major subjects, mathematics may claim, if properly treated,\nat least equal value with these in progressively expanding the interests\nand powers of the pupil; in training him to think clearly, to plan, to\norganize, to see relations; in developing the broad, active man of affairs.\nBut this requires the right man behind the mathematics ! ** It would\nbe a good thing,\" reads a rule of the Franke Institute, laid down two centuries ago for the guidance of teachers, 'Mf the teacher would himself\nwork through the book so that he could help the children.\" It would be\na good thing today if the teacher would read deeply in the living book of\nhis subject, in the book also of business life and activity. A broad man,\nhe should understand the purpose and principles of the other subjects of\nthe curriculum, drawing inspiration and illustration from them, yet be\never sharpened to a mathematical point.\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. C. Stevenson. — This is a thoroly practical paper. I would call the attention of\nthose who believe that all commercial education should be highly cultural — that it should\nnever train anybody for a clerkship, but that it should train pupils to be captains of commerce, etc. — to the fact that this paper establishes what to me is fundamental in commercial education, namely, hooking on what it does to the living, moving, active world,\nand the student beginning in arithmetic where he ought to begin and where he must begin\nin life ^ with the thing itself, the practice.\nCarl C. Marshall. — As a teacher of some twenty years' experience, I want\nexpecially to commend Professor Thurston's paper with respect to the emphasis which it\nplaces on studying the elementary numbers. I discovered a good many years ago that\nthe cause of a large part of the ineffectiveness of the average student who leaves the\nschool or comes to the study of commercial subjects lies in his unfamiliarity with the numbers under loo. In business we have a great deal to do with the smaller numbers, such\nas 2, 3, 4, and the like, in combination with the numbers beyond twelve. The ordmary\nboy when he learns the multiplication table stops with I2 times 12. He remains absolutely unfamiliar with 26 of the composite numbers under 100. Their combinations do\nnot occur to him. For instance, the ordinary boy sees nothing in a number like 51. He\ncannot tell you promptly and without calcuiiition what twice 19 is. And yet when he\ngoes into a store as a clerk he is confronted with the proposition: \"How much are two\nyards of cloth at 19 cents a yard ?\" and so on. I recently had a conversation with a\nbusiness man connected with the World's Fair in Chicago, and he told me that the pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nwho came out of our public schools were particularly inefficient in their ability to make\nthose short extensions, and he suggested that they ought to be drilled more on the elementary numbers. 1 wish we could follow out the suggestion of making a multiplication\ntable that would adopt all the numbers up to loo — extending the 2 line of the multiplication to twice 50, instead of stopping at twice 12 ; and extending the 3 line to 3 times\n33, and so on up, until every combination has been included. Take the number 96 — the\nordinary student sees in it only 8 times 12. He ought to see 6 times 16 and 3 times 32.\nI think Professor Thurston has suggested a very important consideration in the fundamental studies of those elementary numbers.\nMr. Gibson. — The allusions which Professor Thurston has made to mental processes\nin the teaching of arithmetic, and to which Mr. Marshall has referred, are certainly those\nwhich we cannot afford to neglect in the teaching of commercial processes. I believe, if\nwe take the testimony of busmess men, that we shall find that men who were in school\ntwenty-five or thirty or forty years ago will say, almost without exception, that the subject\nwhich did them the most good in their career was the study of intellectual arithmetic. I\nhave heard men make that statement who had been out of school for twenty-five or thirty\nyears. It seems to me that such testimony is well worth our while to consider. In fact,\nwe are 3,500 or 4,000 years behind the times in our multiplication table. If you take the\ntestimony of Professor Hilprecht, who has just been digging out that immense library of\nNebuchadnezzar in that old temple at Babylon, you will find that he makes the statement\nthat the multiplication of the old Babylonian students went as high as 60 times 60, with\nall the grades between, while we stop at 20 times 20, and at 12 times 12 in most\ncases. It seems to me that mental arithmetic, rapid mental processes in the class-room,\nis among the most important and the most useful subjects that we can teach as business\neducators.\nH. B. Brown. — I want to commend the general thought that has been conveyed here\nthis morning ; that a business education today means more than it did twenty or thirty\nyears ago. A business man employs another because he wants him to help him, not\nmerely to count up figures and keep accurate accounts, but to help him in the community\nand with other business men. So it takes a broader culture today than was required\nthirty years ago.\n\nCOMMERCIAL\nFRANK\n\nO.\n\nCARPENTER,\n\nGEOGRAPHY:\nMASTER\n\nOF\n\nTHE\nMASS.\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nSCIENCE\n\nENGLISH\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nDuring one of the campaigns of Napoleon in central Europe a curious\nevent is said to have occurred. The emperor had been at Paris for a long\ntime, ahd the troops on the frontier had grown inactive. Suddenly,\nwithout any apparent cause, the troops began to work with feverish activity at their ordinary tasks. The officers shared in the enthusiasm, but\nwere unable to see a cause for it. The excitement lasted a day and a\nnight, and on the second day the news spread that Napoleon had arrived\nduring the night, quietly and unannounced. It appeared that the mere\npresence of that great leader had inspired the troops along the frontier,\naltho they did not know of his arrival.\nSo during the last twenty years a new movement has arisen in education. Old systems of training and long-accepted standards have suddenly become unsatisfactory and have been throv/n aside.\nNew methods\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nSCIENCE\n\n733\n\nof teaching old studies, new ideas of the purpose of education, new activities such as the kindergarten and manual training, the elective system,\nlaboratory methods, have swept over the school world with a speed and\nforce which even their most earnest supporters have been unable to\nexplain, and which their opponents have believed would destroy the\nentire system of sound and thoro education.\nThis new force is the modern idea that the thinker must also be the\ndoer; that faith, however lofty, without works cannot lift mankind; and\nthat the dreams of the student in his library must be tested by the sturdy\nworkman in the workshop before they can lead the world. The application of this force may well be called \"the science of practical life,\" or,\nmore correctly, \"the science of commerce and industry,\" commonly\ncalled \"commercial geography.\"\nThe science of commerce and industry, as the subject should be\ncalled, deals with several branches of study: (i) the study of commercial\nproducts, as wheat, cotton, lumber, from raw material thru manufacturing\nprocesses to the finished product ; (2) the ways by which these products\nare transported by sea and land over the world to the consumer;\n(3) the mechanism of trade, as banks, credit, clearing-houses, markets, by\nwhich the great masses of productions are handled and the money in\npayment for them is returned to the producer; (4) the comparative study\nof the nations with regard to their productions and cornmercial importance in the world, and their need of each other as markets or as sources\nof supply of raw materials; (5) the history of commerce and industry,\nshowing how the conquests of work, in spite of the conquests of war, have\nmade the epochs of civilization ; (6) the economics of industry, which\nshows the position of man in regard to -productions, commerce, and\ntrade, and how they are essential to his welfare and happiness.\nThe subject of commerce and industry is a science with lavVs as precise\nand unerring as chemistry, botany, or physics. It may be called a \"master of sciences,\" for its scope is wider and includes the others. Chemistry\nand physics deal with things and forces by themselves; commerce and\nindustry, with things and forces as applied to the needs and uses of man.\nIn the study of wheat, for example, \"botany shows the growth of the plant ;\nchemistry, the nature of the soils and the food substances in the grain. The\ntransportation and milling of wheat demand the sciences of engineering\nand physics ; the marketing and payment, the science of finance ; the\neffect of the wheat on the body, the science of physiology — six sciences\nfor a single thing. Then comes the master-science of commerce and\nindustry, and, joining together the reports of the subordinate sciences,\nitself shows how men use wheat for their labor, food, and civilization. So\nwith all other commercial products anc^ labor. Mr. Gilley, whose paper\nfollows mine, will tell you better than I can how chemistry and physics\nserve their master. Commerce.\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n**\n*\n*\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n•\n\n[Business\n\nIn the application of this science to the schools there are two points\nto consider : first, the preparation of the teacher for his work ; secondly,\nthe training of the pupil in the study.\nThe idea that \"anybody can teach that subject well enough\" is\nalready becoming \"who is able and ready to teach that study.\" The\nteacher of commerce and industry must be a man of affairs as well as of\nbooks. Where now the college student prepares in a normal school or in\nspecial courses in pedagogy, the teacher of commerce will turn to the\nactual study of business life and conditions. Where a normal graduate\ngladly gives his time to gain experience in school practice, the student of\ncommerce will spend several months in a bank, some months in a great\ndepartment store or a factory where textile fibers are turned into cloth, or\nin a railroad office where problems of transportation and management are\nsolved. Probably, also, he will follow the construction of some modern\noffice building from foundation to capstone. Does this seem like adding\nanother straw to the overloaded camel of what a teacher should know\nbefore he can earn his living ? Let me show you.\nTake the time you would spend on books and devote it, as I have\ndone for the last three years, to the men who make things and the men\nwho sell and transport them, and you will find that \"as the cyclopaedia\nwithers, the world grows more and more.\" So shall the teacher, in the\nsame time, with the same effort, gain a knowledge that will be incandescent, not a reflected glow. I do not wish to say that books are not of use.\nThey are valuable as records ; but it should be men of commerce first,\nbooks last.\nWhat bond of union have wheat, cotton, paper, steel, the Panama\nCanal, and the roaring of the stock and produce exchanges ? Like all\ngreat truths, this becomes simple if you have the magic key to the puzzle.\nThis is the talisman which makes these tumultuous forces take their proper\nplaces. What are these things to man ? What does he do with them all?\nHow do they serve his development and needs? Let us look at our\npoints in this new light. Wheat — man uses it for food, and in raising it,\ncarrying it, and selling it the larger part of mankind find their labor, their\nliving, their happiness. Cotton — man needs it for clothing. Paper —\nman keeps his records and sends his messages on it. Steel — with it he\nbuilds his bridges, his railroads, his swift-darting ships. The Panama\nCanal — it will cheapen cost of transportation so that a poor man in Australia can buy a coat the making of which enables the English workman\nto buy bread for his babies in London. The roaring of the stock markets— you see beneath the confusion the great forces of trade by which\nmen move the mighty masses of productions and control the powers of\nindustry, and you see men shouting, fighting, cheating it may be, but still\ndoing the work which serves their fellow-men.\n**********\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nSCIENCE\n\n735\n\nThis is the main thought which I want to bring to you this morning,\nthat the new education is sound in so far as it teaches man to know\nhimself — first the body and its uses and needs, and then his mind and\nsoul. And to do this is, in my belief, the province, the power, and the\ndestiny of this great science of commerce and industry. There are few\nbooks as yet for the training of its teachers, but Clow's Commerce and\nThurston's Industrial and Economic History ty try teacher should have and\nknow.\nThey are brave and worthy pioneers in a new field.\nThe second point is the way the study should be taught to the pupil.\nThere are three methods to be followed: First, the geographical method.\nThe pupil begins with the study of the United States and its products;\nthen England, France, Germany, etc., until the world or the text-book is\nfinished. This method is unscientific, and its results are not satisfactory.\nSecond, the Philadelphia method. In this the pupil begins the study of\ncommercial products by classes or groups, such as those used in the\ncensus reports, as minerals, then vegetable products, animal products,\nforest industries, fisheries, etc. This method is scientific at least, and in\nthe hands of trained teachers, like those in the Central High School of\nPhiladelphia, can be made highly successful. Its fault lies in the fact that\nthese groups, as such, are separate and unrelated, not parts of one great\nsystem. Third, the Boston method. This method which seems far more\nsound and scientific is the one used in the English High School in Boston.\nThe pupil studies con^mercial products and human industries from the\nstandpoint of man and the needs of human life. In this way every commercial staple, each form of human labor, takes its place as a part of a\nharmonious system the purpose of which is the development of mankind.\nThe idea kept constantly before the mind of the pupils is: \"What use is\nthis to man, what does he do with it and by means of it ?\"\nTaking the needs of man in the order of their importance, we find\nthat first of all he must have food and drink, then clothing, then shelter,\nfuel and lights, transportation mechanical power, minerals, metals, paper,\netc. So the pupil studies foods, textile fabrics, building materials, etc.\nHe begins with foods. Among these the cereals — wheat, corn, rice, etc.\n— are the most important.\nThe method of studying wheat will show the method for all. The\npupils study; (i) the growth, varieties, and method of planting wheat;\n(2) the way it is reaped, threshed, transported, and stored ; (3) the way it is\nmilled or turned into flour and carried over the world to the consumer;\n(4) the way it is made into bread, macaroni, breakfast foods, etc., and sold\nunder varying conditions; (5) its nature, food value, and use to man;\n(6) the localities in the United States where wheat is grown, and the\namount of the crop raised for domesfic use or for export ; (7) the other\nnations of the world which are or can be rivals of the United States in\nwheat-raising, and the nations which furnish the markets for our wheat.\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nAfter wheat, the other cereals, fruits, nuts, sugar, beef, fish, dairy\nproducts, tea, coffee, and other chief foods. Next the textile fibers —\nwool, cotton, silk, flax, hemp, etc. — are followed from the raw materials\nto the finished fabric, showing of course the processes of carding,\nspinning, and weaving. Leather, furs, rubber, used for clothing, follow.\nAfter textiles the building materials — lumber and its uses, stone, brick,\ncement, steel, etc. ;' methods of construction and uses of buildings,\nbridges, railroads, etc. ; then fuels and lights, as petroleum, coal, gas,\nelectricity, etc. Transportation, manufacturing, mining, methods of\ntrade, banking, finance, are studied as fully as time will permit. The\nmethod is flexible. It will expand to use an hour a day or the student's\nentire time, or it can be condensed to a couple of hours a week. In\ndealing with these subjects the commercial value of the product or labor\nis always kept in mind, and other points are left for further study in\nthe appropriate courses of chemistry, botany, physics, economics, etc.\nSecond only to the right subjects of study in the English High School\nis the principle that the study of these productions must be based upon\nthe observation of and laboratory work upon actual specimens of the substances. Itmight almost be said that if the specimens are not at hand,\nthe subject is not studied. In studying from book descriptions the pupil\nis listless and uninterested. In studying the actual things and processes\nthe pupil is alert, eager, enthusiastic, and the recitation hour becomes too\nshort. A collection of specimens, therefore, is absolutely necessary if the\nsubject is thoroly taught, and will some time be as regular an item of\nexpense and equipment as chemical apparatus or books. The exhibit of\nspecimens displayed in the library of the English High School during this\nconvention will show what it needed for this work.\nAfter the collection of specimens comes the library of books. There\nare today few good text-books on commercial geography at hand but\nmany are planned by the publishers and within a few years will be issued\nand supply the demand. Of the books now at hand, Tilden's was too\ncondensed, but the new edition is much improved. Adams' is a valuable\ncollection of important information, but is badly arranged for teaching,\ntho the grammar-school edition is better. MacFarlane, the best just now\non the market, has charts of great value. Raw Materials of Commerce^ by\nDr. Trotter, of the Central High School of Philadelphia, now in press,\nwill be exceedingly helpful. Sanford's Outline Blanks are good and can\nbe used with any text-book. More valuable than any text-book are the\nUnited States government publications, such as consular reports, yearbooks of agriculture, census reports, treasury bulletins, etc. Each school\nshould try to obtain them, and the pupils should be trained to use them\nfrom the beginning of the course. Some have to be bought, many are\nfree, and thousands are distributed every year by congressmen to their\nconstituents and soon thrown away. These could be saved if it were\nknown that they were of value.\nThe popular magazines of today are full\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nTHE\n\nNEW'SCIENCE\n\n737\n\nof articles dealing with human industries and should be in every high\nschool in the country. Sunday newspapers often contain articles of the\ngreatest value by the foremost men of science and industry. These books\nand articles can be made easily accessible by a subject card catalog, which\ncan be written out by the pupils in connection with their work. Lantern\nslides should be used to illustrate the great subjects, like cotton, wheat\nand lumber. A laboratory is as necessary in commercial geography as in\nchemistry, physics, and other sciences.\nLastly, I can imagine your asking, what is the effect and value of this\nstudy to the pupil and the community ? First and foremost the boy\ngains a respect for labor. This would correct one of the serious evils of\nthe time — the tendency of the youth to choose a profession as the only\nwork giving a position of dignity and reward. To be a workingman\nseems a thing to be ashamed of and the work profitless toil. So\nthousands of men, fitted to be great leaders of industry, crowd the\nprofessions and pass their lives in an eternal struggle for a small return\n— an infinite waste of force.\nIf a youth feels work to be noble, he soon sees in it financial rewards\nas great as in a profession. Few professional men earn or expect to earn\nan amount equal to that received by the captains of industry or the\nmanagers of great business enterprises. The natural result of the study\nof commerce and industry is that the youth turns to the field of work as\neagerly as a soldier to the field of battle, and learns that to be a captain\nof industry is greater glory than to be a captain of war, that the man who\nbuilds a city is greater than he who conquers it, and that men who do the\nwork of the world are too busy to fight each other.\nDISCUSSION\nC. A. Herrick. — There should be in the field of what has been understood as commercial geography, the study of commercial products preliminary and leading up to\nwhat is properly and distinctively commercial geography. Furthermore, the distinction\nwhich Mr. Carpenter has made between pure geography for the elementary school, and\nthe applied geography for the high school, in the form of the study of commerce, is a very\nimportant distinction which I think should be emphasized. Commercial geography is\ngeography^ but it is the facts of pure geography applied to supplying the needs of men\nfor food, clothing, and shelter. That is a fundamental distinction, as I believe, between\ncommercial geography and general geography, as it has been heretofore understood. Mr. Carpenter is also right in saying that general geography has been made\nthe means of furnishing a vast amount of commercial information that might well have\nbeen reserved for separate treatment in its own proper place.\nWe in the Philadelphia High School make the co-ordinating unit the scientific aspect\nof the subject and divide commercial products into the threefold units of mineral, vegetable, and animal products. Mr. Carpenter claims that we should make the needs of men\n— the need for food, clothing, and shelter — 4he co-ordinating units, and that we should\napproach the subject of products from this standpoint. There is no essential difference in our points of view. We restrict the field to those things that have value to man,\nand our study is not mineralogy, botany, and zoology — the old threefold division of the\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nkingdoms of the universe — but it is mineralogy, botany, and zoology as applied to the\nneeds of men — rather economic botany, mineralogy, and zoology. Now, I maintain —\nand I believe that the position can be sustained — that, having fixed upon the needs of\nmen as the determining thing in the selection of material, we shall gain in scientific method\nby separating the material into scientific divisions. These are scientific divisions that\nare recognized in scientific study everywhere. I want, therefore, to dissent from Mr. Carpenter's general statement that we should deal first with those things which are most important. Which, after all, are the more important things ? Are not several things equally\nimportant ? If we go back into the development of human history, we shallprobablyfind\nthat the thing of first importance to humanity has been salt ; that next to salt the most\nimportant and necessary thing has been iron — both in the field of mineral products. I think\nwe are in great danger of adopting unscientific and unsatisfactory methods in the study\nof commercial products if we do not hold to the principle that, after we select things which\nare of economic value to men, we should conform to a sound scientific study of these\nthings within the great groups or divisions of science of which they are a part.\nRichard Waterman. — We find in Chicago that it is possible to use the sort of\nmaterials that Mr. Carpenter has mentioned very effectively in teaching the regular geography work in the elementary grades. That is, we get a cotton collection containing\nspecimens and pictures and books which treat it from the elementary-school standpoint,\nand this collection enables us to teach about the southern states better than we could without\nthe collection. A good silk collection enables us to teach about China better than we\ncould without it. So we have developed a series of traveling museums for the public\nschools of Chicago that are sent out to the schools on requisition.\nR. T. Green, Jr. — One thing is certain, that in many schools there is but one way\nto give this subject proper attention, and that is to divide it. I believe I could get three\nhours for commercial history and three hours for the study of raw materials and three\nhours for the study of commercial geography, but I could not get nine hours for the three\nof them combined.\nF. A. TiBBiTTS. — I believe in teaching commercial geography by countries. If you\nhave but a limited time, you can take up the most important first, beginning with the\nUnited States; then Canada, Great Britain, Germany, France, and other European countries then\n;\nSouth America and Asia. The important facts must be considered by themselves,\nand in doing that work I have started with the facts in physical geography which the\npupils will need in commercial geography. Following these facts in physical geography\nwe come to the important products of each country and the means of transportation for\nexport and import.\nH. C. HusTLEBY. — This gentleman from Chicago suggests an idea which I have been\nfollowing in my school for the past year ; that is, using the Tiffany cabinet of eighty-six\ndifferent industries, each industry being represented on a card. I have put this cabinet\ninto all the grades of my schools, and find there has never been anything in all my teaching which has aroused so much enthusiasm in the grade work in geography.\n\nSCIENCE IN COMMERCIAL WORK: ITS PRACTICAL\nVALUE,\nCHARACTER, AND PLACE IN HIGH-SCHOOL WORK\nFRANK\n\nM. GILLEY,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nIN PHYSICS\nAND\nCHELSEA, MASS.\n\nCHEMISTRY,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe course of study of any high school should be along broad lines.\nCourses of study should be fitted to the pupil, and not the pupil to the\ncourses of study.\nAltho earning a living is one of the primary aims of\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nWORK\n\n739\n\neveryone, and altho nearly all of those who attend the high school will\nfollow commercial pursuits, the aim of any course should be to start the\npupil on the way to an education.\nThe system of election in courses of study generally prevails, but\nelection by subjects is growing in favor. In election by courses the\nopportunity for selection comes early in school life ; in election by subjects the opportunities for exercising a choice increase year by year. The\nseparation of a high-school system into English, classical, manual training, and commercial schools forces the child of fourteen, or his parents,\nto choose a course in which there is comparatively little election. If\nthe commercial high school is not large enough to include a great\nvariety of subjects, there should be considerable flexibility in changing\nfrom one school to another. There can be no true election without such\nflexibility. Boys at work develop tastes for different lines of business ;\nand boys at school should be given opportunity to change their direction\nwithout returning to the point from which they started.\nThe methods of science instruction, as well as the content, must be\nconsidered. What can be taught is more or less influenced by the njethod\nof presentation. The method of teaching one pupil at a time is much\nmore common in science than in other branches.\nThe success of science-teaching depends on the co-operation of other\ndepartments : co-operation of the modern-language department, by\nteaching scientific French and German; of the English department, in\ndictation and notebook records; of the art department, in the use of\ndrawings, diagrams, and lettering, and the general attractive and selfexplanatory appearance of the notebook pages ; of the manual-training\ndepartment, in the construction of models and apparatus. In the same\nway, instruction in science should be helpful to the commercial branches.\nThe reform in mathematical teaching is well under way. The simpler\nand more practical teaching of mathematics, in part using the work in\nscience for concrete work, might be tried in commercial high schools,\nunhindered by tradition and college-entrance requirements. It is recognized that a much less theoretical knowledge of algebra, geometry, and\ntrigonometry than is current today would be helpful in science-teaching.\nExamples and problems in these subjects might bring out important\nscientific facts : that ^e power of the tides everywhere and solar engines\nin most places is more expensive than power from steam or gas engines ;\nthat wherever the barometer is low, as on the elevated plateaus of the\nWest, air compressors work less efficiently and the addition of a condenser\nto a steam engine gives less economy than at the sea-level.\nScience should be studied as a whole, and not as if composed of\nunrelated branches. There has been 4;oo much separation of physics and\nchemistry. There is no neutral zone. In portions of physics — electrolysis, batteries, energy of combustion — little time is well spent on\nchemical theory and chemical experiments.\nChemistry\nwithout some\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "740\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nknowledge of density, methods of electrical measurement, and the whole\nsubject of heat is at times unintelligible. Chemistry, physics, biology,\nand physical geography are difficult subjects. It is impossible to make\nthem easy and at the same time valuable as training or information.\nScience should not be a playground or an asylum for the lazy, the mentally weak, or those who cannot or will not learn languages and\nmathematics.\nThe course in science should cover in each year such portions of each\nbranch as are adapted to the progress of the pupil — a spiral arrangement, each year going farther into and taking up the more difficult\nportions of each subject. Physics, chemistry, meteorology, physical\ngeography, and biology, including quantitative laboratory work, would\nthen form a part of each year's course. Chemistry should be taught\nfrom the energy standpoint. Even if cadmium is omitted, teach something about tungsten, titanium, and molybdenum ; for these by no means\nrare metals form, with iron free from carbon, alloys that hold an edge at\na red heat. By their use iron and steel will be worked \"from two to five\ntimes as fast as before. The new abrasive and other products of the\nelectric furnace and electro-chemical processes of manufacture, enough\nblowpipe work in the determination of minerals to get a comprehension\nof how this work is done, and other work of a practical nature should be\nincluded in the course. The manufacture of a few chemicals, keeping\na careful account (perhaps with the co-operation of the bookkeeping\ndepartment) of the cost of raw materials, rent, labor, depreciation of\napparatus — an item brought home to the student by the laboratory fee\nand breakage bill — gives an idea of what is known to manufacturers as\n\" costing.\" The construction and cost of producing electric current\nfrom galvanic cells, as determined by actual tests, show how inefficient\nzinc is as fuel for generating power in large amounts ; the measurement\nand calculation of the horse-power of engines and motors, and practice\nwith the photorfieter, are good preventives of the craze for perpetual\nmotion. There is no place for Aladdin's lamp in the business world.\nThe millions that are wasted yearly in foolish ventures would not be lost\nif the owners had studied science and had correct ideas of the laws of\nconservation of energy, but would, if turned into the channels of legitimate business, make America the foremost commercial nation in the\nworld.\nThe work in science should be practical. In specific gravity, weigh\nsomething besides blocks : take the native rocks, specimens of minerals,\ncoal, the common metals, and wood in common use. In heat, learn the\nnames and uses of actual working instruments — the pyrometer, ecometer,\nsafety valves, calorimeter, always using the commercial names of things.\nStudy the catalogs of trade supply houses, plumbers, and steam-fitters, the\ntrade journals and scientific magazines, and consular reports.\nCall atten-\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nWOkk\n\n741\n\ntion to the economic value of inventions, and the way we do things now as\ncompared with a century ago when there were few time-saving machines.\nThe raw materials — wood, lumber, minerals, fuel, and the tillable land —\nare the stock in trade of the whole world. We should work for the\nintelligent management of forests and for the economical use of fuels and\nores. The climate, natural resources, and accessibility of each section\nshould be taught together. Is it not better to know the boundaries of\nthe coal and iron fields than those of the states? Is it not better to have\non the mental map we form of a country the obstacles to commercial\nintercourse, the rainfall and climatic conditions, than the dividing lines of\ntowns and counties? Does the botany we teach make a pupil eager to\nreforestize land, plant fruit trees, and cultivate food plants? Does zoology\ninspire a pupil to do his little part in mitigating the mosquito plague, in\ndestroying injurious and in cultivating beneficial insects? The meteorology we learn ought to make us satisfied with the weather we have and\ncontented with our surroundings.\nThe business man or engineer must use his knowledge in the big and\nlittle emergencies of business life. It is perhaps just here that education for culture alone differs from a commercial or technical training.\nA culture knowledge includes a large amount of information, most of\nwhich is not at ready command — a reminiscence^ as Plato calls it; while\nthe business or professional man has a ready knowledge, or cognition, of\nhis particular calling. Those who hold our fortunes and our lives in\ntheir keeping* must have more exact knowledge than the accepted standard of culture demands. Absolute ignorance frankly admitted is far\nbetter than the vague knowledge of material, processes, and business\nmethods that makes a man think he knows when he does not. He must\nlearn to inquire when in doubt, and to use every source of information.\nThe lesson of the message to Garcia has been overdrawn. A man may be\nadmired for his pluck and persistence : but fortune falls to the lot of him\nwho informs himself thoroly.\n\nDISCIPLINARY\nENOS\n\nSPENCER,\n\nVALUE\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nOF THE\nSPENCERIAN\nLOUISVILLE,\nKY.\n\nAS\n\nBUSINESS\n\nA\n\nSTUDY\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThis is a busy, hustling, energetic age. Commercialism is fastened\nupon us. That it is an evil, we will not admit. On the other hand, we\nknow the world is growing more liberal, better, broader, and more humane.\nSuperstition and ignorance are being displaced by enlightenment and\nreason. It takes only a momentary ^apse into barbarism in some quarter\nof the globe to furnish the exception that proves our rule. With what\nuniversal horror is the news of a fanatical massacre now received!\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nsimilar occurrence a century or less ago would not have created half the\ncommotion and would have been forgotten in half the time.\nWhat is responsible for the world's advancement? Nothing more so\nthan the application of the science of accounting which alone makes possible commercial expansion and progress. About two years ago I read a\nreport of a United States senator who had made a trip to the Orient. He\nsaid :\nHonesty of method is increasing because civilization is increasing all around the\nglobe. Men are growing more and more upright, from principle and from policy, and it\nis a shining defense of what some immoderate minds harshly call commercialism that\nfraud, dishonesty, and financial unrighteousness are being eliminated and gradually being\nmade impossible even, by the highly complex organization of the commercial world. Out\nof the chaos and disorder of things business methods, far more than moral improvement,\nare bringing regularity, accuracy, and therefore honesty. Russia's finance minister has\napplied to all expenditures a system of audit through which the smallest item of outlay\nmust pass. He and other men of his quality are the hope and salvation of commercial\nand constructive Russia.\n\nIf accounting, and thru it commerce, is of such great value to a nation\nand the world at large, how essential is it that every individual come under\nthe uplifting influence of the science and the system of business historymaking — bookkeeping! Couple these with knowledge, and we have\nprogress and enlightenment — the roadway to true civilization and to\nworld perfection.\nTurning directly to the text given me, I advise against the study of\nbookkeeping for mere disciplinary effect. Such is not the purpose of\nbookkeeping, nor will discipline be attained by the mastery of the science.\nStudy bookkeeping, by any and all means, I would say to the young; but\nstudy it for its practical utility. We should take it as we do our food.\nWe do not eat because it gives us physical training and improves our table\nmanners. We eat because we need the food. Bookkeeping is an essential\nin every-day life, no matter what our vocation. It must be regarded, not\nas a horizontal bar of a mental gymnasium, but as the plow-handle of the\nbread-and-butter phase of life.\nDisciplinary training should commence with the child's mental development. Our public schools are too prone to take up technical subjects and\nto waste time on drawing, music, and side issues. I should not be surprised\nto hear of some public-school board announcing that a- course of law,\njournalism, advertisement-writing, or blacksmithing would be inaugurated\nin the fifth or sixth grade, or that pupils would graduate with a degree at\nthe age of thirteen. I insist that children should be thoroly drilled in the\nfundamental branches. Let all else alone. That is the sole purpose of\nthe public school. Why should it not be carried out completely and successfully ? The course should train for general citizenship and its high\nduties. Make men and women of the boys and girls who are the charge\nof the nation.\nDo not expect the youth to put on the cornice when the\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISCIPLINARY\n\nVALUE\n\nOF BOOKKEEPING\n\n743\n\nwalls are not yet builded. \"Readin, 'ritin', and 'rithmetic\" are the three\nR's that move the world today, just as they did in the time of our fathers\nand the log schoolhouse. Here lies the disciplinary kernel. Let the young\ncrack the shell and dig it out. See that the child does the digging, and\nwhen he reaches the point where he must grasp the technical and the\npractical, he will then have the mental development needed.\nWe often hear it said that we are living too fast, that the race will burn\nitself out at the rate things are going. I doubt that. Work will not hurt\nus; it is abuse, idleness, and dissipation that tear down. Idleness is one\nof man's chief enemies — in fact, the chief enemy.\nThere are many improvements I should like to see made in the publicschool system. One of them is to put in more hours and days and weeks\nin a year's schooling. When I leave my office at lunch time every day, I\nsee boys and girls on their way home from school. An hour or two later,\nas I return from lunch, I find many of those boys on the street corners or\nin doorways smoking cigarettes and idling their time away. The germs\nof mischief float around such gatherings. The boy out of school and on\nthe street is in positive danger. In fact, the idle boy is on the broad road\nto ruin. Besides making the school day longer, I would add another day\nto the school week ; and, lastly, would shorten the summer vacation. I\nwould have the school course so arranged that mental and physical training would go hand in hand, the one relieving the tediousness of the other.\nThe objection might be raised that there would be no time for rest. That\nis exactly what I would seek. With a healthy child it is always so. When\nnot at work or study he is at idle play — merely another kind of activity.\nI^ would not deprive him of his physical exercise, but merely regulate and\nsystematize it and apportion the time for it with that for work, in order\nthat the most good might come to him. But the downright, trifling idleness of the lad who spends his after-school hours in the street or at idle\nsport would have to go. Idle sport is the curse of city life for our young,\nand is the reason why country boys are the bone, sinew, and upbuilding\nvitality of the city.\nThe energies of educators should be concentrated in qualifying young\nAmericans to cope with twentieth-century men and methods. In the\nmajority of cases we must give the youth that which will be of the greatest benefit to him in the limited time at his disposal for getting it. That\nserves best which serves longest. Let the public and parochial schools\nfurnish us our disciplinary training. That was the idea, I am sure, of the\noriginators of the public-school system. Again I say, teach the fundamentals. would\nI\ndivide the school day thus : one hour for penmanship —\nnot cramped copy-book drawing, but free, muscular action, bringing into\nplay the large, tireless muscles of th^arm, and producing ovals, straight\nlines, and curves from which alone a free, clean, legible handwriting can\nbe obtained ; one hour for reading and elocution, the reading not to be\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ndry articles for elocutionary gymnastics, but free, fluent, natural reading of\nmatter containing valuable information in history, science, and government, especially along the line of hygiene, and correct living and acting;\none hour for spelling and language ; one hour for arithmetic and mental\ndrill — not complicated arithmetical puzzles, but rapid and accurate work in\nthe common everyday calculations, especially thoro drill in that greatest\nof mind trainers, mental arithmetic; another hour for geography, history,\nphysiology, hygiene, and the principles of right living. Between these\nhours intersperse recreation periods for physical culture. Let this program be followed six days in the week. Children will not tire of a school\nproperly conducted with mental and physical culture blended in such\nproportion that the one relieves the monotony of the other. Let the\nteachers teach more and examine examination papers less. Cut out the\nmachinery and reduce the number of pupils to a teacher. See that every\nchild is given thoro training in the fundamental branches before a dollar\nis spent on high schools or technical training of any kind. Do not\nattempt to broaden the course of the public school. The boy or girl that\nhas mastered the rudiments will have appropriated a magnificent fortune\nbeside which the riches of the princess of India will appear as the personification of poverty. The common-school education carries with it — if\nit is properly given to the youth — all the fundamental discipline needed.\nIf the fundamentals are properly mastered, there is no necessity for bookkeeping or any other technical subject as a disciplinary study. In fact,\nwithout mastery of the fundamentals, all the bookkeeping or other technical training in the world would be valueless to the student.\nFormerly not one out of ten business-college students made direct\npractical use of the technical or bookkeeping part of his education. Now\nthe number is more than nine out of every ten. More time is now devoted\nto the fundamentals — penmanship, addition, billing, and correspondence —\nand less to bookkeeping. The business schools recognize that where the\ncommon\n\nschool has failed to supply the rudiments — either thru a defect-\n\nive course or in the student's failure, by non-attendance or other cause, to\navail himself of it — the business-educational institution must first make\nup the deficiency before success can be expected.\nBookkeeping means the mere recording of business transactions in a\nsystematic manner. The records are called accounts. Three prime factors, and only three, figure in these accounts — namely, English, penmanship, and arithmetic. These are the three essentials. Without any\none of these, books cannot be kept. Just in the measure in which these\nthree things are mastered will the bookkeeper be able to keep books. The\nmore proficient he is in these fundamentals, the better and easier will he\nperform his labor. Practice may breed accuracy, neatness, and speed,\nbut it will not necessarily discipline the bookkeeper. He must come to\nhis work already disciplined thru the acquisition of his English, his penmanship, and his arithmetic.\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDISCIPLINARY\n\nVALUE\n\nOF BOOKKEEPING\n\n745\n\nOf course, every boy and girl should learn bookkeeping. I make no\nexceptions, whether a youth purposes to become a carpenter, a farmer, a\nlawyer, an artist, a merchant, a mechanic, a banker, an electrician, or even\na housewife. But the study should never come before the ward- or grammar-school course is completed. Give the pupil all the fundamental training, all the discipline, circumstances will possibly permit him to acquire.\nThen let him have bookkeeping. Ascertain how long the student has to\ndevote to his schooling ; then give the last year of that time to business\ntraining. Suppose he has three years to attend school after leaving the\nward school. Let two of these be spent in the high school and the third\nin business training. Or if he has four years more, then give him three\nof those years in high school and devote the last one to technical business\ninstruction. If he can spend the entire four years in the high school and\nhave an additional one for training in business, all the better. If he can\nspend only one year in school after having completed the ward- or grammar-school course, let it be given to business training. If the student\ncan avail himself of a college education, it would be greatly to his advantage to take a year's good close training in business or practical livingmaking subjects before entering upon his college course. Then, if he\nwould be best qualified for meeting the demands of this great commercial\nage, he should take the last year of his college course in higher commercial training, studying the commerce of the world from the broadest\npoint of view. I do not make these recommendations for the benefit of\nprivate business colleges, but as a result of my thirty years experience in\nqualifying young people for business and success in life. By all means\nlet our young people have the fullest and best education possible. The\nworld individually and collectively will be the better for it. The only\npoint on which I insist is that the last of the allotted years for schooling\nbe devoted to the practical. General training makes the man mentally\nstrong. Technical training renders him capable of applying his knowledge.\nThe technical training — the business education, if you please —\nstrengthens the youth to meet life's temptations and battles. The needed\nstrength to combat these influences is obtained in his study of those things\nin which he realizes there is an immedate possibility of working out life's\nproblems. While he studies bookkeeping he takes a new hold on things.\nHe is brought face to face with success and failure arrayed side by\nside. While he has been disciplining himself he has not recognzed these\nfactors. He has been a mere sponge, absorbing all that came within his\nreach.\nNow, in the first lesson in business training he beholds the practical.\nIn the same moment he realizes his former dependence and his future\nindependence. It is a change of life for him. The more thoro, better, and\nbroader has been his disciplinary course, the mightier is his strength.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nHe finds himself against the world, as it were, and bends his energy on\nconquering, not alone for mere victory's sake but for life's sake. He\nmust sink or swim. So he masters the technical and finds himself —\na citizen.\nDISCUSSION\nC.B.Ellis. — The author of the paper beheves thoroly in the teaching of bookkeeping. So do I. I beheve, as he does, that every young man should have the opportunity to learn the principles of bookkeeping, but I cannot quite agree with him in the\nplace in the course to which he would assign the subject. If he is going to cut bookkeeping out of the grammar school, he will deprive a large percentage of boys and girls\nof the opportunity of studying it. Many boys and girls need to study bookkeeping, not\nfor the purpose of putting it to practical use as bookkeepers, but for keeping records of\ntheir own. Not every boy can pay tuition to learn how to keep books, but if you put into\nthe ninth grade of the grammar school a short course in bookkeeping, the boy can learn\nthe principles there. The speaker has given us a strong picture of what may be accomplished bythe study of accounts. I believe it all, but if what he says can be accomplished\nby the study of accounts is true, the study of accounts has a decided disciplinary value.\nMr. Rohrbach in his text-book on psychology says : \" Accuracy is the chief est intellectual\nvirtue.\" Now, the gentleman who read the paper has put special emphasis and value on\naccuracy, and few subjects develop so much that essential quality of accuracy as bookkeeping. Aboy cannot keep books unless he is accurate. Now, if Mr. Rohrbach is\nright, that accuracy is the chiefest intellectual virtue, then bookkeeping must have a disciplinary value without question. If we accept the gentleman's conclusion, we must wipe\nout our high-school system. The high school gives above all a preparation for life. It\ndoes not matter whether the pupil passes on to college before he goes out into life or not ;\nthat high-school training is a part of his training and preparation for life. If he is going\nto be a professional man, and goes thru the high school and college and a professional\nschool beyond that, still that high-school training is an essential part of his preparation\nfor his work. If a boy who is going to college and intends to enter a profession has a\nright to that high-school training for four years, then this other boy, who has not the\nopportunity for going to college, and who perhaps has not the fitness for one of the professions, has the same right to a training which shall fit him for usefulness and help him\nto go out and earn his bread and butter. The speaker is behind the times here. There\nis no question but what the trend of educational thought today is that our schools\nshall, so far as possible, fit boys for lives of usefulness when they have left school.\n\nTHE\n\nDISCIPLINARY VALUE OF STENOGRAPHY\nTYPEWRITING AS STUDIES\n\nW. H. WAGNER,\n\nTEACHER OF STENOGRAPHY AND TYPEWRITING,\nHIGH\nSCHOOL,\nLOS\nANGELES,\nCAL.\n\nAND\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nThe value of a subject for study should be measured by the power it\ndevelops in the student to think, plan, and execute. The possibilities\nof mental development involved in the study of stenography and typewriting are unquestionably very great. As educative forces they have few\nequals. They are especially valuable, not only as cultural, but as utilitarian subjects. The study of these subjects develops the power of\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF STENOGRAPHY\n\nAND\n\nTYPEWRITING\n\n747\n\nexpression, which is the soul of education — that power which asserts itself,\nmakes itself felt, and moves the world. Tho largeh' vocational, they have\na high disciplinary value when correlated with other subjects, and it is in\nthis relation that we shall discuss their educational value.\nThe prevalent idea, which has long obtained, that stenography and\ntypewriting, being practical and having a high commercial value, are not\ndisciplinary, is rapidly being dissipated by their general adoption and\ncorrelation with other branches in our schools. They have been regarded\nas mechanical arts which it required no great amount of mental ability to\nmaster; and it has been thought that any person of ordinary ability can\nlearn to be a successful stenographer without much effort. Recent experience in the schoolroom with these subjects has, however changed the\nviews of many leading educators in this regard. It is now conceded that\nstenography and typewriting as studies and practical arts admit of the\nwidest range of mental action.\nThe student of stenography not only thinks, but he executes, or\nexpresses, his thoughts in words and action. On the practical side its\nadvantages are so obvious as hardly to need mention, and its value too\ngreat to be measured in dollars and cents. But its greatest value lies in the\nmental training which its study imparts. No other subject in the school\ncurriculum can excel it as a means of cultivating quickness of thought and\nconcentration of mind. From the first lesson the student of stenography\nbegins to think more quickly than before and to act more promptly in\nputting upon paper the picture of his mental impressions. He undergoes\nmental gymnastics which are a sure cure for sluggish and slovenly mental\nhabits. The mind is awakened, becomes alert, quick, and active; hearing\nis made more keen, and the hand is trained to execute with precision and\nrapidity. In mental culture stenography as a study compares favorably\nwith other subjects. In many respects it resembles the study of foreign\nlanguages. The mental processes involved are much alike. The same\nfaculties are developed and trained — reason, memory, observation, comparison, investigation, judgment, and conclusion. Both give the student\na better command of his mother-tongue ; in both, the grammatical laws\nof language are the basis of interpretation ; both give exercise in spoken\nlanguage ; both introduce the student to literature. Where correlated\nwith other subjects, such as English, history, and geography, dictations\nmay be given in class which will serve to create a lively interest in the subject in hand, and at the same time afford stenographic practice.\nThe intimate relations existing between the study of stenography and\nthat of English makes these subjects mutually helpful in the course. To\npursue a course in stenography without a good knowledge of English is\nlike building a house upon the sand. « Learning stenography is a study of\nEnglish from the practical side, giving the student specific, utilitarian\ntraining in his mother-tongue.\n\nThe student of stenography works at his\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nEnglish seriously ; he gets the true meaning of words, the relation of\nphrases, or clauses, to other parts of the sentence, their interdependence,\nand their force ; he comprehends construction, becomes familiar with\nthe use of synonyms, and the relations existing between the derivative\nwords and their roots ; he studies the sequence of ideas, the development\nof thought; he corrects, transposes, separates, and reconstructs — in a\nmeasure he creates. The process of working out the thought involved\nin brief, often imperfect, shorthand notes, turning spoken thought thus\nrecorded back into faultless English and correct print, is an exercise\nwhich gives a discipline of the greatest value and a practical command of\nthe mother-tongue which can be gotten in no other way. The study of\nstenography and typewriting acts as a corrective in spelling, punctuation,\ncapitalization, paragraphing, and style. It also serves to form habits of\nneatness, accuracy, and form.\nIn an examination recently given for the selection of eight young men\nfor cadetships at West Point and Annapolis, the applicants were all graduates of high schools and were chosen with special reference to their good\nstanding as pupils. Every one of the eight were rejected, however, for\nlack of thoroness in the elementary English branches. The state representative where the applications were made says there can be no question\nabout the justice of the decisions and declares that the case in point is\nsimply a striking evidence of the fact that the American public-school\nsystem is defective. It indicates that not enough attention is paid to the\neducational foundation and too much to the superstructure, pupils being\nrushed thru the grammar schools without proper elementary training.\nAnother instance where an examination was given high-school graduates\nfor entrance to a university, nearly one-half failed because they were\nunable to spell words in common use.\nThe following is quoted from a high-school principal, who testifies to\nthe effectiveness of the study of shorthand as a corrective and having disciplinary value. He says :\nI have heretofore held that none of our business studies could be compared in cultural\nvalue with our common secondary school studies, but I am getting away from this theory,\nwhen I see what good results our school is accomplishing. I appreciate that the study of\nshorthand, besides the practical gain it offers by being a means of getting certain facts\nand of noting them with little time or energy as compared with writing, supplements\nour work in English in the lines of spelling, punctuation, and paragraphing, and particularly in pronunciation. It is of value as it emphasizes the importance of neatness and\naccuracy, and at the same time demands habits of close and concentrated attention to the\nmatter in hand. I also see how it is helpful to the memory and to a quick-witted presence\nof mind in the one who seeks to master it.\n\nStenography and typewriting as studies are the antidote for poor\nspelling. The treatment goes direct to the root of the disease; it applies\nthe right remedy to each individual case. This is the proper and most\neffective way to teach spelling.\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF STENOGRAPHY\n\nAND\n\nTYPEWRITING\n\n749\n\nThe use of the typewriter makes the operator his own critic. It is\ncomnionly known what skill in the technique of English the typesetter\nacquires. The writing machine affords even greater advantages in this\ndirection. The operator not only sets the type, but he also reads the\nproof. For discipline in practical English there is no training better\nthan that of proofreading.\nThe value of typewriting, considered as an instrument of manual\ntraining, is great, but in cultivating rapid thought and quick action, accuracy, neatness, and general utility it serves a yet higher purpose. The\ngeneral discipline gained in learning typewriting alone places the study\namong the most important educational agencies of modern times.\nThe study of stenography and typewriting cultivates concentration.\nIn this age of intense mental and physical activity, competition compels\nthe youth to fight the battles of a strenuous life. Our schools should so\nshape their courses as to develop concentration of the forces of youth.\nThe present tendency is to scatter. Concentration is highly disciplinary;\nit is the first element of thoroness which is the golden key to success.\nOur technical schools afford excellent discipline, because in them the\nstudent pursues subjects which, from their utilitarian nature, develop concentration. Reporting a speaker requires intense concentration of mind\nand physical effort. The mind cannot wander nor the hand cease its\naction. When the mind and hand become fatigued thru this strenuous\neffort, they move along lines of least resistance. The work is done in the\neasiest and most natural way.\nThe \"touch\" method of^ learning typewriting is valuable in training\nthe mind and hand to work harmoniously. The disciplinary effect is\nsimilar to that of learning the piano-forte, with that difference in favor of\nthe typewriter which the utilitarian has over the purely cultural study.\nThere is no more valuable lesson to the beginner in typewriting than\nbeing required to produce perfect work. To make a complete page without a single error requires intense concentration of mind and trains the\nhand in exactness of movement.\nPerhaps the most important educative feature of the study of stenography and typewriting is that it teaches the student to think. To be able\nto think is the first element of successful shorthand writing and notereading. The stenographer must think ; he cannot be mechanical and\nsucceed. When transcribing shorthand notes there is the greatest necessity for thinking; bad sentences must be reconstructed, grammatical\nerrors corrected, historical facts looked up, literary quotations verified.\nThe pupil should be taught the necessity of following the thought\nof what is being said as he records the words of the speaker, and\nin transcribing his notes to take up 4he thought and hold to it, that he\nmay see the complete, unbroken chain of ideas, the whole thought, from\nbeginning to end.\nHe should be taught to get behind and under his\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntBusiness\n\nnotes, to read between the lines, to see more than mere stenographic\ncharacters on the page, to have a clear concept of the subject-matter in\nhand ; and when that is done we can depend upon it that there will be\ngood, intelligent copy. This is the development of power and its consummate result. This is what stenography and typewriting as studies will\ndo for the student under proper instruction. Teachers should carefully\nguard against placing the stress of their work upon the mechanics of these\nsubjects which must necessarily turn out poor stenographers who might\notherwise be an honor to the shorthand profession.\nThe study of shorthand and typewriting does no less for the pupil\nthan any other subject in our school curriculum, but gives him better\nmental equipment for an active, useful life and for self-support than many\nothers, while it supplements, corrects, and utilizes all subjects in a way\nwhich adds strength to the whole course. It assimilates knowledge, clears\nthe mental vision, teaches what to do, and how and when to do it, in the\nbest and quickest way. In the highest and best sense it disciplines, it\neducates.\n\nREPORT\nHELD\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nOF ROUND\n\nPURPOSE\n\nOF\n\nDISCUSSING\nFOLLOWING\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nTHE\nCURRICULUM\nREPORT\n\nSUGGESTED\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nBoston, Mass., July lo, 1903.\nTo the Department of Business Education, National Educational Association :\nAt the Detroit meeting of this body, the president elect was authorized to appoint a\ncommittee, to which was assigned the work of preparing a monograph on commercial\neducation in the American public schools.\nThe following committee was named :\nDurand W. Springer, director of commercial department. High School, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nWilliam E. Doggett, assistant principal of Commercial High School, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nCheesman A. Herrick, director of School of Commerce, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAllan Davis, principal of Business High School, Washington, D. C.\nI. O. Crissy, state inspector of business education, Albany, N. Y.\nJ. H, Francis, principal of Commercial High School, Los Angeles, Cal.\nH. M. Rowe, author and publisher of business text-books, Baltimore, Md.\nE. E. Gaylord, director of commercial department. High School, Beverly, Mass.\nT. W. Bookmyer, principal of Sandusky Business College, Sandusky, O.\n\nThe first meeting of the committee was held at Philadelphia, March 27-28, 1902,\nthe only absentees being Messrs. Bookmyer amd Francis. During one of the sessions we\nwere favored with the presence of Professor Charles DeGarmo, of Cornell, and Dean\nHaskins of the School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance of the University of New\nYork. A discussion of the general problems involved occupied our entire time, it being\nagreed that the course of study outlined should be four years in length.\nThe programs for the departmental meetings, at both Minneapolis and Boston, were\narranged with the idea of assisting the committee in its work by securing, in the discussion of the formal papers presented, the opinions and experience of a large number of\ncommercial teachers.\nIn connection with the Minneapolis meeting, the committee held three sessions, with\nsix members present, and an open conference meeting, attended by about one hundred\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nDepartment]\n\nOF ROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\npersons. Each member had drafted a course which he advocated, and each course was\nsubmitted to those present for criticism. Much of the time was spent in discussing the\nclassification of the technical subjects that should be given in a commercial course and\nthe order of their presentation. The following general statements were agreed upon as\ngoverning the committee in its further deliberations :\n\n75^\n\nThe paramount factor in shaping commercial courses in public schools should be the welfare of the\nstudent who goes directly from the high school to his life-work. It is expected, however, that such courses will\nprovide a training of such a character as will fit the student completing them to enter the schools of commerce\nand industry now being established by many colleges and universities as well as other modern courses in\ncolleges and universities.\nWe believe that, where possible, separately organized commercial schools are advisable ; but we realize\nthat in the great majority of places the work must be given in regular public high schools as one of the several\ncourses thereof.\nCommercial courses will include many subjects now taught in public high schools, altho the methods of\npresentation in some cases may not be those best adapted to the needs of the business student. We realize\nthat in most schools it will not be possible to organize separate classes in those subjects for the commercial\nstudents with methods especially modified to meet their wants.\n\nDuring the past year work has been carried on by correspondence, and this week\nthree sessions have been held, attended by the members whose names are signed to this\nreport. We herewith submit an outline of a four-year commercial high-school course. It\nis needless to say that it does not follow exactly the original plan submitted by any member of the committee. Neither is it expected that it will suit every commercial teacher or\npublic-school superintendent. It is hoped that it may be of service to all, in that it is\nsuggestive.\nAllowances must be made for local conditions and the personal equation.\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nFIRST HALF\n\nSECOND\n\nRecitations\nEnglish\nGerman, or French, or Spanish\n\nAlgebra\nBookkeeping\nDrawing\nPenmanship\n\n.\n\n...\n.\n.\n\n-\n\nper week 4\n5\nS\n1233\n3\n3\n\nTotal\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nRecitations\n\n123\n\nper week 4\n5\n5\n4\n3\n\nEnglish\nSame language continued\nAlgebra General history to 800 A. D.\nBookkeeping\nPenmanship\nTotal\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n2\n\n...\n\n2\nYEAR 3\n\nFIRST HALF\n\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nHistory of English literature; composition\n\n3\n\nHistory of English literature ; commercial corre-\n\nModern language continued ...\nCommercial arithmetic\n.\n.\n.\nStudy of commercial products, or local history\nand industries\n\n5\n5\n\nspondence\n......\nModern language continued ...\nEnglish and European history .\n.\nCommercial geography\n....\nTypewriting\n\nBookkeeping\n\n5\n5\n\nTotal\n\n.\n\nTotal\nTHIRD\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\n\nHALF\n\nRhetoric and composition\nI^olitical economy\nPhysics or chemistry ....\nBookkeeping and oflRce practice First language continued, or second\nmoder\nlanguage, or shorthand and typewriting\n\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\n3\n\nPlane geometry\n\n5\n\nPhysics or chemistry continued\n\nS\n5\n\nCommercial law\n...\nUnited States history Election of first half continued\n\n-\n\nTotal\n\nTotal\nI The suggestions as to the number of recitation periods are based on the supposition that the length of a\nperiod is 45 minutes.\nIt is suggested that wherever possible periods be added for physical culture.\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "752\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOURTH\n\nFIRST\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nYEAR\n\nHALF\n\nSECOND\n\nHALF\n\nRecitations\nRecitations\nper week\nper week\nEnglish literature, themes, and parliamentary English continued\n5\npractice\nS\nCivil government\n5\nHistory of commerce\n5\nFifteen periods to be selected from —\nFifteen periods to be selected from —\nSame election continued\n5\nLanguage elected continued, or shorthand and\nPhysics or chemistry continued\n5\ntypewriting continued\nS\nAccounting, organization, and auditing\n5\nPhysics or chemistry\nS\nAdvanced commercial arithmetic 5\nBanking and finance\n•\n•\n5\nAdvertising, study of trade journals, and comSolid geometry\n5\nmercial English\n5\nMechanical drawing\n5\n\nThe committee will hold one more session while here for the purpose of completing\nsome matters in connection with the proposed monograph, whiclv we hope will be ready\nin time to form the basis of our next year's program.\n\nD. W. Springer, Chairman.\nW.\n\nE.\n\nDOGGETT.\n\nC. A. Herrick.\nI. O. Crissy.\nH. M. RowE.\nAbout one hundred persons were present, and over twenty took part in the discussion. The principal criticism of the suggested course was that too much work would be\nrequired of the pupils, and therefore it would fail to draw and retain students.\nAt the close of the session the committee was requested, on motion made by W. C.\nStevenson, of Maryland, to complete its work upon the monograph so that it should be\navailable for the next meeting.\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD STUDY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 7, 1903\n\nThe first session of the Department of Child Study was called to order in the Auditorium of the First Baptist Church, Tuesday morning, July 7, at 9 130 o'clock, by President\nG. W. A. Luckey.\nThe following program was presented :\nTopic: \" Child Study in Relation to Elementary Education.\"\n1. \" A Study Based on the Children of a State,\" Earl Barnes, lecturer for the American Society for\nExtension of University Teaching, Philadelphia, Pa.\nDiscussion: Miss Lillie A. Williams, professor of psychology, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\n2. \" The Teacher's Practical Application of the Results of Child Study,\" F. E. Spaulding, superintendent of schools, Passaic, N. J.\nDiscussion: George E, Johnson, dean of lower school, University School, Cleveland, O. ; Ida C. Bender, M.D., supervisor of primary grades, Buffalo, N. Y.\n3. *' The Health and Growth of School Children,\" W. W. Hastings, professor of physical training,\nInternational Y. M. C. A. Training School, Springfield, Mass.\nDiscussion; George W. Fitz, M.D., Boston. Mass.; Helen C. Putnam, M.D., Providence, R. I.\n4. \" School Hygiene in its Bearing on Child Life,\" Thomas\ncation, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.\n\nD. Wood, M.D., professor of physical edu-\n\nDiscussion: \"Medical Inspection of Schools,\" Homer W. Zirkle, principal of the Elmwood\nDenver, Colo. ; C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis.\n\nSchool,\n\nUnder the order of business the following committee on nominations was appointed\nby President Luckey :\nE. G. Lancaster, associate professor of philosophy and pedagogy, Colorado College, Colorado Springs,\nColo.\nGertrude Edmunds, principal of Normal Training School, Boston, Mass.\nT. L. Bolton, associate professor of psychology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.\n\nAdjournment was taken until Thursday morning at 9:30 o'clock.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9\n\nThe department was called to order at 9 :30 o'clock A. M., and the following program was presented :\nTopic: \" Child Study in Relation to Secondary Education.\"\n\"Sex Differentiation in Relation to Secondary Education,\" A. H. Yoder, professor of pedagogy,\nUniversity of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\nDiscussion: Edwin D. Starbuck, associate professor of education, Stanford University, Cal. ; Z. X.\nSnyder, president of State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.\n2. \"The Percentage of Boys Who Leave the High Schools, and the Reasons Therefor,\" A.Caswell\nEllis, associate professor of education. University of Texas, Austin, Texas.\nDiscussion: J. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind. ; Thomas M. Balliet, superintendent\nof Schools, Springfield, Mass.\n3. \" How to Increase the Attendance of Boys in the High School,\" J. K. Stableton, superintendent of\nschools, Bloomington, 111.\nDiscussion :\na) \" Self- Direction as a Motive for Increasing Attendance,\" Colin A. Scott, Boston Normal School,\nBoston, Mass.\ni) \" Influence of Men\nColorado, Boulder, Colo.\n\nand Women\n\nTeachers,\" Sanford Bell, professor of education. University of\n\n753\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\nMass.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\n4. \" Psychic Arrest in Adolescence,\" G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester,\n\nDiscussion: Adolph Meyer, M,D., director of New York Pathological Institute, Ward's Island, N. Y. ;\nGeorge E. Dawson, professor of psychology, Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy, Hartford, Conn.\n\nA. H. Yoder, Washington University, Seattle, was unavoidably detained, and in\norder to preserve the continuity of the program his paper was read by E. A. Kirkpatrick, State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass.\nAt the close of the session the following resolution, presented by Dr. Colin A. Scott,\nwas adopted :\nResolved, That, in consideration of the scientific character of the material presented and the large attendance in the Department of Child Study, President Luckey be asked to nominate a committee to confer with\nthe proper officers of the general Association with the view of obtaining a sum of money for scientific childstudy investigation, including the publication of the results in a report for the benefit of this Association;\nthe control of which is to be placed in the hands of a second committee selected specially for this purpose.\n\nThe following committee was appointed by the chair :\nColo.\n\nE. G. Lancaster, assistant professor of philosophy and pedagogy, Colorado College, Colorado Springs,\nThomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical education, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Lillie A. Williams, professor of psychology, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\n\nThe election of officers for the department resulted as follows :\nPresident — E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fitchburg Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass.\nVice-President — ^Jenny B. Merrill, supervisor of kindergartens, New York, N. Y.\nSecretary — A. H. Yoder, professor of pedagogy, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.\n\nThe session then adjourned.\n\nSusan F. Chase, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nA STUDY\nEARL\n\nBARNES,\n\nBASED\nLECTURER\n\nOF\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAND\nON\nFOR\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nTEACHING,\n\nOF A STATE\n\nSOCIETY\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nFOR\n\nEXTENSION\n\nPA.\n\nWhen explorers first came to America, each hoped to do some great\nnew thing; one would discover a road to India, another a northwest\npassage, and a third the fountain of perpetual youth. After a time these\nvisions of discovery were superseded by a common-sense recognition of\nthe value and necessity of definitely mapping the coast line and surveying\nthe interior of the country. The few gentlemen adventurers were followed by a host of inquiring workers.\nIn child study we have had much this same experience. At present,\nchild-study workers are looking, not for startling new lines of investigation, but for fruitful lines; not for great masses of data, but for just\nenough facts to settle conclusions; not for glittering generalizations, but\nfor true ones. It is being steadily recognized that here, as in all branches\nof natural science, comparative studies must give us our most significant\nresults.\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA STUDY\n\nBASED\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN\n\n755\n\nOfi A STATE\n\nThe definitive studies we need are laborious and expensive, and for\ntheir successful prosecution we increasingly need the support of the city,\nstate, and national departments of pedagogical investigation. If we\ncould have in this country a central bureau of investigation which would\ndo for the science of education, thru the direct study of children, what\nthe Fish Commission has done for the study of the fishes of America, it\nwould greatly strengthen the work of individual investigators everywhere.\nAt present the national government is spending more money on the\nstudy of fishes and reindeer than on the study of its children.\nThe aim of this paper is to indicate some of the ways in which the\nmethodical extension of any study over the state could be expected to\nyield valuable results.\nThru much multiplied data we might certainly hope to establish\nfundamental conclusions touching the points involved in investigations.\nOf course, with any good test it is possible to reach a limit beyond which\nvariations do not appear, if conditions remain constant. In most of our\nstudies so far made, two hundred papers by boys of each age and an\nequal number by girls give us returns that remain constant when we add\nmore papers from the schools or homes. To illustrate the uselessness\nof accumulating observations beyond a certain point, I have just worked ,5\nover one thousand papers, all written by eleven-year-old girls from Hudson\ncounty. New Jersey. The girls had written answers to the well-known\n•\n\ntest on ideals : \" What person whom you havea known or of whom you\nhave heard or read would you most wish to be like? Why?\" We divided\nthe papers into ten packages of one hundred each, and then classified the\nanswers to see what percentage chose an acquaintance, what percentage\n63\na character in public life, and what percentage chose some person\nof the\n\\A\n64\nopposite sex as an ideal.\nThe results were as follows\n:\n63\n\nH\n28^\n^\nAcquaintance . . .\nPublic character\nOpposite sex . . .\n\n8\nw\n\n37^\n55\n\n28^\n\n2?,%\nH\n\n^^\n36^\n\n11\n\n21%\n\n^\nta\n\n29%\nA\n\ni\nm.c\n\nB\n\niS\n\n&D\n\n73\n60\n\n6X\n\nC/3\n\n37^\n\n225^\n\n68\n\n32^\n\n55\n59\n\nIf, now, we combine these answers in sets of two hundred, the differ72\n27^\nences are slight :\n6\n7\n\n28^\n\n52\n\nFirst\n•\n\nSecond\n2q%\n\nThird\n41\n\nFourth\n52\n\nAcquaintance . .\nPublic character\nOpposite sex. . .\n\n53\n32^\n\n68\n32^\n\n72\n\nFifth\n1\n\n7\n73\n\n78\n51\n\n57\n\n52\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "75^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nIf we further combine the above results so as to have five hundred\npapers in each package, the results from the two sets are exactly the same.\nWe have 30 per cent, of acquaintances, 70 per cent, of characters from\npublic life, and 54 per cent, of the opposite sex chosen, in each lot. Thus\nwe see that there is a point beyond which it is useless to multiply data.\nIn general, it seems true that the extent of a useful educational investigation will be determined by the size of the administrative unit dealing with\nthe subject under examination.\nGranted, then, a fruitful investigation and a sufficient range of data,\nwe should expect that certain large generalizations could be definitely\nsettled thru many repetitions of the same study. Not only would the\ngeneral law be accentuated by tracing it under various conditions, but\nthe variations in the successive studies would also furnish the limitations\nand qualifications necessary to make the general law clear and definite.\nThe following table, based on data in the ''Ideal Test\" just mentioned,\nand drawn from ten cities or counties, illustrate the persistence of certain\ntendencies, and the variations are as significant as the agreements, had\nwe space to examine them.\nACQUAINTANCE\n\nIDEALS\n\nBOYS\n\n15\n\n1925\n\nAges\n\n18^\n29\n\n15^\n\n11^\n\n11%\n\n26^\n\n17\n19\n\n29\n\nLondon, England . .\nSpringfield, Mass. . .\nJohnstown, Pa\nTrenton, N. J\nChester, Pa\nLancaster, Pa\nHudson county, N. J.\nAtlantic county, N. J\nSussex county, N. J. .\nChester county. Pa. .\n\n40^ 29\n29\n\n42^\n\n57\n\n37\n37\n\n44\n\n22\n25 21\n22\n\n42 45\n46\n52\n38\nACQUAINTANCE\n52\n4652\n\n36\n39\n36\n6\n5\n\nLondon, England . . .\nSpringfield, Mass. . .\nJohnstown, Pa\nTrenton, N. J\nChester, Pa\nLancaster, Pa\nHudson county, N. J\nAtlantic county, N. J\nSussex county, N.J. ,\nChester county, Pa.\n\n82\n\n68\n7 51^\n\n59\n\n55\n47\n66\n61\n61\n\n82\n\n2\n72554\n72\n\n7\n\n9\n\n12\n\n28\n\nIDEALS\n38\nAges\n27^\n\n65 11\n\n37^\n59\n43\n45\n\n14\n13\n\n39\n34\n37\n59\n39\n\n54\n\n190\n800\n1,000\n17\n\n24\nGIRLS\n40\n\n12\n\n30\n14^\n25\n24\n\n21\n\n26\n16\n\n18^\n\n35\n45\n35\n\n34\n\n25\n\n24 17\n700\n875\n750\nPapers\n29\n1,375\n\n30^\n\n1,150\n\n15\n\n6\n\n16\n\n32\n51\n\nII\n\n975\n925\n1,050\n\n30\n\n7^0\n\n22\n\n4836\n\n72\n\n58\n\n1,200\n\n9\n\n22\n\n48\n\n1,000\n1,300\n\n7\n\n16\n\n18\n\n22\n\n303938\n31\n\n9\n\n49^ 6\n\n17\n\n20\n\n5\n17\n18\n\n22\n\nlO\n\n8\n\n4\n\n22\n\n48 18\n\nPapers\n825\n13\n675\n\n131\n\n132\n\n16\n\n34\n\n24\n\n300\n700\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\n\nDepartment]\n\nA STUDY\n\nBASED\n\nON\n\nCHARACTERS\n\nTHE\n\nFROM\n\nCHILDREN\nPUBLIC\n\nLIFE\n\n^i\n8\n\n11%\n\nHOYS\n60^\n\nAces\n\n6463\n11%\n9\n\n55\n\nTrenton, N. J\nChester, Pa\nLancaster, Pa\nHudson county, N. J\nAtlantic county, N. J\nSussex county, N.J\nChester county. Pa\n\n44\n\n80\n50^\n\n60\n\n48\n56\n31\n\n30\n\nCHARACTERS\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIFE —\n\n8\n787 81\n78\n\n21^\n\nIA%\n9\n\n8\n\nGIRLS\n\n7867\n70\n65\n\n12\n10\n\nLondon, England\nSpringfield, Mass\nJohnstown, Pa\nTrenton, N. J\nChester, Pa\nLancaster, Pa\nHudson county, N. J\nAtlantic county, N J\nSussex county, N, J\nChester county. Pa\n\n25\n\n18\n\n35\n28\n28\n\n48\n\n39\n39\n44\n\n69\n65\n64\n\n67\nM\n\n63\n\n46^\n79\n\n44^\n\n61\n49\n45\n60\n\n75\n55\n\n66\n62\n49\n\n81\n\n76\n\n51\n\nCHOSEN\n\n14\n\n%\n\nSEX\n\n70^\n\n13\n\n41\n\n70\n\n41\nOPPOSITE\n\n72\n\n85\n\n\"2\n\n32\n40\n52\n52\n\n83\n83\n65\n84\n\n76\n\n80\n\n35\n57\n55\n\n34\n\nII\n\n18\n\n59\n\n19\n\n33\n\n61\n40^\n61\n\n13\n\n90\n\n70\n\nII\n\n66\n\n77\n\n71\n\n6738\n\n82\n\n73\n\n75\n\nAges\n26^\n\n88\n\n73\n\n51\nFROM\n\n82\n81\n\n75\n\n74\n\n52 61\n\n48\n\n87\n\n93\n\n93\n\n60\n\n62\n51 55\n\n8789^\n83\n\n12\n\n63\n\n34^\n62\n61\n66\n79\n62\n\n69\n\n8469^\n\n83\n\n63\n43\n\n84\n\n85\n\n11\n\n10\n\nLondon, England\nSpringfield, Mass\n\n757\n\nOF A STATE\n\n72\n\n42 BOYS\n5246\n\n90\n\n76\n\nAges\n78\n\n13\n8\n\n13^\n\n20\n12\n\n3\n\n21\n\n8\n\n12\n\n5\n\n6\n7\n6\n6\n\n10\n\n12\n\nOft\n\n128\n\n8\n\n16\n9\n4\n\n2\n\n7\n4\n\n0\n\n0\n\n8\n4\n\n71\n\nII\n\n7 3 5\n\nLondon, England\nSpringfield, Mass\nJohnstown, Pa\nTrenton, N. J\nChester, Pa\nLancaster, Pa\nHudson county, N.J\nAtlantic county, N. J . . . .\nSussex county, N.J\nChester county. Pa\n\n\\\\%\n\n\\i%\n\n9\n\n2\n\n6\n\n10\n0\n\nII3\n\n124\n\nI\n\n5\n\n3\n\n5\n3\n4\nI\n\n5\nI\nI\n\n4\n4\n0\n0\n0\n2\n0\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOPPOSITE\n\nSEX\n\nCHOSEN\n23\n\n10^\n9\n\n8\n\n[Child Study\n\nASSOCIATION\n—\n\nGIRLS\n\n16^\n\nAges\n17^\n\n10\n\nII\n\n29\n\n12%\n\n14^\n\n69\n\n84\n\n12\n\nLondon, England\nSpringfield, Mass\nTrenton, N.J\nChester, Pa\nHudson county, N.J\nAtlantic county, N. J\nSussex county, N.J\nChester county. Pa\n\ni6\n28\n28\n20\n39\n33\n20\n16\n\n43\n24\n\n34\n45\n\n44\n%\n\n37\n\n45\n60\n\n44\n\n28\n\n28\n54\n\n39\n43\n37\n37\n\n62\n68\n\n36\n46\n\n44i\n47\n55\n55\n\n50\n\n57\n49\n\n50\n52\n\n48\nEven a cursory examination of\ntables shows that acquaintance\n42\n51\n56\nideals are strong with the little children, and\nthat in the ten districts\n38\n56\nexamined they die out with pretty steady regularity\nas the children\ngrow\n41\n50\nolder. For these acquaintance ideals the children gradually substitute\n4851\n51\n51\nideals drawn from public life. In the last tables we see that\n51 few boys\nchoose women as their ideals at any age; many girls, however, choose\nmale ideals at eight, and they choose them increasingly until they are\ntwelve or thirteen, when they tend to return to women ideals. Such\nuniformity of development, running thru such large groups of children,\nfrom so many localities, must have a foundation in the nature of children\nthemselves, or else it must be deeply bound up with the fundamental\nbeliefs and practices of our civilization.\nIf critics retort that we always knew this fact, that of course children\nmust begin to admire those whom they know, and then go out to those\nwhom they have become acquainted with thru books or hearsay, the reply\nfollows that children of eight have heard of more people than they\nhave known personally, and that if we have known their law of development we have not recognized it in our teaching. Biographical work in\n\n841\n4these\n\nschools is still as foreign to the child's real world as geography once was.\nBut the different rapidity with which the lines of growth develop is as\nstriking as the general agreement in tendencies. Look, for instance, at\nthe difference between London, England, and Lancaster, Pa. ; and yet\nthe differences are themselves always consistent and significant. If in\nany community many of the boys choose acquaintance ideals, the same\nholds true of the girls; if many eight-year-old children in a city choose\npublic characters, a corresponding proportion of the ten-year-old children\nfor that place do the same. In such studies we are really dealing with the\ngeneral social intelligence of the community — that subtle thing which it\nis the aim of all forms of education to mold, and which at the same time\nlargely determines the education which is possible for the locality.\n\n46 56\n52\n\n72\n42\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA STUDY\n\nBASED\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN\n\nOF A STATE\n\n759\n\nAlong with the general laws estabjished by the massing of such collections of data, there is revealed the peculiar qualities of each community\nrepresented. Local feeling is, however, so sensitive in America that at\npresent it seems almost impossible to discuss the qualities of particular\nlocalities. Still there can be no doubt that the lines of percentages placed\nafter the cities and counties in these tables are very fair exponents of the\neducational conditions in the several places. Springfield, Mass., certainly\nrepresents the soundest growth.\nBut such quantitative studies will not only help us to determine\ngeneral Jaws of physical and moral growth, and to diagnose educational\nconditions of particular communities, but they will also throw a flood\nof light upon many social and political problems. For instance, there is\nno other country in the world that furnishes such opportunities as our\nown for studying the children of different nationalities. Our study\nrecently made on children in New York kindergartens shows how widely the\nchildren from southern Europe differ from those coming from the north.\nWe have also in our midst nine million colored people whose children\nare to share with ours in determining the destiny of our country. We\ntalk a great deal about the problem of the colored people ; we spend\nmillions in educating them, and yet we have made virtually no studies at\nall to determine what pecularities are possessed by negro children. When\nwe want to master a force in the material world we ask what it is, what\nit needs, and what it can do — then it serves us. Is it not time for us to\nask our colored fellow-citizens, our Indian wards, and our new-bought\nFilipinos what they are and what they can do ?\nIn conclusion, our studies on children have reached a comparative\nstage where we need the support of city, state, and national departments\nof education. The possibilities in such study are great, but the labor\nand expense make individual work difficult.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Lillie A. Williams, of the department of psychology, State Normal School,\nTrenton, N. J.— In this interesting paper Mr. Barnes undertakes to show us, first, that\nfor a safe generalization it is necessary to take only two hundred papers. I notice that\nhis ten one hundreds taken by chance alternate small and large. Can we count on\nchance always thus equalizing things ? Suppose that the two hundred papers taken\nhappened to be the third, with 23 per cent., and the tenth, with 22 per cent., we obtain\nas the generalization 22.5 per cent. But this is nearly eight points below that obtained\nby taking five hundred papers. The chances are more in favor of equalizing when we\ntake the larger number.\nI incline to think that five hundred is the safer number.\nSecondly, Mr. Barnes implies from this use of his tables that we have here a means\nof diagnosing the educational conditions of a place. Before discussing this point, let me\nsay a word about the test used. The name \"chiWren's ideals\" is misleading. An ideal\nis \"a conception proposed by the mind for imitation, realization, or attainment; a standard or model of perfection or duty.\"\nChildren do not have ideals; youths in mid or\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "76O\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONA L ASSOC I A TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nlate adolescence do. These ideals grow out of the daydreams of adolescence, which are\na sort of mental play with models. Children's daydreams are not of this sort. Children\ndo not mentally pla) with models. But they do experience wishes to be like this or that\nperson, some merely fleeting, others recurring more or less frequently, and these are\nreached by Mr. Barnes' question.\nThe childish answers summed up in the tables we are about to examine were due to\na great variety of causes. The mental content for the word \" person \" differs in different\nchildren. The younget ones, owing to their lack of power to deliberate, tend to take the\nfirst thing offered in the question — \" person known,\" altho there is a choice between\nthree. Natural interest varies with age, sex, nationality, race ; in the same child it varies\nfrom day to day and from hour to hour. A child is naturally reticent about his deepest\nfeelings, and so tends to name a surface fancy. The most recent interesting thing,\nwhether in public affairs or in literature or history lessons at school, or any recent happening at school or at home, colors many answers. The frequent, too, is a powerful factor —\nwhat is oftenest praised at home comes up easiest ; the character of the parents, their\nreligious beliefs and practices, the occupation of the father, the home surroundings, all\ntell upon the results. The fact that the question is asked in school by the teacher must\nbe allowed for,\nA glance at causes named — and there are many more — shows that it is probable\nthat the younger children will wish to resemble acquaintances. Mr. Barnes thinks that\nthere is a normal rate at which this tendency will die out in properly developing children, and that, this norm being used as a standard of comparison, we can, by repeating\nthis study in a town, know whether the children are developing normally, and so judge\nof the general social intelligence of that community. Let us turn to his tables, confining\nour observation to the figures for eleven-year-old girls, since for these only we have a\ngeneralization. We are first confronted by the astonishing fact that the Hudson county\ngirls run nine points above the 30 per cent, which that very county gave us as the law.\nHere is London, England, 27 per cent., nearest the average, and Chester, Pa., 59 per\ncent, farthest from it. Mr. Barnes does not regard the existing state of things expressed\nby the 30 per cent, law as the norm. . For this he selects Springfield, Mass. Inspecting\nthe table, we find Hudson county, N. J., exactly the same, 39 per cent. ; Trenton, N. J.,\nvery near with 37 per cent. ; and Sussex county.and Atlantic county, N. J., and Chester\ncounty. Pa., all within 5 per cent. These localities differ widely in important characteristics both in community life and in schools, yet so numerous are the factors entering into\nthe result and so variable are they in amount that they equalize, and the result of the test\nis practically the same in all six. We have learned nothing. As to London at 27 per\ncent., I fancy that, instead of being as troubled over the fact as she would be over the\ndiscovery of a contaminated water supply, she will remind us that there Queen Victoria,\na public character, brought down the percentage for the acquaintance wish ; and perhaps\nChester, Pa., will find a reason equally reassuring for her very high percentage.\nAn analysis of the results in these tables has led me to the query : Is not this\nquestion too complex to be a fruitful one for study of the sort which the paper aims to\nfurther ? I agree with Mr. Barnes that the definitive studies we need are laborious and\nexpensive, and that for their successful prosecution we increasingly need the support of\nthe city, state, and national departments of pedagogical investigation. But I think that,\nwhatever may have been the indifference of such departments in the past, the idea of\nstatistical study is now so in the air that the future will find them ready to co-operate, if\nthey are convinced that the questions to be investigated so laboriously and expensively are\nreally fruitful. To make a mistake here is to imperil that cause which we desire to promote.\nProfessor Barnes, in closing the discussion, admitted the force of Miss Williams'\ncriticism, but pointed out that it concerned itself with an analysis of a particular period\nor section.\nThe variations at any one point were not denied.\nStill he claimed that the\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLICATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n761\n\ngeneral direction is so emphatic as to reveal itself plainly independent of any individual\npeculiarity. The particular instance selected by Miss Williams he rioted was favorable\nto her contention.\nOthers would not be so favorable.\nMiss Williams' claim that we do not get at the real ideals of children he admitted to\nbe true. The answers presented do not refer to ideals in the completed sense. No child\nwas ever so transparent as to reveal his whole inner ideal. This is but a study of what\nwe can get from children in school.\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER'S PRACTICAL APPLICATION\nRESULTS OF CHILD STUDY\n\nF. E. SPAULDING,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF THE\n\nPASSAIC,\n\nN. J.\n\nPicture to yourselves, each one, and hold vividly before your mental\nvision, a teacher in the presence of a class of forty children. For the sake\nof greater definiteness, let that teacher be yourself; let the class be the\nlast one under your instruction ; let the scene be your own schoolroom, and\nthe time the opening of the school year just closed. What practical application can you make of the results of child study?\n*^\n\n7J7\n\nv^\n\n\"Hv\n\ntJv\n\ntJ?\n\ntJc\"\n\nt^\n\n7^\n\n9|p\n\nYou are thoroly familiar with Burk's masterly study of the daws of\ndevelopment from fundamental to accessory ; you have heard and read\nDr. Hall on adolescence, the contents of children's minds, the moral and\nreligious training of the young, and many other subjects ; you have tried\nto appreciate the phenomena, causes, effects, and dangers of fatigue, as\nset forth by Mosso, Kraepelin, Leuba, and Thorndike ; Dr. Burnham has\nopened your eyes in amazement at the range, peculiarities, and differences\nin childish imaginations, and has quickened your sense of the importance\nof hygienic conditions ; Bryan and Hancock have discovered and formulated for you some of the laws of development of motor ability and\nmuscular control ; you know all that Lukens, Barnes, and Burk have published concerning children's drawing; something of the development of\npower in the discrimination and naming of colors has been made known\nto you by Wolfe and Luckey ; Johnson has shown you, both in theory and\npractice, the educational value of plays and games ; the phenomena and\nlaws of physical growth you know from the work of Bowditch, Fitz, and\nSmedley; Colegrove's study of the memory you have made your own ;\nDaniels, Barnes, Starbuck, Leuba, and Ellis have helped you to a sympathetic insight into the religious and theological ideas and emotions of\nchildren and youth ; Professor Barnes has also shown you the child's attitude toward punishment; you have studied children's language and\nvocabularies with Tracy, Greenwood, Lukens, and Miss Williams ; you\nhave read all the twenty-odd studies on«hildren's ambitions and ideals,\neven to the last and best by Professor Chambers ; the recapitulation theory\nand nascent stages of development are perfectly familiar ; you know when\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\ninstincts characteristic of different periods of growth tend to manifest\nthemselves and how they should be managed ; you can name the books\nthat will interest, or ought to interest, the average child from year to year;\nyou know what percentage of defective eyes and ears you may confidently\nexpect at different ages; in short, not one of the 2,054 good, poor, and\ndoubtful contributions to our knowledge of the child and his education,\nas listed in Wilson's Bibliography^ is unknown to you ; you have absorbed\nand are well filled with the \"results \" of child study to date. What of all\nthese are you going to apply to the pupils waiting, or rather growing,\nbefore you?\nIs the little girl in the front seat of the first row in need of glasses, or\nof an operation for the removal of adenoid growths affecting her hearing ;\nwill she read Alice in Wonderland with absorbing interest ; is the collecting mania just breaking out in her; is she recapitulating the nomadic\nperiod; is she fired with ambition to become a milliner; is she terrified\nwith theological concepts ; does she belong to the motor type? You don't\nknow. Where do each of your other forty children stand in respect to\nthese and a score more of equally important conditions, to whose study by\nexperts we have just alluded? You don't know. What, then, of all the\naccumulated results of child study can you apply in practice? Nothing,\noff-hand ; absolutely nothing.\nAre all the painstaking studies of various child-study investigators of\nno value to you as a teacher? Have you mastered them in vain? It all\ndepends upon the use to which you try to put them. They may be made\nthe most precious and practical part of your professional equipment ; they\nmay be turned into positive obstacles to your success, misleading your\nefforts ; or they may prove but a burden of unusable knowledge to let\nslide as soon as possible.\nWe teachers have been unfortunate in some of the leaders to whom we\nhave listened, most of them self-appointed, and rising not from our own\nranks, but coming to us from other professions as missionaries to show us\nthe way to the light of their own superior callings. A few years ago, when\nthe child-study epidemic was at its height, the most noisy and enthusiastic\nyoung heralds of this movement — scientists, or would-be scientists, of one\nkind or another — graciously assured us that we knew nothing; that our\nwhole teaching activity was based on habit, tradition, accident, and guesswork; that the science of education must be built up from the very\nfoundation and in all its details thru a most minute and exhaustive study\nof all the phenomena and conditions with which the teacher has to deal.\nSome of these leaders were kind enough to furnish elaborate directions\nfor observations, measurements, experiments, records, and tabulations;\nand some of us were foolish enough to undertake the work recommended\nus for the salvation of our profession. We were just beginning to consider\nthoughtfully the value to us as teachers of any possible results, in\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nAPPLICATION\n\nOP\n\nTHE\n\nRESULTS\n\nOP CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n7^3\n\ncomparison with the labor involved, when other high \"authorities\" —\nscientists, certainly not teachers, altho possibly teaching — kindly assured\nus that there was nothing for us in the whole child- study movement ; they\nwent even farther and declared that psychology was not for teachers. Such\nexperiences and such assurances, together with a failure to realize largely\nand immediately on the time unwisely invested. in the subject, were quite\nsufficient to chill the sudden gushing enthusiasm of a host of easy converts; until today the very name \"child study\" has become almost a\nreproach. But in reality, only the bubbling foam has burst and subsided;\nthe underlying currents of the movement are stronger now than ever.\nWe are only just beginning to take our bearings, to determine whither\nwe have been borne by this mighty movement, and to readjust our conceptions and our activities in accordance with the new conditions in which\nwe find ourselves. We are becoming convinced that our problem is not\nprimarily the teaching of so much arithmetic, reading, and spelling; much\nless is it the recording of endless measurements, the tabulation and comparison of extensive observations and experiments, with the purpose of\nmaking some scientific generalization. Our problems are living problems\ndemanding living solutions. Each one is presented in the shape of a living child, who, we quickly find, is the focus of endless subordinate\nproblems, whose conditions are changing from day to day. Our primary\nduty as teachers is to solve each of these child-problems, not with paper\nof text-books, not on paper of a thesis, but in the broader, richer, nobler,\nhealthier lives which we can enable and inspire these children to live. In\nthe performance of this duty we need text-books — the very best procurable; we need theses — every one that has a fruitful fact* principle,\ngeneralization, or suggestion, in any way related to child-life. Incidentally, but only incidentally, to our work as teachers we may make\ntext-books and write theses.\nSome of our superior scientific counselors have assured us of our\nincompetence to make observations and to draw valid conclusions, and\nhave advised us to wait for the scientist to furnish us with reliable data\nand sound generalizations; and some of us have meekly accepted this\nassurance and have shown ourselves only too ready to follow this advice.\nIt is a profound mistake. No results of child study can ever reach the\nchildren except thru us as teachers, and thru our observations and\ninferences. We deal with the concrete, the individual, the particular and\nunique child, and the special conditions of mind, body, and environment in which he is placed. What does this child need right now ?\nWhat must we do to supply his need ? Science has never answered these\nquestions. Science never will, never can, answer them. These are the\nquestions that we teachers are called upon to answer over and over\nagain each day. On our answers we must immediately act. All valid\nresults of child study are of invaluable assistance to us. They are not\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "764\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nto be applied directly and mechanically. They can simply serve to\nstimulate, guide, and check our observations, and to suggest suitable\naction when the conditions before us are determined.\nThere are, then, two kinds of child study, with two kinds of results,\neach supremely important, but each the special function of a different\nclass of workers. The one aims at generalities which may be formulated\non paper; truths which are generally valid anywhere. This may be\ncalled scientific child study, and belongs to the scientist. Teachers\nengaging in this line of work — and many can do so incidentally and\nwith immense benefit to themselves and to science — do so, not as\nteachers, but as scientists. The other kind of child study begins and\nends in the concrete. Facts concerning an individual child, here and\ntoday, are the data; other facts concerning the same child tomorrow,\nwho has grown better and stronger under the teacher's influence, are the\nresults, if the teacher's diagnosis and treatment have been successful.\nThe former kind of child study — and this unfortunately seems to have\nbeen the only kind which most of the leaders of the movement, scientists,\nhave had in mind even when urging its pursuit upon already overworked\nteachers — may fairly be \"regarded by the teacher as an \"extra/' an\nadditional line of effort, perhaps related to, but not a necessary part of,\nher real duties. The latter kind of child study is evidently an integral,\ninseparable part of the teacher's work every day and every hour; we\nmay go even farther and say that the teacher's real work consists in just\nthis and nothing else, if only she is really and consistently educating\nboys and girls, and doing it with full intelligence.\nInvaluable to the teacher as are the guidance and suggestion to be\nderived from the scientific generalizations of child study already well\nestablished, the limits of their applicability are soon reached. Most of\nthe great, crude, fundamental facts in the life and environment of every\nchild have never been seized and reduced to scientific formulae. But\nthese facts the teacher must perceive, comprehend, and act upon.\nTeachers have no need of psychology ! The successful teacher must be a\npracticing psychologist /^r <fj\\;^^//^;2^^. I am inclined to agree that the\nteacher can profit little from the intricate and too often jejune machine\nstudies of the psychological laboratory, even less indeed than from some\nof the webs spun out of the introspective experience of the now scorned\nand ridiculed arm-chair metaphysician. I have yet to learn of the\nprofessed psychologist who has had the temerity to forsake text-books\nand lecture notes, lead his pupils out boldly among the great, throbbing,\npsychic facts of life„ and there teach his lessons from the crude living\nmaterials themselves.\nI can barely mention a very few of the innumerable applications of\nthe results of child studies constantly made in the schools with which\nI am most familiar.\nKnowledge from personal observation that all those\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLICATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n7^5\n\nrefining influences which go to make up our concept of home are lacking\nin the living places of great numbers of children has led teachers to\nsupply these deficiencies as best they could. Children have come to the\nschoolhouses regularly evenings, where they have met their teachers, who\nhave played games with them, sung with them, read to them, and told\nthem stories. Interested citizens have furnished them programs of music\nand recitations. Some have been delighted to learn knitting after\nschool ; others have remained then for their games and social intercourse. Even the teacher who is with her children only thru the regular\nschool hours can do much to supply some influences and training which\nordinarily ought to come from the home. It is not the children alone\nwho are reached ; but thru them and directly teachers are doing more\nfor the present homes, for uplifting and Americanizing the adult foreign\npopulation of our city, than are all other agencies combined.\nMedical inspectors watch over the health of the children. Eyes are\ntested — not primarily to report the percentage of defect, but to see that\neach suffering eye, if possible, is remedied. It is the teacher who advises\nand persuades the parent, and sometimes secures the means to help the\nsuffering child. The child's food and drink can be determined to some\nextent by the instructions of the regular teacher ; more by those of the\ncooking teacher. Parents have been instructed and influenced in matters\nof nutrition by talks from someone who inspired confidence. Good\nphysical development is a part of the curriculum, and is under the direction of a specialist who plans suitable class and often individual exercises.\nTeachers visit parents in their homes, especially in the poorer parts of\nthe city. Many parents' meetings are held. This contact of parents\nand teachers results, not only in increased mutual respect and sympathy,\nbut in much knowledge of the children, and especially of their home\nenvironment, occupations, habits, etc. All of this knowledge is turned\nto practical account.\nThe curriculum has been arranged not without constant reference to\nthe most important results of child study. And in carrying out this\ncurriculum innumerable studies are made in connection with all the\nsubjects of instruction, involving the child's capacity, interest, etc., and\ndetermining, not only the best mode of procedure on the part of the\nteacher, but often important modifications of the subject to be presented.\nWhile the pursuit of child study was begun years ago voluntarily by\nsuch of our teachers as recognized its possibilities, and while it is still\nnominally optional with each teacher, it is practically the basis of our\nschool system and strongly pervades the spirit of the work thruout. Altho\nit seems best to encourage each teacher to devote particular attention to\nthose phases of the lives of her children ^d of their environment which\nappeal to her as most important, or most interesting, teachers' efforts\nare not lacking in system or in co-operation.\nAn extensive suggestive\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCTA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\noutline of practical possibilities is in the hands of each teacher. Several\nmeetings are held each year especially devoted to reports and discussions\nof practical work being done. The important facts of the educational\nhistory of each child, as learned by that child's teachers as he advances\nfrom grade to grade, is briefly recorded and accompanies the child in\navailable form thruout his school career.\nWe go more than half-way to meet the teacher's frequent and, on the\nwhole, reasonable demand that she be required to do nothing which is\nnot practical, by insisting that she confine herself, so far as child study is\nconcerned, rigidly to such things as she can see are of immediate use.\nto her and to her present pupils. While following this rule of practicality,\nwe have never yet known a teacher to want for something to do.\nWe have at last raised our eyes from the pages of the text-book and\nare now just beginning to see and recognize real educational facts and\nprocesses wherever they are. We are already convinced that the most\nreal history of every individual from birth to the grave, of every nation\nand of every people thruout their existence, is a history of their education. We are just beginning to \"take ourselves into our own hands,\"\nto use the late Dr. Davidson's expression, and consciously to shape to\nsome extent the course of our future evolution. This divine ambition we\ncan hope to realize only thru constant study, in its setting, of each\nyoung life intrusted to us, and thru intelligent adaptation, in the light of\nsuch study, of means suitable to effect the desired end.\n\nDISCUSSION\nG. E. Johnson, dean of the Lower School, University School, Cleveland, O. — It has\nbeen a pleasure to me to listen to Dr. Spaulding's paper. He has admirably and encouragingly presented the status of the child-study movement from its practical side. I agree\nwith him that in the less tangible but broader results of child study lies the best that the\nmovement has for us now or will have for us in the future. Still, I can but feel that his\npresentation of the immediate practical results of child study is too modest. He asks us\nwhat of all the accumulated results of child study we can apply in the schoolroom, and\nanswers for us in these words: \"Nothing, off-hand ; absolutely nothing.\"\nNow, I feel sure that the accumulated results of child study have even an \"off-hand\"\nvalue. Suppose the \" little girl in the front seat of the first row \" has just entered school\nat the age of five. You have read Warner, and you can tell at a glance whether she is a\nvery nervous or a very lymphatic child, and you plan accordingly. Perhaps she has\nnoticeable abnormal nerve signs, as twitching of face muscles or of fingers, and you will\nbe very careful as to the kind of work and confinement you require of her that day. Perhaps you notice that she is poorly nourished, and even have reason to think that she did\nnot have the breakfast she needs for her morning's work ; and somehow the apple or the\ngraham crackers you brought in your bag find their way to her hands at recess, and you\nmake a mental note to look into her case later. The time comes for writing. You find\npaper with fine guide lines provided by your school committee. You have read Burk\nand Hancock, and you send the little tots to the blackboard or find them other paper.\nThis little girl in the front row perhaps has learned to write, but she writes very poorly.\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAPPLICATION\n\nOF THE\n\nRESULTS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n7^7\n\nYou watch her. You have read Krohn. You wonder if her eyes have anything to do\nwith it. A tactful note or a kindly call results in expert advice, and the little girl comes\nto school with glasses shortly after, and in a few weeks she writes almost as well as the\nbest.\nI am not drawing entirely on my imagination in these cases. A little boy, apparently\nbright enough in most ways, could not learn to read. His teachers had not been interested\nin child study ; but finally he was taken to an oculist. A peculiar defect of the eyes was\nfound and remedied, and he showed his appreciation by doing four years' work in two.\nI know another boy, who could not make his promotion. A mere suggestion to his father\nresulted in glasses for the boy. He was placed in a special class for a year, then returned\nto his former classmates on equal footing. When the little girl writes her spelling lesson\nyou are inclined to be annoyed because she makes a noise with her lips. My teacher\nused to come around with a whalebone and snap my lips because I persisted in forgetting\nthat it was not nice to make a noise with them when 1 learned my lesson. But you know\nfrom Smith and Schiller, that speech movements greatly aid the memory of words in little\nchildren, if indeed they are not actually necessary in many cases.\nPerhaps you have a boy in the first row, and he is a naughty boy. You have\nread Barnes, and he has helped you to a better understanding and sounder sense in\nthe matter of punishments. You know that children are not so easily shocked as your\nown tender-hearted self by the administration of discipline, and proceeding accordingly, you win a boy and the admiration and respect of his classmates. I wish a certain member of this department might tell you how she won over a naughty kindergarten child. No one but a student of that child and other children ever would have\nthought to do it just that way. She applied child study, off-hand, and the little chap\nwas good, and happy, too, ever after.\nYou would not be half as apt to think that the dull boy in the back seat might he hard\nof hearing if you had not read Sexton and Chrisman ; but you have, and you bring him at\nonce to a seat nearer you to watch the effect. A little girl seemed to have a perpetual\ncold and to hear with difficulty; one glance was enough to give suspicion of adenoids. A\ncall on the parents resulted in her being taken to a surgeon. How can you have read\nMosso, Kraepelin, Lukens, Thorndike, and Burnham, and not be quicker to perceive when\nfatigue sets in and to know, off-hand, the value of open windows and a merry game ?\nYou have studied about the play of children, and you know just what to do.\nI examined not long ago a set of test papers in arithmetic. The pupils were fifthgrade boys. Only three or four boys got a good mark, and most of them failed. The\nexamples were of uniform difficulty and length, the same principles being involved in all.\nIf they had been marked on the first half of the paper, nearly all the boys would have\npassed, and most of them with good marks. Any teacher who had studied school hygiene\nand fatigue would have known off-hand what was the matter.\nAnd thus I might go on, if time permitted, and from my own experience mention\nmany other ways in which child study has had for me an off-hand practical value. But I\nhave a suspicion that all this was included in what Dr. Spaulding meant by the second\n*' kind of child study, which begins and ends in the concrete ; \" so that when we understand each other we wholly agree. It is sometimes said that child study has placed the\nchild in our midst. It would be true to say also that child study has placed the teacher\nveritably and literally in the midst of children, to live both for them and with them. It\nis an apt quotation that Dr. Spaulding makes from Dr. Davidson, that we have begun to\n\" take ourselves into our own hands.\" The instinct of preservation of offspring, found\nthru the whol^ scale of animal life, takes on a new significance in our endeavor to shape,\nfrom this generation on, our future evolution. And to do this we must know the past and\nits prophecy for the future ; and very much of this ^listory and this prophecy must be read\nin the nature and phenomena of childhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "768\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nDr. Ida C. Bender, supervisor of primary grades, Buffalo, N. Y. — If anyone came\nhere doubting the importance or range of interests comprehended in the term \"child\nstudy,\" or questioning the earnestness or high purpose with which it is being conducted,\nor the sterling character and fine attainments of child-study leaders, his questions and\ndoubts have vanished before the splendid record of what has been accomplished, as given\nby Superintendent Spaulding.\nIt is to be hoped that no one teacher has attempted to cover all the vast field of\nwhich we have had a glimpse. If anyone has, it is small wonder that she stands helpless before the little girl in the front seat of the first row, and seems to find neither aid\nnor comfort in the conclusions of child study which vaguely float before her mind.\n\" Seems,\" I say, because really she and every other teacher is the beneficiary of someone's\nstudy of children, whether or not the debt is consciously acknowledged or the aid recognized. Teachers who glow with pride at having repute as successful practical teachers\nmay turn up their professional noses at what is termed child study; but they also owe\nmore to this movement than can be exploited in this day's discussions, in spite of all mistakes made under cover of the name.\nI instance the greater attention paid to sanitation and hygiene in schoolhouse construction and equipment ; the more rational administration of the school itself, affecting\nboth discipline and instruction ; the more wholesome school atmosphere, using that term\nas would an art critic to describe the subtle influence which relates the parts of a picture,\nthe one to the other. Involved in these statements are such vital matters as the more\nhumane care of backward or defective children ; the cultivation of taste, as a legitimate\nschool aim ; the provision for more effective avenues of expression and self-realization on\nthe part of pupils, especially in field work, manual training, and play. Superintendent\nSpaulding has already called attention to this. Principal Johnson furnishes data to confirm these statements.\nThe gist of the whole matter lies in the meaning we read into the term \" practical.\"\nThe attitude in challenging child study to deliver up its results may be that of the quack\ndoctor who, suspecting either scarlet fever or measles, flies to his manual and, because he\ndoes not find symptoms and remedies described with nickel-in-the-slot certainty, grumbles\nat the lack of practical teaching.\nTo some persons that alone is practical which calls for no exercise of judgment,\nthought, or will. Happily, the term \" practical \" may with truth be applied in a larger\nand better sense to any factor, influence, utterance, or act the ultimate of which is the\nreadier, more effective solution of the problem in question. Has child study led teachers\nto feel more deeply that their real business is, as Superintendent Spaulding has already\nso well stated, to teach children — not studies, nor classes, nor averages, but individuals —\neveryone of whom has a given capacity to think, to achieve, to love, and to serve ; powers\nto be exercised and strengthened and turned to good uses for self and society ? Has any\ncontribution of scientific child study made teachers more watchful of the physical wellbeing of pupils, readier to detect deviations from the normal, better able to deal with\nthem ; or rendered insight into mental processes keener, made them wiser in estimating\nthe interdependence of bodily and mental states ? Has any student thru his investigations caused teachers to become more sympathetic, open-minded, and tolerant in dealing\nwith the conduct of children, or unfolded more truly the social and physical environment\nas agencies playing upon each child ? If so, then rich results have crowned the work,\naltho it may not be catalogued under the head of child study primarily.\nWhy is the influence of child study in these directions so often denied ? 1 have asked\nthis question of hundreds of teachers — keen, fair-minded. The most frequent answer\nwas that many investigators whose methods command respect fail to reach teachers thru\na too obscure or too technical use of terms. Others do not win confidence because of the\nnature of their inquiries, which seem bizarre or trivial to the busy teacher, whose allotment of service, made up of hours of instruction, preparation of plans, correction of\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n7^9\n\nmanuscript, family, professional, church, and social duties, brings her dangerously near\nthe limit of nervous exhaustion.\nFrom this it appears that, however minute and refined the research may be, its results,\nbe they imparted by word of mouth or printed page, must be stated in language simple\nand direct, with a style which has power to stir a feeling of lively interest.\nTime is wanting to speak fully about the teacher as a scientific investigator. To my\nmind, the two functions are antagonistic. Unquestionably co-operation may be established between the two classes of workers described by Superintendent Spaulding, but\ntile successful method of the one cannot be the successful method of the other. If this is\nrecognized at full worth, there will be fewer skeptics when the balance is established\nbetween the effort and the result of child study in the grand scheme of teaching the\nchildren of the greatest nation of the world to know and realize themselves, and to find\ntheir true place in the social whole.\n\nHEALTH\nWILLIAM\n\nAND\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nW. HASTINGS, PROFESSOR OF ANTHOPOMETRY\nING, INTERNATIONAL Y. M. C. A. TRAINING SCHOOL,\n\nCHILDREN\nAND PHYSICAL TRAINSPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nThe topics of health and growth are very properly correlated, since\ngrowth is dependent upon normal physiological function.\nI.\n\nHOW\n\nESTIMATED\n\nUnder certain restrictions, the measure of the growth will exhibit\nclearly the health and general organic condition. Measure, then, this\ngrowth, compare it with known standards, and ascertain from this point\nof view whether the function is normal.\nTwo necessities are immediately established : first, to ascertain what\nis normal periodic increase of growth : secondly, to find a practicable\nmethod of comparing the individual child with this known standard.\nThe first necessity has been met to some degree by various investigations\nof the laws of growth both by the \"generalizing \" and the ** individualizing\" methods, notably those of Drs. Bowdich, Boas, Beyer, and Porter,\nin the United States ; by Galton and Roberts, in England ; and by many\nrecent investigations in Scotland, Germany, Bulgaria, Bohemia, Denmark, and Russia.\nBy the earlier of these investigations, standards of annual increase in\nheight and weight for each age and sex have been closely estimated.\nThese and later results are well summed up by Frederick Burk in his\n\"Growth of Children in Height and Weight.\"' To Dr. Franz Boas' labor\nin the correlation of data from Boston, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Toronto,\nWorcester, and Oakland, Cal.,^ we owe the first noteworthy effort to establish standards of height and weight for each age and sex for the United\nStates and Canada.\nIt is very evident al^ from his work that what we\n^American Journal of Psychology, April, 1898.\n^Report of the Committee of Education^ 1896-97.\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nhave been pleased to call difference in type between various sections of\nthe country is very slight — is insignificant when placed alongside of the\nnormal variability of children of the same age, and in many cases\nscarcely greater than the average error in observation.\nIn Nebraska normal variability in weight of boys increases with age\nfrom five to fifteen years, with the exception of ages seven and eight.\nDuring these years the normal variability is lower. The occasion of the\nfluctuation appears to be connected with the second dentition.\nThe absolute annual increase in, height and weight is less regular.\nThe general statement may be made, however, that annual increase of\ngrowth in weight tends to increase with years. There is a retardation\nof rate of growth and weight in the seventh year, which begins to be\novercome in the eighth year. There is also apparently a prepubertal\nretardation in rate of growth during the tenth year, followed by a\nwave of pubertal acceleration of growth. A similar retardation of growth\nin height occurs in the eighth and tenth years respectively. These\ntransition periods appear to be resting periods preparatory for the great\nphysiological changes which are to follow. As has been pointed out\nalready by others, growth appears to take place in waves.\nThe 25 per cent, boy in weight or height increases less rapidly year\nby year than the 50 per cent, boy, and the 50 per cent, boy less rapidly\nthan the 75 per cent. boy. This cannot be otherwise when the normal\nvariability increases regularly with age.\nNormal (mean) variability in height increases with age. The limit of\nmean variability is somewhat less for Nebraska than for the United\nStates. This is true of all ages in some measure. This smaller variability would naturally be true for any one section, since mean variability\ndepends upon the number of individuals and upon the local variation in\nthe mean height.\nIt is not enough, however, to know the annual increment of growth\nfor each age, or even for each height of each age. The recent research\nby Malling-Hansen has demonstrated that there are both seasonable and\ndiurnal fluctations in height and weight. In two recent monographs,\npublished in the Physical Education Review, Dr. T. A. Storey has pointed\nout also diurnal variations in height, weight, strength, and muscular\ncontraction. These facts have an important bearing upon physical examination. They establish the importance of making the second examination\nof the same individual at about the same time of day.\nThe value of the knowledge of seasonable variations in growth is\ntwofold. It establishes the necessity for taking successive individual\nexaminations at the same time of the year. It demonstrates also a great\ndifference in the rate of growth at different times of the year.\nIt is especially important that the relation of school life to these seasonable variations be established.\nWretlind, in Denmark, found that\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n771\n\nchildren increased more in weight during the summer vacation, July to\nSeptember, than during the school year. From this he concluded that\nthe conditions involved in school life are unfavorable to growth. Evidently seasonal rhythms of growth may be somewhat affected by the local\nhygienic conditions of school life. It is important to determine how\nmuch is due to natural law and how much to abnormal and unwholesome\nenvironment. Here is an important question which demands investigation, and. a question which demands simply time, care, and a large body\nof accurate data for solution.\nTo careful periodic measurements we must look for an accurate\nknowledge of normal seasonal rhythms of growth, of variations in these\nseasonal rhythms of growth which are to be attributed to specific diseases,\nto unhygienic conditions of school life, and to unhygienic conditions in\nthe home; and for a knowledge of the acceleration or retardation of\ngrowth peculiar to each nascent period.\nTo such periodic measurements the physical director must look for\nguidance in adapting various types of exercise to individuals and to\ngroups, and for the estimation of the comparative beneficial effects\nresulting from these various forms of exercise.\nSuch measurements must furnish education and stimulus to teacher,\npupil, and parent for the care of health and the development of organic\nvigor. Such care can be induced in children and parents by the presentation in concrete form of a statement of the actual status of growth.\nThis is best accomplished by a graphical outline on an anthropometric\ntable showing how they compare with children of the same age and type\nof development. An ordinary age-table shows the typical development\nfor the child of mean height of a given age, and provides a standard to\nwhich he can be expected to conform. It does not, however, afford any\nsuch standard for the short or tall individual of that age. Only an ageheight table, giving the type for each height of each age, will manifestly\nafford such a standard.\nIf Malling-Hansen's seasonable rhymes of growth in height are true\nfor the United States, the best months for semiannual physical examinations of school children are October and May, since, when divided into\nhalves at this point, the year in its two halves shows equal growth in\nheight. These months are the most suitable also from the equality of\nweight of clothing in spring and fall during these two months. They\nare also the most convenient months for the introduction of a new item\ninto the school program and for the organization of forces to push it,\nsince the work of the term is all settled and the children are under good\ndiscipline.\nWe must look to periodic measurements for guidance in several\nimportant investigations of the health and growth of school children.\nThe measurements and physical diagnosis employed must then have\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "772\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\ndefinite value for estimating organic vigor. Of measurements the most\nimportant group is trunk dimensions; of strength tests perhaps lung\ncapacity and shoulder retractors are most valuable; of psycho-physical\nt€sts those for the eyesight and hearing are most essential. The emphasis\nin physical diagnosis is difficult to determine. It depends largely upon\nthe point of view of the observer. Posture, nutrition, and function of\nheart, lungs, and skin are all of importance.'\nSumming up briefly my conclusions under the first section, \" How\nEstimated\":\n1. For the immediate estimate of present health and organic function physical\ndiagnosis is most to be emphasized. For the estimate of permanent or prevailing organic\ncondition the measurement of growth is most to be emphasized.\n2. Only careful periodic measurements will determine the normal seasonal rhythms\nof growth, the variations in these seasonal rhythms which are to be attributed to specific\ndiseases, to unhygienic conditions of school life, and to unhygienic conditions of home\nlife, and Ihe acceleration or retardation of growth peculiar to each nascent period.\n3. Such periodic measurements alone will provide proper guidance to the physical\ndirector for the adaptation of various types of exercise to individuals and to groups.\n4. Anthropometric tables showing the type for each height of each age furnish\neducation and stimulus to teacher, pupil, and parent, for the care of health and the\ndevelopment of organic vigor.\n5. Our greatest need in this matter of estimate is to determine the relative value of\nmeasurements. Height, weight, trunk dimensions, and lung capacity have a definite\nvalue for estimating organic vigor.\nII.\n\nHOW\n\nRETARDED\n\nHealth and growth of school children are retarded by causes so many\nand so complex that it is difficult to discriminate as to some items and to\nplace the responsibility for them. It may be well to attempt a rough\nclassification of these in outline form, in order to reach a better basis for\ndiscussion of removal of these causes.\nHealth and growth are retarded —\nI. By infectious diseases — including ordinary children's epidemics, such as scarlet\nfever, cerebro-spinal meningitis, measles, diphtheria, conjunctiva, whooping cough, etc.;\npsychic epidemics, such as epilepsy, chorea St. Viti, masturbation, etc. ; and germ diseases of a chronic character communicable thru sputum, clothing, and excretions, such as\nphthisis.\n• 2. By organic defects easily removed by surgical operation or treatment, such as\nadenoid growths, defective eyesight, hearing, etc.\n3. By constitutional diseases due to heredity and early environment, such as rickets,\nanaemia, tuberculosis, scrofula, mental alienation, etc.\n\nThese various diseases spring from bad heredity, from lack of\nproper enforcement of quarantine regulations, from unhygienic conditions in the home, and from unhygienic conditions connected with\nschool life.\nI For a full discussion of vital measurements and anthropometric tables see Hastings' Manual fo-r\nPhysical Measurements, Boys and Girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAN-D GROWTH\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n773\n\nThe responsibility for bad heredity evidently belongs to parents, but\nthe removal of so great a mass of self-perpetuating misery and crime\nbelongs to state legislation. The state must ultimately protect itself\nfrom the propagation of chronic disease, industrial unproductiveness^\npauperism, and crime by eligibility laws on marriage which shall require\nathoro medical examination preliminary to the issue of marriage licenses.\nSuch legislation has been submitted before two legislatures in the state of\nMichigan, and was finally approved June 15, 1899.^ The state Medical\nAssociation and state board of health believe in prevention rather than\ncure.\nThe responsibility for the suppression of infectious diseases rests with\nour boards of health. Popular sentiment must push them up to the full\nexercise of their authority.\nThe unhygienic conditions in the home which have been most productive of unhealth and of retardation of growth are such common,\nsimple things as defective food and drink, sleep, clothing, cleanliness,\nand sanitary plumbing. The removal of these unhygienic conditions will\ndepend directly upon such agencies as lecture courses on health for\nparents, provided by school authorities free to the public, and indirectly\nbut mainly upon the education of children in the principles of hygiene\nthru regular study in text-books.\nThe unhygienic conditions connected with school life naturally fall\nunder the headings, buildings, equipment and care, and pedagogical\nmethod. Injury of health of children thru bad ventilation, heating,\nlighting, and plumbing of buildings is inexcusable. The remedy is\nexecutive, mechanical, and financial. Find an intelligent architect, build\nwell, and pay for it.\nThe spinal curvature which arises from improperly adjusted desks ;\nthe myopia which has its origin in poor paper, long lines, small type,\npoor spacing, and poorly formed letters; the tubercular and other\ntroubles which are aggravated by dust from slates, blackboards, and the\nfloor of the schoolroom, are inexcusable. The remedy is again executive,\nmechanical, and financial. Buy the best equipment and supervise teachers\nclosely in all preventive measures.\nPedagogical method is responsible for school hours, number of\nstudies, length of lessons, length of recitations, rest periods, recesses,\netc.; in brief, for all that makes for over-pr§ssure and neural fatigue.\nHeadaches, excessive neural fatigue, and all cerebro-spinal neuroses may\nbe induced by over-pressure. From this failure in pedagogical method\na great variety of diseases actually result, which exhibit the characteristic\nsymptoms of lassitude, hyperesthesia, habitual inattention, lack of concentration, stupidity. The final results^ are, on the intellectual side,\nchronic dullness and low standing in school grades; on the physical,\nI The same being compiler's section No. 8,593 of the compiled laws of 1897.\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "774\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[Child Study\n\npoor development and low vitality. What is responsible ? Our ignorance of brain hygiene and our false perspective for mental training.\nEducation should include the whole man.\nIII.\n\nHOW\n\nINCREASED\n\nNegatively, health and growth may be increased by the prevention of\nthe abuses noted in the foregoing section ; by legislation upon eligibility\nfor marriage; by quarantine of infectious diseases; by insisting upon the\nremoval of organic defects, like adenoid growths, deafness, defective eyesight; byinsisting upon the provision of expert medical treatment for\nconstitutional diseases before certain children shall be retained in school;\nby the removal of the unhygienic conditions of the home ; by the removal\nof the unhygienic conditions connected with' school buildings, equipment,\nand pedagogical method.\nPositively, and principally, health and normal growth must be secured\nby the provision of proper food, rest periods, recesses, vacations, excursions, baths, and exercise. Warm milk with lunches in the winter and\nwarm lunches in general have been found wholesome in various cities.\nRest periods of ten minutes between recitations are helpful in lessening\nfatigue; also, and more important, a long rest period after lunch. Recesses should be spent in recreation, and not in formal gymnastics ; in the\nopen air, if possible. Neural fatigue is materially lessened by spontaneous\nactivities, most effectively by free play. Roomy, well-equipped playgrounds are a prime essential. Vacations should be more evenly distributed over the year, shortening the summer vacation as much as the climate\nwill allow, and lengthening the other short vacations, and perhaps increasing the number to three or four. A change to mountain or sea air,\ngeneral travel, or farm life, affords the most advantageous use of the summer vacation. The acquisition of a new fund of vitality thru such means\nis now more or less practicable for even the poorest. In Germany this\nmatter is being taken up by municipal authorities; here we are handling\nit thru charitable organizations by \"fresh-air funds,\" and the like. The\nintroduction of a regular system of baths in several cities has so fully demonstrated the wisdom of enforced cleanliness that no defense is needed.\nUnder exercises must be included corrective exercise for the removal of\npostural deformities, hygienic body-building, games and outdoor sports\nupon the playground and elsewhere. The encouragement and supervision\nof all wholesome forms of physical activity are the principal care of the\nphysical director, and for these at least he may be held responsible.\nBut how shall all these ends be assured ? By education of children\nand parents, as already stated; but primarily by education of teachers,\nby requiring them to be familiar with the best research on growth and\ndevelopment, with some good books on personal hygiene, or at least with\none or two short manuals on school hygiene, such as Shaw's and Kotel-\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n775\n\nmann's. How shall their knowledge of facts be made practical ? By\nplacing some vital thermometer in the hands of the teacher which shall\nenable her to observe the rise and fall of energy in the lives before her\nday by day ; by educating her thru physical examination to observe at\nleast gross results.\nHow shall we insure greater progress in child study ? How remove\nfrom scientific circles the lingering stigma of inadequate observation, of\ndealing in glittering generalities for popular gratification, of spreading\nourselves out thin over the whole field of knowledge? Not by giving up\nthe attempt to focus the best thought of men upon the plastic period of\nman's existence, upon the period which holds the hope of the higher\nevolution of the race, but by resolving the field of child study into its\nnatural sub-divisions, such as personal hygiene, public hygiene, school\nhygiene, brain hygiene, genetic psychology, anthropometry ; by the systematic apportioning of problems and the proper division of energy in\nour investigations ; by the creation of definite and permanent subsections\nof this Department of Child Study; by forcing upon them the responsibility for digging up new facts for the annual program.\n\nDISCUSSION\nGeorge Wells Fitz, M.D., Boston. — Child study from the health standpoint has\nfrom its nature three essential functions : First, the training of teachers to recognize the\nhealth conditions of children ; from this training there must result for the teacher the formation of such concepts of normal conditions as shall enable him to detect the abnormal;\nsecondly, the collection of observations which, as Dr. Hastings has so clearly shown, owe\ntheir value in establishing normals to statistical treatment ; thirdly, the resulting effective\nprotection of the child from the bad effects of predisposition to physical and mental disabilities, ofaulty development, and of beginning illness.\nIt is trite, and yet it would seem to be necessary to repeat that the test which should\nbe applied to all child study is the ultimate direct or indirect benefit to the child. Toward\nestablishing the details of a systematic and comprehensive psycho-physical examination of\nchildren, and the value of the results to be derived from it, much has been accomplished\nby Hastings, Sargent, Christopher, and others ; but the value is far more generally\nacknowledged than are the results actively sought.\nThat such should be the case, that school children should constantly come to physicians with marked anaemia of long standing, with habitual headaches, or with spinal\ncurvature to which their teachers have paid no attention is, to my mind, little short of\ncriminal.\nIs it not time that the teacher's relation to his pupil be clearly defined, on a broader\nbasis than mere responsibility for intellectual improvement ? We must not forget that\nthe teacher is, in a vast number of cases, the only intelligent person who comes regularly\ninto contact with the child and who is free from personal bias as to his real condition.\nTo the teacher, then, should be given the responsibility for the discovery of that which\nmay not merely make the child dangerous to others, as is the case with contagious\ndiseases, but which make the child dangerous to himself and to his future. We must come\nto realize that the school is for the whole child, and that the teacher who ignores home\nconditions, congenital defects, or acquired weakness of body should be held far more\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATrOMAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCTATION\n\n[Chi!d Study\n\nstrictly accountable for these oversights than for her failure to advance her pupil to the\nspecified standard in arithmetic and reading.\nFortunately, the conditions on which this phase of child study is based are so tangible\nas to permit of far more definite and exact determination and statement than is the case\nin the ordinary school tests for promotion. No special medical training is required to\nrecognize the presence of marked anaemia, weakness, lack of endurance, poor vision,\nhabitual headaches, spinal curvature, round shoulders, flat chest, mouth-breathing, constipation, fever, and similar manifestations of abnormal condition. Hence we need not\nwait with folded hands for the time when there shall be adequate medical inspection in\nthe schools, but may -use the present school organization in this -work.\nIs it not possible to have a printed card or folder blank started for each child when\nhe enters school, in which the important items of his physical and mental history may be\nentered as it passes with him from grade to grade and school to school, so that each\nteacher will be prepared to understand him and to give sympathetic help at each step of\nhis development ? The necessity for making and recording a set of measurements, tests,\nand observations for each child at the beginning of the year or half-year would make it\nvirtually impossible for the teacher to neglect any essential of a child's chronic condition,\nand must serve to keep the teacher's attention trained and alert for the recognition of the\nslight evidences which show abnormal tendencies in a plastic, curable state.\nThe careful study of the health of the child would undoubtedly lead the teacher to a\nmore conscientious consideration of the question in how far school conditions are responsible for the poor health of his children. It is unfortunately true that many teachers are\ncareless in permitting poisoning by bad air, over-fatigue by prolonged mental application\nand eye strain without adequate recess or relaxing periods, and bodily deformity thru the\nfixation of bad posture by growth. It is also true that in the majority of cases, and even\nunder very unfavorable conditions, an intelligent use of the means at the disposal of the\nteacher may entirely prevent these results.\nIt seems to me that what we need most at the present time is a clear definition of the\nrelation of the teacher to the health oversight of the children under his charge, and that\nwe may hope that such a definition of the teacher's duty will result, on the part of the\nparents, in a full recognition of its necessity and value ; on the part of the teacher, in such\ncareful preparation for this phase of his work that, with the co-operation of physicians,\nthe physical defects of school children may be earlier recognized and much more effectively remedied.\nI congratulate Dr. Hastings upon the work which he has done to provide teachers\nwith standards for judging the growth and development of their children, and our president for giving due prominence in his program to the study of the health and physical\ncondition of children.\nDr. Helen C. Putnam, chairman of the Committee on Teaching Hygiene in Public\nSchools of the American Academy of Medicine, Providence, R. I. — I am particuiarlyglad\nthat Professor Hastings specifies methods both for solving certain problems and for their\npractical application to improve school health — the physical basis of many child-study\nproblems. On all sides we hear about faults in school hygiene. It is fully time we\nattempted their remedies. With many proposed by him we cordially agree. He has,\nhowever, suggested one that experience demonstrates to be useless. I wish to discuss\nthis suggestion and a substitute therefor, hoping that this section, with Professor Hastings\nas one of its leaders, will advocate this advance step.\nPie says : \" How shall all this be assured ? Primarily by educating the teacher, by\nrequiring her to be familiar with the best research on growth and development, with\nsome good books on personal hygiene ; by educating her thru physical examination to\nobserve gross results.\"\nOur schools have demonstrated with practical unanimity for over a century that\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHEALTH\n\nAND\n\nGROWTH\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n777\n\nhygiene taught by the general teacher is an entire failure. Commissioner Harris\nbelieves the schools would be as well off without any teaching of hygiene as with the\npresent teaching. The Committee of Ten gave it nine lines in its report of fifty-five\npages; the Committee of Fifteen omitted it wholly — these the two greatest committees\nof investigation that we have appointed.\nPhysicians are even more dissatisfied with this narrow, crude instruttion than are\nscientists with the teaching of their specialties.\nWhy, then, should we persist in an unsatisfactory method, when a better way has for\nyears been demonstrated in the public schools of Europe, where the teachers are usually\nmen, and in our private, technical, and vacation schools ? President Eliot says : \" It was\nin 1766 that Harvard College abandoned the method of teaching all subjects to one class\nby one man. The American public-school system bids fair to be nearly 150 years behind\nHarvard College in adopting the departmental method, a method that develops in both\nteachers and pupils a growing interest in their work and increases greatly the personal\ninfluence of teachers.\" In New York last winter Superintendent William H. Maxwell introduced departmental teaching for all grades above the sixth. I know of no step more\nprogressive since the establishment of normal schools. It will draw more men into the\nprofession. Specialization characterizes man's work and largely accounts for its better\nquality. No college man or woman wishes to dissipate energy, lessen standards of good\naccomplished, and cease growing in some favorite line, as miscellaneous teaching compels. Iearnestly hope all women will promptly advocate this advance. Even if they\ncannot see haw they themselves can specialize, they may help raise the standing of their\nprofession and of their sex in the profession, as well as benefit society.\nHygiene, whether personal, domestic, or public, can be made interesting even to\nchildren when taught by an expert. It is literally indispensable in common-school education.\nShould railroad corporations be responsible for preventable accidents, and no one\nresponsible for preventable disease ? The victim of tuberculosis has lost as much because\nof some other victim who casts the seeds of that disease abroad in public places, as has\nthe man who had both legs amputated because of a careless switch tender. An appalling\nresponsibility connects the authorities with that typhoid case whose excretions poisoned\nthe water of Ithaca and blighted fifty-eight homes forever, in that, with amplest warnings, they neglected to provide against such destruction of precious life. We may add,\nalso, that a very grave responsibility is upon those who educate children as future voters\nand caretakers in the elements of co^imunity, family, and personal health.\nThis responsibility can never be even passably met by one who must give equal attention to six established subjects; to school discipline, playground supervision, gymnastics,\nmusic, drawing, nature study, and science-teaching, child study and its applications.\nThe head of the department of hygiene should be a physician with a liberal education, who has had some years of privatepractice, thus learning of the homes, their conditions,\ninfluences, temptations. Most teachers know these but slightly, often at third hand, more\noften not at all. He should have made special study of pedagogics, psychology, child\nstudy, gymnastics (and anthropometry), games, school architecture, ventilating, plumbing.\nHe should be an expert — a specialist. His staff should be college women and men who\ntook scientific electives and normal courses. His assistants in gymnastics and games and\nin the study of foods should have had courses in special schools.\nMedical inspectors should be chosen and held to a certain standard of work by this\nexpert. The prevailing impression in Germany is that general practitioners are not prepared for this work. The criticisms may be classed as follows : lack of tact in disturbing\nschool routine, lack of neatness, the use of tobacco and of intoxicants, technical incapacity; and lack of system, resulting in irregular and unreliable reports. Expert supervision can remedy all this.\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nSuch an organization of special instructors will secure co-operation from the whole\nforce of teachers, who will depend much less on text-books, and much more upon practice\nand demonstration, to impress the principles of hygiene upon the future life-habits of\ntheir pupils.\n\nSCHOOL\nTHOMAS\n\nD.\n\nHYGIENE\nWOOD,\n\nIN ITS BEARING\n\nM.D.,\nPROFESSOR' OF PHYSICAL\nUNIVERSITY,\nNEW\nYORK,\nN.\n\nON CHILD-LIEE\nEDUCATION,\nY.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nThe attention given to school hygiene at the present time is, on the\nwhole, desultory and spasmodic. This department of school work has no\nwell-defined and established place as yet in educational theory and practice. The best developed phase of this field is the medical inspection of\nschools for the control and prevention of infectious and contagious\ndiseases. This is important for school and community, and is conducted\nmeasurably well in a number of our cities. It is primarily, however, a\npublic health measure and represents only an external phase of school\nhygiene.\nThis subject, particularly in some of its more vital aspects, will not\nhave the recognition in practical education which it deserves so long as\nthe schooling process is so abstractly cultural, on the one side, and so\nconcretely utilitarian, on the other; so long as the conscious end of education isso partial and temporary as compared with its responsibility for the\nentire life of the individual and the welfare of human society.\nNot until education has the advantage of a larger vision, a keener\nprescience, and is inspired to a wiser practice by an ethical principle and\nan altruism which will subordinate the achievements of childhood to the\nrealization of mature power, and, even more, subordinate the entire career\nof the individual, so far as may be necessary, to the present and future\nwelfare of society and the race, will some of the less conventional, but\nmore fundamental, values in education receive adequate recognition and\ncare; and among these the various interests belonging to the field of\nschool hygiene.\nThe argument for this attention to the various aspects of health begins\nin the very nature of life and in the manner of its evolution. The biologist\ndefines life as the adjustment of an organism to its environment. In the\norganic world, for the most part, this is an instinctive, rather unconscious\nand impersonal process. Human life in civilization, on the other hand,\ninvolves the conscious and intelligent understanding of both organism\nand environment. Successful human living requires the rational adjustment of the organism to the changing, complex, and increasingly difficult environment, and the training and development of the child up to\nmaturity in order that he may assume his responsible part in the intricate\nprocess.\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nAND\n\nCHILD- LIFE\n\n779\n\nPublic education is the process by which the state prepares the individual for his immediate and larger life in society. The state, as the\nresponsible agent of society, should, thru public education, stimulate the\nhome as the most fundamental and important human institution, to do all\nthat it can and will for the training of child-life. Much of the important\nwork of education will be expressed directly and indirectly in the home.\nBut, after all, it is the function and duty of public education to do all for\nthe preparation of the child for society and complete citizenship, which\ncannot be, or is not, done in the home or elsewhere, even if this preparation involves provision for physical and health needs.\nThe first care of education should be the preservation and improvement of health. School hygiene in the past has been too largely concerned with the child's environment and the external conditions affecting\nhis health, such as the school building, its sanitary features, and the\nsources of infectious disease. These factors should not be neglected, but\nthe pupil with his own personal status and problems should be understood, and his adjustment to the environment of school and of his life\noutside should be more carefully considered. School hygiene should be\nresponsible for all the phases of education directly related to health.\nThese various interests — some already provided for in part, and many\nothers as yet neglected — should be unified and co-ordinated as much as\nmay be necessary for the effective attainment of health results and\neconomic school administration. Special teachers or supervisors should\nbe trained as health specialists and made responsible for the different\nphases of school hygiene.\nWith reference to the scope of this subject, the first factor is one\ndirectly related to the field of child study. ^This is the biologic examination of the child. This study and investigation of the physical and\norganic conditions and tendencies of the child should be repeated at\nintervals varying according to age and individual necessity. Dr. George\nGould in discussing the value of such studies has called them \"periodic\nbiologic examinations.\" They should combine certain features of physical, anthropometric, and medical examinations, and something more. No\none or all of these terms with their ordinary meanings explain the full\npurpose of such examinations. The examination should be conducted\nfrom the standpoint of education, in a uniform manner, and with a common purpose, so far as any school or locality is concerned. The inspection of pupils from day to day, for the detection of disease, may be carried\non independently of the general examination, or, where more convenient, it may be a part of a combined system of health supervision.\nThe technical inspection of the schools for the control of contagious disease, if carried out by a board of health, especially in a large city, will be\nin charge of physicians appointed by the board. This form of medical\ninspection, while of great importance, is always liable to perfunctory per-\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "78o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nformance, particularly as the city physicians have so many children to\nexamine. Much may be gained where the school physician is appointed\nby the board of education and extends his study of the pupils beyond\nthe scope of contagious disease to the conditions and tendencies of so\nmuch moment from the view-point of modern education.\nThere is a growing conviction on the part of those who appreciate the\nconditions of childhood that such examinations are important and worth\nwhile. The laws of evolution operate in the human species as elsewhere.\nThe fittest survive, and the unfit gradually disappear in any. case. But\nwithout the intelligent care of health and life which is possible, there is\ninestimable human failure and economic loss that might be avoided.\nThere is, perhaps, no more important development of wisdom and prudence than that which conserves the biologic human values, and most of\nall in childhood. It cannot be taken for granted that the organic condition of the child will be sound. Under our present conditions of life and\neducation, it is possible in any case, and certain in a considerable number\nof cases, that normal growth and development will not proceed without\nindividual care and adjustment; that there may be present, without special symptoms of disorder, physical defects of a more or less serious\ncharacter ; and that the only rational and adequate basis for the direction\nof the child at home or in school is the thoro knowledge of his physical status, so that existing conditions and tendencies may be recognized,\nimportant changes noted, and that it may be known that growth and\ndevelopment are proceeding satisfactorijy, or, in case of abnormalities of\nany kind, that these may be corrected as soon as possible.\nDr. Hertel, in his well-known investigation of the health of pupils in\nthe better-class schools of Copenhagen before 1885, found that of the\nboys 3 1. 1 per cent, and of the girls 39.4 per cent, were sickly. Examinations of 40,000 school children by school physicians in the duchy of\nSaxe-Meiningen, Germany, in 1900, showed that 23 per cent, were\nmyopic, 10 per cent, or more had spinal curvature, and 60 per cent, had\nbad teeth which needed attention.\nExaminations of nearly 900 pupils in an American school during the\npast year showed that 34 per cent, had myopia; 12.9 percent, had functional heart disorders ; 5.6 per cent, had spinal curvature with some vertebral rotation; 31.2 per cent, more had asymmetry of spine, hips, or\nshoulders; 14.6 per cent, had adenoids or chronically enlarged tonsils.\nIn over 10 per cent, of the cases letters were sent to parents recommending that medical attention be given to some physical condition.\nThese examinations should include the information about the child's\nhealth, habits, and tendencies furnished to the school by the home, the\nobservation of the keen-visioned teacher, trained to note important signs,\nand the results of the study of the special examiner. More specifically,\nthe examination should include some measurements, not too many, but\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nAND\n\nCHILD- LIFE\n\n7^1\n\nthose which are worth while. There should be tests of sight, of hearing,\nand of the nervous and muscular systems. Further, there should be\nexaminations of general form and symmetry of the body; of posture and\nmechanical adjustment ; of spine and feet ; of heart and lungs ; of teeth ;\nof throat and nasal passages, where, in younger children more particularly, enlarged tonsils and adenoid growths often injure health and\ninterferes, perhaps seriously, with mental and bodily development.\nBeyond this, there should be judgment of nutrition and general vitality,\nand, finally, an estimation of temperament and other general characteristics difficult to define, but important to take into account. The\nobservations and judgment of the child should be thoro and complete,\nand those of a wise and carefully trained examiner.\nThe information gained should be furnished to the home, and thru\nthe home the attention of the family physician or medical specialist,\nand should be directed to conditions about which there may be question.\nThere are, of course, technical medical examinations and tests which it is\nneither necessary nor desirable for the school examiner to undertake.\nThis co-operation between school and home is of mutual advantage and\nof great importance in this, as in all other matters which concern the\nchild's welfare. The teacher, again, should have all of this special\ninformation which will help to a more favorable adjustment of school\nwork. This biologic knowledge is essential to any true or just estimation\nof the pupil's intellectual power or capacity, and to an understanding of\npersonality and individual characteristics.\nThis examination, let it be repeated, must have a broad educational\nmotive. It is the fundamental feature of school hygiene an^ should be\nthe basis of all educa ion.\nIn the second place, school hygiene should test and judge the entire\nenvironment of the school, its adaptability to the pupil, and effect upon\nhealth. To be included, also, in this department of the subject are the\nhygiene of instruction; methods of study, of recitation, of school examinations; home study; length and arrangement of the school program;\nrecesses; school lunches; alternation of activities in the schedule. All of\nthese items in this passive and active school environment of the pupil\nshould be subjected to careful study and judged partly and primarily\nwith reference to health.\nHealth is not everything. It is not to be considered in itself as an\nexclusive end of living. It should not be the main or final goal of\neducation. It is, however, an absolutely essential means to forms of\nhuman achievement of most worth. It is even more essential to the\nwelfare of the future than of the present, if the race is to progress and\nnot deteriorate.\n^\nThe health of the adult under certain conditions may be justifiably\nsacrificed to other ends, but the claim is made with great confidence that\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe health of the growing child may be sacrificed to nothing; that\nnothing may be allowed in education which injures or interferes with the\npupil's health in any way whatever; nay more — that, with our present\nand larger social view of education, its first care and effort, as has been\nstated earlier, should be the preservation and improvement of health and\norganic power and efficiency, as the fundamental condition of individual\nand social well-being.\nAs Dean James E. Russell of Teachers College, New York, so well\npointed out in his report two years ago :\nSchool life is a highly artificial product of modern civilization. It is today one of\nthe most sedentary occupations in which workers are engaged, and its social significance\nis readily discoverable in the fact that approximately fifteen millions of children — more\nthen one-fifth of our total population — are being influenced for good or ill by the schoolroom environment. Serious as are the evils of sedentary occupations in general, their\ndisadvantages are especially emphasized in the case of growing children, who are often\nunduly crowded together in our public schools. Moreover, the urban tendencies of our\npopulation make it extremely difficult to secure to the young that which is essential to\ntheir physical well-being — namely, light and air and freedom of movement.\n\nIn the third place, it is the function of school hygiene, thru the\ninstruction which is called physical training, to provide for those larger\nmotor activities which should Supplement the exercises and movements\notherwise required by school work. These larger fundamental movements are necessary to counteract certain undesirable tendencies in\nposture and action of school life, and for the health and complete organic\ndevelopment of the pupil. The beneficial effect of this training upon\nthe nervous system, upon mental and even moral qualities, may be as\nimportant and definite as that upon the body in general. In this scheme\nof physical education should be grouped and co-ordinated the more\nformal gymnastics and games, the simple corrective and relaxing exercises\nto be used between classes, and the free play of recess periods. It is\ndesirable to correlate the gymnastics, as far as may be practicable, with\nthe interests of regular school work, and to make them in any case more\nrational, practical, and serviceable in many ways than they have been in\nthe past. It is not in place here to discuss the details of the technical\nwork of physical training, but simply to state that this belongs to the\nlarger field of school hygiene.\nThe biologic examinations which have been described will give most\nnecessary and valuable information as a basis for the adaptation of\nexercise and the direction of the general physical education of the pupil.\nFinally, school hygiene should provide for the instruction of the pupil\nin matters relating to health and hygiene. No knowledge is of more\nworth than that which bears upon the immediate problems of life.\nHuman living must always rest upon a biologic basis. The human being\nknows less instinctively how to live as civilization advances. The study\nof the science and art of health must play an increasingly important part\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nAND\n\nCHILD-LIFE\n\n783\n\nin the education of the future. In a recent popular article on health,\nDr. T. Mitchell Prudden, one of our best authorities on general hygiene,\nemphasizes the importance of this factor in education in the following\nwords :\nOne of the most urgent necessities of the coming years is education in personal\nhygiene. This knowledge of the ways of healthful living must be systematically and\nintelligently imparted in the schools, and it should not be perverted, as in many instances\nit is today, to serve the worthy but narrow aims of an anti-alcohol or anti-tobacco\ncrusade.\n\nAnd he adds in another place : \"Honest hygiene must be taught in\nschools.\"\nAll of the' health instruction should be under the supervision of a\nspecial teacher, that there may be rational progression in matter and\nmethod thru the grades, the working out and suggestion of correlations\nof other topics with hygiene which seems practicable, and the effective\nteaching of the subject where it is given as a distinct course.\nIn conclusion : If the work of school hygiene is to be successfully\naccomplished, there must be :\n1. An educational philosophy which recognizes health, not as an end\nin education or life, but as an essential means to human achievement,\nimmediate and remote ; a philosophy, again, which provides practically\nfor the preservation and improvement of health and the development of\nthose fundamental organic qualities which are so essential to the success\nof the individual, and even more to the integrity of the race and the\npermanent welfare of society; and, finally, a philosophy which makes\nplace and means for the instruction of the young with reference to life\non its biologic side so that they may intelligently and successfully meet\nthe problems of living as they present themselves.\n2. The different phases of this health side of education may .best be\naccomplished by uniting the fields of school hygiene and physical education under one department of school effort for the purpose of supervision\nand administration. The position of teacher or director of physical\ntraining is already recognized and provided for in many schools. The\nefforts of this special teacher are, or should be, devoted primarily to the\ninterests of health. This field may be advantageously enlarged and called\n\"physical education and school hygiene.\" Professional schools and\ncourses of instruction are needed for the training qf these health\nspecialists. The special teacher or supervisor must be trained very\nthoroly and broadly to meet effectively the demands of this larger, more\ndignified, and richer field of education. These specialists in hygiene\nshould be prepared to look after the various interests of this field, to\nsupervise that part of the work which falls naturally to the grade teacher\nor to others, and to perform well, from every point of view, the work\nwhich belongs logically to the health specialist.\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "784\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\n3. The special teacher of hygiene, however, can alone do very little of\nthis large and varied work. Every teacher, supervisor, principal, and\nsuperintendent in the school should have a keen and intelligent appreciation of health values and interests, and of the measures necessary to\npreserve and foster them. If our general teachers and educators are to\nhave this understanding of hygiene, which is essential to their necessary\nand effective co-operation in the united effort which is needed, there must\nbe, beyond the general instruction in hygiene in school and college, thoro\ncourses in physical education and school hygiene in all the normal and\ntraining schools and colleges for teachers. Such courses are being\nadvocated and introduced into some of the normal schools of Germany\nand other European countries, and are finding place already in a few\ninstitutions in the United States.\nDISCUSSION\nHomer W. Zirkle, principal of the Elmwood School, Denver, Colo. — Medical\ninspection of schools has been instituted in many of the cities of Germany, France, and\nAmerica. Wherever it has been tried, results show conclusively its value. A large percentage of all school children are defective in sight, hearing, or some other part of the\nphysical organism. A very large percentage of these defectives are unaware of any\nbodily ailment. Medical inspection in America seems to have been instituted chiefly for\npreventing the spread of contagious diseases ; but it may have a far wider usefulness.\nThe relation between the physiological and the psychical functions is becoming more\nand more recognized, as is shown by the attention now given to physical culture and the\nhealth of the body. It is an established fact that physical exercise produces mental\nfatigue — i. e., fatigues the nerve centers — and that mental exertion produces muscular\nfatigue.\nThus the mental and the physical are mutually interdependent.\nSince education is concerned with growth of mind,, and growth of mind depends on\ngrowth of brain, and growth of brain on growth of body, it is all-important to determine\nthe laws which regulate physical development and to know in what degree body growth\nmay be faken as an index of cerebral development. From anthropometrical measurements and comparisons of different classes of society, made in America, England, and\nother countries, it is clearly shown that a man's stature is somewhat modified by environment, and that mental development depends on the normal development of the body.\nThe work required of the pupil of the average strength cannot be done without injury by\nthe pupil of less than the average strength. It should be the duty of the school physician\nto determine the cause of the weakness, whether it be from the lack of nutrition, bad\nsanitation, sickness, or what not ; and to suggest the remedy. The medical inspector\nshould always be psychologist as well as physician, that he may assist the teacher in\ndetermining how much mental exertion should be required of each age or period of\ndevelopment, that evil may not result from overexertion at critical periods. He should\nassist the teachers in classifying the pupils with respect to their physical abilities, placing those together who are physically able to do without injury the full amount of work\nof their age, and making another division for those whose physical development makes it\nprobable that they cannot do the work without injury, and who need special care and\nwatchfulness. In periods of rapid growth, care must be had not to irritate unduly or to\ndepress by inappropriate tasks the nerve centers so as to produce various forms of neurotic\ndiseases. The protection of the growing brain from misdirected work is a difficult task\nand an appropriate undertaking for medical skill.\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEX DIFFERENTIA\n\nTION AND\n\nSECONDAR\n\nY ED UCA TION\n\n785\n\nThe system of medical inspection of schools should be under the control of the board\nof education. It should be a department of the school system, and only related to the\nboard of health as the two bodies may be of mutual benefit in performing their respective\nfunctions. It would be less liable to interfere with any other department of the school\nsystem, and be free from the vicissitudes frequently incident to the board of health from\npolitical changes.\nBy daily medical inspection diseases are detected in their incipiency, and therefore\nmost easily dealt with, and cases of infectious diseases can be isolated. The treatment\nof diphtheria with anti-toxin, it is well known, should be as early as possible to insure\nsuccess. In November and December of 1898, in Chicago, there were 219 cases of diphtheria treated with anti-toxin. Of this number nine died, but there were no deaths among\nthose treated on the first or second day. Medical inspection of school children is the\nbest means of preventing disease. It should be the aim of the medical profession to prevent sickness as well as to cure the sick, and by doing this the profession is attaining its\nhighest ideal. It is a public blessing and should be paid for from the public purse.\nMedical inspection is truly prophylactic work, and when it is well established our physicians will be able to broaden their field of usefulness by the more careful study of the\ngrowing body in relation to exercise and education. The field is a practical one and\nworthy the ambition of the best talent of our race.\nDisease not checked or prevented in childhood is what makes dependents in adults.\nOur country is burdened with the insane, the feeble-minded, the deaf and dumb, the\nblind, the epileptic, orphans, and paupers. Ohio is a fair representative of the states.\nThere was spent in Ohio in 1894 for charities ^4,175,915.47. The income of all the colleges of the state for the year 1896-97 amounted to about ^1,000,000. Over four times\nas much was spent for charities as for higher education. Education is nothing without\nhealth and a physical constitution. It is high time that we strike a blow at the root\nof all this defectiveness. One does not wonder at the condition of adults when he\nreflects on the percentage of defectives among children. Strong, robust, healthful childhood would prevent much of this inability in adult life. The cost of medical inspection\nis but a bagatelle compared to the good it accomplishes in mitigating suffering and making those self-supporting who otherwise would probably be objects of charity. We spend\nmillions in taking care of these dependents: would it not be true economy and equally\njust and appropriate to take like care of all children who show beginnings of spinal curvature, defective vision or hearing, signs of consumption, or symptoms of nervous diseases\nof every kind ? These diseases, if detected in their incipiency, could generally be cured.\nChronic diseases of all kinds often have their beginnings in environment. It\nrequires a bacteriologist to detect the germs of disease. The state which provides a place\nfor the assembling of children and does not provide for the prevention of the spread of\ncontagion or any disease, whose germs could be detected by a competent expert, is\nmorally responsible.\n\nSEX\n\nDIFFERENTIATION IN RELATION\nEDUCATION\n\nA. H. YODER,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY\nSEATTLE, WASH.\n\nTO SECONDARY\nOF WASHINGTON,\n\nThe effect of sex difference so far as school education is concerned,\nis not important until about the tinge children begin their secondary\neducation.\nAs the body nears the completion\n\nof its quantitative growth, nature\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nestablishes sex functionally ; the boy develops toward manhood, the girl\ntoward womanhood, and there results a biologic difference, real and\nimperative. \"The biologic differences between the sexes result in psychologic and social differentiations. We must insist upon the biologic\ncondition underlying the relation of sexes.\" ^ The sex element is in one\ncase characteristically active and aggressive, in the other passive and\nreceptive. This physical difference cannot be changed, and its significance must not be overlooked, for it has a real influence upon the mental\nlife of the individual. However, it is not the only influence of the body\nupon the mind.\nThere are other real sex differences. \" These differences may be exaggerated or lessened, but to obliterate them it would be necessary to have\nall the evolution over again on a new basis. What was decided among\nprehistoric protozoa cannot be amended by act of Congress,\" \"* nor banished by prudery, personal ambition, or economic conditions. This\ndifference is a factor in the problem of general education as well as school\ntraining, and a system of training which does not recognize such a condition can never be truly effective.\nThe question which continually presents itself is this: How much of\nsex differentiation is due to sex as such, and how much is due to social custom and training ? For example, the rapid growth in height and weight\nwhich ushers in the phenomena of adolescence begins earlier in girls than\nin boys. This is a difference which at first seems plainly a matter of sex\nalone, but may it not be that the freer outdoor life of the boy or the\ncustom of very early marriage for girls among remote ancestors has had a\nconsiderable influence upon the earlier growth in case of the girl ?\nSome of the differences which we are accustomed to attribute to sex\nare certainly individual differences. Leaving these out of account, may\nit not be true that some of the sex differences are due to non-sex causes?\nIf this be true, such differences are within the possibility of modification.\nCertainly some of the distinctions are the result of conceptions which\nare not consistent with present ideals of life. These conceptions are perpetuated chiefly by the training of the home and society, and not a little\nby the church and school.\nSex differences are due also to manner of living — social custom and\neconomic condition. From the beginning there has been some division\nof labor based upon sex difference ; this division, to some extent, must\ncontinue, and education, in its scope and method, should recognize it.\nIn some' instances the division of labor was and is such as to favor one\nsex and to exploit the other. This fact, coupled with a biological difference, has caused further sex differentiation. Augmented by prejudice\nand strengthened by the force of conservatism which sanctions existing\nconditions, we have come to emphasize differences of sex which are not\n1 Geddes and Thompson.\n\n2 Idem.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nDepartment]\n\nSEX DIFFERENTIA\n\nTION AND\n\nSECONDAR\n\nV EDUCA\n\nTION\n\n78 7\n\nfundamental and which are therefore harmful. Take, for instance, the\nfollowing examples in the influence of dress. Two sisters, married to two\nbrothers, gave birth to two boys about the same time. When the time\ncame for sex differentiation as indicated by clothing, the mothers decided\nto keep the children as §irls. The mothers told me afterward that they\ncould not bear to expose the children to the meanness of boy iife. Then,\ntoo, the fathers were railroad engineers and much away from home. Perhaps the force of the father's pride in papa's little man was largely absent;\nat least the two boys were taught that they were girls, dressed as girls,\ngiven dolls, etc., and treated as girls. This was continued until they were\nseven years of age, when the children entered the public school, wliere\nthey were refused admission until the proper change in clothing was made.\nBoth mothers 'assured me that immediate moral degeneration was the\nresult; from modest girls they became forward boys ; quiet changed to\nnoise, frankness and truthfulness became deceit and hypocrisy. According to this experience, it is much more difficult to bring up a boy than\na girl. Again, a mother who has an older girl and younger boy told me\nthis : After long plays the boy grows tired of playing his sister's games\nand becomes unruly. When the mother adopted the expedient of dressing\nhim in the cast-off clothes of his sister, he always becomes docile. A\nWashington mother sometimes puts overalls on her little girl of eleven or\ntwelve to save her clothing. In such dress the girl readily fights boys,\nwhile in her usual dress she will only \" sass back.\" We know that biologically it costs more to produce a girl. Does it cost more morally to\nproduce a boy ? If so, how much of that cost is due to the artificial sex\ndistinctions inherited from an uncivilized, un-Christian past ? Have you\never observed the training given children in sex prejudice?\nIn the preparation of this paper I have asked a number of men and\nwomen a half-dozen questions. All agree that we are failing to recognize\nreal sex differences, and that harm is resulting.\nDr. Chamberlain says :\nWe are not in a position to determine with accuracy what is manly and what is\nwomanly, since the \"trail. of the serpent\" is over' the thought of men still, and woman's\nways are notyetfairly judged. There is much more to be granted to the womanly woman\nthan the man is prepared to concede at pre.sent.\n\nIn answer to the question, \"Are we not substituting unreal distinctions for real ones, making 'masculine' mean something which is not\ntruly manly, and 'feminine' something not womanly?\" Dr. Van Liew\nsays :\nIn many cases it seems to me we are. For example, many of the things associated\nwith manhood, as sowing wild oats, hunting, waging war, and the like, were primarily\nsimply the incidental associations of environment. They may, however, have aided in\nthe selection of certain fundamental physical and emotional traits.\n\nIn further discussion of the subject Dr. Chamberlain analyzes the problem thus :\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "78 8\n\nNA TIOMAL\n\nED VCA TIOMAL\n\nASSOC! A TIOM\n\n[child Study\n\nHe must lose what remains to him of the savage, she, what clings about her of the\nslave. The perfect equality in a political and social sense must come ere long. The\nlimiting of man's field, where he is inefficient, and the widening of woman's sphere,\nwhere she is effective and capable, are problems with which the twentieth century may\ndeal. Not less a man, not less a woman, but a being more serviceable to the race must\neach be.\n\nThe most interesting, intense, and suggestive replies were in answer to\na question concerning the meaning of the segregation of sexes introduced\ninto two of our large institutions this year. Space will not permit much\nquotation.\nA prominent Chicago physician says :\n. . . . due to the prurient prude of both sexes, who found something lowering\nbiologic and embryologic topics discussed before mixed audiences.\n\nin\n\nAn eastern physician, a neurologist, takes an opposite view :\nIt is not for the man who has spent all his life giving didactic lectures to young\nwomen to express his opinion upon the value of coeducation. He sees merely the academic side. Neither does the opinion of that anti-social being, the woman of\n\"advanced\" ideas and undeveloped sex-life, have any weight with the normal man of\nexperience. The neurologist who has the confidence of his women and girl patients will\nhave the sex differentiation so thoroughly impressed upon his mind that he would never\nallow a daughter or a sister to go to a coeducational institution. After sufficient trial, the\nmingling of the sexes in colleges is shown to be inexpedient, if not dangerous, to the\nfuture welfare of all concerned.\n\nA leading student of the child says :\nIt is one of the ebbing wavelets of the military spirit (always anti-woman) stirred\nup by the Spanish war. It is a shallow play of the water on the sand, nothing more. It\nwill be much less effective in the end than Mrs. Partington's famous attempt to stop the\nAtlantic.\n\nA well-known woman\ntion says :\n\nwriter upon the economic side of the woman\n\nques-\n\nA local reaction merely, owing to the tremendous changes already glimpsed — not\nunderstood. Also a money reason. The \"sporty\" colleges get the richest students;\ncoeducation is not \" sporty.\"\n\nThe majority of correspondents favor coeducation, some without\nrestriction, some with certain differences in the courses. No new reasons\nare advanced.\nThe man's greater economic value dictates the policy of education, and\nas we progress in material matters the man has tended to leave to the\nwoman types of education, subjects of study, of lesser value ; hence we see\nthe classical and literary courses of our schools and colleges composed\nlargely of girls and young women, while the scientific, professional, and\ntechnical courses are made up largely of boys and young men — an illustration of the law governing the relations of the stronger and weaker.\nOne of two things must happen : either the education of women must give\nher greater economic value, or there must be a differentiation in the\ncourses of study based upon a recognized difference in sex.\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSEX\n\nDIFFERENTIA\n\nTION\n\nAND\n\nSECOND\n\nA R Y EDUCA\n\nTION\n\n7 89\n\nDuring the period of secondary education there should be coeducation\nwith differentiation in curricula according to real mental and economic difference in sex. The separation of boys and girls in school training should\nbe no greater than their separation in the good home, the progressive\nchurch, and society in general. Differences in the source of study will\nprovide for natural differences in the sexes as well as for individuality.\nThere are two dangers in differentiation of the courses :\n1. In many schools there is a real danger of catering to a feminine\nmental attitude, because {a) there are more girls than boys in attendance\nin the average high school or academy. The teacher unconsciously\nselects and arranges the work, presents and illustrates it, judges and\nmarks results, with the girl in mind. This is unfair, not only to the boys,\nbut to the girls, {b) The girls are intellectually superior to boys on\naccount of their greater relative maturity. Women teachers, embittered\nby the unfairness of opportunity toward their own sex, often do harm to\nyoung girls by pushing them beyond the demands of the course and in\nexcess of physical energy in order to demonstrate the superiority of the\nfeminine intellect. They fail to recognize the deep significance of the\nearlier maturity of women, seeing in it only an opportunity to make a\npoint in a controversy. Here lies one of the great dangers of modern\nlife. Until teachers and parents learn the meaning of adolescence we\nmust expect physical weakness in girls and restiveness in boys during the\nperiod of secondary education, {c) The growing tendency to employ\nmany women teachers and few men is the third cause of the effeminization of the schools. There are not too many women ; there are too few\nmen, and in many instances the men are too weak. In the schoolroom a\nstrong woman is always better than a weak man, but if we are to attain\nphysical, moral, and intellectual vigor and courage, intellectual acumen,\ntolerance, and breadth of view, we must have a nearly equal proportion of\nmen and women among our teachers. To have all teachers men would not\nbe any better than to have all women. At the time when the ideals and\nvirtues of manhood and womanhood are forming, the adolescent of either\nsex needs the stimulus of the highest type, not only of his own sex, but\nof the opposite. No half-gro*wn boy is going to develop into his best self\nunder the exclusive teaching of a woman in a school made up largely of\ngirls. There is danger of mental perversion in some degree. Such a\ncondition is equally unfair to the girl. There are about the same number\nof each sex in the community; there should be, under normal conditions,\nabout the same number in school. Likewise there should be a somewhat\nequal balance in the sex of the teachers.\n2. Girls suffer from lack of opportunity to express themselves educationally. Prejudice, due to several causes, among which \"sex-slavery\" is\nchief, still withholds from girls full freedom. This works greatest harm\nduring adolescence, when ideals are being realized.\nThe girl does not\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "79Q\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nhave the opportunity to scheme, plan, and experiment as has her brother.\nWe have not the courage to divert her ambitions in the direction of her\nwomanhood; so we either check her attempts or indulge her vagaries.\nHave you noticed how much easier it is to speak to boys than to girls\nabout their life-work ? It is embarrassing to attempt to harmonize the\nusual school training of girls with opportunity to succeed in life. Our\ntraining ought either to fit girls for the work of womanhood or give absolute equality of opportunity to the sexes, and not force girls into courses\nof study more or less abandoned by boys.\nThe continuation of the progressive evolution of man demands that\nschool education shall more definitely recognize the real differences in sex;\nit likewise demands the conscious abandonment of those inherited sociological differences inconsistent with modern ideals of living. Evolution\ndepends quite as much upon what is eliminated as upon what is acquired.\nThe point of attack is the period of secondary education.\nDISCUSSION\nEdwin D. Starbuck, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior\nUniversity, California. — I wish to speak of three points that have been raised by Dr.\nYoder in his paper. Two of these points will be in essential agreement with his paper,\nand the other will, perhaps, be somewhat at variance with it.\nFirst, it comes as a refreshing shower to find a man who, in this time when all\nmatters that pertain to the mental life, and especially to the differentiation of the sexes,\nare regarded simply as an outgrowth in one way or another of the reproductive instinct,\ndares raise the question as to whether sex difference has not other, and perhaps many\nother, conditions underlying it. I am in hearty sympathy with his opinion that environmental conditions enter very largely into the explanation of the divergence of the sexes.\nThe accumulating evidences as to the sensitivity of the organism to its environment, the\nfineness of its response even to the unconscious influences that are going on about it, the\ncertainty that these responses influence our judgments and conceptions, and perhaps react\nupon the central springs of character itself, put us into a position to believe that such is\nthe case. Still, I must confess to a certain degree of skepticism as to the deep -going\neffects of mere change of clothes on children's moral nature. I would be the last to deny\nthat the reproductive instinct has given its own strain and coloring to all our evolved\nconsciousness ; but I am willing to be among the most emphatic who declare that contact\nwith nature, the gregarious instinct, as Ribot calls it (largely independent of, and often\ncontradictory to, sex), all the instincts — hunger, curiosity, self-expression — each likewise\ngives its strain and coloring. We have had our perspective of the things which are going\non here and now much distorted, it seems to me, by this attempt to explain everything\nfrom the single standpoint of sex irradiation. There is a certain fascination in toboggansliding down the biological ages, and coming into our interpretation of the present with\nthe dynamics of race-life involved in our thought; but it is dangerous business, just as in\ntobogganing we lay ourselves liable to leaving in our trail a host of shattered and abused\nfacts. There is a charm about being profound, but in digging down among the biological\nfacts for the explanation of our peculiarities we are like the seeker after deep-hidden\ngold who comes up out of the dark depths of earth — ^.with his gold, to be sure — still,\nwith his eyes blinded to the perils that may chance to lie at his feet and the beauties that\nshine about him. Even at the cost of seeming profound, we should clear up our horizon\nand cease looking at the matter of adolescence and sex differentiation from the single\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSEX\n\nDIFFERENTIA\n\nTION\n\nAND\n\nSECOND AR Y EDUCA\n\nTION\n\n79 ^\n\nstandpoint. I wish to affirm that our interpretation of sex differences would be more\nwholesome if we viewed it as rather essentially a psychological problem, and not so much\nas distinctly a biological or a physiological one. The important question is, comparing\nthe sexes as they now exist, what is their relation in regard to tastes, mental ability, conditions oflife that education should meet, and the like. It is at bottom a matter for\ncareful observation and psychological experimentation.\nI shall take the liberty of speaking of the question before us for a few moments from\nthis unfashionable standpoint, and shall limit myself entirely to the relation of mental\nability of the sexes, and shall further confine myself to two points raised by Dr. Voder's\npaper. There is no need of apology for speaking from a personal standpoint. My students and I have been making tests during the last five years on school children and adults\nof all ages to determine their relative ability in a score of different aspects, including muscular ability and endurance, acuteness of the various senses, mental and muscular quickness and accuracy, reliability of reasoning, and mode of approach to difficult problems.\nThe first significant point from our present consideration is that there is a consistent\ndifference between the sexes, as shown by most of the tests, and that this difference is\nprobably fundamental in that it extends back to the earliest years and continues to the\nlater. Boys and men are quicker mentally and physically, are less enduring, slightly\nsuperior in those senses naturally most exercised, slightly inferior in those in which girls\nhave had larger experience, reason more alertly, come up to large questions more\nspecifically rather than in a general way. Whatever differences exist are consistent.\nThat is, they fall in line with each other and with certain physiological and biological\ndifferences in so far as we know them. In saying that the differences extend back to the\nearliest years I am at variance with the view of Dr. Yoder, who makes the point of\ndivergence the beginning of the adolescent period. The difference during adolescence\nis not greater in comparison with the difference during earlier years than would perhaps\nbe accounted for by the more rapid maturing of girls.\nThe other point is that, altho there is a difference between the sexes which is\nconsistent and fundamental, the difference is small. What difference is there, and what is\n.its significance ? Fortunately, we have a means of giving an intelligible answer to both\nquestions* In nearly every test, and in almost all the ages, the difference between boys and\ngirls is less than the variation of boys among themselves or of girls compared with each\nother. This point is important and should be entirely clear. The way the conclusion is\nreached is this : We may take the average ability of boys in any given test, and regard\nthe value thus obtained, rather arbitrarily, as the standard of proficiency. Then we may\nfind the average variation of boys from this standard. This average variation of boys\nwhich measures their lack of conformity to a type nearly always includes within its range\nthe average proficiency for girls. In many of the tests the \" probable\" variation for either\nsex — a much closer limit of variation — includes the standard for the other sex. That is, in\nthese particular tests the divergence of the sexes in less than the variety which exists within\neither sex. The significance of this conclusion is this: if we claim, as many do at the present\ntime, that the difference in mental capacity between the sexes is so great that they should\nhave entirely separate curricula and their particular assignments of work, the same argument\nwould lead us to insist on different courses of study for dull and bright boys, or for healthy\nand nervous girls. It may be that the variety within either sex as well as the divergence\nof the sexes furnishes just the variation nature demands for carrying out the process of\ndevelopment, and that individuals need for intellectual, social, and moral enrichment.\nSo we cannot side with those who wish, for practical purposes, either to magnify or\nminimize the difference between the sexes ; but, since the divergence between them is\nsmall, taken together with the fact that our courses of study are becoming more and more\nelastic, so that individual tastes and capacities can be respected, we can but infer that the\nimportance of the \"problem\" of coeducation is materially weakened if the arguments for\nor against it center in the question of the relative ability of the sexes to do mental work.\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nZ. X. Snyder, president of State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. — i. There is a\nphysical difference between boys and girls as to endurance and organization. Energy\nthat is used up to develop and prepare girls for the natural functions of life is consumed\nin school grind. In the very nature of the case, the powers of life of a girl are used more\nlargely to develop her future functions than those of a boy during the adolescent period.\nLess energy goes to the development of rrervous tissue in the girl than in the boy.\nNaturally less function must be required of the nervous centers of a girl than of a boy.\n2. More time and energy growing out of home duties and social relations are\nrequired of girls than of boys. There are duties belonging to the household, of a\ndomestic nature and also of a social nature, that consume the time and energy of girls\nmore than of boys, which absolutely prevent girls from doing as much work in school as\nboys do. It is unfair to their organization and to their standing in school to require of\nthem as much work as thoroly completed in the same time.\n3. Mixed schools stimulate the premature development of social life. This\npremature social life leads to dissipation of energy, and often to premature marriage,\nwhich sometimes ends unfortunately. During the early part of the adolescent period the\npowers of life of a girl go, or should go, to prepare her for her natural function. The\ngrind of the schools arrests this natural development, especially if she attempts to keep\nDace in her studies with boys. Now, the high school, which is a school of the people,\nshould ever aim to give the physical nature a chance. Posterity demands this ; the girl's\nnature demands this; civilization demands and requires it.\nIf the above three theses are true, this fourth one follows :\n4. That more time should be taken by girls to do a given school work, and separate\nschools established for boys and girls.\nThe above theses seem true from certain investigations that have gone on, both from\ntheoretical and practical standpoints. Superintendents of schools who have been\nobservers of the practical workings of high schools feel the truth of them. They feel sure\nthat there should be some source of relief, and that it must be found in taking more time\nfor girls and probably separate schools for the sexes. From the theoretical standpoint,\nor from the standpoint of quantitative investigation by educators, psychologists, and\nphysiologists, the truth of the theses seems to appear.\nAdmitting the truth of the first two theses, it would seem that it might be arranged\nwithout separate schools. But, admitting the third, it seei»s almost impossible to meet\nthe conditions without separate schools. It would seem that the third is the most\nimportant of the three.\nIn the association of the sexes in high schools, familiarities and intimacies develop\nvery frequently by which the energies of the boys and girls are dissipated and experiences\nhad which are the regret of their lives. There is undoubtedly an excess of social dissipation connected with the high schools. Card-playing, dances, receptions, hay-rides, and\nindividual indulgences seem to be the aim of a modern high school, so far as the students\nare concerned.\n\nTHE\n\nPERCENTAGE\nSCHOOL AND\n\nA. CASWELL\n\nOE BOYS\nWHO\nTHE REASONS\n\nLEAVE\nTHE\nTHEREEOR\n\nELLIS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nOF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TtX.\n\nHIGH\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe statistics indicate that little over 5 per cent, of the pupils who\nenter the elementary schools remain to enter the high schools. Of\nthose who enter the high schools, between 20 and 24 per cent, are\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOF BOYS\n\nLEAVING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n793\n\nreported as graduating. That is, our elementary schools eliminate over\n90 per cent, of their pupils in eight years, and the high schools eliminate\nabout 80 per cent, of what is left during the next four years, leaving to\ngraduate from the high schools about 2 per cent, of the original number\nentering the elementary schools. About 3 per cent, graduate in Boston,\nwhile St. Louis falls to 1.6 per cent. The slaughter of the Light Brigade\nat Balaklava pales into insignificance, then, beside the slaughter of the\neducational hopes and possibilities of our children by the present school\nsystem.\nWhat causes the loss of this 98 per cent, of our pupils before g'raduation is a question of burning importance for teachers.\nThis paper can touch only a few points connected especially with the\nloss of boys during the high-school course, (i) What portion of the\nstudents in the high schools are boys, and what portion graduating are\nboys? (2) What portion of the boys entering ever graduate? (3) When\ndo the boys drop out?\n(4) Why do they drop out?\nOf the 541,730 pupils reported in all grades in the high schools\nthere are 42 per cent, more girls than boys. Of the 65,696 graduating yearly, only 34 per cent, are boys; that is, about 50 per cent,\nmore girls than boys enter the high schools, and 100 per cent, more\ngirls than boys graduate. Texas schools graduate only one boy to three\ngirls.\nConcerning the second question — what percentage of the boys entering the high school ever graduate — data are difficult to obtain. The best\nstatistics indicate that about 20 per cent, of the students, boys and girls,\nin the United States as a whole graduate. In Kansas 33 per cent, graduate; 37 percent, of the pupils in Massachusetts remain to enter the fourth\nyear; 23 percent, in Missouri. These are doubtless reduced below 30\nper cent, and 20 per cent, before graduation.\nSuperintendent Greenwood made a study of fifteen selected city high\nschools scattered from Cambridge to Portland, many of very high repute,\nyet only 16 per cent, of the students entering these schools remained till\nthe fourth year. Hardly more than 12 per cent, or 14 per cent., therefore, graduated. That only 14 per cent, of the pupils in fifteen select\ncity schools graduate, while 20 per cent, of the pupils in average schools\ngraduate, should be a significant fact in determining why the pupils\nleave the schools.\nThe number of boys in the different grades is not usually reported\nseparately from the number of girls ; hence for facts on this point we are\nobliged to rely upon a few city reports and upon statistics gathered by\nme thru a questionaire from fifty-six widely separated representative\ncities and towns. In Kansas City, ov^ of each 100 boys entering the\nhigh school, 54 remain to enter the second year, 46 the third, 33 the\nfourth, and 28 to graduate; in Boston, 56 remain to enter the second\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nyear, 40 the third, and 10 the fourth; in thirty-two Texas towns and\ncities averaged, 56 remain to enter the second year, 31 the third, and 17\nthe fourth ; in five California cities, 42 remain to enter the second year,\n23 the third, and 14 the fourth; in ten New York and Massachusetts\ntowns, 49 remain to enter the second year, 35 the third, and 19 the\nfourth ; in nine Georgia cities and towns, 66 remain to enter the second year, 51 the third, and 50 the fourth. The widest variations may be\nfound within different cities of the same state. In Kansas, for instance,\nit varies from 15 boys entering and none graduating to 15 entering and\n15 graduating. A certain Massachusetts town has steadily fallen from\ngraduating 30 per cent, to graduating 5 per cent. In Augusta, Ga., on\n23\nthe other hand, out of 127 boys entering the high school 66 per cent,\n19\n14\ngraduate.\n17\nKansas City\n\nFirst year\nSecond year\nGraduates\n\n100\n54\n\nBoston\n\n100\n\nThirty-two\nTexas\nTowns\n\nFive\nCalifornia\nCities\n\n100\n\n100\n\nTen New\nYork and\nsetts Cities\nMassachu100\n\nGeorgia\nNine\nCities\n100\n\n66\n35\n49\n\n33\n28\n\n10\n\n46\n\nSummarizing these facts, we find56 that of the children going to\n56\n40\nschool little over 5 per cent, reach the\nhigh school. The number of\ngirls in the high school is 50 per cent, greater than\n31 the number of boys,\n42\nand the number of girls graduating is 100 per cent, greater\nthan the\nnumber of boys. Of the boys entering the high school nearly half\ndrop out before the second year in all sections of the country, after\nwhich the numbers dropping out each year vary from 50 per cent, to less\nthan 10 per cent. There are left for graduation less than 20 per cent, of\nthe boys entering the high schools. This varies from ten per cent, in\nBoston, 15 per cent, in Texas, 12 per cent, in California, and 17 percent,\nin New York and Massachusetts, to nearly 50 per cent, in Georgia, with\ngreat individual variation in neighboring schools.\nThese statistics are probably not far from correct, but are based upon\na study of too few schools. A full and complete study is impossible until\nour superintendents and principles learn the value of such study and prepare reports. If this department, in conjunction with the Department of\nSecondary education, would prepare a uniform plan of recording the\nexperience of the high schools in the above matters, and in the matter of\nage, health, numbers of failures in various subjects, causes of withdrawal,\netc., we should soon have a proper basis for a scientific study of these\nproblems.\n, Coming now to the last question : Why do four-fifths of the high-school\n\n51\n50\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOF BOYS LEAVWG\n\nhigh school\n\n795\n\nboys leave before graduation ? I asked the same fifty-six principals\nwho made the other reports to state, in order of importance, the causes\nthey considered the most potent in taking pupils out of the high schools.\nThe following are the reasons assigned by these principals, given in order\nof importance as it appeared to their united judgment :\n\nNeeded to support home\nMentally incapable\nLazy, ashamed not to pass\nDesire to make money\nEnter business school\nCommercial ideals at home ....\nLack of discipline at home\nDislike high-school subjects and\nDislike high-school discipline..\nObject to length of time\nObject to women teachers\n\nNew York and\nMassachusetts\n\nCalifornia\n\nFifth\nTwelfth\nThird\nSecond\nSixth\nEighth\nFirst\nFourth\n\nSecond\nSeventh\nFourth\nFirst\nSixth\nFifth\nThird\nEighth\n\nThird\nSeventh\nSecond\nFirst\n\nSeventh\nNinth\nTenth\nEleventh\n\nNinth\nTenth\nEleventh\nTwelfth\n\nNinth\nTenth\nEleventh\nTwelfth\n\nTexas\n\nGeorgia\n\nFifth\nNinth\nFourth\nThird\nEighth\nTenth\nSecond\nFirst\nSixth\nSeventh\nEleventh\nTwelfth\n\nSixth\nFourth\nEighth\nFifth\n\nTeachers .in all sections of the country placed mental incapacity on\nthe part of the pupils far down in the less poten^t half of the causes of\nwithdrawal. As this is the only absolutely irremediable trouble, there\nseems cause for hope. While the order of importance as given varies\nslightly from state to state, yet the following causes were put among the\nfirst six by teachers in New York, Massachusetts, and California, and nearly\nall of them by Georgia and Texas teachers as well : (i) needed for support\nof home ; (2) desire to enter factory ; (3) desire to enter business school ;\n(4) commercial ideals and lack of appreciation of education at home; (5)\nlaziness. Fortunately, these are all curable evils, unless it be the \" needed\nfor support at home.\" That the number leaving for this reason is greatly\noverstated will be shown in a moment.\nThis kind of second-hand child study, with the observer so personally\ninterested in the outcome, is, I admit, of questionable value until verified\nby other methods. If one could get two thousand boys who had left the\nhigh school to tell frankly why they left, and get an equal number who\ngraduated to state why they remained and why they think the others left,\nwe should have a contribution to child study of real value. This I have\ncommenced, but the task proved too heavy to complete in time for this\nreport.\nOne worthy study of this topic has been made by Supervisor S. D.\nBrooks, who induced in selected superintendents to make a record for\neach student who left school, giving ag^, grade, sex, nationality, health,\ntemperament, mental ability, class standing, cause of leaving school, occupation and financial standing of parents, etc. Out of 400 high-school\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n[Child Study\n796\npupils who withdrew from the school and were reported on, he found the\ncauses assigned by the teachers to be as follows :\nBoys\n\nDesire for activity\nFailure in work\nTruancy\nBad conduct\nOther school\n\n9^\n12\nII\n4\n2\n4\n\nBoys\n11,^\n\n1\n\nGirls\n\nI\n7\n\nDislike authority\nHome influence\nMiscellaneous\nIll-healths\nTo work\n\nI\n4\n5\n\n17\n\nGirls\n\nI\n\n5\n\n37\n\nA moment's consideration will show that these teachers only half\nanswered the question as to why these boys left school by saying \" indifference,\" \"failure in work,\" \"desire for activity,\" or \"to goto work.\"\nThe real questions were: \"Why was he indifferent?\" \"Why didn't the\nschool give him something to interest him ? \" \" Why did he fail ?\" \" Why\ndidn't the school give him work he could do?\" \"Why did not the school\nsatisfy his desire for activity? \" \" What made the authority of the school\nso obnoxious to him ? \" \"Why did he want to go to work rather than to\nwork in school ? \" This study shows that all the causes for leaving school\nare in large measure within the power of the school to change, except possibly \"home influence,\" \"miscellaneous,\" \"ill-health,\" and \"to work.\"\nAside from the i percent, \"home influence,\" 4 per cent, \"miscellaneous,\"\nand 5 per cent, \"ill-health,\" the 37 per cent, of the boys who left to work\nappear to be the chief factor beyond the control of the school. The\nrecords of these 37 per cent, leaving to go to work were especially examined. Most of them were in the first half of the class in ability, hence\nfailure in school did not drive these boys to work. Of their parents 21\nper cent, were above medium in wealth, many more were not poor, and\neven some of the poor ones could have strained a point and remained, if\nthere had been sufficient desire ; so that hardly more than half of those\nstudents who left to work really had to work for the support of their\nhomes ; that is, only about 19 per cent, of the boys who left school really\nhad to go to support their families. If now to these 19 per cent, who\nmust work to support their homes we add 20 per cent, as a liberal allowance for the others leaving because of incapacity, illness, and other\nunavoidable conditions, there remain over 60 per cent, of the losses from\nour high schools due to the fault solely of our poor school system.\nThe reasons usually assigned for this 60 per cent, of unnecessary loss\nof boys from the high school are : lack of properly educated teachers, and\nthe commercial ideals of this generation. Yet statistics show that many\nschools with highly cultured teachers and elaborate equipment hold fewer\nboys than the average schools; e. g., the select city schools reported on\ngraduated one-half the percentage that is graduated in Kansas, and only\n\n38\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmenti\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOF BOYS\n\nLEAVING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n797\n\nthree-fourths of the average for the United States as a whole. The small\nschools of Texas likewise graduated a larger proportion of their boys than\ndid the richer and better-equipped city schools. Concerning the effect of\nthe presence of commercial ideals, statistics again indicate that in the\nmost commercial and money-getting sections of the country a much\nlarger percentage of the boys graduate. Texas graduates only 14 per\ncent., while Massachusetts graduates 26 per cent.; Augusta, Ga., full of\nfactories and push, graduates 50 per cent.\nOf course, the result in any case is due to a large group of factors, but\nthe evidence is sufficient to show that scholarly teachers will not necessarily keep students in school, nor will commercial aspirations necessarily\ntake them out. Neither will the presence of educated people and of a\ncollege atmosphere hold them. The high schools in college towns show\nworse records than the others. I had thought that the length of the\ncourse was a large factor, but the records of the three-year high schools are\nas varied and bad as those of the four-year schools. Scholarly teachers,\nelaborate equipment, atmosphere of culture, short course, all fail unless\nthe subject-matter and discipline of the school meet the inner and outer\nneeds of the adolescent's nature better than do the shops and factories.\nThis is the simple secret of the whole matter. Mr. Bumble, in explaining\nto Mrs. Corney the proper method of managing outdoor relief for beggars, hits' the fundamental principle of this whole question. Says the\nbeadle: \"The great principle of outdoor relief is to give the paupers\nexactly what they don't want, and then they get tired of coming.\"\nThe high school receives the adolescent youth, with a new and\nchanging body, disequilibrated now by new and rapidly developing\norgans connecting him with the race, by a rapidly medullating brain, by\nnew-grown heart muscles and heightened blood pressure; a creature with\nintense but fickle emotions; with rising sense of self-importance; with\nvague aspirations and longings for great things; with new religious and\nsocial needs; with his childish love of activity for the mere sake of doing\npassing into desire to do things having a real end; with the infantile\nsense of dependence and willingness to obey mere authority yielding to a\nfeeling of self-dependence and a desire to control himself — a changing,\nhigh-pressure, destructive-constructive creature, now yearning for the\nunattainable ideal, now tingling with desire to do things and to count for\nsomething in the world. What do we do with this self-conscious, hopeful,\nunbalanced youth ? He is taught in a group of twenty-five, is cramped\ninto the swaddling-clothes of elementary discipline, and this by teachers\nwho never saw him before and never will see his home or home life, who\nknow nothing of his personal aspirations, talents, weaknesses, or abominations. His course of study is often prtscribed, notwithstanding the fact\nthat this is the period endowed by nature with that restlessness and fickleness which impel the organism to try all things and to test all its powers.\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthat it may both develop breadth of interest for life and find the special\nline of its peculiar power.\nCloser personal relations between teachers, parents, and pupils can\naccomplish much, as is shown by the fact that the smaller schools hold\ntheir pupils better than the large ones do.\nAllowing electives, breaking the lock-step, and treating these youths\nas individuals can likewise do much good, without producing the evils so\nmany think inevitable. Making the course elective increased the attendance of boys in the high school in Galesburg, 111., in seven years nearly\n400 per cent., and the number graduating nearly 500 per cent., while the\nelementary pupils increased during the same time only 9 per cent.\nAgain, the introduction of more practical courses for such students as\nare better fitted for these, the appeal to the desire to do something concrete and immediately useful, will accomplish much, as has been shown in\nmany cities. Kansas City, for example, increased the attendance in her\nhigh schools 64 per cent, by adding a manual high school.\nThese worthy features of progress must be pushed on and perfected ;\nbut even after this is done, entirely too many pupils will be driven from\nour schools until we bring about far closer relations between parents,\nteachers, and pupils; until superintendents and principals learn more of\nthe psychology of boyhood; until the history courses are more human,\nthe science courses less arid, the language courses less formal, the literature courses have more literature to read and less to vivisect and triturate ;\nin general, until the subject-matter of each study and the methods of\nteaching and discipline are brought into harmony with the inner\ndemands of the adolescent's nature. And then, just as sure as there is\nlaw and evolution in nature, will these youths be likewise getting the best\npreparation to meet what is worthy in the demands of the civilization\nabout them.\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind. — Professor Ellis has given an extensive^ and I shall endeavor to give an intensive, view of this important subject.\nThere is a complete record of only ten graduating classes of the Anderson High\nSchool — from 1 894 to 1 903. Belonging to these classes there were 38 1 boys. One hundred\nand thirty-one, or 34.5 percent., of these graduated; 250, or 65.5 per cent., withdrew\nbefore graduation. Of the withdrawals, 124 were during the first year, 74 during the\nsecond year, and 54 during the third year. Nearly all the boys who entered the fourth\nyear graduated. The reasons assigned for withdrawal are as follows ; 20 removed from\nthe city, 28 went to school elsewhere, 3 withdrew on account of ill-health, 17 became\nindifferent and quit, 120 withdrew to work, and 62 withdrew without assigning any\nreason.\nCompared with the towns and cities mentioned by Professor Ellis, this is not a bad\nshowing, especially when we consider that Anderson is a manufacturing city and that\nthe demand for young men has been very great. The percentage of boys who have\ngraduated in Anderson is one and one-seventh times that of Kansas City, nearly twice\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPERCENTAGE\n\nOF BOYS\n\nLEAVING\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n799\n\nthat of the ten New York and Massachusetts cities, more than twice that of the thirty-two\nTexas towns, two and a half times that of the five California towns, and three and a half\ntimes that of Boston. The nine Georgia cities alone surpassed Anderson in the percentage of boys who graduated.\nAfter making deductions on account of sickness, 'removals, attendance at other\nschools, withdrawals to work from necessity, and all other necessary causes, I believe\nthat there were one hundred boys, or 25 per cent, of the whole number, who might have\ngraduated from the Anderson high school if they had really desired to do so. Why did\nthey not have this desire ?\nThe answer to this question, in my opinion is threefold, and I give the parts inversely\nin the order of their importance.\n1. The opportunities for learning a trade or for going into business were such that\nthey did not think it advisable to disregard them. The number who withdrew from high\nschool for this reason is comparatively small, perhaps not more than twenty.\n2. They did not believe it necessary to graduate from the high school in order to\nsucceed in business or in life. Fortunately this sentiment in the high school and in the\ncommunity is growing less and less. The success of those who do graduate is the best\nargument in favor of a high-school education.\n3. They became indifferent to school work or impatient to school restraints. This\nindifference and impatience were due to a number of causes — lack of preparation, lack\nof interest and purpose, and consequently lack of application on the part of the boys;\nlack of sympathy, insight, tact, and power on the part of teachers ; lack of flexibility and\nadaptability of the course of study; lack of proper training and discipline on the part of\nthe home. The school will never graduate a large number of boys whose attendance is\nirregular, who are out late at nights, who spend their time loafing at cigar stores and on\nthe corner, who have never been trained to work or mind at home, whose bodies are\nenervated by the use of tobacco and the practice of other vicious habits, and whose minds\nare filled with sporting news, trashy literature, and other things that make for unrighteousness. For these the school can do but little except to appeal to parents, to society,\nand to a merciful God.\nThe most important question is : What are we going to do about it ? How are we\ngoing to keep the boys in the high school ? How can we graduate a larger percentage ?\nThis question can be only partially answered. I venture two suggestions : increase theefficiency of the high school, and build up a stronger public sentiment.\nSeveral things must be considered if we would increase the efficiency of the high\nschool. The work in the grades must be well done. High-school teachers must have\nscholarship, special training, tact, sympathy, and teaching power. The course of study\nmust be liberal and practical — liberal in the sense that there is opportunity for choice;\npractical in the sense that it supplies the needs of the pupils, fitting them, not only for\ncollege, but to a great extent for business and for life. I believe that the introduction of\nmanual training in the Anderson High School would add 50 per cent, to the number of\ngraduates among the boys. And, finally, if the high school would be most efficient, it\nmust develop a high type of manhood and womanhood. Its graduates must have intellectual attainments, must know how to use their knowledge, and must have acquired\nhabits of industry, fidelity; perseverance, and rugged honesty.\nWe should strive to build up a better public sentiment both in the high school and\nout of it. If the disturber and the \"never study\" are unpopular among their fellows; if\nthe boys take pride in their school work and want to excel in the class-room as well as\non the athletic field ; if the teacher is regarded as a helper and a friend ; if the boys\nspeak of it as \" our school \" and are willing to stand by it at all times and under all circumstances—if such a spirit as this exists among the pupils themselves, it will not be\ndifficult to keep the boys in the high school until they graduate.\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nAgain, if the people esteem the high-school teacher as a truly valuable citizen ; if\nthey look upon the high-school boy, not as a \"smart\" young man unfit for work, but as a\ngentleman able and willing to do something ; in a word, if they regard the high school\nas one of the most useful institutions of the community, then we shall have their confidence and co-operation in full measure. Such public sentiment without will react on\nthe sentiment within, for the betterment of all. With greater efficiency in the school and\nthe right spirit within and without, the circle of influence is complete, and each aids and\nstrengthens the others. Like the electric current that passes through the transformer, the\nvoltage is multiplied and the energy correspondingly increased. This is the line of\nprogress, not only for increasing the percentage of graduates, but for solving other highschool problems.\nSuperintendent Thomas M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass. — The admirable paper\njust read opens a subject of the first importance. School statistics are so imperfect, and\noften so misleading, that I can but hope that the author of the paper may find, upon further investigation, that the facts are not quite as bad as his figures now indicate. At all\nevents, there is a problem here which we cannot afford and ought not to desire to dodge.\nIn interpreting such statistics, several considerations must be taken into account as\nat least possible explanations of some of the facts, and I wish simply to mention a few.\nIn the first place, if all pupils admitted to the high schools entered with the intention\nof remaining to graduate, the dropping out of so large a percentage would be a very\nserious fact indeed. It would mean disappointment or defeat for the majority. But\nsome pupils enter simply to get one or two years more of school training, knowing beforehand that they will not be able to remain to graduate. They may be needed to assist in\nthe support of the family, or they may be obliged to become at least self-supporting. So\nfar as this class of pupils is concerned, the dropping out is rather an encouraging fact ; it\nshows that the high school has attracted, for a time at least, pupils who might have ended\ntheir education with the completion of the course in the grammar schools. It indicates\nalso that the gulf between the grammar school and the high school is being bridged, and\nthat pupils and their parents realize that it is a perfectly natural process for a pupil to\nstep from the grammar school into the high school, whether he maybe able to remain one\nyear or four. Furthermore, the excellence of our grammar schools renders it possible for\npupils of a much lower grade of mind to pass the examination for admission to the high\nschool than was formerly the case. Sbme of these pupils find it impossible to keep up\nwith their classes sufficiently to make their promotion from year to year. Moreover, class\nfeeling becomes stronger than it was in the grammar schools, and in many cases\nthe mere fact that a pupil cannot graduate with his class leads him to drop out\nof school entirely. Furthermore, at this age personal pride is more marked than\nin the grammar schools, and a failure of promotion is felt as a deeper disappointment. This accounts for the dropping out of a certain number, some of whom no\ndoubt the high school ought to hold, and could hold if its course were broader and the\ninstruction appealed to a greater variety of taste and talent. Again, some pupils are sent\nto the high school by their parents for only a year or two, mainly for the sake of the social\nposition it will give them in the future to be able to say that they have \" attended high\nschool,\" just as many boys are sent to college for the same reason. This is one of the\nmany points where caste feeling cannot be ignored in interpreting school conditions and\nschool statistics. This same caste feeling accounts in large part for the enormous increase\nin recent years in the number of pupils taking Latin in our high schools ; it causes many\nprivate schools to thrive regardless of the quality of their work ; and it often militates\nagainst the attendance at manual-training high schools, before their real purpose is understood in the community, because they are mistaken for trade schools, and to send a boy\nto a trade school would not especially advance his social position in the future. The city\nhigh school, it may be added, has also to contend with another difficulty which is felt less\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHO W TO INCREASE\n\nA TTENDANCE\n\nA T HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n8o I\n\nin the small high school of the village and rural district. I refer to the social life of the\npupil out of school, and the many attractions which tempt him to neglect his studies.\nCountry life, as we all know, develops early a degree of earnestness and a steadiness of\npurpose which city life has thus far failed to develop in children. In the country there\nare many forms of manual labor, both on the farm and in the village, which children\ncan perform and which develop in them a sense of responsibility which in the city neither\nhome life nor the school has yet succeeded in developing. It is, no doubt, this early\ndevelopment of a sense of responsibility, and the moral earnestness and ambition which\ngo with it, that accounts in large part for the well-known fact that most men of marked\nsuccess in business affairs were country-bred.\nMaking allowance, however, for all these facts, there remains undoubtedly a serious\nproblem to be solved, and the paper states this problem with clearness and force. There\nis no doubt that a number of pupils who leave school \"to go to work\" would remain a\nyear or two longer if they could receive training along the lines of their future vocation.\nThe lower the grade of mind, the less interest it has in general culture, and the more it\nmust be roused to activity by those studies which make directly for the realization of the\nhighest ambition. Such pupils invariably ask : \" What's the use of this study ? What\ngood will it do me ? \" This is a healthy instinct ; only in such cases it is almost\ninvariably too narrow to make broad training possible. The theory of harmonious\ndevelopment in the case of such pupils is fatal ; it drives them out of school. Such pupils\nmust be developed along the lines of their greatest strength, even if such a course means\nnarrow development. The introduction of commercial courses has helped to hold many\nsuch pupils. The elective system has also had, in another way, the same effect. A certain number of pupils leave the high school solely because they are tired of book study\nand are anxious for a more active life. Such pupils may be held by manual training, and\ntheir interest in school work may be deepened by laboratory work. They are interested\nmost deeply when they are doing something. It is not fair to say that this type of mi nd\nis inferior to the type which readily takes on liberal culture. It is a different type, and a\ntype which the schools have only recently recognized in their course of study.\n\nHOW\n\nTO INCREASE\n\nJ. K. STABLETON,\n\nTHE ATTENDANCE\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF BOYS\n\nAT THE\n\nSCHOOLS, BLOOMINGTON,\n\nILL.\n\nThe \"political ward boss\" in a city knows every voter in his ward, be\nthey many or few, and the political complexion of every one. The principal of a ward school should know every eighth-grade boy in his building, and should classify him so far as the possibilities of his attending the\nhigh school are concerned. This should be the work of the early part of\nthe year. The absolute certainties will require but little attention. The\nprobabilities will need to be continually strengthened in their good purposes until they pass over into the class of certainties ; and the possibilities, even the almost hopeless ones, must be brought, one by one, into the\nclass of probabilities.\nHere is where the greatest work is to be done.\nAfter this classification comes a %\\\\\\\\ closer knowledge of each individual in each of the uncertain classes. And the beginning is the question :\"Why do you think it is uncertain that you will attend high school\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nnext year ? \" This opens up the subject, and soon, in a confidential way,\nthe boy will reveal himself fully to the interested teacher, principal, or\nsupervisor.\nOne boy is not certain that he wishes to go to the high school. His\nparents would like him to go to the high school, but would not press\nhim. An interest, an overpowering interest if possible, to attend the\nhigh school must be aroused in him. Just how to do this will depend on\nthe boy. It may be that the interest of the teacher or supervisor is the\none thing that holds him to school, and that no overpowering desire to\nattend the high school can be awakened in him ; in this case we must be\ncontent with an interest sufficient to cause him to enter the high school,\nas he puts it, for one year only. When the situation with a boy is as I\nhave described, then the work of holding him can be carried forward\nsomewhat after the following plan. The teacher must keep in close touch\nwith him ; the principal must take opportunities to visit with him and in\na friendly way help him to plan a little for his future, and into this planning some high-school work must enter; then the district supervisor or\nsuperintendent, having been fully informed as to the boy, can greatly\nstrengthen the pull on the boy for the high school by coming to know\nhim personally and by, in a tactful way, saying: \"On to the high\nschool ! \" Then let the teacher learn from the boy whom among his outside friends he most respects. Then, unknown to the boy, she can ask his\nfriends to join with her in holding him to the high school. There is\nalways some person not connected with the school whose influence,\nsecured thru this word of the teacher, has great weight with the boy.\nThe fact is that when the forces are thus organized to hold the boy for\nthe high school it is almost impossible for him to get away. When he\nfinds everyone expecting him to attend the high school, he is convinced\nthat it must be the best thing, and so settles it in his own mind that he is\nto go to the high school, at least for a year or two.\nHere is another boy whose father says that he is now able to make\nmoney and must go to work. The boy is a bright fellow, manly, and\nwilling to work both at home and at school. His father is not an educated man, has known nothing but hard work all his life, yet by careful managing has come to possess considerable property. To him his boy\nseems well educated; the father sees the dollars the boy can soon be\nearning, while he does not clearly see what the high school may mean to\nthe boy.\nWhat shall we do — lose the boy? Never. The teacher, and if need\nbe the principal, must call upon the father and explain to him what the\nhigh school has for his boy ; must plead with him to give the boy at least\none more year in school. It is not best to ask for too much the first time ;\nfor after the boy has had one year in the high school, the father may favor\nanother and another, and so on.\nBut the first year is the work we are\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHO W TO INCREASE\n\nA TTENDANCE\n\nA T HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n803\n\nconsidering. After a pleasant call with the father in the interest of his\nboy, leave him to think it over, with the promise that you will call again.\nIn the meantime hold on to the boy and keep his interest at white heat;\nand then another visit later on, and the father is converted to the plan of\nsending his boy to the high school. This boy now passes over from the\nmerest possibility to an absolute certainty, and is thoroly alive to the\nthought of pursuing his studies another year.\nHere is another boy who is not counting on attending the high\nschool. His teacher and his principal know him well. His people have\nnot the means to clothe him and provide him the necessary books for the\nhigh school. What else can he do but drop out of school and go to\nwork? He is a splendid fellow and ought to have high-school training.\nMust he be given up ? No. The school people, teacher, principal, and\nsupervisor or district superintendent, one or all, must try to help him find\nsomething to do for a part of the time that will give him money for\nclothing and books, and make it possible for him to be in school a part of\neach day. Often his school work can be arranged for the forenoon or\nafternoon, thus giving an unbroken half-day to outside work ; but whether\nit can or cannot be so arranged, help him to get work for part of the time\nand encourage him to take whatever work he can in school. We must\nhold on to this boy and keep him encouraged ; he will win out in the end.\nBut this is taking them one at a time and means a vast deal of work.\nAnd that is just what I intend it to mean. Boys are saved to the high\nschool more by this personal, hand-to-hand, heart-to-heart work than in\nany other way. The school that saves the greatest number of boys to the\nhigh school does not do it by saving them as a class of boys, but as individuals; and this saving individuals soon begets a class sentiment in favor\nof the high school that helps to tone up or strengthen the personal work\nthat has been done with individuals.\nThis work of holding boys for the high school does not belong alone\nto the eighth grade, but in all the grades there must be a feeling among\nthe teachers that it is a part of their work to inspire the children with a\ndesire or ambition to go on to the high school.\nThen, too, the personal work with individual boys must be closely\nfollowed up in the grades below the eighth grade. Here is a boy in the\nsixth or seventh grade who has developed very rapidly physically and\nmentally. The stage of puberty has come to him early, and the restlessness of the wild goose to be on the go or for something new has taken\npossession of him. In mere formal work he is not much, if any, the\nsuperior of many others in his grade, but in his ability to think and to do\nhe far outstrips them. What shall we do with him ? If we hold him too\nlong on the work of the grammar grades, we shall lose him. His mind\ndemands food for thought, such as is not to be found to any great extent\nbelow the high school.\nWhat shall we do ? I do not hesitate to say that\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "804\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nwe should help this boy to make the technical connection between his\npresent work and the work of the high school, and, without holding him\nfor the drill and training that the ordinary boy requires, pass him on to\nthe high school. It saves the boy to an education and wrongs no one.\nTeachers often object to this plan because they fail to see the difference\nin the mental grasp of this boy and of the other boys.\nI once visited a greenhouse where the glass was low down over the\nbeds. A number of varieties of plants were growing in these beds ; the\nseed of all had been planted at the same time ; but some had outgrown\nothers and were pressing against the glass and being ruined for want of\ngrowing space. These should have been transplanted to other beds where\nthe glass was high above, that they might have room to reach upward.\nJust so with boys ; not only must they each be carefully tended, but at\nthe proper time for each individual boy he must be transplanted, that his\ndevelopment may not be retarded and that he may not lose interest in\nthe work of the grades above him. The plant that presses too long\nagainst the pane is distorted and loses its value. Is not the same true of\nthe boy ?\nGive the slow boy time without upbraiding him; keep close to him\nthat he may not lose faith in himself. Do not lose him because he is not\ndeveloping just as you think he should; give him time, hold on to him.\nA teacher once said to me, in speaking of boys in the eighth grade :\n\"We get rid of all those of mediocre ability by working them out, and\nthus save a class of choice intellects for the high school.\" When boys are\njust entering the adolescent period of life, it would take an all-wise\nteacher to tell who are and who are not the boys of mediocre ability ; so\nwe should not attempt this impossible classification of what the future\nalone can reveal, but should hold on to all of them.\nIn this way I might give case after case typical of the boys that belong\nto the class of uncertainties who can be held for the high school only\nthru the persistent efforts of either the teacher, principal, or supervisor, or\nof all of these.\nBut says one : \" l)oes it pay to do so much work ? It's not a part of\nour regular business, why should we do it ? If we take care of those who\nwish to go to the high school, it's all we are paid to do.\" That is putting\nit on a low basis when we say, \"it is doing all we are paid to do;\" but,\nafter all, is this taking care of those who wish to go on to the high school,\ndoing all we are paid to do? I think not. A man of means employs a\nman as his business manager for some important undertaking ; possibly\nit is to take charge of a large manufacturing establishment. Is not this\nbusiness manager paid to do everything in his power to make the business\na success ?\nThe high school is a business investment of the community ; in fact,\nAre not we who are in charge of the schools\nso are all the schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOW\n\nTO INCREASE\n\nA TTENDANCE\n\nA T HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n805\n\nthe business managers for the community ? Do we not owe it to the\ncommunity to make the investment pay as high a dividend as possible in\nthe number of boys it trains for useful citizenship? We most certainly\ndo ; and we are not first-class business managers if we in any way slight\nthe work commited to us.\nIn the general management of the higher grades of the grammar\nschool much can be done to interest the pupils in the high school and\nto give them an intelligent idea of the advantages there offered. Every\neighth grade in the city should be invited to spend a day visiting the\nhigh school. Certain days can be set apart for these visits, and the\neighth-grade visitors, boys and girls, can be so carefully looked after by\nthe high-school teachers and pupils that the day helps to crystallize\nthe desires of the eighth-grade pupils to enter the high school at the\nopening of the following term. In fact, this visiting the high school\nbegets in the eighth-grade classes a real enthusiasm in favor of the high\nschool. Ordinarily it seems best to have these eighth-grade visitors\nspend the day in seeing the regular work, each one being escorted\nfrom class to class by a high-school pupil. However, in some high\nschools a special eighth-grade day is held, and a program is given for the\neighth-grade pupils and their parents. This does not appeal to me as a\nbetter plan. But the fact is that anything we can do to bring the eighthgrade pupils into close touch with the high school lessens the distance\nbetween them, and thus saves a greater number of eighth-grade pupils to\nthe high school.\nAt some time during'the latter half of the eighth-grade year printed\nhigh -school courses of study should be given to every pupil, and, with\nthese courses of study in the hands of the pupils, someone — a supervisor, district superintendent, or some high-school officer — should talk\nover and explain the work of the high school, and give the pupils the\nprivilege of asking questions about it. This is very helpful indeed, and\nadds much to an intelligent sentiment in favor of the high school.\nNot only should pupils have the course of study explained to them,\nbut it is well to call the parents of these pupils together to explain to\nthem the work of the high school. Many even of those who wish their\nchildren to enter the high school have but a very limited knowledge of\nwhat the high school really is. All of this is building sentiment in favor\nof the high school, or, in other words, creating an atmosphere for highschool work, which atmosphere cannot fail to have a helpful effect on the\neighth-grade boys, and the lack of which makes the work of holding the\nboys for the high school doubly heavy.\nAll this planning and all the personal work of which I have spoken\npresuppose school principals, super^^isors, and teachers of the higher\ngrades well fitted by temperament and training to do this work. I doubt\nnot that all of us recognize the fact that there are some teachers in these\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "So6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\ngrades who inspire every boy that comes under their touch with the desire\nfor the high school or for a wider education ; and that there is another\nclass of these teachers, principals, or supervisors who have none of this\npower — strong teachers in many ways, but hard on boys of this age. A\nboy can often be held for the high school by transferring him from a\nteacher of this type to one of the other type. Where lies the fault ? Who\ncan tell ? I think possibly a boy of twelve years gave me the correct\nanswer when he said: \"Mr. Stableton, she just don't know what a kid\nlikes, that's the trouble.\"\nHave you read of David in James Lane Allen's Reign of Law? I\npicture to myself David, as he stood with his scythe in the old briar path,\ntall, angular, ungainly, half-clad for a back-woods Kentucky boy of that\nday. I can see the disappointed father and the bullet-headed mother\nwho know not their son and set no value on him. I can see David a few\ndays later at the church; a visiting professor is telling them of a college\nsoon to be opened at Lexington, and the great\" opportunities it would\noffer young men. David is drinking it all in, and is thinking, planning,\ndeciding ; the decisions of that hour are to affect his whole after-life. It\nis Sunday afternoon, a number of neighbors have called at David's home,\nand are talking about the professor's lecture. They ask David's father\nand mother if they are going to send David to college ; but his parents\nshamefacedly make no reply. The neighbors have gone home. David's\nfather and mother talk to each other as they would not dare talk to their\nneighbors ; the father wishes he had a son fit to send to college ; the\nmother says she always \"knowed\" there was nothing in David, and the\nfather says he always \" knowed\" so too; they are without hope in their\nboy. Just then David comes in, bashful, awkward, hesitating, and then,\nwonder of wonders, he tells them of his decision to go to college; that it\nis made, and that they must not attempt to turn him from it; for he has\nsettled the matter that he is going to the college at Lexington. They had\nnot known their boy; and they are not the only parents who do not know\ntheir boy at this time of life ; and there are many teachers handling boys\nof this age whom they do not know and understand ; and for this reason\nthey fail to enter into the boy's life and to direct aright.\nDoes not the boy long for some friend — his superior, man or woman —\nin whom he can trust ; not one ready to ask him impertinent questions,\nnot one who mistrusts him, and whose very manner jars on the boy's\nhighly sensitive nerves ; but a friend who loves boys, not because they are\nwithout fault, but who loves them with their faults with a love that will\nstimulate them to overcome their faults ? This friend they know intuitively they can trust not to question them too closely, and yet they are\nfree to tell him almost everything that comes into their lives. Why is it?\nIs it not because this friend has somewhat of common -sense linked with\nsuch a big sympathy for boy life that by mere suggestion he puts them in\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW\n\nTO INCREASE\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nAT HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n807\n\nharmony with himself? Does not his very presence suggest the right\nattitude in the boy ?\nIt is not a difficult thing to come to a boy's confidence at this period\nof his life, and it is an enjoyable companionship to live near him ; in fact,\nto know him is but to enjoy him. Several years ago I heard Edward\nEverett Hale preach a sermon. His theme was the enjoyment of God.\nHe said that the answer to the first question in the old catechism had\nnever been improved upon : \" What is the chief end of man ? \" Answer:\n\"To glorify God and enjoy him forever.\" And then he said, \" especially\nto enjoy Him.\" Here is much of the secret of dealing with adolescent\nboys; it is not only to know them physically, mentally, spiritually, and\nin their environment, but it is to cultivate that within ourselves which\nenables us to enjoy them.\nI do not believe the ability to interest, control, and inspire adolescent\nboys is all a gift. Natural aptitude there no doubt is, but he who is skillful in the work has become so by a careful study of boys and a close\ntraining of himself. And there are those, both men and women, who\nseem possessed of a power over boys at this time of life which to the\nordinary observer is almost wonderful. Could we secure foB grammargrade teachers and for high-school teachers those who possess this ability\nin so marked a degree, one of the most difficult problems of holding boys\nfor the high school would be solved — grammar-grade teachers to interest,\ncontrol, and inspire the boys with a desire to go to the high school; highgrade teachers strong and sympathetic, inviting the boys to come on.\nAnd may I stop one moment to say that it is often an unfortunate thing\nfor adolescent boys and girls that young men and women, fresh from colleges or universities, untrained in the actual work of teaching, and too\noften unconscious of the critical period of life thru which the boys and\ngirls at this age are passing, are employed to teach in our grammar\ngrades and high schools. They have the information our high-school\nteachers must possess, but they lack that knowledge of boy life so necessary to deal wisely with boys at this stage of their development.\nWhile courses of study must contain food suited to this stage of mental growth, above all we need for teachers great, warm-hearted, commonsense men and women ; for there is nothing that can shape the character\nof an adolescent boy, lifting him above himself and inspiring him to\nnobler things, like the thrilling touch of a strong, warm-hearted, sympathetic personality.\nFor, after all things have been considered that tend to carry the boys\nover from the grammar grades to the high school, the greatest of all is\nthe work done by these great-hearted, masterful teachers, whether men or\nwomen, whose intimate knowledge of the awakening period of adolescence\nand whose keen appreciation of the same enable them to work along\nbroad lines that continually inspire the boys to higher things.\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nDISCUSSION\nSELF-DIRECTION\nCOLIN\n\nAS A MOTIVE\n\nA. SCOTT, PROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nFOR\n\nPSYCHOLOGY,\n\nINCREASING\n\nBOSTON\n\nNORMAL\n\nATTENDANCE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nSuperintendent Stableton's advocacy of strenuous, almost evangelical, educational\nadvertising for the high school reminds us of what we already have four years later, when\ncompeting institutions use every means to convince the youth of the advantages of a college course. When these methods do not descend to mere educational drumming, they\nare without doubt useful both to the boy and the community.\nThe question, however, still remains after every attempt to portray the advantages\nof a high-school education. There are still left pupils who do not wish to go on, even\nfor a year. It is this class of pupils who are able to see the disadvantages of a highschool course that we should, if we are wise, observe with the closest scrutiny. Even if\nwe succeed in converting them outwardly, we may not have done the best either for\nthem or for the high school. It is possible that many of those who actually attend the\nhigher institutions beiong to this class. Some years ago I had in writing an expression\nfrom about five hundred of those belonging to the entering class of the Chicago Normal\nSchool, which convinced me of this possibility. Of this class there were actually 45 per\ncent, who claimed that they were going to that school, not because they really desired to\ndo so, but because they did not see what else they could do. This state of affairs exists\nalso in the first year of the high school, and largely accounts for the drop in attendance\nobserved at this time. To fill up our schools with pupils of this type is to degrade the\nquality of the courses that can possibly be offered, since the eager attitude is lacking,\nand to fill the higher circles of society with a race of pseudo-intellectual pessimists. .\nThis condition no doubt depends upon a variety of causes. Ill-health, hereditary\ninertia, the stupefying effect of bad teaching in the grades, enter in. But, apart from\nthese, and if not more important, at least more manageable, is the character of the high\nschool itself in comparison with the opportunities which loom up big with the promise of\nfreedom before the boy who desires at this stage to attack what seem to him the real\nproblems of existence.\n1 have no doubt that the variety of different high schools, the manual-training\nschool, and the variety of courses in the older type of schools meet the case of a considerable number. The statistics of the growth of attendance at these institutions point\nin this direction ; but electives, however varied, have always one fatal feature. Each\none may still be as rigid, and is generally assumed to be as rigid, as any course that was\never offered at any time. Modern electives are like the ready-made clothes of many\nsizes, and, altho vastly superior to the old-fashioned single garment into which everyone\nhad to crawl, are yet far from fitting all the needs, and even many of the most vital\nneeds, of individual modern minds. A stirring boy of the eighth grade wants to help\nmake his own spiritual clothes. He wants to feel that he is getting his hand in; and too\nfrequently it is because the high school offers no opportunities for such constructiveness of\nlife as those for which he feels himself yearning, that he strikes out boldly into what\nseems to him a larger sphere. But surely this is the very boy of all others that we would\nwish to save for the high school, even if some of those more easily won by the enthusiasm\nof conversion methods should be allowed to go ; and in this I am sure Superintendent\nStableton will agree.\nBut why, it may be asked, does such a boy not see, or why can he not be brought to\nsee, that the courses rn Latin, English, science, etc., are just those that prepare him for\nanything he may want in life ? Alas, the argument is too fine. The boy is longing for\nself-control. He already has ideas, such as they are. He hastens to put them into effect,\nto incarnate, however rudely, his budding schemes.' There are stages in the growth of the\npractical life as well as in the intellectual, and at the lower stages it is impossible to see\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHO W TO INCREASE\n\nA TTENDANCE\n\nA T HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n809\n\nthat the things of higher culture have any value for the purposes and plans which now\noccupy the brain. The only practical thing to do is to meet this instinct where it really\nexists. If our curriculized material in Latin construction, mathematical construction,\niron construction, wood construction, are too differentiated for this type of boy, let us\ngive him a chance in life construction ; and by this we must mean that the actual plans\nand purposes of the boy, however unacademic, be taken as the material to be educated,\nand the forms be fitted to these concrete actualities as best they can.\nIn the case of the boy who will, for a part of his time at least, let him make his own\ntime-table and his own course of study. If this course is not at present in the books, or\neven lies entirely outside of the possibility of books, it does not follow that it may not be\nreal and full of life. I would not specialize this notion by calling it original research, tho\nno doubt it partakes of something of its spirit. That such work could be original is quite\ncertain, but this is not a necessary characteristic. The essential point is that the boy\nstakes himself on something that he has at heart, no matter where he may have picked it\nup ; that he feels himself a cause and learns a little of the joys as well as the anxieties of\nreal control.\nSuch schemes will rarely be purely individual. In order to withstand inner temptation and overcome outer difficulties, a social relationship will rise up almost spontaneously.\nHere comes the opportunity to influence others and be influenced by them, from which\nare wrested the difficult secrets of masterhood. This becomes true self-government based\non real needs and the sense of sovereignty, and will parallel very closely the conditions\nwhich are actually found in life in democratic communities, where it is left to the individual to say what he shall do, but where the community passes judgment upon his\noutput. It therefore avoids the disadvantage of using motives and building up habits in\nschool that have no counterpart in the larger school of life.\n\nINFLUENCE\nSANFORD\n\nOF MEN\n\nBELL, PROFESSOR\n\nAND\n\nWOMEN\n\nTEACHERS\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY\nBOULDER,\nCOLO.\n\nOF\n\nCOLORADO,\n\nFive hundred and forty-three men and 488 women have testified to me concerning the\nteacher who did them most good. These people received their schoolmg between the\nyears 1870 and 1896 in a section of the middle West where at that time the general distribution ofteachers was approximately forty-one men to fifty-nine women. All of the\nmen and all but two of the women had had teachers of both sexes. On the whole, they\nhad come under the influence of more women teachers than men teachers, thus giving the\nwomen the advantage in opportunities for doing good. Notwithstanding this, 8 1 per\ncent, of the men and 50 per cent, of the women testify in favor of men teachers. The kinds\nof influences named are such as the moral uplift and inspiration, the stimulus to the intellectual awakening, and the spur to scholarship, help in getting a clutch upon the great\nvital issues of life, personal kindness, special interest, encouragement at crises, sympathy\nwhen things seemed crushing, self-reliance, hints in social graces, etc.\nAmong the men who testified, women teachers had led in none of these influences ;\namong the women they had led only in personal kindness, self-reliance, and social help.\nAll thru the thousand testimonies is abundant evidence, in the form both of explicit statement and of implicit suggestion, that the influence which was felt to be the best was not\nthe effect of subject-matter taught, nor disciplinary drill, but the effect of the personality\nof the teacher. The following are typical expressions : \" He was my ideal, and I wanted to\nbe like him;\" \"he laid the very foundation of my character ; \" \"he was grand, understood people and could manage them; was nfksterful — he could do things ;\" \"he was a\nnoble, dignified leader among men ; \" \" he was fearless of opinion in doing right ; \" \" he\nsaw the beauty in everything ;\" \"he taught me the dignity of duty ;\" \"he set me afire;\"\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "81o\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\n\"I wanted to be the greatest and best man in the world.\" \"She inspired me to everything good;\" \"by her purity of life;\" \"she was so quiet, lady-like, and controlled;\"\n\"gave me a taste for the higher, more refined and beautiful life;\" \"she was a pure,\ntender, noble, beautiful, sweet Christian.\"\nWith both sexes, the man teacher who had done most good was one who to a high\ndegree was the incarnation of massive strength and masterfulness in relation to vitally\nsignificant things. Vigor, courage, independence, fearlessness, ability to do, ability to\nlead, are the aggressive manly virtues emphasized. Purity, refinement, beauty of spirit,\nself-control, tenderness, kindness, sweetness, patience, are the passive feminine virtues\nadmired in the favorite women teachers.\nEighty per cent, of the thousand who testified received this most helpful influence\nduring adolescence. The period of greatest susceptibility for good is at fourteen in\ngirls and sixteen in boys. This, taken in connection with the above facts, points in\nfavor of men teachers for adolescents. We. are not justified in making the general statement that men are better teachers than women for children of all ages. Up to the\nage of nine the child needs mothering and the tender sympathetic patience so necessary in giving him his alphabets of life's useful habits. Women are better teachers\nthan men for this period of life. From nine to adolescence both sexes are equally\ngood teachers. During adolescence the men seem to be the better teachers. During\nall periods the child needs the influence of both sexes.\nThe advantage of men teachers for adolescents lies in the fact that the adolescent\nneeds powerful, masterful leaders ; and thus far in racial advance men have been the\nleaders. He feels broadly and keenly the problems of life, and his growing strength to\nmeet them. It is the most rapid formation period of life, when the influence of massive\nstrength and the aggressive virtues are needed. The adolescent is a hero-worshiper -for\nracial as well as for individual reasons. During childhood he learns the necessary automatic adjustments to the general conditions of existence. At adolescence he is inspired\nto an aggressive mastery over special conditions of existence leading to advance, growth,\ndevelopment, evolution.\n>^\nTwin-born at this time are the instincts to lead and to follow. All racial advance\nhas been made by the leaders of men. He who by power, originality, courage, endurance, or ability of any sort could hit upon a better way for himself and fellows, survived.\nOn the other hand, those who were able to follow such a leader survived, and others were\ncut off. These two instincts are not antagonistic, except in their very superficial relations. Both are very powerful in the adolescent. The following by adolescents is very\ndifferent from the following by children. The latter is prompted by dependence and\nhelplessness ; the former, by co-operation and helpfulness.\nNearly all genuine racial advance has been made by adolescents. They are fundamentally original until made commonplace by conformity. By nature they are not ready\nfor conformity ; they are prophets, not priests. They love power, for they feel its freshness\nand significance developing within them. They love the man of power, the man of ability,\nthe masterful man. Such men they need for their teachers. Such men they will follow\nwithout artificial inducements. There is no allegiance so whole, intense, self-sacrificing,\nloyal, as adolescent allegiance. The man of power will be their teacher, whether in the\nschool-room or out. Him alone will they follow. Him will they follow as long as he is\ntheir superior in masterfulness. After that they will be followed. Put such men in our\nschoolrooms, and our youth will storm doors and walls to get in. At present not enough\nsuch men are there.\nBut if the adolescents of both sexes do need the massive strength of masterful men,\nthe example and encouragement of the leaders among men, the influence of the masculine, aggressive virtues, they also need the less spectacular, but none the less essential,\ninfluence of the refining, inspiring, beautifying virtues of the leaders among women.\nNaturally, it seems to me, the more decisive, aggressive influences of men who command\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPSYCHIC\n\nARREST\n\nIN ADOLESCENCE\n\n8l I\n\nadmiration and discipleship thru genuine manly power should lead during the early\nadolescent years; and after it has effected the general rugged outline of the youth's\ncharacter, this should be toned and refined and beautified by the influence of noble\nwomanhood.\nIn conclusion : The women teachers seem best for the period of childhood ; both\nsexes equally good for the period from nine to thirteen ; men for adolescents. The influence of both is needed for all ages.\n\nPSYCHIC\nG. STANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nARREST\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nIN ADOLESCENCE\n\nOF CLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nMental development after puberty is much more uncertain than\nbefore. The first twelve years of life represent larger and more fundamental qualities. Adolescence adds a new story, less stable, very liable\nto arrest at any stage. It is a period of reconstruction and sometimes\nrevolution. Both parts and powers often develop disproportionately, so\nthat cohesion is weakened and psychic unity impaired. This makes\nnearly the whole post-pubic period critical, peculiarly exposed to dangers\nfrom without, because it is so plastic and susceptible, and still more so\nbecause the growth forces that push youth on toward maturity are so\nliable to show signs of exhaustion before their work is finished.\nHence it follows that length of the growing period is one of the most\nimportant factors in development. Lower races often stop short when\nsexual maturity is achieved. John Fiske's chief contribution to evolution\nwas in calling attention to the fact that the higher the species the larger\nthe proportion of its average life that was spent in attaining maturity.\nThe lowest creatures mature very speedily, in one-twentieth of their\naverage length of life, while man requires at least a third. I urge a law\nfor adolescence which is the infancy of our higher life. In the best individuals and races this is longest, and we should lengthen to its maximum\nthis most educable of periods in which all conscious training began. Our\nyouth must continue its apprenticeship to life as long as growth makes\nthis profitable for their further development.\nNow, the world is full of laggards who have been arrested, or perverted, at every stage of this toilsome, devious, complex, excelsior pathway\nupward. There are gamins, hoboes, hoodlums, rowdies, vagrants, \"mattoids,\" as Lombroso calls them ; \"young leaguers,\" as they are termed in\nSweden ; vagabonds, spendthrifts, dudes, egoists, dullards, who are now\nbeing gathered into special schools; to say nothing of dements, idiots,\nand criminals, who fill the institutions prepared for them. There are very\nmany degrees of failure. Those whose childhood was full of promise in\ngrammar school, high school, or college begin to lapse, disappointing the\nfond expectations of friends and parents, instead of fulfilling their own\nearly, or their friends', high ambition.\n\nThey drop iu^o bumble st^tipus\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8l2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfChild Study\n\nand are content with simple duties and a livelihood. Others are blase and\nquite indifferent, lose enthusiasm ; and what is youth without it ? Others\ncome up to years of discretion having lost their innocence before they\nknow what purity is. Here too, perhaps, we may class the 289 Prussian\nstudents who between the years 1885 and 1889 committed suicide. At\nanother stage, perhaps near incipiency, are school children in their teens\nwho appear in the morbidity tables suffering from headaches, sleeplessness, chlorosis, imperfect appetite ; nascent stammerers, the overanxious,\nsufferers from slight cardiac, hysterical, epileptic, or periodic troubles, but\nwith no very overt or flagrant symptoms. It is upon these classes that\npedagogical pathology and therapeutics are based, which are already\nbeginning to broaden our ideas so that education may be preventive as\nwell as curative.\nTeachers interested in these things owe a new debt, which they will be\nsure to recognize, to alienists. It is especially within the last few years\nthat pubertal weak-mindedness, under the name of dementia praecox, has\nattracted great attention ; and I am glad to be followed by Dr. Meyer,\nwho has done more to give this subject the place it belongs in American\nclinics and hospitals than anyone else. In the Worcester Hospital for\nthe Insane, the scientific work of which he reorganized, a little over onefifth of all the inmates are youths of this class. Of course, hospital\npatients have passed the subtler early stages which abound in our schools,\nand the records of the beginnings of their decline are very hard to trace;\nindeed, even specialists in medicine have only lately begun to realize\nthat their profession rests on a study of adult diseases, supplemented\nlargely in the past century by new specialists devoted to the distempers\nof children; but there has been a gap in our knowledge of the stage\nwhen youth begins to lose liability for infantile diseases without having\nacquired full liability for those of maturity. Thus it happens that, according to the conceptions of Marro and Wille, puberty gives a special\ncharacter to all its diseases. Kraepelrn, who has best studied such cases,\nwhile discriminating three different forms, each with almost innumerable\nsymptoms, lays chief stress on the mode of termination, which is likely to\nbe dementia. I suggest it is an error to base a scientific term upon a\nmost frequent outcome of a disease, for by this principle general paralysis might be termed thanatic decay, because so likely to end in death.\nA negative principle is like Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious —\nidentifying things by darkening all distinctions. What we chiefly want\nare detailed paradigms of premature decay. Another error of Kraepelin's\nis that, baffled in his efforts to find cause and first stages of genesis, or to\nfind the pathology of brain lesion, he has recourse to the desperate\nhypothesis of a toxic agent, altho this is utterly undemonstrable.\nAdolescence is a period of change, when the soul is everything by\nturns and nothing long.\nIt explores the whole gamut of feeling, will,\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSVCHiC\n\nARREST\n\nIN ADOLESCENCE\n\nS1 3\n\nand thought. There are spells of almost invincible laziness, both of\nmind and body, and restlessness and mobility and utter silliness, verbigeration, idiotic nonsense, imitativeness, suggestion, and also morbid\nobstinacy and sympathy. Supersensitiveness is succeeded by carelessness; excessive conscientiousness, by immorality. But when any of these\nbecome fixed or stereotyped or excessive, so that plans, harmony, and\nunity are upset, we have the salient symptoms of morbid arrest.\nThe practical suggestions are: (i) To make the school interesting,\nvital rather than mechanical ; to exercise all the powers rather than memory alone ; to avoid strain and overwork. These can only mitigate, because\nsuch degenerations are not largely traceable to school. (2) We need\nschools for dullards or slow children, both for their own sake and to\nrelieve the school of the great strain of carrying the lower tenth or twentieth of the class, so that teachers may give their attention to the average\nof ability in their rooms, rather than to the average child, and work for\nthe upper half fully as much as for the lower. (3) These cases immensely\nreinforce all arguments for individual study and care, especially in the\nupper grammar and high-school courses. There should be in every high\nschool someone familiar with the literature and symptoms of arrest, in\norder that by counsel, conference with parents, and resourceful advice,\nprevention may be secured. (4) Altho here I speak with deference to\nspecial authority, it seems to me, from considerable recent hospital observation of these cases, that many of them would be greatly improved, and\ntheir chances for amelioration increased, if there could be special institutions for them.\nDISCUSSION\nAdolf Meyer, M. D., director of New York Pathological Institute, Ward's Island,\nNew York, N. Y. — A short time ago I was asked by a former dean of a prominent\nAmerican college whether I did not think that alcohol had a good role in mankind in\nweeding out those who are not able to face the conditions of the world. In the same way\none might ask whether what Dr. Hall has so graphically pictured to us is not nature's\nway of weeding out the unfit.\nFor a teacher and a physician this attitude would never do. Our working hypothesis\nmust imply positive and inspiring activity. The progress in psychiatry during the last\ndecade has clearly shown that what we need is to turn from generalizing attitudes to a\nconcientious observation and careful valuation of actual facts, to definite chains of causation, if we wish to learn something. General paresis, a disease much dreaded and\ncarrying off up to 14 per cent, of the men admitted to the hospitals for the insane, is now\nfairly definitely traced to infection which may be avoided by the individual, whereas, to\nthis day, a great part of the profession and public opinion believe it to be the consequence of overwork and of city life. Over such generalities, the only chance to prevent\nthis disease is obscured. Similar efforts to reduce the generalities like \"overwork,\"\n\"stress,\" and \"poor make-up\" to definite c^ual factors must be our aim in the other\nforms, as far as this is possible.\nDr. Hall has outlined a topic of much concern to us all, and it will become more\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "S/4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIA'IJON\n\n[U.iid Su.dy\n\nand more important in a measure as we shall be put under the moral obligation of prevention.\nAs an alienist, I divide the arrest of development during adolescence into forms of\nimbecility and constitutional inferiority, and into actual disorders of adolescence. Constitutional inferiority represents the persistence or cropping out of signs of defect in\none of the many directions of human development, as evidence of poor endowment, or of\nscars produced by disease or mismanagement in early childhood. In a large number we\nare unable as yet to describe the conditions which might figure as real causes ; at the same\ntime, we know the difficulty in influencing these defects.\nWhat concerns us much more is the second group, which seems to develop from\nadolescence itself, from conditions which are still open to influence. Even here part of\nthe trouble is, as it were, a simple perversion or stunting of growth of essential components of our personality. But quite a few causes seem to be avoidable, which we can\ndo something to forestall.\nBefore all you must free yourselves of the idea that insanity is something utterly different from simple nervousness, lack of balance, and so-called nervous breakdown.\nSome forms of insanity may appear as if a poison, such as alcohol, or other direct damages of the brain, brought in foreign elements ; but the types of adolescent deterioration\ncan very largely be traced to disharmonies of thought, of habits, and of interests which\nbring about a stunting in one direction or another. It is true that, during the disease, peculiar physical changes take place in the circulation, and in striking variations\nof weight, which has called for the theory of Kraepelin that we deal with a disease of\nmetabolism. Unfortunately, physicians are rarely in a position really to study the candidates of deterioration during the relatively healthy days. We see them when the foundation of the peculiar, fantastically religious, mystical, or hypochondriacal or fretful interpretations orimaginations is already in the foreground and has roused the fears of the\nfamily. I read out of the accounts of the friends many of the traits which have been\ninsisted upon as marking the final outcome of the deterioration — a dilapidation of\ninterests, erratic attention, social indifference. Before all I miss a sense for actuality, a\nliving with life as it is and an enjoying the opportunities that are within reach. Where\nflights of thought rise above indifference in such individuals, they naturally suffer from\nnot being adapted to actuality. In the ambitious we see the features of daydream rather\nthan of strength. Virtue and social emotions remain abstract and in exalted words.\nMany of these weaklings become conscious of the contrast between their words and their\nnature. They become self-conscious, suspicious of being discovered, and drift into solitude. Abnormal hankerings fail to be cowected there by a healthy spirit of social and\nother activity ; the touch with actuality is lost more and more, and over a shock or some\ndisappointment, or a setback in general health, the poor frame of judgment gives way,\nand the person loses balance. The eagerness with which hypnotism, mesmerism, mystic\npowers, and the unreal are elaborated into delusions and depended upon for explanation\nof the peculiar sensations connected with disordered circulation, nervous heart, the nervous excitability shown by increased reflexes, feelings of uneasiness and anxiety, and\nunusual intestinal and sexual sensations, seems to me to show the great danger of all halfunderstood things which are not brought to the test of actuality. An aversion to actuality\nseems to lie in the trend of much modern teaching.\nThe emphasis of nature study does perhaps much to bring a healthy turn into education. But we need more ; we need greater wholesomeness in the training for human\nrelations and aspirations ; a better knowledge of what is likely to rouse a sound interest\neven in those who are naturally careless and indifferent, and otherwise tickled merely by\nthe sensational or by what gratifies crude emotions ; we need a preparation for actual life,\nnot for dream existence. What is called \" new thought,\" tho to a large extent a mere\nrevival of the food for the eternal gullible, may do much good where it incidentally\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHIC\n\nARREST\n\nIN ADOLESCENCE\n\n815\n\nencourages healthy instinct. But it is like strong wine — a questionable article of food,\nsometimes a useful drug, but really unfitting one for a good digestion and assimilation of\nwhat makes man the master of nature. Too many suffer from the effects of intoxication\nor the untimely use of these mental stimulants.\nThe greatest stumbling-block is undoubtedly that which stands in the way of the\ndevelopment of sexual maturity in that broad and lofty sense of becoming the originators\nof a better race. That which in actuality is the center of the highest altruistic possibilities of mankind is allowed to be a social playground of chance, fed by dime novels and\nliterature of doubtful adventures; fashions in dress and in social customs usher the young\nprecociously into a world in which even too many adults fail. Abnormal responses lead\nto abnormal seclusiveness, and quack literature nurtures a fear and hopelessness, and\nfrequently wrecks the chances of a timely reconstruction.\nDon't let us say that this is merely one of nature's methods of weeding out the unfit.\nAmong the twenty-five thousand persons who are today in the public and private institutions of New York state alone, there are many brilliant hopes buried, largely owing to a\nlack of knowledge of what some people need in the way of social and personal hygiene.\nRemember that some of the most illustrious members of the race have been dangerously\nnear the borderland of insanity, and altho they seem to have been great, they showed\nobvious traces of the same misled instincts that have completely wrecked others. Are\nsuch people not worth our help ? Should not the home, the press, and the school know\nthese dangers, and shape their ethics and methods accordingly ?\nThis is the practical lesson to be drawn from the theory of degeneracy which is\nspread into immature minds as a doctrine of fatalism, so that even high-school pupils\nexcuse themselves in some such way as : \"I can't help this. It is heredity in the family.\"\nPart of this may be sadly true. But it is the duty of pedagogy and of psychiatry to distinguish what is to be accepted as inevitable from what is open to correction. We have\nfaith in gymnastics for the correction of physical defects. Let us devise more efficient\ngymnastics which lead us heartily to enjoy actuality, instinctively to shrink from\nanti-social ideals and aimless fictions, and to get time for an unsophisticated growth.\nFor this I believe with Dr. Hall that we need special provisions, and perhaps even special institutions. It will be necessary to select teachers with especial care, to frame the\ncourse as a training in life-habits rather than in schooling as ordinarily understood. We\nmust keep these classes as free from a stigma as possible.\nGeorge E. Dawson, professor of psychology, Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy.— As may be inferred from President Hall's suggestive paper, the possibilities of\npsychic arrest are doubtless as numerous as are the possibilities of growth. Of all these\npossibilities, however, the average teacher is in a position to note only the more general\nand obvious.\nTypical of such, according to my own experience, are the following :\n1. More or less general arrest. Here belong the listless, apathetic, indifferent, dull\nstudents. The causes producing this are often beyond the reach of the ordinary schoolroom. Maladjustment of the student to his work, intellectual confusion, emotional waste\ndue to worry, and excessive fatigue are often involved, however. These it is within the\npower of the teacher to remove.\n2. Arrest in the power of mentation. This is characterized by vagueness of expression, diffuseness and incoherence of ideas, impracticable and visionary notions. The\nprincipal cause is our excessively symbolic education, by which the student gets the symbols of thought faster than he gets the experience to render these symbols intelligible to\nhim. The remedy is more natural science, more manual activity, more contact with real\nthings.\n3. Arrest in the feelings relating to self. This takes two forms — exaggerated selfregard and exaggerated self-depreciation. Tne symptoms of the former are self-conceit,\nboastfulness, contentiousness, etc. ; and of the latter, self-distrust, shrinking from diffi-\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nculties, oversensitiveness, and suspicion. The cause is often excessive emulation, the\nmarking system, class honors, etc., and wrongly assigned tasks, discouragement, harshness, and general selfishness in the teacher. The school should neither stimulate nor\nwound the student's pride unduly.\nIt is the very center of the soul's gravity.\n4. Sexual arrest. The normal maturing of the sexual life in adolescence is one of\nthe principal objects of nature. The ideas and feelings relating to the opposite sex\nexpress this development on the psychical side. Precocious functioning of the sexual life,\nphysically, produces arrest in body-growth. There is just as much reason to suppose that\nprecocious functioning of the sexual life, psychically, produces arrest of the soul. The\nsocial environment of school life, example and precept of teachers, and subject-matter of\neducation should combine to prolong the ripening process of sexual adolescence.\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 8, 1903\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 A. M., by the president, Dr. William O.\nKrohn, Chicago, 111.\nSome announcements of receptions and excursions to be given in the interests of the\ndepartment were made. Then followed the president's address, upon \" Physical Education and Brain-Building.\"\nThe next speaker in order was Dr. E. W. Lyttle, inspector of schools, University of\nthe State of New York, Albany, N. Y., who addressed the meeting upon \" The Place of\nPhysical Education in the Curriculum — Should it Be Fundamental or Incidental ? \"\nFollowing was a symposium : \" How to Improve Public-School Gymnastics.\" The\nspeakers who took part were : Miss A. C. Skeele, of the State Normal School, North\nAdams, Mass.; Miss Edith Maclure Love, director of woman's gymnasium. State Normal\nSchool, Terre Haute, Ind.; Miss Mabel L. Pray, director of physical training, public\nschools, Toledo, O.; and Miss Nina B. Lamkin, of the Jewish Training School, Chicago, 111.\nA committee on nominations was appointed as follows :\nMiss Mabel L. Pray, Toledo, O.\nMiss Edith M. Love, Terre Haute, Ind.\nE. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned to meet at 2 : 30 P. M., in Mechanics Hall, where an\nexhibition of Swedish gymnastics was given.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 10\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 : 30 A. M., by the president, who spoke on behalf\nof the department, expressing thanks for, and the highest appreciation of, the sincere\ncourtesy, warm cordiality, and hospitality on the part of local support and management.\nThe following report of the Committee on Resolutions regarding the future policy or\naims of the department was read and adopted :\nResolved, That the president of the Department of Physical Education be empowered to appoint the\nfollowing committees to report at the next annual meeting, or as soon thereafter as possible:\n1. A committee of physicians to report on the proper scope and the value of medical inspection in\npublic schools.\n2. A committee to ascertain what is being done in cities of 20,000 inhabitants and over to provide\nsystematic physical training for public-school children.\n3. A committee to formulate plans by which physical training in our schools may be increased and\nmade more productive of tangible results.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations of officers for the ensuing year was\nsubmitted.\nThe following officers were elected :\nPresident— V^'-ikVxzxa. O. Krohn, Chicago, 111.\nFirst Vice-President — Thomas D. Wood, Columbia University, New York city.\nSecond Vice-President — Miss Rebecca Stoneroad,817\nWashington, D. C.\nSecretary — Baroness Rose Posse, Boston, Mass.\n\nThe program was opened with a paper upon \" Tests of Efficiency of a Normal School\nof Gymnastics,\" by Baroness Rose Posse, director of the Posse Gymnasium, Boston,\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "8 I8\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSGCIA TION\n\n\\ Physical\n\nMass. The discussion was led by Dr. Walter Channing, Michael Anagnos, and Dr.\nElizabeth T. Gray.\nDr. William G. Anderson, of Yale University, read a paper upon \" Physical Training\nfor the Mass of Students,\" and Dr. F. N. Whittier, of Bowdoin College, followed upon\nthe same subject. The discussion was led by John R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\nDr. Thomas D. Wood, of Columbia University, followed with a brief paper upon\n\" How to Improve Public-School Gymnastics.\"\nDr. E. H. Arnold, director of the Normal School of Gymnastics, New Haven, Conn.,\nclosed the program with an address on the subjecjt of \" The Relation of Physical Training\nto Other Studies.\"\nThe minutes of the two sessions were read and approved, and the meeting adjourned.\nAlta Wiggins, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nPHYSICAL\nWILLIAM\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nO. KROHN,\n\nPRESIDENT\nTRAINING,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nAND\nOF THE\nCHICAGO,\n\nBRAIN-BUILDING\nDEPARTMENT\nILL.\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nIt is only within the latter days of research and investigation that we\nhave come to know anything of real scientific value concerning the special\npeculiarities of the nervous system of infancy and childhood, more particularly ofthe brain. In fact, it is only within the last decade that educators have come to a full realization that children are not little men and\nwomen, but that children are children. It has been a hard task to make\neven some of the most devoted teachers in Uncle Sam's great national\nschoolhouse believe that child-life is not simply a vest-pocket edition of\nadult life ; that children are not the same in kind as regards action, mental, moral, and physical ; that children do differ from adults in kind as\nwell as extent and degree of capacity. Modern child study of the saner\nsort, and that best of all the true specialties in medicine, pediatrics, have\naccomplished much in leading us to know the functional as well as the\nstructural peculiarities of the child.\nWhile as yet our knowledge is of necessity immature, still there are\nsome things that we know positively and with definiteness along the lineof the nature of the child's nervous system. What value has this knowledge for us who are engaged in the study of physical training with a view\nof determining the function of our great branch of educational work in\ndeveloping the nervous system of the child and in building his brain ?\nThe purpose of this paper is to sketch in outline the modus operandi by\nwhich physical training can perform its perfect work in the building of\nthe brain.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\nI.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nBRAIN\n\nTHE BRAIN AT BIRTH AND DURING\n\nBUILDING\n\nEARLY\n\nB 19\n\nCHILDHOOD\n\nAt birth the brain is the most immature of all the great organs of\nthe human body. This is in large part due to the fact that the brain\nof the child has had little or nothing to do during the pre-natal period ;\nfor we know that the child at birth has already exercised but two of his\nfourteen or fifteen senses, viz., touch and temperature. While we are\nwont to say from the point of view of the lungs that the bird is the best\nanimal, and from the point of view of the liver that the lion is the best,\nare we warranted in saying from the point of view of the brain that man\nis the best animal, especially during the years of infancy and early childhood ?\nFrom birth to seven or seven and one-half years of age the brain\ndevelops enormously in weight, in function, and in complexity of structure. As any other organ, it increases and develops thru use ; it atrophies\nand dies thru disuse. Puring the first seven years of child-life the senses\nare most keenly alive and are most active in response to impressions. As\na result of the wonderful activity of the senses in carrying impressions to\nthe brain, thereby inducing the brain to respond almost constantly, the\nbrain develops; its cells enlarge (especially the large pyramidal cells in\nthe gray cortex) ; the fibers of association increase in complexity and\nextent — the brain grows. It grows because of the nutrition the body\nreceives. It also grows because of the uses to which it is put. It would\ndie in one or all of its parts from disuse, and it suffers most keenly of all\nthe organs from malnutrition.\nAt seven and one-half years of age, when the child has been but little\nover a year in the schools, his brain has attained more than 90 per cent,\nof its maximum weight (our authorities on this point are Vierordt, Donaldson, and Boyd). After this, the brain increases slowly in weight until\nabout the age of eighteen, when the maximum weight has been attained.\nIncrease of function does not keep abreast with increase in weight, for\nthe brain of the child of eight is practically as large — as heavy — as the\nbrain of the adult.\nOr, as Clouston puts it :\nThe difference between what the brain of a child of eight and the brain of a man of\ntwenty-five can do and can resist is quite indescribable. The organ at these two periods\nmight belong to two different species of animals, so far as its essential qualities go. The\nunique fact about the nerve-cell is the extreme slowness with which it develops function\nafter its full bulk has been attained. In this it differs from any and every other tissue.\nWe may say that after most of the nerve-cells of the brain have attained their proper\nshape and full size, it takes them the enormous time of eighteen or nineteen years to\nattain such functional perfection as they are to arrive at.\n\nWhat, then, are some of the characteristics of the nervous system,\nespecially the brain of the child ?\n•\nI. At birth the nervous system is structurally immature, more especially itis functionally immature.\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\n2. Thruout infancy and the earlier years of childhood the nervous\nsystem, and more especially the brain, undergoes very rapid structural\ndevelopment.\n3. Thruout the entire period of clvildhood and youth the normal\nbrain undergoes very rapid functional development.\n4. We have learned that the structural instability of the immature\nnerve-cell and the more immature brain-cell of the child makes it more\nirritable and excitable, and more responsive to stimuli, than the stable,\nmature nerve-cell of the adult.\nIt is necessary just here to remind ourselves of the threefold function\nof the nerve-cell. Nerve-cells exist for three distinct purposes ; viz., to\ngenerate, to discharge, and to inhibit energy. In any survey of the\ngeneral scheme of growth we are soon made to see that, of all cells in the\nbody, the cell that develops the higher forms of nervous energy and\nconstitutes the basis of mental activity is the cell that is the slowest in\nreaching the perfection of function for which it is destined. In other\nwords, the group of nerve-cells most intimately linked and associated\nwith the higher forms of mental activity are the last to generate energy\n— the last to develop. If these cells remain immature, we have a child\nwith arrested mental development, or imbecility.\nII.\n\nGROWTH\n\nAND\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBRAIN\n\nThere are two great forces that make for the growth and development\nof the human brain : first, the brain grows and develops in structure thru\nproper nutrition ; second, the brain grows and develops functionally thru\nproper methods of education.\nWith reference to the necessity for proper nutrition of the brain I\nneed only to remind you of some of the nervous diseases that are caused\nby malnutrition. There are, as you know, distinct types of nervous diseases that are occasioned by partial starvation and partial starvation only.\nThe disease of rickets in children is occasioned solely by lack of sufficient\nfat in the food of the child ; it is a malnutrition disease due to fat starvation. There are also nervous diseases occasioned by carbo-hydrate starvation; that is, due to the lack of sufficient food of the carbo-hydrate\ngroup. Likewise there are nervous diseases due to lack of lime salts and\nlack of acids, such as the fruit juices.\nThat the brain more especially suffers from insufficient food, from\nimpoverished blood, is due to the fact that, while the brain weighs but\none forty-fifth of the rest of the body, it utilizes for the nutrition of its\ncells one-eighth of the total blood supply ; consequently the effects of\nmalnutrition, of fatigue, of excitement, of worry, are shown first in the\nbrain and its activities. We need only to note the anaemic headache —\nthat dull, heavy headache at the top of the head which is always\noccasioned by poor blood supply.\nWe are often reminded of the great\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nBRAIN\n\nBUILDING\n\n821\n\nachievements that have been wrought by students who have lived upon\npoor food ; many are the fairy-tales related of the inventors, poets, and\nstatesmen who won their way to success on a diet of cold potatoes in a\ngarret. But have you ever stopped to consider what these self-same men\ncould have accomplished had they been favored by a more nutritious diet\nof porterhouse steak ? It is practically a truism that if a person lives on\na skimmed-milk diet, he will think skimmed-milk thoughts; if he live\nupon a more nutritious diet, he will be capable of greater and clearer\nbrain effort.\nBut it is not within the province of this paper to discuss in more than\nan incidental way the problems of nutritiori. Our chief purpose is to\npresent the function of education in building the brain. Of the three\nfunctions of the nerve-cell — generation, discharge, and inhibition of\nnervous energy — I think none is more significant for the teacher than\ninhibition. The child is at birth a mere bundle of impulses. His first\nactivities are in no sense voluntary. They are simply the results of an\noverplus of nervous energy.\nIn the newborn child, as in the newborn animal, the impulsive movements embrace all these spontaneous kickings, rollings, lip-suckings,\ncooings, jerkings of the head and arms, as well as the comical grimaces,\nall of which are such a paramount feature of the early weeks of infant\nlife. The little fists are tightly clinched, the arms are continually performing wild gyrations, the hands are moved toward and from the face,\ntoward and from each other, without being prompted by any definite\npurpose ; in fact, nearly every muscle of the body is called into activity\nwithout the presence of any sort of external stimulus.\nMost of the impulsive movements, indeed nearly all of them, disappear bythe end of the child's second year, tho some of them, like\nyawning or gaping, persist thru life. Seemingly many of the impulsive\nmovements are unexpected by the child itself. He cannot understand\ntheir purport, and his surprise at some of them is quite marked and\nnotable.\nImpulsive movements are given such free play in childhood because\nof the feeble powers of inhibition that characterize the nervous system of\nthe young being. Education seeks to develop those inhibitory centers\nin a measure; i. e., it seeks to cultivate self-control and self-direction ; in\nother words, education seeks to develop the animal child into a personality.\nThe inhibitory function of the nerve-cell is the last to be developed;\nthe economy of growth is such that the cell first learns to generate\nenergy, then to discharge energy, and lastly it acquires the function of\nco-ordinating and inhibiting energy. And this is the order in which the\nfunctions are needed. No occasion arises for discharging energy until it\nis first generated, and no occasion can be conceived for the exercise of\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "82 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthe co-ordinating and inhibiting function until the capacity to discharge\nenergy has arisen. All authorities agree that feeble inhibition is one of\nthe chief physiological characteristics of the immature nervous system of\nearly childhood, and is really the most frequent factor in the rise and\noccasion of nervous diseases in children.\nIII.\n\nSPECIAL\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nBUILDING\n\nTHE\n\nBRAIN\n\nI have spoken of the development of inhibition of the nerve-cell as\none of the chief purposes of education. Every educational fact and every\neducational force must contribute to the development of this higher function of the nerve-cell. By inhibition of course we mean inhibition in\nthe broader sense. It includes all that is meant under the terms \"selfcontrol \" and \" self-direction of energy.\" Just here is the peculiar province\nof physical training. There is nothing so important, nothing so significant, nothing so vital in the whole scheme of education as the development of the proper self-control, self-direction, and co-ordination of\nmuscular activity. Our whole purpose in our work is to make the child's\norganism intelligent in its every activity. It is necessary only to indicate\nthat physical training accomplishes, more than any other educational\nforce, the desired ends in this direction. No matter to what school of\nphysical education we belong, our own common purpose and aim is so to\nfit, so to adjust, so to train the body of the child that it will obey every\nbehest of the will. If a definite movement is willed, the trained organism\nmust execute it. If refraining from certain movements is decreed, then\nthe trained organism must and does obey the behest of will. Thru physical training of the right sort — and physical training only — it is possible\nfor the child in his education to gain absolute control of his muscular\nsystem and organize a perfect muscle economy. The result of this systematic training of the body is a well-ordered, well-balanced brain-life.\nI cannot refrain from making a statement here that I have made on\ntwo former occasions before this department : that I have never seen, in\nall my experience and observation, a single case of brain disorderliness,\nof brain slovenliness, that was not benefited by physical training. I need\ngive but one example : Many of you recall the epidemic of chorea that\noccurred in the Volkschule in Vienna some years ago. The mimetic\nmovements, the jerkings and twitchings, absolutely destroyed every effort\nof the teacher at orderly, systematic work. Practically every child of\nthe school was affected with choreiform movements. This epidemic\nwas overcome ; every child was completely cured by special work in\nphysical training. The brain slovenliness and brain disorderliness were\neradicated.\nFurther, we must remember that at birth the child possesses all the\nbrain-cells it will ever have. Brain-cells do not proliferate after birth.\nIf they are not exercised, they entirely drop out of existence, they die.\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n823\n\nThe problem before us is to educate the entire brain of the child — it is\ngiven him for that purpose. We can give him this complete education\nonly when we approach him thru every one of the avenues of sense and\neducate him into a wide range of motor activity. Life is growth. A\nbrain-cell that does not grow is dead. A brain-cell cannot grow save\nthru exercise and use. All the brain-cells can be made to grow only\nwhen the school and home environments of the child are such as to appeal\nin every possible way and with sufficient energy to arouse the child's\nmany-sided activity. If a certain group of nerve-cells is uneducated, is\nallowed to die, then the child becomes mentally and nervously abnormal\nin just so far. Brain disorderliness is due more to one-sidedness of\nmethods of education than to any other possible cause. This disorderliness, Irepeat, can best be overcome by well-adapted, properly adjusted\nphysical exercises.\nOf course, as teachers of physical training we must acquaint ourselves\nwith some of the abnormal nerve signs. We must know what it means to\nsee the child with bagginess of the under lids of the eye ; we must be\nenabled to interpret the significance of that condition in the child in\nwhich he moves his eyes without moving the head ; we must know clearly\nthe significance of the slouching gait, weak hand balance, and slovenly\nposture. All these are abnormal nerve signs that furnish us clues for our\nbest and most successful lines of work in the great department of physical\neducation. Mental poise cannot exist without perfect physical poise. By\ncontinual watchful care, by arduous endeavor in dealing with the children\nunder your tutelage, you will be able to develop a physical poise and\nphysical orderliness of activity that cannot but redound to the highest\nform of orderly brain development, that cannot help but result in developing the raw material, the untutored child placed in our care at the\nbeginning of school life into that highest type of citizenship, best mentally, best morally, because best physically. And it is this ideal citizenship that we set up as the goal of the educational process in all our\nAmerican schools.\n\nPLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CURRICULUM^\nSHOULD IT BE FUNDAMENTAL OR INCIDENTAL ?\nE. W. LYTTLE,\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\nYORK,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nALBANY,\n\nOF THE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF NEW\n\nN. Y.\n\nIt is not necessary to prove that the place which physical education now holds in the school curriculum is incidental ; but two facts\nserve to show how very incidental to* educational thought and practice\nis the notion that education should concern itself largely with physical\ndevelopment.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "82 4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\n1. The National Bureau of Education, in reporting the number of\nstudents in secondary schools receiving instruction in various subjects,\nmakes no report whatever in regard to physical training.\n2. An exhaustive search made in 1901, with the able assistance of Mr.\nFrank C. Hoffman, statistician of the Prudential Insurance Co. of Newark,\nN. J., failed to reveal that any school or system of schools in the world\nkept records of the morbidity and mortality of the children instructed.\nIf so small attention is given to hygienic environment, to what may be\ntermed the negative side of physical development, it is hardly possible\nthat the positive side receives much careful consideration.\nBriefly, what consideration does physical education receive in our\nschools; and what consideration should it receive?\nIn nearly all colleges, and in the better class of private schools, some\nprovision has been made for systematic physical training ; but generally\nthis provision has been forced upon the colleges and schools by an outside demand, and has not come as a result of internal growth. Even in\nthe colleges it is more common to find physical education intrusted to a\nwell-known athlete than to a cultured physician. In fact, physicians with\nthe needed athletic training are not easily obtained. In a few of our\nhigh schools there is a gymnasium, and in but a few of these schools is\nfound a trained instructor. Nearly all our high schools have football\nand baseball teams, which at least serve the end that they encourage —\nvigorous lung exercise on the part of the student body. The grammar\nschools and primary schools in nearly all our large towns and cities have\ncalisthenics; let us not forget that, and let us be grateful for what we have.\nBut^ seriously, we might as well try to feed a boy on charlotte russe as to\nprovide proper physical education from calisthenics. What are calisthenics compared with the wild scrimmage of the football game; with\nthe ability to pitch an outcurve, an incurve, a drop, or an upshoot ; with the\nfree chase of hare and hounds ? Certainly there is no objection to calisthenics in,moderation, or to calisthenics as an introduction to better\nthings; but why stop with calisthenics when the boy wishes to swim, to\nrun, to jump, to wrestle, to box, to fence, to handle a gun, to make tools,\nto use tools? If education is development, not cram; unfolding, not\nmolding; expansion, not repression, then should educational systems\nhave regard for all the natur:;l activities of youth. If it be urged that\ngreat attention to physical development degrades education, makes it\nmaterialistic, exalts the physical at the expense of the mental and spiritual, the contention is not sound. The end or purpose of education,\nnot its methods, is what gives it character. If the end be materialistic, if\neducational purpose stops with the development of a physically perfect\nman, then only is education degraded; but if the end soug^ht is complete\nmanhood, a body that shall be the obedient servant of a cultured mind,\nthen the highest educational ideals are in no way violated.\nThe end of\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\n825\n\nthe sowing is the harvest of ripened grain, but the first care of the farmer\nmust be healthy root-growth.\nIt is said that the school, especially the public school, should not\nattempt a complete education; that it should have regard only to the\nmental development of the child ; that it should leave to the home and to\nchance the physical side of child-growth. This is exactly what our\nschools have been doing, and with what results ? The weakest schools\nhave been furnishing the world with a large proportion of its strongest\nmen. Seek out the leaders in business, finance, and professional life in\nour large cities, and find where they received their elementary education.\nWas it not for the most part in the district or small village school, taught\nby poorly paid and poorly trained teachers, kept open for hardly half the\nyear?\nThe very arguments used against a generous provision for physical\ntraining in the public schools have been used again and again against all\nfree public education and against every proposed educational extension\nand improvement.\nThose who especially have in charge physical education should make\na bold claim ; they should assert that their special work is in point of\ntime the most fundamental, and that in the primary, intermediate, and\nsecondary departments of education there should be graded courses of\nphysical training; and the younger the child, the greater should be\nthe emphasis placed on the training of the body. In primary and intermediate schools the teachers of physical and manual training at least\nshould be as numerous as the teachers of the three R's. That early physical training should be for muscular ease, grace, and rhythm, rather than\nfor strength, also for correcting asymmetrical growth in special cases,\nseems to be demanded by the nature of childhood ; also that in all grades\nthere should be generous provision for playgrounds and for outdoor\nsports. There is every reason why the school playground should be as\nconstantly occupied during school hours as the recitation rooms. As soon\nas the physique of the child will warrant ordinary youthful sports, baseball, football, swimming, running, jumping should find a place in the\neducational program. In the period of high-school life the gymnasium\nmay be used more and the employment of the more comple:^ tools encouraged. At this time also military drill may be very properly introduced,\nespecially in a land where every citizen should regard himself as in some\nsense a soldier. At the age of eighteen or nineteen, after graduating\nfrom the high school, the youth should know whether he really wishes to\ngo to college, there to engage in four years of intellectual effort, with\nphysical exercise used as a rational recreation, or prefers the life of a\nprofessional baseball or football playeft He ought to be saved from the\nmistake too often made of matriculating at college for the purpose of\nbecoming an athlete.\nHe usually would be saved from this mistake, had\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nhis early physical education been of the proper sort, and did physical\neducation hold a proper and rational place in the curriculum. The\nrepression of physical development in the grammar and high school\neither drives the boys from school or encourages undue attention to physical education in college. By trying to make the child fit the curriculum,\ninstead of making a curriculum to fit the child, do we not sometimes produce childishness in those who should be men?\nHe who proposes a revolution must give sound reasons. Can any\nreasons be found that would justify such radical changes in the curriculum\nas those proposed? The high average of Athenian culture in the Periclean age has always called forth most praise from those who knew it best.\nThat culture was in part the result of an education as largely physical\nas it was intellectual.\nUp to the time of the empire Rome had no school system. Cicero in\nDe Republica says : \" Our ancesters did not wish that children should be\neducated by fixed rules, determined by laws publicly promulgated and\nmade uniform for all.\" The education that made the early Romans\ngreat was evidently not gained from schools, but from family training\nwhich concerned itself almost wholly with physical and moral culture;\nwhile the education of the later Romans, like the Roman literature, was\nborrowed from the Greeks. As Roman education came to be neglected\nin the family and intrusted more to the school, as the Roman citizen felt\nless the need of military training because barbarians could be hired to do\nthe fighting, physical education was not transferred from the home to the\nschool, but was neglected. Was this neglect of the physical side of education in any way responsible for the division of the Roman empire by\nthose Teutonic races whose physique the Roman Tacitus so highly praised?\nThe question at least seems a fair one.\nIn hatred of the pagan world the early Christians renounced much of\neducational value. In preparing for death, they neglected to learn how\nto live. The body was regarded as an enemy to be subdued ; therefore\nphysical education was neglected by the church. Fortunately for education as a whole, fortunately for race-development, unsettled social conditions made military training a necessity. But mediaeval education divides\nitself into physical, intellectual, and manual ; the school of the cloister,\nthe school of the camp, and the school of the guild ; and not even\nthe statesmanship of a Charlemagne or of an Alfred was able to effect\nany kind of a fusion, tho the Benedictine monks in a large degree did\nrecognize the importance of manual training. Of course, we may not say\nthat the dark ages resulted from this division of educational aims, but we\nmay clearly see that much confusion and conflict resulted from it, and that\nGermany and Italy were kept in ferment and discussion until the present\ncentury by misunderstandings between church and state. And it was not\nuntil the student sometime turned warrior and the warriors began to turn\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nIN\n\nCURRICUL\n\nUM\n\n827\n\nstudents that Europe woke from the lethargy of barbarism and entered\ninto the educational heritage bequeathed by Greece and Rome.\nLooking now to modern educational practice, these facts seem patent :\nThe men who have made England great have generally been educated in\nthe great public schools, like Eton, Harrow, and Rugby, where field sports\nreceive much attention. It is true that these sports are not provided for\nin the curriculum, but are left largely in the hands of the boys ; but it is\nnone the less true that outdoor play constitutes a real and no small part\nof the boy's education. Unfortunately, the education that has made great\nEnglishmen is not making England great, because it is the education of\nthe few. According to Mr. George F. Shea, in the Nineteenth Century,\n\" 76 per cent, of England's population is urban, with the consequence\nthat the healthy outdoor recreations which invigorated the country-bred\nrace of the past are largely replaced by the unnatural, and in part vicious,\npleasures afforded to tha tired worker in our big cities.\" These are some\nof the results: Out of 11,000 men presenting themselves for military\nservice in Manchester in 1889, 8,000 had to be rejected, and of the remaining 3,000 only 1,000 could be put into the regular army. In 1845 ^^e\nstandard of height in the British army was five feet six inches; in 1872 it\nwas one inch less; in 1883, three inches less; and in 1901 permission\nwas given to enlist men as low as five feet. In 187 1 out of 1,000\nrecruits enlisted 159 weighed only 120 pounds, but in 1900 the proportionate number was 301. That the British army falls far behind the German in health and stamina is shown by the circumstance that the\nconstantly non-effective thru illness are over four times more numerous\nin the British army, and the death-rate nearly four times as great. In\nGermany, where universal military service has been longest in force,\nphysique has been improving, as is seen by the following facts : Tho the\nstandards have remained unchanged, the rejections of recruits for physical reasons diminished in nine years, from 1878 to 1887, nearly 50 per\ncent. Other countries — Austria, France, and Italy — that have adopted\nmilitary systems show like improvement in the general health and\nphysique of enlisted men.\nUniversal military drill and military service may or may not be\ndesirable, but such facts as those presented argue forcibly for universal\nphysical education.\nBut statistics of the school as well as of the army tell the same story.\nIn the Education Report of the National Bureau for 1 899-1900, p. 1444,\nwe find the following statements from Dr. Schmidt Mounard, of Leipzig,\nwho bases his statements on several years of careful investigation :\nDuring the first school year the average cl^jld gains only two and a half pounds in\nweight, instead of four pounds as heretofore, and increases only five centimeters in height,\ninstead of seven\nChildreti who do not go to school until they are seven years old\nbecome stronger, and in all other respects are better developed, than those who go to\nschool a year sooner.\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "82 8\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Physical\n\nIn the higher boys' schools, in which the pupils are obliged to practice gymnastic\nexercises, and in which on such occasions no lessons are taught in the afternoon, the\npercentage of sufferers from some ailment varies from 20 to 35, whereas in those schools\nin which there are no compulsory gymnastic exercises, and in which pupils are obliged to\nstudy every afternoon, the percentage is as high as 79.\n\nHOW\nTHOMAS\n\nTO IMPROVE\n\nD. WOOD,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,\nSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVER-\n\nThe conditions which will insure improvement in the gymnastics of\nthe public schools are related in practice, of course, to changes in matter\nand method of gymnastic instruction. Those who discuss this question\nwould find it as difficult perhaps to agree with reference to modifications\nto be made as upon the best usages of the present.\nSchool gymnastics should, if the term may be used in this way, be\nmore phylogenitic in character and progression than they are at present;\ni. e., they should correspond more closely to the motor activities which\nenabled our ancestors, amphibious and. otherwise, from the more remote\ntimes to the more recent, to live successfully. The study of organic\nevolution, and of the life-history and motor habits of animals and men at\ndifferent stages of development, will give the clue to the types and the\nsequence of movements and exercises which are best adapted to the\ndifferent stages of the development of the child.\nClosely related to this are changes that may advantageously come in\nthe subjective attitude and conscious interest in the minds of the pupil\ntoward these forms of neuro-muscular activity. This attitude of mind\ncannot usually be made as fundamental as the movement involved, for\nobvious reasons ; but there may be a certain natural interest in the efforts\nmade, as there is at present in other lines of instruction. The interest\nand enthusiasm (more particularly in the lower school grades) in the study of\nnature, of history, and of primitive life are of immense value in elementary\neducation. The gymnastic work may be to a considerable extent, and\nvery beneficially, correlated with the other subjects where modern and\nvital methods are used.\nAgain, it is desirable that the pupils should have explained to them\nthe purposes of gymnastics and the beneficial results which are sought, in\norder that they may co-operate in all possible ways in the processes of\ntheir own development.\nThere is in gymnastic work and in the general physical education of\nthe pupil a splendid chance for the development of individual initiative,\nself-control, leadership, and other social and moral qualities, for the exercise of which the school too often gives little opportunity of a definite\nkind. These may be provided thru the fullest possible participation by\nthe pupils of different ages in the selection and organization of exercises\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nA NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\n829\n\nand games, and in definite plans of assistance in the conduct of classes.\nThe play of recess periods and the outdoor exercise should be improved for\nthe most part by the wise suggestion of materials, and how they may be\nused without lessening in any way, but rather increasing, the joy in and\nenthusiasm for spontaneous activity. It is desirable for the corrective\nand antidotal effect of gymnastics in the schoolroom, which should not\nonly counteract unhygienic tendencies, but improve the quality of all\nschool work and make for a better economy of time and energy, that a\nfew vigorous setting-up exercises, with deep-breathing movements, should\nbe^iven several times a day between class periods, and especially after\nwork which has required close, sustained attention, muscular inaction, and\ncramped positions of the body.\nMore important even for the improvement of gymnastics in the schools\nare the better preparation and training of the general and special teachers\nwho give the instruction in this line. It is essential that the general grade\nteachers, who must give most of the gymnastic instruction in the elementary schools, should understand the larger aspects and relations of physical\neducation and be trained to give the technical instruction adapted to the\nneeds of their pupils. The special teachers and supervisors of physical\neducation must have a background of general and scientific education\nwhich is so important, the technical training and experience which is of\ncourse essential, and a devotion to the professional work and the human\nservice accomplished thru it which will inspire their students and the\nteachers under their supervision to do all which wisdom and judgment\nindicate as worth the doing.\nIt is desirable finally, if the work of physical education is to be effective and is to have the recognition, dignity, and influence which it should\npossess, that this gymnastic training should be made a factor in a larger\ndepartment of education which shall be concerned with all the health\ninterests of school life.\nWe may call this larger field physical education and school hygiene,\nand it should include the investigation of the physical condition and\nneeds of the child, the supervision of the active and passive environment\nof school which so vitally affects health, the direction of the motor activities involved in physical education and the instruction of pupils in health\nand hygiene.\n\nTESTS\n\nOF\n\nBARONESS\n\nTHE\nROSE\n\nEFFICIENCY OF A\nGYMNASTICS\nPOSSE, DIRECTOR\n\nPOSSE\n\nNORMAL\nGYMNASIUM,\n\nSCHOOL\nBOSTON,\n\nOF\n\nMASS.\n\nNormal schools of gymnastics occupy a somewhat unique place, as\nthey are not the outgrowth of any great public movement, nor have they\nbeen established thru municipal action.\nThey have come into existence\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthru the energy of private individuals, or thru the interest and appreciation of a few educators or philanthropists.\nWhen normal schools of gymnastics were first started, the pupils had\nto create positions for themselves. There was practically no demand for\nteachers, and the first students who went out prepared to teach had to\nacquaint educators and the public with the need for their work. Those\npioneer teachers were as brave as they were wise. They had to start their\nown schools and show by their work what they intended to accomplish.\nBut the thing that struggles is the thing that succeeds, and your presence\nhere today attests the vigorous growth of this important branch of education.\nCommissioner Harris has said :\nIn the department of education in the university, the students should be taught\nhow to present a branch of study symbolically, as in the kindergarten ; by typical facts, as\nin the elementary schools ; scientifically, as in the secondary schools ; comparatively, as\nin college ; as a specialist would investigate it in the post-graduate course.\n\nThis very nearly approaches a description of what is done in training\nteachers of gymnastics. The students take a course which corresponds\nto a college course, but they will apply their knowledge in all grades of\nwork, in teaching children, youths, and even elderly men and women.\nHealth is the center of interest, and theory and practice go hand in\nhand.\nTo teach gymnastics according to the best ideas, one must follow very\nclosely the modern methods which obtain in all forms of educational work.\nYet a normal school of gymnastics has a wider field of usefulness than the\nmajority of educational institutions. The subjects taught are not only\ninteresting and valuable in themselves, but they have a more far-reaching\neffect in that they are studied that they may be scientifically applied to the\nmore important subject of physical training. Gymnastic students study\nanatomy, not for its sake alone, but in order to give the proper force and\ndirection to physical exercises. So with physics, which doubles in interest when its principles are illustrated by the operations of the bodily\nmechanism.\nIn a special normal school the subjects are new to the pupil, so that\nhe must be taught both the subject and the method of teaching it. A\nperson frequenting a gymnasium merely for the benefits of exercise will\nsee only the result, and will not note the method by which such result is\nobtained ; whereas the trained gymnast will find an added pleasure in the\nwork because he knows just what he is trying to accomplish.\n* * * *\nPhysical training is a valuable aid in the education of feeble-minded\nor defective children. The muscular exercise trains the motor centers,\nand the sluggish brains develop without any conscious mental efforts on\nthe part of the children themselves.\nWhile this effect has been recognized by educators as an advantage to\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\n831\n\nbe derived from manual training, very little regard has been accorded\nphysical training for its good offices. Someone has said that physical\ntraining today is where general education stood during the Middle Ages.\nIt is certain that modern physiology opens up to physical trainers a vast\nsea of knowledge which has never been sounded or crossed. For instance,\nwe hear that increase in lung dimensions is merely nominal until pubescence. This has been adduced from facts about children who have not\nhad the advantage of physical training. Will these facts remain if we\ngive children between the, ages of five and twelve graded, systematic\n'gymnastics, where every exercise to be correctly executed must be first of\nall a breathing exercise ?\nAgain, the brain reaches its full weight as early as at eight or nine\nyears, and the addition in weight is about nine times as great during the\nfirst four years as during the second four. Suppose we give work to\ndevelop the brain thru muscular activity between the ages of four and\neight, what may be the gain in brain weight as compared with the brain of\na child who has not had scientific exercise ? If by training the hand we\nmay accomplish so much in devejoping brain centers, there certainly\nmust be a general or gross development of the brain if the whole body be\nexercised according to a scientific and definite plan. Suppose we give\ngymnastics to children all thru the nascent periods, putting particular\nemphasis on exercises that tend to develop the qualities supposed to be\ncharacteristic of each period. What will result? It is said that the\ndevelopment of every organ and tissue is of direct significance in the\ndevelopment of the nervous system. Suppose that we regulate this growth\nby properly applied exercise, so that the correct equilibrium be established, not only between the different parts of the body, but between the\nbody and the mind as well ; surely this is not a fanciful idea. The child\nwill then be led to educate himself. He will develop his brain thru his\nown acts, not by study, but by purely physical processes. The teacher\nwill merely direct his movements so that they may produce the desired\nresults.\nThese are questions which are certainly of enough importance to\nreceive consideration. This will form part of the research work in the\nnormal school of gymnastics of the future, and the amount accomplished\nin the solving of such pregnant problems will be one of the tests of its\nefficiency. The aims of general and special normal schools are alike in\nthat the pupils must be led to acquire the critic's attitude ; to develop a\ndesire for research ; to judge acurately and correctly of the worth of\nthings, and, perhaps of most importance, to develop the individuality of\nthe student.\nOne of the best tests of any schoe/s efficiency is the success of its\ngraduates. By success we need not think entirely of notoriety. Many a\nteacher has been more genuinely successful in some small country town\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthan one who has had opportunity for showing his ability before a city\nschool board. We have said that a normal school must be able to command success by developing the individuality of its pupils. No graduate\nwill accomplish much who goes out impressed with the idea that in order\nto succeed he must pattern his work after what he has seen others do.\nWhoever believes that in his own little school he has met and conquered\nall the problems pertaining to his future work, and that he has only to go\nforth to put his ideas into execution, to meet success awaiting his efforts,\nwill be apt to find himself, after the lapse of a few years, in the rear of the\nrace. He must fashion his work according to his surroundings and his\npupils. A good example he may have had, but to train all children on\none and the same plan is narrowing and fatal to progress. The normal\nschool merely starts the pupil in the right road. Comparison should\nhave been an essential characteristic of his whole course of study. The\nknowledge he acquires is mainly for reference. All the problems confronting him are new, and according to the efficiency of his training will\nhe be able to meet them.\nIn considering some of the special ways in which a normal school of\ngymnastics proves itself efficient, it is apparent that such a school has not\nserved its purpose if it has not practically demonstrated by its course of\ntraining that gymastics improve the health and counteract the evil effects\nto mental strain and overwork. The senior year of the course, with\nwhich I am most familiar, is in some respects identical with that taken in\nthe first year of the leading medical schools. There are five hours a day\nof regular work, and enough outside work to fill an average of at least\ntwo more hours. If it were not for the daily practice in the gymnasium,\nthe pupils would find it impossible to accomplish such an amount of work\nwith so little strain. But the effect of the gymnastics is so marked that\nthe entering pupils need not be exceptional physical types of manhood\nand womanhood in order to finish successfully the course of the school.\nMany pupils who are physically weak are possessed of superior mental\nability. The restoration of such semi-invalids to a condition enabling\nthem to become useful and prominent factors in the world's work amply\njustifies the extra attention required for the purpose. Students who\nare strong and able-bodied usually lack harmonious development and\nco-ordination of movement, so that the two years of physical discipline\nis especially needed by them.\nA very important part of the training of teachers of gymnastics consists in teaching them how to avoid injuring their future pupils. Upon\nthe gymnastic teacher rests a great responsibility ; and when we consider\nthe numerous pitfalls in the way of the inexperienced trainer, the wonder\ngrows that so comparatively few cases of injury have been traced directly\nto gymnasium practice. There was a time when the less the teacher knew\nof the effects of exercise, the more confidently and zealously he carried\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\n833\n\non his work. But the more one studies the human body and the effect of\nexercise thereon, the more caution he instinctively uses in applying such\nexercise. We have learned that such seeming trifles as the turning of the\nhand, the poise of the foot, the inclination of the head, all play a prominent part in helping or hindering the effects we wish to produce, and it\nis with a feeling akin to awe that we realize that we may control the great\nvital forces almost at will. We may correct faults, repair damage by\nbuilding up tissue, take away refuse that is clogging the delicate machinery; indeed, we may clean and regulate the entire system much as the\nskilled artisan regulates a French clock.\nThe chief dangers to be avoided in gymnasium work are heart weakness and pelvic weakness. In gymnasia for women there is always the\nnecessity for watching closely the effect of the so-called abdominal exercises. Arch-flexions and abdominal exercises are types of movement\nwhich outwardly resemble each other very closely. But therein lies a\ngreat opportunity for harm. To give one for the other is to give a\nmovement which causes a great quantity of blood to flow to a certain portion of the body where no provision has been made for its use, or a\nmovement which is intended to act on another part of the body demanding blood which is not there. If the excess of blood sent to the\nabdominal region (a region well fitted to hold a large amount on account\nof the great vascular capacity of the membranes) be not disposed of, but\nallowed to remain to clog the overfatigued muscles, the result may be a\ndiseased condition causing irritation and eventually peritonitis.\nAppendicitis may result from too strong abdominal exercises, especially if the pupil has had a tendency to this disease before, or has\nundergone an operation of the pelvic region. Close questioning should\nalways accompany exercises in such a case, and at the first sign of discomfort this particular kind of movement should be omitted altogether.\nThe heart must be a constant study. While a weak heart may be\nstrengthened by proper exercise, a perfectly strong one may be weakened\nand permanently injured by certain violent movements, if no effort is\nmade to counteract their bad effects. For this purpose too much cannot\nbe said in praise of the respiratory exercises practiced by the Swedes.\nThey have an almost instant effect in quieting and regulating the heartbeat.\nWith regard to games, basket-ball in particular, a great deal should\nbe said. The time is too limited to speak in .extenso on this subject.\nBasket-ball should be played according to the skill, strength, and\nendurance of the pupils participating. Just here I would call attention\nto one difference between gymnastics and games. In the latter the effect\nis almost always that of fatigue. It uaust be so from the unusual nature\nof the action required. This is convincing evidence that games cannot\nbe substituted for regulated gymnastic exercise whose effect is that of\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nexhilaration rather than of fatigue. Exception may be made in the case\nof small children who have not arrived at an age when they either injure\nor improve themselves to any great extent by their efforts.\nThe greatest difficulty experienced in substituting games for gymnastics lies in the fact that the correct physiological effect cannot be\nproduced, because it is almost impossible to oppose against the violent\nrunning, jumping, stooping, etc., which are the inevitable concomitants\nof games, any other movements forcible enough to adjust evenly the\nphysiological balance.\nGames may do actual harm where they are practiced without any precautions being taken for quieting the heart-beat or reducing the labored\nrespiration. Thus one may easily lay the foundations of a disease that\nmay not be apparent for some time, yet which will eventually shorten\nthe usefulness and life of the citizen.\nStrain, whether arterial or muscular, ought never to occur from gymnasium work. No pupil should be allowed to exercise to excess, and\nno movement should be given which is beyond the strength of the\nindividual. If a teacher cannot adjust the exercises for each pupil, he\nis unfitted for his work. Much harm of this special kind has occured in\ntimes past as the outcome of engaging ill-taught or self-educated\nteachers; but their day is quietly passing, and a new era is surely\napproaching when a college graduate will have to show other and\nspecial preparation for the position of director of a gymnasium, and\nwhen of the graduate of a normal school of gymnastics will be required\na broad and comprehensive education outside of his particular profession, in order for either to be intrusted with the great work of caring\nfor precious human bodies. Happily the time is past when the gymnasium\nwas considered merely a place where one could learn how to perform acrobatic feats; the aim of the present day is to give pupils the exercise that\nwill be most beneficial to their general health and strength. With this\nobject in view, the liability to injury has greatly lessened. Moreover, the\nincreasing amount of knowledge required of a competent physical trainer\nbrings a better class of teachers into the profession and insures a greater\nstock of common-sense being applied to the care of the students.\nThe gymnastic teacher has an immense power for good or ill over\nthose who come under his ministrations. He comes into very close relation to his pupils. He is watching them from the personal standpoint,\nstudying them, prying into their personalities, weeding out their defects,\ndeveloping in them certain traits of character. It is essential, then, that\nthe normal school should help future teachers to be honest, to be broad, to\nbe eager to appreciate and admire the good for itself and not for a small\npersonal advantage.\nIt should cultivate truth, dignity, repose, self-control.\nBy gymnastics, then, we must develop the individual power inherent\nin the pupil, we must teach him how to use this power, how to control\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL^ OF\n\nGYMNASTICS\n\n835\n\nit. In other words, we must develop the will. As the will develops,\ncharacter is made.\n* * * *\nThe study of the human body as related to the best means of developing and preserving it, the attention paid to the duties of sanitation,\nproper dress, diet, and good habits, present great problems to the\nawakening minds of young men and women — problems the consideration of which inspire feelings of the highest nature and create impulses\ntoward clean and right living. They learn to strive without selfishness\nor greed; to admire the good in others; to control their will, their\ntemper, their fear ; they understand what it means to overcome obstacles,\nto be defeated, to deserve praise.\nWith regard to the standard of work, there is no question but that in\nthe leading normal schools there is better work done today than ever\nbefore. As the schools have gained influence and prominence, they have\nstriven to elevate the standard of work, to keep pace with modern educational ideas, and to carry thru important measures which only time and\nexperience can effect. One very important feature which makes for the\ngeneral improvement of normal schools is the increasing amount of consideration that is given to the Swedish ideas in schools which were loath\nto credit this system at the time of its introduction here.\nFor some inexplicable reason, physical training has not received the\nwarm encouragement extended to other young educational movements,\nsuch as manual training, the kindergarten, and child study. Yet this\nscience is closely allied to all of them, and may be truly said to form the\nbasis of all education. \"What a man is physically, that he is,\" and what\nthe child becomes is largely dependent on proper attention to this fact.\nOne great difficulty in the path of those who would raise physical\ntraining to its proper place among the sciences has been its past record,\nwhich has placed it upon such a low plane that men of learning have\npassed it by on the other side, and have been prone to say : \" Can anything good come out of Nazareth ?\" But that handicap is being gradually removed. Since Ling's logical principles have become better\nunderstood and appreciated, and since teachers of physical training of\nall schools and systems have discovered that they may adopt these principles to advantage without in the slightest degree interfering with the\nuse of most of the exercises they have advocated before — since the essence\nof Ling's great discovery lies in the plan or arrangement of movements\nand is not dependent on exercise or apparatus — there has been a unification of effort and a gradual drawing closer together of those engaged in\ngymnastic work.\nThe idea of gymnastics as a source of entertainment or amusement is\nbeing relegated to the past. Little by little we have divorced from\nphysical training the idea of money-getting, once the sole object of its\ndevotees.\nGymnastics meant exhibitions, exhibitions meant more pupils,\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nand the sole aim of the exercises was prettiness of effect thru appeals to\nthe eye and ear. But we are coming to the time when the children will\nget what they need, and when it will be as interesting to see the homely\nexercises as the pretty ones. As a matter of fact, there is no more reason\nfor making gymnastic exercises a means of entertainment than the movements of a child practicing his scales on the piano.\nPerhaps we may best determine the value of the work accomplished\nby normal schools of gymnastics by a glance over the country to see what\nplace is occupied by physical training in the school curriculum of today.\nWe find that where twenty or even ten years ago school gymnastics were\nsporadic and exceedingly elementary, today there is hardly a school of\nprominence that has not its teacher of physical training. There are\nthirteen normal schools of physical training either as distinct schools or\nas departments of other schools, and there are no less than seven summer\nschools where some theory of gymnastics is taught. The demand for\nteachers is greater than the supply.\nIn conclusion, let me say one word as to the value of physical\ntraining. Did you ever think that our real selves are buried deep within\nus and very seldom come to the surface ? We are more or less playing\nfor the applause of our audience, either consciously or unconsciously.\nWe say what we think is pleasing at the time. Perhaps we change our\nattitude altogether with our next companion. Once in a while our souls\nfree themselves, and we speak from within outward rather than from outside only. We reveal our real selves for a passing moment, and then,\nclick ! the door shuts, the soul disappears, and the old, unreal, artificial,\neveryday personality comes back again.\nThe motions we use in our everyday lives are extremely limited. We\nexpress ourselves only partially. We live cramped, confused, half-lives.\nNature has given us the power of almost unlimited motion. Our bodies\nare beautiful, intricate machines capable of the most delicate and the most\ncomplex movements, but the bodies of most of us are undeveloped mines\nof health, strength, and beauty. Self-expression we hear something about,\nbut we do not study physical self-expression. We need the freedom of\naction that comes from the use of thoroly awakened bodies to bring out\nwhat is in us. Everyone needs physical training. It teaches men and\nwomen to reach out to something beyond. The very act of stretching\nthe limbs makes the mind grow. It follows the track of the nerves, and\nwe become less cramped, less narrow, less constricted, more willing to live\nand let live. It is a form of education that should extend thruout one's\nwhole life. If the time ever comes when this science is recognized as its\nmerits warrant, and men and women everywhere practice their daily\nexercises as regularly as they take their daily meals, sickness will be but\nan old woman's tale, and death but the falling to earth as the ripe and\nrosy apple in the fullness of fruition drops from the tree.\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nTHE\n\nMASS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\nMASS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n837\n\nI\nWILLIAM\n\nG. ANDERSON,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF GYMNASIUM,\n\nYALE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nThe subject of this paper has appealed to me strongly. It is:\n\"Physical Training for the Mass of Students; with emphasis upon the\nnecessity and kind of physical education for the rooter with cane and\nribbon, rather than for the men who make the team.\" The subject will\nbe divided into three parts: (i) the conditions as we find them today;\n(2) the causes of these conditions; (3) the remedy.\nThis paper has to do with the college, not with the secondary and\npublic schools. The work in universities and in public schools is neither\nparallel nor comparable to any great extent.\nI shall give the following meaning to two of the terms to be used.\nThey will, no doubt, be unsatisfactory, the whole question of nomenclature being chaotic, but you will at least understand what I mean, even if\nyou are not pleased with my definitions. By \"gymnastics\" is meant the\nmovements, as such, with or without apparatus, usually selected for developing the body, eliminating games, contests, athletics, and sports. By\n\"physical training\" I refer to a comprehensive scheme of bodily development which includes gymnastics and all forms of rational sports and contests, games, and athletics, also a certain amount of theory.\nA survey of our field shows a very noticeable lack of interest in gymnastics. We find the student ready to cut lessons; to \"get out\" of gymnastics to\n; speak in a disrespectful manner of the work and often of the\nteachers ; to place a stigma upon the profession ; to draw no lines, social\nor otherwise, between the athletic trainer and the director of the gymnasium. We find very few college graduates taking up the profession permanently. Some who do begin to teach use the work as a stepping-stone\nto other occupations, and not infrequently apologize for being in \" the\nbusiness.\"\nWe find optional cfasses in pure gymnastics small and rapidly\ndwindling away. The faculty classes in many of the colleges are few and\nfar between. The opportunities for regular training in gymnastics are\nnot eagerly grasped by higher-class men. Students who begin to take\nexercise in their rooms soon lose their interest and finally stop altogether.\nWe find the freshmen breathing a sigh of relief when required gymnastics\nare over. You may say that the average college man tries to get out of\nall kinds of required work. That is true, but it does not vitiate the force\nof my statement. We find that in only a few colleges is unqualified\ncredit given for required gymnastic^. In a number the credit is negative, and in the majority no credit is allowed.\nThere is no trouble pointing out the knots in the skein ; the difficulty\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nis in untangling them. We must study the cause before we can apply the\nremedy.\nThe first and prime cause is the student's ignorance of the real value\nof physical training. Another cause is the inaccurate statements and\nunqualified promises made by those interested in gymnastics. Were a\nbusiness man to agree to sell another a certain parcel of goods for a stated\nsum of money, and then give much less than half the promised parcel for full\nvalue received, we would call the transaction dishonest. In gymnastics it\nis the custom to make very definite promises, and in a positive manner.\nThese promises are seldom kept. I refer to the inducements held out to\nyoung men to take gymnastics (our catalogs even are not careful or accurate about these rewards), and to the promised changes that will take\nplace in the growth of the body ; the increase in weight, height, and\ngirth; the attainment of grace, skill, and strength. It is not unusual for\nthose who teach the subject to lack some of the essentials they readily\npromise their pupils. College men are impressionable; they are quick to\nnotice and as quick to criticise.\nIf it is stated that gymnastics will produce certain results, and it is\nclearly seen that they do not either in pupil or teacher, the student will\nnot believe. For a teacher to promise a student that exercising three\ntimes per week will produce decided changes in the carriage of the body,\nand not make it plain that the student must at all times be careful about\nthe carriage of the body, does positive harm to physical training.\nIt is a mistake to promise good results in a short time. It is a mistake\nto promise noticeable changes after a few lessons. It is a grave mistake\nto make the development of muscles the first and important result of\nphysical training.\nThere is a misunderstanding on the part of the student as to the\npractical value and limits of gymnastics and its relation to mental training. He does not know that exercise develops the brain as well as the\nmuscle. He does not know of the existence of a mind-brain and a bodybrain.\nThere is a languid response to calls for volunteer classes, and when\nthese classes are organized, the teaching of gymnastics alone will soon\ncause a falling off in attendance. In few colleges are there gymnastic\nassociations, and when they do exist the attendance is ridiculously small.\nLast winter at Yale there were over seven hundred men in training with\nthe athletic teams, attendance being voluntary, while there were less than\nfifteen men with the Yale gymnastic team. There is not a lack of interest on the part of the student in the welfare of his body. This subject\nappeals strongly to him. It appeals to all men. The existence of the correspondence schools proves this. Some of our students join these *'getstrong-while-you-wait\" institutions, and it inust be said they stick to their\nwork quite well.\nThe promises made by the said schools are very allur-\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depariment]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMASS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n839\n\ning, but very seldom fulfilled. What a man pays for he respects; the student pays for the correspondence work ; that which is thrust upon or given\nhim he does not respect.\nThe college man is ignorant so far as the true results of physical trainmg go. His knowledge of physiology is poor, and his knowledge of\napplied and practical physiology is worse. This is not entirely his fault.\nIt is due to poor text-books, or inadequate teaching. To associate with\ngymnastics such subjects as anatomy, physiology, pedagogy, or psychology neither enters his mind nor that of many college and preparatory\nschool teachers. The student is handicapped at the outset by prejudice,\nby a wrong understanding of the limits of physical training, and by\nunsatisfactory preparation in secondary schools for the conditions that\nwill be found later in the colleges he will enter. I am not inclined to\nblame the student so much as I am those who teach the student, whether\nthis tuition be in the home, school, or college. The student is as he has\nbeen made by preliminary education, and his attitude toward physical\ntraining is a result of his previous education. He certainly has given no\nthought to gymnastics, altho he may have been a closer student of athletics than of mental branches.\nAnything that we compel a student to do he generally objects to in\none way or another, and when gymnastics are made compulsory and no\nattempt is made to reason with the student, and no real credit given for\nwork, the result is obvious.\nTo epitomize :\n\nThere is small interest because —\n\n1. The promises are rash and inaccurate.\n2. The promises made are not fulfilled.\n3. The correlation between gymnastics and the training of the brain is not understood.\n4. The correct value and place of gymnastics in the college curriculum is not\nappreciated by the student.\n5. Physical training has no academic standing.\n6. The director does not come into continued personal contact with the student as\nhe should, but leaves much important work to assistants who are not always educated.\n\nThat which appeals to a student in a practical manner he will do.\nHe will not seek gymnastics because they do not appeal to him. He\ngets no obvious results from them ; they are not pleasant, and he does\nnot take an interest in them ; hence, if left to himself, he will not go to\nthe gymnasium for that purpose.\nThe modern educational tendency is toward the practical. The attitude of Harvard and Yale toward cutting down the four years to three\nshows this. The dropping of Greek as an entrance requirement, and the\ngreater growth of the scientific schools over the classical schools are significant. The attention to manual schools, to trades, etc., are tell-tale straws.\nNow a man can secure two degrees in six years where it once required\neight.\nThe college man educated along so-called practical lines is more\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nin demand than one who is trained only in the classics. The elective systems in our universities and the tendency to. introduce them into the\nsecondary schools show the trend of thought.\nThe object of the modern\ncollege is to prepare a man for complete living.\nPresident Jordan says : '\nThe business of a university is to train men to think, know, and do. Wisdom is\nknowing what to do next ; skill is knowing how to do it ; virtue is doing it. It is the\nduty of a university, among other things, to take hold of the fragments of human possibilities and arrange them so as to fit them for achievement.\nNot abstract thought, not lifelong investigation of minute data, not separation from\nmen of lower fortune, but the power to bring about results, is the characteristic of the\nAmerican scholar of today.\n\nThe worth of physical training in such preparation is plain to you\nand to me, but not to the student. It is our duty to make this plain to\nhim.\nIt will never be made plain by gymnastics alone.\nToday competition is very keen. The man who gets ahead is more\nthan ever in need of good working tools, and his body is the sum total of\nthese tools. The increase in nervous strain in business is marked, and\neven in college a balanced life is more essential than it has been. Let\nthe college man know this, and he will work in the gymnasium. But the\ntelling of these things in a general way will not impress him longer than\nit takes him to get away from the gymnasium, when he at once forgets it.\nI am aware that gymnastics are uninteresting to nearly all concerned.\nThe history of the apparatus bought for the home, the dislike that business men have for exercising alone, the comparatively new condition of\nthe apparatus in many of our fine athletic club gymnasia, show this. In a\ngeneral way we can dismiss the question with the answer : There are no\napparent results. If there were, the one who exercises would keep it up.\nThe great problems that confront me at Yale are : how to create an\nincentive, how to convince the student that he needs exercise; how to\ncreate an atmosphere of respect for gymnastics and a sentiment in favor\nof physical training. I suggest as a partial solution of these problems\nthat we teach less gymnastics and more physical training, and that we\nconnect with the muscular movements which constitute gymnastics\nenough reasoning to show the student that there is much more to the subject than he has ever imagined.\nAppeal to the instincts of the healthy youth, and introduce that which\nhe likes, namely games and contests. Let the youth know that to win\ndistinction in any of the fields of life which he will later enter he must\nuse his body, and that there is no occupation in life that will be done\nbetter if the body is weak. For that student who has inherited a poor\nphysique, whether it is slight or badly formed, and who is naturally weak,\nthere must be some hope held out, or he will not enter with spirit into\nthe work of the gymnasium.\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMASS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n841\n\nThe one who is to be a public speaker will exercise with increasing\ninterest if he knows that by so doing he will add to his power as a public\nman. I have seldom found this argument to fail. The man may not\nbecome strong, but he certainly will acquire a self-control that is helpful.\nIf the hard student believes that by developing muscular centers in the\nbrain the mental centers used in study will be made better, he will exercise with renewed energy.\nI notice a growing interest in gymnastics so taught. The interest is\nmore due to the talks than to the exercises. I would be as willing to take\nthe greater part of two hours per week and devote them to talks and\nexperiments, and abide the issue, as to devote most of the time to gymnastics. This method takes time and calls for preparation on the part of\nthe teacher, but it brings the pupil and the head of the gymnasium in more\ndirect contact with each other. That director of a gymnasium who does not\ncome into personal contact with the men on the main floor will lose a place\nin their respect sooner or later. Moreover, if the teaching is left entirely\nto assistants, some of whom are not well educated, our cause suffers.\nMay I present in detail some of the methods we have tried and will\ncontinue to try with the men at Yale? To illustrate strength of muscles\nI have taken the gastrocnemius of the frog and shown the great pulling\npower of this little contractile band. A student who sees a small glistening bit of muscle tissue sustaining a weight two thousand times greater\nthan its own is impressed.\nThat exercise produces some marked effects upon the brain and mind\nmay be illustrated by some of the tests in cross-education. For instance :\nThe development of one hand will produce development of the other hand\nwhich is not trained. The strengthening of one hand will strengthen the\nother which may not be used at all. If movements are learned on one\nside of the body, they are learned on the other side in less than one-third\nof the time, and may even be learned without practice. Movements may\nbe learned by thinking of them, and not necessarily doing them. Of\ncourse, there are degrees of perfection in these matters ; but what I say is\ntrue in the main.\nMoreover, the student should know that —\n1. The powers of attention are educated by ear-teaching.\n2. That more than muscles are developed by gymnastics and physical training.\n3. That there are three factors to be developed — the muscles, the central nervous\nsystem, and the mind.\n4. That physical conditions affect the activities of the mind.\n5. That a tired body will vitiate the activity of the mental faculties.\n6. That the best effect of exercise, although invisible, is the establishing of a good\nphysical basis for psychic activity.\n\nThere is another practical side4)f the question, which appeals quickly\nto the student. It is the effect of movement upon blood supply to parts\nof the body ; the stimulation of the functioning of the vegetative organs.\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfPhysical\n\nthe liver, pancreas, etc., by the presence of fresh arterial blood; the relation between proper nutrition and blood supply ; or the bad effects of\ninterference with the circulation of the fluid tissue at the appropriate\ntime. Dr. Seaver found 30 percent, of a certain class suffering from some\nform of indigestion, malassimilation, or poor nutrition. These men\nreadily came to understand the necessity of care in eating, the danger of\neating rapidly, and the need of physical and mental rest after eating,\nfrom simple experiments made in the gymnasium ; and, moreover, they\nassociated this knowledge with the department of physical development.\nThe general knowledge of dietetics as gained from the preparatory\nschool had made little effect upon them, but illustrative experiments left\nmore permanent tracings on their minds.\nThe effects of exercise in quickened lung and heart movements, of aspiration of the thorax upon the circulation of lymph, were listened to with\nunderstanding and interest. I used Dr. Hough's simple explanations and\ndrawings. To show the increased blood supply when movements are\ninteresting I used a balance table before the students. The difference\nbetween the effect of reflex or mechanical movements and highly voluntary movements upon blood supply were thus explained and understood\nby the men. The men readily grasped the relation between mentality and\nmuscularity, as found in Dr. Mosso's article read at Clark University.\nI consider such information of great importance to college students.\nThe average student will go thru monotonous and unvaried gymnastic\nexercises adopted by the track teams and the crew, and never murmur,\nsimply on account of the associations; but let me give these same exercises to men who do not thus associate them with the possible glory\nof being connected with the teams, and they will openly rebel.\nI have taught dancing at Yale, stage dancing, and thus won converts to gymnastics. I have permitted the men to elect boxing, swimming, fencing, wrestling, hand-ball, baseball, football, track events, basketball, and bowling, instead of required gymnastics ; and I find these men\nusing the building more than those who elect the straight class work.\nI do not believe in sugar-coating, but I do believe in making the development of the body interesting. I believe we can \"knit on\" the\ndisagreeable with the agreeable. As between no gymnastics and compulsory gymnastics, I favor required attendance; but between the mechanical and artificial movements of the gymnasium and the agreeable and\nspontaneous movements of the competitive order, I prefer the latter.\nUnder the present conditions and with our present knowledge, in order\nto add dignity to the work, to create renewed and permanent interest in\nphysical training on the part of all concerned, to establish academic\nrecognition for physical training, we must present the subject and its\npossible results in the true and broadest light. We must so plan that the\nstudent comes in contact in the gymnasium and on the field with educated\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMASS\n\nOF STUDENTS\n\n843\n\nmen and with men whom he will respect both in and out of the gymnasium.\nWe must associate with physical training the applied subjects of anatomy, physiology, personal hygiene, psychology, and such subjects as will\nbetter establish in the mind of the student a permanent belief in the\nphysical basis of psychic activity, the correlation of mind and body, and\nthe relation between muscularity and mentality.\nWe must secure college graduates, especially physicians, as directors\nof all forms of physical training. In the past the work of physical training has been directed toward muscular development alone, hence its\nlimited and slow growth. The direction of physical training to the development of the body and all that constitutes the physical machinery of the\nmind will place our work upon a more dignified and satisfactory basis.\nPresident Hyde has well said :\nThe work required of the students in physical training should be as systematic and\ndignified in proportion to its amount as that in other departments. Enlist the enthusiasm\nof the student under the guidance of an interested faculty, combine the ardor of youth\nwith the wisdom of maturity, and\nit is perfectly possible to maintain a course of\nphysical education which will give to every student who is not handicapped hopelessly\nby heredity or dissipation, a sound and healthy body to be the support of a vigorous intellect and the instrument of a resolute will.\n\nII\nF. N. WHITTIER,\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF SARGENT\nBRUNSWICK,\n\nGYMNASIUM,\nME.\n\nBOWDOIN\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPhysical training in our schools has been somewhat of a disappointment. For years we have had in mind an ideal system which has been\ndescribed often, but rarely put in practice. We have looked forward\nto scientific gymnastics combined with regulated and supervised athletics.\nHere and there schools have attained something of this ideal, but oftener\nhave fallen victims to the Scylla of monotonous gymnastic drill or the\nCharybdis of unrestrained, over-strenuous, competitive athletics.\nThe secret of these failures is not hard to find. Often they were\ndue to attempts to introduce into American schools foreign systems of\nathletics or gymnastics. For a generation this country has been made\nthe arena of a contest between the athletics of England and the gymnastics of Germany or Sweden. It has been difficult to harmonize these\nsystems and adapt them to American temperaments and conditions.\nYet to the American visiting Europe the foreign methods and results\nwere likely to seem faultless. At Harrow, the famous English public\nschool, on a fine June afternoon, I saw three hundred flanneled boys troop\ndown to the great school playgrounds to practice cricket on their dozen\nfields.\nThe vigorous forms of the players, the healthy-looking faces, the\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n^Physical\n\nevident interest in the sport, the absence of anything like shirking, all\ncombined to give the impression of an ideal plan. At Berlin or Stockholm the sight of hundreds of school children taking their daily gymnastic\ntraining was no less interesting and inspiring.\nBut when America attempted to copy these systems of physical training, difficulties at once arose. The games and exercises were foreign, not\nnational. Parents and children had little interest in them. They were\nnot interwoven with our country's story and tradition. It was necessary\nto Americanize physical training before it could take its rightful place in\nour school system. For a full generation this process has been going on,\nand at last the end is in sight. America now has her own gymnastic systems and her own national games.\nBesides originating new systems of gymnastic exercises, this country\nhas done much toward developing the modern gymnasium and the scientific side of its work. Our normal schools for teachers of physical training\nare unsurpassed by any in the world. A visit to one of these schools\ngives some idea of the advance of physical training upon its gymnasium\nside. The summer course at Harvard under Dr. Sargent has this year a\ncorps of forty lecturers and instructors, and an attendance, of nearly two\nhundred students.\nThe development of athletic sports has been no less marked. The\npresent generation has seen the rise of two great games, baseball and\nAmerican football. Around these the interest of American youth appears\nto be centered. Much attention is given to basket-ball, another American\ngame of recent origin. Many English games have been adopted, notably\ngolf, tennis, and cricket. From small beginnings, athletics have so grown\nin interest and influence that they seem to many to overshadow the land\nlike the genii of the fable. Gymnastics is now often secondary to athletics.\nThe athlete practices gymnastic exercises to obtain strength and endurance\nthat he may excel in his chosen sport. Indeed, some of the warmest\nfriends of physical training feel that the spectacular side of athletics is\ncarried too far; that our school athletics are sacrificed to an amusementloving public; that, while schools spend hundreds of dollars to train an\noverdeveloped athlete, they may neglect the pale-faced student who is\ngetting a spinal curvature. Certainly there is no doubt of the great\ngrowth of interest in things athletic. A Yale-Harvard football game occupies about as much newspaper space as a presidential election.\nAs educators we must not lose sight of the true significance of these\ndevelopments. The so-called craze for athletics and gymnastics has paved\nthe way for making physical training a part of the school curriculum. It\nhas given us what we lacked before — American gymnastics and a general\ninterest in national sports.\nAlready plans of physical training are being worked out in many\nschools.\nPerhaps the small college offers one of the best opportunities\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMASS\n\nOP STUDENTS\n\n845\n\nfor such work. My own experience has been obtained at Bowdoin College, where for seventeen years I have held the office of director of the\ngymnasium. As Bowdoin was one of the first colleges to enter this field,\nit may not be out of place to give a brief account of her plan, the result\nof many years of experimenting and development.\nAt the beginning of the college year the director of the gymnasium\ngives each new student a thoro medical and physical examination, ascertaining, as far as possible, the family history, the mode of life followed\nbefore coming to college, the kinds of exercise that have been taken, and\nthe nature of any physical deformities or defects that may exist. All the\ninformation thus gained is made a matter of record. Next, nearly fifty\nmeasurements are taken, and the strength of the different sets of muscles\ntested by dynamometers designed for this purpose. Special attention is\ngiven to the examination of heart and lungs, testing the capacity and\nthe expiratory power of the lungs, and also noticing the character of\nthe heart's action both before and after exercise. Urine and sputum may\nbe examined in suspicious cases. X-ray examinations have given valuable\naid in cases of injury or deformity. Vision and hearing are tested superficially and abnormal cases referred to a specialist.\nFrom the measurements and strength tests taken a chart is made out\nfor each student, showing him how he stands as regards size, strength, or\nsymmetry in comparison with the average or mean. It also shows what\nparts of the body are defective, either in size or development.\nThe director then prescribes a course of training, including the specific exercises needed in each case to correct the weakness or defects\nshown by the examination. This course of training is indicated by marking the exercises prescribed in an illustrated handbook which is given to\neach student. This handbook also contains directions in regard to matters of personal hygiene, as bathing, diet, clothing, and ventilation. Such\nof these directions are marked as have special reference to the physical\ncondition of the student to whom the handbook is given.\nThus far we follow closely the plan devised by Dr. Sargent, of Harvard University. The handbooks and charts used are those of Dr.\nSargent. Indeed, Bowdoin claims a certain proprietary interest in them,\nfor Dr. Sargent is a graduate of Bowdoin and for six years was director\nof her gymnasium, where he worked out many of the principles of his now\nfamous system.\nEach freshman class at Bowdoin receives general instruction in personal hygiene. This instruction is given in the form of lectures by the\ndirector of the gymnasium, and occupies one hour a week during the fall\nterm.\nThe plan of prescribed exercise is supplemented by a graded course\nof class gymnasium work and by athletic sports and games. During t4ie\nwinter term each college class is required to exercise three hours a week\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nin the Sargent Gymnasium. The courses given consist of class exercises\nand squad exercises. For the latter, each class is divided into several\nsquads, each under the direction of a student assistant. The courses for\nthe four classes are as follows :\nFreshmen. — Class exercises : military drill, setting-up drill, and Indian-club swinging. Squad exercises : indoor athletics, chest weights, and heavy gyrnnastics ; the indoor\nathletics includes such exercises as jumping, hurdling, pole-vaulting, and relay-racing;\nthe heavy gymnastics includes tumbling and exercises on horizontal bar, parallel bars\nand flying rings.\nSophomores. — Class exercises : dumb-bell movements and boxing. Squad exercises :\nindoor athletics and wrestling.\nJuniors. — Class exercises : fencing with single-sticks and broadswords. Squad\nexercise : indoor athletics.\nSeniors. — Class exercise : fencing with foils.\n\nSquad exercise : indoor athletics.\n\nAs a part of the required work, opportunity is given to each student\nto learn something of the out-of-door sports. During the winter term\ntraining squads are maintained for football, baseball, and tennis. These\nsquads are under special instructors and receive valuable training.\nDuring the fall and spring terms the required class work gives place to\nout-of-door sports, such as football, baseball, track athletics, golf, and\ntennis. The director of the gymnasium has a general oversight of the\ngames, with authority to forbid participation in them to students who are\nphysically unfit. At present nearly every student in college engages regularly in one or more of these sports. The training for college and class\ncontests is carried on regularly and systematically, and proves a valuable\nadjunct to the required course.\nBowdoin College was one of the first institutions to put physical training on an equal footing with other work. Courses in physical training\nbring the same credit in rank as courses in Latin or Greek. Each of the\nfour required courses counts as one study during the winter term. The\nfour together count as one-fifteenth of the work leading to the A. B.\ndegree. I believe that to this giving of credit for gymnasium work is due\nin great measure whatever success has been achieved.\nThere is no claim that the above plan is ideal. It is, however, measurably successful. It brings interest in physical training to the mass of\nstudents. It brings the whole college to the gymnasium, athletic fields,\ngolf links, or tennis courts.\nThere can be no perfected system that will fit all times and places,\nbut we must all press on in making physical training mean more than\ngymnastic exercises or competitive athletics, and in giving it its true\nplace in the curriculum of schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9, 1903\n\nThe department met in the Arlington Street Church, and was called to order at 9 : 30\nA. M. by President C. W. Hall.\nA committee on nominations was appointed as follows :\nT. A. Mott, of Indiana.\nA. G. Clement, of New York.\nIrving O. Palmer, of Massachusetts.\n\nThe following was the program of the session :\n\" Practical Methods in the Teaching of Geology,\" by N. S. Shaler, professor of geology, Harvard\nUniversity, Cambridge, Mass.\n\" The Proper Scope of Geological Teaching in the High School and Academy,\"\nRice, professor of geology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn.\n\nby William N«rth\n\n'• Out-of-Door Class Work in Geography,\" by F. P. Gulliver, teacher of geography, St. Mark's School,\nSouthboro, Mass.\n\"The Teaching of Biology in High Schools,\" by A. S. Pearse, head of department of biology. High\nSchool, Omaha, Neb.\n\nAfter adjourning to the lecture-room of the Harvard Medical School, the program\nwas continued as follows:\n\" Laboratory Teaching of Physiology,\" by W. T. Porter, associate professor of physiology, Harvard\nMedical School, Boston, Mass.\n\" Laboratory Work in High-School Physiology,\" by James E. Feabody, head of department of biology,\nMorris High School, New York city.\n•\n\nThe department then adjourned until Friday, July 10.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION. — Friday, July 10\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Hall at 9 :30 A. M., in the Arlington\nStreet Church. The report of the Committee on Nominations was read and adopted, and\nthe following officers were elected for the ensuing year :\nPresident— VJ. A. Fiske, Richmond, Ind.\nVice-President — Frank M. Gilley, Chelsea, Mass.\nSecretary — A. S. Pearse, Omaha, Neb.\n\nThe following papers were then read :\n\" College Chemistry and its Relation to Work Preparatory to It,\" by Ira Remsen, president of Johns\nHopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\n\"High-School Chemistry in its Relation to the Work of a College Course,\" by Rufus P. Williams,\nteacher of chemistry, English High School, Boston, Mass.\n\nDiscussion of this topic was opened by H. P. Talbot, professor of analytical\nchemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, who was followed by Lyman\nG. Smith, president of the New England Association of Chemistry Teachers ; William F.\n847 Minn.; Lyman C. Newell, instructor in\nKunze, superintendent of schools. Red Wing,\nchemistry and physics, State Normal School, Lowell, Mass. The discussion was closed\nby A. S. Perkins, Dorchester High School, Boston, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe following papers were then presented :\n\" Physics for Boys and Girls : An Introductory Course,\" by John C. Packard, Brookline, Mass.\n*' The High-School Course in Physics,\" by Irving O. Palmer, Newtonville, Mass.\n\"The High-School Phase of Physics Teaching — Aims and Methods,\" by George R. Twiss, head of\ndepartment of science, Central High School, Cleveland, O.\n\" A Course in Physics for Technical Schools^\" by Charles F. Warner, principal of Mechanics Arts High\nSchool, Springfield, Mass.\n\nThe discussion was led by Professor Edwin H. Hall, of Harvard University,\nCambridge, Mass., and Professor C. R. Mann, of the University of Chicago.\nProfessor Edwin H. Hall moved that a committee be appointed to request the\nNational Council to consider the advisability of appointing a committee to discuss the\nsubject of physics teaching in high schools which prepare few pupils for college, and to\nformulate a course of physics for such schools.\nThe motion was carried.\nIt was further voted that the committee consist of —\nC. W. Hall, of Minnesota.\nWillbur A. Fiske, of Indiana.\nFrank M. Gilley, of Massachusetts.\nEdwin H. Hall, of Massachusetts.\nC. R. Mann, of Illinois.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nPRACTICAL\nN. S. SHALER,\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nFrank M. Gilley, Secretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF TEACHING\n\nGEOLOGY, HARV^D\nMASS.\n\nGEOLOGY\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCAMBRIDGE,\n\nIn considering the methods of teaching geology it is essential to\nbegin by determining the scope of the instruction which is to be given\nand the grade of students who are to receive it. At the outset it should\nbe noted that geologic science is not like astronomy, geography, chemistry, physics, botany, or the other clearly limited sciences, each with a\ndefinite group of considerations. It is a congeries of all these which relate\nto the physical realm, with no central problems except that of succession\nin time and no boundaries save the limits of this sphere. Thus when we\nteach geology we have to follow one or another of these discreet sciences\nover or in the earth to show how it has determined actions or conditions.\nIt is thus evident that to be profitable any instruction whatever in geology\nshould come after some preliminary training in one or more of the\nsciences which have to be used in interpreting the earth.\nThe fact that geology is not a distinct science, but a congeries of\nsciences, makes it evident that it has no fit place in any stage of education\nwhich can be termed elementary. The further fact that the considerations\nwhich are proper to it are those relating to successions of events, and to\nthe interaction of various celestial and terrestial forces in the evolution of\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nGEOLOGY\n\n849\n\nthis planet, affords other reasons why no effort should be made to teach\nthTs subject in any connected way to immature minds. I am aware of the\ndisposition of the teacher in each of the natural sciences, except mathematics, to insist that the pupils shall come to their instruction with a\ntraining in some or all the other fields of inquiry save his own, and of the\npatent impossibility of gratifying this desire. So, too, I am aware of the\nevil which arises from the overclassification of natural actions whereby this\ncomposite realm of nature where all actions are blended is presented to\nyouths as if it were really divided and accurately pigeon-holed. Yet it is\nonly by such division that a presentation of this complex can be attained.\nAfter that is accomplished it is well to show the synthesis as it is shown in\nthe so-called science of geology. It is, indeed, from the point of view of\neducation that it can most profitably be set before the mind.\nAssuming, then, that geology is to afford the student some sense of\nthe integration of natural actions, it follows that it should be taught, not\nto young children, but to those who have gained some of the simpler concepts of astronomy, physics, and biology. In astronomy they need to\nknow the elements of the solar system and the action of the sun's heat\nupon the planet ; in physics, something of the common phenomena and\nrelations of heat and the action of dynamic forces; in biology, so much\nof organic life as shows the succession of life, and the patent relation of\nplanets and animals to each other, and of both to the inorganic realm.\nFurther, they need to have the simple concepts of solid geometry, so that\nthey can think in three dimensions. It is well, tho less essential, that they\nbring certain understandings of chemical action, such, for instance, as will\nenable them to comprehend the role of COg in the air — how it passes into\norganic station in the plants, how it is appropriated from the plants by\nthe animals, going thence to the rocks or back to the air.\nThe above-noted preliminaries to the study of geology, strictly so\ncalled, inevitably mean that youths shall not fairly enter on this field until\nthey have attained the age of puberty. It is fit that the beginning should\nbe made this late, for not until that age does the mind begin to open to\nthe large thinking the subject requires. I know this by personal experience. As a lad of about thirteen I became deeply interested in reading\nbooks on geology and in childish efforts to study the world within my\nlimited views, but it was all puerile. The concepts then formed were so\ngrossly inadequate that they had, so far as possible, to be cast away.\nSome of the relics of those misunderstandings remain as memories in the\nbackground of my mind to this day. Fifty years of better seeing have\nnot sufficed to clear them away.\nWhere the schools are well graded and the youths fairly advanced, the\nbeginnings of the study of geology, strictly so called, may be made in the\nlast year of the secondary school. If the contributary sciences have been\nfully taught, some reference will have been made in that teaching to the\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\napplication of these principles to the interpretation of the earth. Thus\nin physics, when stresses are considered, it will have been noted that\nmountains are in part due to such action ; and when and where botany\nand zoology are taught, it will be noted that the coals and limestones are\nof organic origin ; etc. ; so that in beginning geology the student will feel\nthat he is entering on ground that is not altogether strange to him, a field\nwhere he knows there are large things to be known.\nIn my experience the best door by which to enter on geology is that\nof the action of water. There are enough facts in the field of ordinary\nexperience to make a beginning easy, and the instruction in physics should\nhelp much in making the simpler laws plain. Begun with a study of the\naction of the rain, the essential nature of the work should at first be made\nplain. The student should be brought to see that the processes of erosion\nand transportation are all set in action by solar energy. It is well here\nto show that the amount of this energy which comes each day upon the\nearth is what for convenience is stated in terms of the frozen water it\nwould melt, and that this heat is sufficient to liquefy about eight thousand\ncubic miles of \\ct per diem.\nAt this point the student should be brought to see how the atmosphere\nserves, particularly by the vapor of water it contains, to retain a portion of\nthe tide of solar energy and set it to work. The matter is simple and easily\nunderstood, yet the concept had from it is one of the largest and most\nenlarging to be obtained in the science. The history of solar action thru\nwater should be followed in the surface streams and the deeper movements\nof the fluid, its relations to organic life shown, and the simpler chemical\nprocesses due to it made clear. Then, in contrast to the action of fluid\nwater should be set that of ice in the forms of snow and glaciers. Attention should be called to the fact that the mighty differences between these\ntwo modes of action are due to an infinitesimal variation of temperature :\nthat water above the freezing-point plays one role, and at an infinitely\nsmall diminution of heat enters on a totally different mode of action. We\nthus show the student the value of a critical point in natural actions. In\nthe discussion of these matters I have found it very useful to compare the\nconditions of the earth and the moon, showing that the lunar sphere\nlacks all physical life because it is not subjected to water action. It\nreceives as much solar energy per unit of area as the earth, but that energy\nis not retained and set to work as on our planet.\nAfter the history of water in the form of rain or snow has been traced,\nits work in the seas and lakes should be followed, showing that there\nagain it is solar energy which is acting in the waves and marine currents.\nThe way in which this energy is stored in the wave and applied by its\nstroke against the land should be made plain. It is, of course, best seen\non the main coasts, but it is evident on the shores of even a small pool or\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nGEOLOGY\n\n851\n\na little river.\nIt may be experimentally illustrated by blowing with the\nbreath upon a hand basin of water.\nIn further setting forth the solar action on this planet, the history of\nthe movements of the air may be explained. In practice I take up this\nmatter before treating of the rain, but with younger people than I have to\ndeal with it may not be easy to make the phenomena of the winds clear\nenough to be interesting. Yet with a little address, and by the use of\nfamiliar illustrations, I believe the normal child of fifteen can be led to a\nclear understanding of the important facts. If this is undertaken, the\ngeologic effects of the winds in erosion and definition should be carefully\nset forth. Such phenomena as those of sand dunes, wind-carried pebbles, and the dust deposits of western China make this action plain.\nAs a part of the history of solar energy on the planet the organic\nprocesses should be set forth. Here is a field of much difficulty, for the\nreason that the pupils can know but little of animals and plants, and the\nsuccession of species to the amount of a hundred million or more is to\nthem, as to us, inconceivable. The adult has to learn in many ways to\nfence with inconceivables, but it is not well to hurl them at young people.\nI cannot tell you how to do this task so as to give the student valuable\nconcepts, but there is one caution I may give, which is, not to afflict them\nwith the categoric names of fossils. The series of animals such as those\nwhich led from the five-toed mammalia to the single-toed horse will interest beginners, but the technical names will put them out of sympathy with\nthe story. If but a limited amount of geology be taught, say that which\ncan be compassed in three months with three periods a week, it seems to\nme best to devote the greater part of it to the above-noted effects of solar\nenergy.\nPassing from the field of surface actions to the phenomena\n\nof the\n\nearth's crust, we enter on a realm where the subject-matter is more recondite and affords less enlarging concepts. The whole group of stress\nactions, such as those exhibited in faults and foldings of the rocks, should\nbe shortly dealt with and with the intent of showing the simpler aspects\nof the earth's contraction, and combined with it the effects of loading and\nunloading of various parts of the surface, ai^d also the generally, slow\ngrowth of mountains and the coincident erosion by streams and glaciers.\nAll these subjects should be treated in a general manner; the details are\nfor professional geologists. The phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes are particularly interesting because they are vivid and picturesque.\nThe conception of the interior of the earth as a seat of power may be\nhad from this field as from none other ; so, too, from earthquakes the\nnotion that the crust is not a dead mass, but exceedingly elastic.\nThe nature of ore deposits — in fact, the conditions of occurrence of\nall earth materials contributive to the arts — is a matter of curious interest\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "^52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntSdenc*\n\nto young people, especially when taught in relation to the wealth of\nvarious nations. In general, it may be said that so long as the teacher\ncan relate the matter to the interests of man he is sure to have the attention of his pupils. I have found that, when I could show how the shape\nof the earth affected the history of a great battle or other human action,\nI had the basis for teaching that would stay.\nAs for the method of teaching, each teacher has to fit it to his capacities, with the limitation that the text-book, if used at all, should be no\nmore than the basis for the instruction, and the absolute requirement that\nthere must be some kind of field study to give life and body to the subject. One of the advantages of beginning with the action of water is that\neverywhere, even in the greater cities, some illustration of this, if it be\nonly in a gutter, can be had. A teacher who knows the subject can in a\nfew Saturdays afield give his pupils some sense of the actual earth and\nof the effects of solar energy on its surface. Almost everywhere he can\nshow them something of the characteristics of rocks. If there be fossiliferous deposits, he has yet another and excellent means of awakening\ninterest, for there is nothing else that so quickens the interest of the\npupil.\nAs for the apparatus needed, in teaching the elements of geology, it\nmay be what the conditions permit. If there is a good field for outdoor\nstudy, none whatever is absolutely required. It is well, very well indeed,\nto have a lantern and a few score slides showing features that are not to\nbe seen near the school. A collection of models illustrating geological\nstructures is useful — much better than diagrams, for the reason that they\nhave the solid quality. A collection of rocks and minerals has its value,\ntho they give but little to the beginners. Geological maps are not to be\nrecommended, for the reason that the interpretation of such delineations\nis exceeding difficult, and they tend to give the pupil the idea that the\nmatter is beyond his comprehension.\nAltho I have been teaching geology for nearly forty years, I find\nmyself unable to set down any rules for such instruction which are likely\nto be of much help to another person. What success I have had has\nbeen due, so far as I can see, to the fact that the subject has been in my mind\nfor all my active life, and that I have shaped my work to suit my own\nnature, not modeling it on that of any master. It may, furthermore, be\nsaid that I have awakened interest by keeping my elementary instruction\nas far as possible in fields that concerned man. So far as I have been\nable to observe, the failures of instructors in this and other sciences are\ngenerally due to the mistaken supposition that beginners in the subject\ncome to it with the interest which the expert alone has. To attain the\nend here, as elsewhere, it is well to humanize the matter as far as is\nconsistent with sound work.\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROPER\n\nTHE\n\nPROPER\n\nWILLIAM\n\nNORTH\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF\n\nGEOLOGICAL\n\nTEACHING\n\nSCOPE OF GEOLOGICAL TEACHLNG\nHIGH SCHOOL AND ACADEMY\nRICE,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nMIDDLETOWN,\n\nGEOLOGY,\nCONN.\n\nWESLEYAN\n\nLN\n\n853\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\n[an abstract]\n\nThe Committee of Ten placed in all four of its secondary-school programs a course in physical geography in the first year, and in all except\nthe classical program a course in geology or physiography in the fourth\nyear. The report of the Committee on Physical Geography, included in\nthe report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements presented\nat the meeting of the National Educational Association in 1899, recommends a course in physical geography in the first or second year, the\nmajority of the committee preferring the first year; and a course in\ngeology late in the curriculum, preferably in the fourth year. A committee of the Connecticut Association of Classical and High School Teachers,\nin formulating a model high-school curriculum, put a required course in\nphysical geography in the first year, and an elective course in geology in\nthe fourth year. These recent reports seem to indicate something like a\nconsensus of educational opinion.\nI believe that there should be a required course in physical geography\nin the first year of the high-school curriculum. This course would accordingly precede the bifurcation of the curriculum necessitated by the fact\nthat in most cases the classical students must begin Greek in the second\nyear. The importance of an intelligent general view of the world in\nwhich we live, to all pupils, whatever may be their subsequent educational\nadvantages or their business in life, amply justifies making this a required\ncourse. That it should become a part of the requirement for admission\nto all college courses is a consummation devoutly to be wished. A course\nin geology in the fourth year of the curriculum is a most desirable\nelective.\nThe required course in physical geography should include sections on\nthe earth as a planet, the atmosphere, the ocean, the land, and life. I\ndeem it unnecessary to discuss that course, as I am in substantial agreement with the views of the report on physical geography presented to the\nNational Educational Association in 1899. The only important point in\nwhich I would wish to express dissent from that report is th^t, in my\nopinion, the amount of time allotted to the geography of the land is proportionally too great.\nA course in geology will be in an important sense an amplification of\nthe part of the course in physical geography relati ng to the land. While, to a\nconsiderable extent, the subjects treated in physical geography and geology\nare identical, there is always a difference in the point of view. Geography\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nhas been said to be the study of the earth's present in the light of its past;\ngeology, the study of its past in the light of its present. The recognition\nof the earth as having had a history is incidental in geography, essential\nin geology. Geography looks primarily at the present condition of the\nearth as man's dwelling-place; tho there can be no intelligent contemplation of existing forms without reference to their cause, or of current processes without reference to the history which they imply. But in geology\nthe idea of the earth as having had a history — as being a product of\nevolution — is all-important. Dynamical and structural geology gives the\nkey to the alphabet in which the earth's monumental inscriptions are\nwritten. Historical geology reads those inscriptions themselves. Something of dynamical geology must, of course, be implied in any other than\na purely phenomenal description of geographical facts. But the dynamics of the globe, which can be treated only superficially with the knowledge at command of high-school pupils in the first year, can be treated\nmuch more thoroly after they have acquired in the second and third years\nsome knowledge of physics and chemistry, and perhaps of other sciences.\nIn the first year's course in physical geography, the action of the atmosphere and rain in reducing rocks from a condition of comparatively firm\nconsolidation to a more or less advanced state of disintegration can be\nrecognized in a general way. In a fourth year's course in dynamical\ngeology, the student will be prepared to recognize specifically the chemical\nactions of oxygen and water and carbon dioxide upon the various elements and compounds of which the earth's crust consists. In the first\nyear's course there can be a general recognition of the action of rivers,\nin erosion, transportation, and deposition, and of the effect of varying\nvelocity upon these processes ; but the fourth -year student, who has\nlearned something of physics, can understand that the energy of a river is\nthe energy of a falling body, is measured by the product of mass into\nheight of fall, and is used up chiefly in overcoming friction and in uplifting transported sediment in opposition to gravitation. He can thus gain\na far more complete and comprehensive knowledge of the dynamics of\nriver action.\nIf an elective in geology is provided in the fourth year, it should be\nchiefly a course in dynamical and structural geology. It must, indeed,\nbe recognized that no one course in geology is best in all schools.\nSomething must depend upon local conditions, something upon the qualifications and idiosyncrasies of the teacher, something upon the extent to\nwhich other sciences have been previously introduced in the curriculum\nof particular schools. In a school whose teachers and pupils have easy\naccess to a series of fossiliferous formations, obviously much more attention should be given to the study of fossils and their teaching than would\nbe wise in a school located in the middle of an expanse of crystalline rocks\nof uncertain origin ^nd of unknown age,\n\nSchools situated within the\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROPER\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF GEOLOGICAL\n\nTEACHING\n\n855\n\nglaciated region should obviously give special attention to glacial geology. Historical geology and paleontology can be dealt with somewhat\nfully in schools where the curriculum is such that the members of the class\nhave already had a somewhat extended course in zoology. But, in general, those who will take a course in geology in the fourth year of the\nhigh school will not have had enough of zoology and botany to appreciate a thoro or detailed presentation of the succession of life in geological\ntime. Mineralogy and lithology cannot be studied with any degree of\nthoroness without crystallography or without more of chemistry than\nhigh -school pupils can be expected to know. In general, a non-technical\ndescription of a mineral is an incorrect description. Practically all that\ncan be done with minerals and rocks is to show the student specimens of\na few of the most important, and give him some vague idea of their ordinary macroscopic characters.\nIn general, then, and apart from exceptional conditions, the main\npart of the work in geology must be the study of structural and dynamical\ngeology. The peculiar and characteristic educational value of such a\ncourse is as a training in scientific reasoning. The question which should\nalways be emphasized is : How do we know that the earth has had a history ? What are the signs by which past changes are inferred, and what is\nthe ground of validity of the inference ? This point of view requires, of\ncourse, considerable reflective capacity on the part of the student. Hence\nthis course should not come before the fourth year of the curriculum.\nThere has been difference of usage among lecturers and authors of textbooks ;some making the dynamical geology precede the structural,\nothers vice versa. Of these two arrangements, the former seems better\nadapted to initiate the student into the mental habitude of interpreting\nthe phenomena of the earth's crust as evidences of former changes. In\nmy own lectures, I have followed what seems to me a still better plan in\ntaking dynamical and structural geology together, so that each particular\nclass of rocks or of rock structures is studied in immediate connection\nwith the discussion of the particular agencies to which it is due. I\nbelieve that a text-book constructed on that plan would make it easier for\nthe teacher to develop in the student's mind some just conception of the\nlogic of geology.\nIn closing, a word may properly be said in regard to means of illustration. Besides maps, models, and pictures, every school should have at\nleast a small collection of geological specimens ; and a small collection\nwell selected is far more useful than a great mass of miscellaneous curios.\nThere should be, of course, typical specimens of the principal rockforming minerals and of the principal rocks. A small collection of fossils\ntypical of the different eras will be useMl. Most important for the teaching of geology, but usually entirely overlooked in fitting up a highschool museum, is material illustrative of dynamical geology ; such as\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "8 $6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntScience\n\nspecimens illustrating rock-weathering and decomposition, bowlders of\ndisintegration, water-worn pebbles and bowlders,Tipple-marks, rain-drop\nimpressions, mud-cracks, glaciated bowlders and glaciated rock surfaces,\nscoria, pumice, volcanic ashes and lapilli, specimens of miniature veins,\ndikes, and faults, slickensides, slaty cleavage, contorted lamination,\nstalactites and stalagmites. And it must never be forgotten that the laboratory of the geologist is out of doors. Many geological phenomena can\nbe illustrated very imperfectly or not at all by specimens or by pictures.\nMuch of the reasoning of geological science can be duly appreciated only\nby the student who has seen stratigraphical relations and topographical\nforms in the field. Of course, the character of the excursions that will be\npracticable, and the particular geological phenomena to be studied in the\nfield, must vary with the location of the school. But there is, happily, no\nplace on this earth where features of geological interest cannot be found\naccessible in an excursion of a single day or even of a half-day; and the\ntrue teacher of geology will never be satisfied unless he can get his pupils\nout of doors and show them geological phenomena on a broad scale at\nfirst hand.\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\n\nCLASS\n\nF. P. GULLIVER,\n\nST. MARK's\n\nWORK\nSCHOOL,\n\nIN GEOGRAPHY\nSOUTHBORO,\n\nMASS.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nThere are two methods of conducting science classes out of doors.\nOne of these methods is the field excursion, and the other the field exercise. A large number of pupils may go on an excursion, but only a small\nnumber, from ten to fifteen, may profitably take part in the field exercise.\nBoth methods tend to increase the observational faculties of the pupil.\nOn an excursion the instructor may point out many geographic features,\nand thus show the pupils what to see and how to choose from the many\nthe more important things to be seen. On an excursion the forms which\nhave been studied in the class-room may be pointed out to the pupil, and\nother forms shown which may be taken up later in class. As many pupils\nas can hear the instructor may gain information from this method of field\nwork.\nIn a field exercise, on the other hand, only a few may take part. The\ninstructor must see that each student takes each step in the exercise before\nthe next is shown. A few facts are given, and the pupils must work out\nothers from their individual observation. This is the laboratory method\ncarried into field work. The pupil is taught to observe, record, reason,\nexplain, and predict.\nThe first method must be used almost exclusively where the number\nof field trips is very limited or the number of pupils is large.\nWhere\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\n\nCLASS\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n857\n\nsmall sections are possible, the method of field exercises is much more\nprofitable and of very much greater educational value. More facts may\nbe shown on excursions, but greater real knowledge is gained by field\nexercises. The writer would not decry field excursions, but rather point\nout the greater value of field exercises. Teachers will find that an occasional excursion often increases the value of a well-planned series of\nexercises.\nAn example will make this difference clearer. An excursion into the\nregion of the New England glacial deposits may be so planned as to\nshow nearly all of the following features : glaciated rock surface, weathering since glaciation, grooves and striae, till, bowlders, clay, drumlin, esker,\nsand plain, kame, bowlder moraine, lakes, kettle holes, sections showing\ndifference in structure between till and water-laid deposits, and the many\nkinds of rock which make up glacial rock waste. The leader of the excursion must point out, describe, and explain each feature to the pupils, and\nthey will be able to retain more or less of them according to their training and ability.\nA series of field exercises may be planned to study the glacial deposits,\nand so arranged as to bring out all the above-named features, and at\nthe same time allow the pupils to work out for themselves many of the\nmore important facts which have been established in regard to the action\nof glaciers and their deposits.\nAfter a study of the New England upland-and the valleys cut beneath\nits nearly even skyline, pupils may be told something of the action of\nglaciers and the suggestion made that some of the already observed irregularities of surface form may be explained by the deposit made by an\nice-sheet. A good place to begin is with a section of a drumlin. Many\nboys will have noticed the \"football hills\" which lie on the upland or in\nthe valleys. Could these be formed by ice? How? Set them all to\nthinking. Now get facts, draw a section, study materials, find proportion\nof sand to clay, etc. Now study the form of rock fragments, flat sides,\nsome edges sharper than others, sharper on some kinds of rock than\nothers. How does ice smooth rock? How does it make grooves and\nscratches? Many such questions will be asked, and when the work is\ncompleted, the pupils will have a fairly clear idea of how glaciers act.\nWhere are drumlins placed? Does the direction of the axis accord\nwith the ice movement? Let some boys take one and some another, and\ndetermine compass bearing, height, length, breadth ; or make a contour\nmap of a drumlin showing all these points.\nNext make a study of a gravel ridge ; map its meandering course,\ncompare with the river, show high and low portions, find the general\ndirection of ridge, study materials and structures. When river action\nand ice action are clearly perceived, ask which came first. Note the\nrounding of glaciated pebbles.\nIf the gravel ridge represents the bed\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nof a stream, the banks must have been ice, which was later melted ; therefore between two stream courses one would expect to find a kettle hole ;\nif the glacial stream ran into standing water, predict a delta, which maybe visited later. After a gravel ridge is studied and understood, give the\nname, esker. If given too soon, some boy will be sure to say : *' Oh,\nyes ; I can find out all about that in the book.\"\nGlacial lake deposits may be studied in the same way, and deltas, ter-.\nraces, cliff and beach cut into drumlins, sand bars, islands, etc., worked\nout. All thru this study the value to man of the several deposits must\nbe shown — the contrast of sand and clay soil: sand for filters and concrete, road material ; clay for dams, bricks, etc.\nFor those who may take their classes to the seashore there are many\ngood exercises showing sea action, cutting of the land, building sand and\ngravel, filling in marshes, etc. In a similar manner field exercises may be\nplanned for other classes of land forms.\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nA. S. PEARSE,\n\nHEAD\n\nOF\n\nOF BIOLOGY\nTHE\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOMAHA, NEB.\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOF\n\nHIGH\n\nBIOLOGY,\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe biological work is almost invariably assigned to the second year\nin the high-school coursed It usually follows physical geography, and\nserves as a preparation for the courses in physics and chemistry which\nfollow. The nature and extent of this course have been so well and so\nrecently canvassed by this Association that this phase of the subject could\nwell be omitted from the present discussion.^ Nevertheless, the writer\nfeels that a brief statement of his views on such a course will not be out\nof place, in that it will, perhaps, make clearer the discussion of the\nmethods of handling it, which follows.\nBoth on account of the age of the students and because the majority\nof them will have no education of this nature after leaving the high\nschool, it is desirable that the work be of varied nature and cover as\nmuch of the plant and animal kingdoms as possible. The course offered\nshould consist largely of laboratory work, thus enabling the student to\ncome in contact with the actual things themselves. The courses in\nbotany and zoology may be offered separately or in a single course.\nAfter considerable experience with both methods, the best results have\nbeen obtained with the latter by alternating the plant and animal work\non the first four days of the week and using Friday for a general review\nof the ground covered during the week.\n\nThe work in this case was con-\n\n1 (a) Report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements, National Educational Association,1889; {h) \"Syllabus of Work in Biology in High Schools (New York),\" /^«r««/£'/^///z>^vlfzVrtfj<ro/jy\nand Laboratory Methods, Vol. VI, No. 4, p. 2277.\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF BIOLOGY\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n859\n\nfined to five class periods of forty-five minutes each, and, if the work conforms to the time generally allowed to studies in the high school, the\nteacher will have about this time to devote to class work. The writer has\nbeen accustomed to devote most of the first four periods of the week to\npure laboratory work, giving only a short quiz on the lesson assigned for\noutside study at the beginning of the hour.\nAs a guide for the laboratory work any of the excellent laboratory\nmanuals now on the market may be used. These, however, will not in\nevery case suit' the available laboratory material, and a much better\nmethod is for the teacher to make a set of laboratory guides, following\nthe model of any good manual. These may be mimeographed on heavy\nmanilla cardboard and kept in the laboratory. These guides have the\nadvantage of being elastic, and, if new points are to be inserted with the\nacquisition of new material, or if the material is poor in a certain season\nand it seems advisable to treat a form briefly, a change is easily accomplished.\nIt is well to use simple names when they fit, but it is doubtful whether\nit is advisable to invent common names in order to make the work more\neasy, or to avoid the use of scientific terms when they are most suitable.\nIf schedules like those recommended are used, they should cover, more or\nless completely, every branch of the plant and animal kingdom. It is also\nadvisable to use as many forms as possible in each group. Then the\nevidence on that group is not limited to a single specimen. For\nexample, the nervous system may be worked out in one form and the\ncirculatory system in another of the same group.\nIt has been demonstrated that high-school pupils can, with care, use\nthe compound microscope and other delicate pieces of apparatus with\nsuccess; and the use of these daily becomes more necessary to a true\ngrasp of the subject. Measuring scales, graduated to millimeters and\ncentimeters, and printed on durable cardboard, can be obtained at a very\nreasonable price. These are a valuable aid in the hands of the students\nfor making measurements, and also in making them familiar with the\nmetric system.\nField expeditions, when the specimens are studied in their actual\nhabitats, are invaluable both to teacher and student. And even better\nthan these are collecting expeditions by the students themselves. For\nexample, a student learns in the laboratory the characteristics of a\nplanarian and perhaps even examines a living specimen. But even with\nthis knowledge it is not improbable that, after a year's time, many\nstudents would not recognize a planarian if they saw one. But if half a\nday has been spent looking for a specimen, and it has been preserved in\nalcohol, the student has a lasting impression. The value for the pupil in\na required collection lies more in learning to recognize and distinguish\nplants or animals in the field than in the specimens collected.\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ncollection of this kind makes each pupil an investigator, and he takes a\ngreat amount of interest and pride in his work. The writer has been\naccustomed to require both a plant and an animal collection, giving the\nchoice of two or three, as shown by the following examples :\nAnimal collection. — Fresh-water sponge or hydra (i), planarian (i), earthworm (i),\nleech (i), crayfish (i), myriapod (i), orthoptera (i), neuroptera (i), hemiptera (2), diptera\n(i), lepidoptera (2 of each suborder), coleoptera (4), hymonoptera (2), arachnida (2),\ngastropoda (i). These should be placed in a bottle — a fruit jar answers the purpose —\nfilled with alcohol or formol, except the fragile insects, which are to be mounted on pins\nin a cigar box. In connection with this collection learn to recognize at sight the\nfollowing different (specified) native forms of batrachia (3), reptiha (4), birds (15), and\nmammals (3).\nBotany collection. No. I. — Protophyta (i), green algae (3), sac-fungi (3), puff-ball (i),\ntoadstool (i), bracket-fungus (i), stone wort (i), bryophyta (l of each class), pteridophyta\n(2), gymnosperms (2), monocotyledons (8), dicotyledons (12). These specimens to be\npressed and mounted (or preserved in alcohol when that is impracticable) and labeled,\ngiving the common name, family, genus, species, locality, date, and collector.\nBotany collection. No. 2. — Thirty-five native woods, pieces to be i by 4 inches, and\ncut out to show the grain; sand-papered, polished, and varnished.\nBotany collection. No. 3. — One hundred leaves. These to be pressed, mounted, and\nnamed as in collection No. i.\n\nThese collections, aside from their value to the student, furnish the\nteacher an incentive to keep up to date, and also supply abundant laboratory material for the next year.\nLaboratory or field work is most valuable when the results are kept in\npermanent form. The notebooks, in addition to being neatly and carefully made, should be kept on a uniform plan. This renders examination\nby the teacher much more easy. Of course, they should be looked over\nfrequently, and it is a good plan to have all drawings presented to the\nteacher for approval as soon as they are completed. Mistaken impressions are avoided in this way. As to the notebook, the ordinary loose\nleaves of note and drawi^ig paper, placed inside a cover and held by a\nstring, give excellent satisfaction, when the student has a locker, drawer,\nor other suitable place to keep them. But if there is no such receptacle,\nthe leaves are apt to become soiled, and a book about 8 by 10 inches,\nbound in board covers, has in this case been found to give better satisfaction. The latter form will stand the wear and tear of being carried\naround by the students, and can be obtained from a bookmaker at a cost\nof about twenty-five cents.\nWhen the time allotted for class work consists of five periods a week,\nthe work should consist of laboratory work for the most part; no great\ndifficulty will be encountered in presenting this work in the manner\nsuggested above or by some better method. It is the problem of keeping\nthe students profitably employed outside the class-room that offers the\ngreatest difficulty. We have numerous excellent biological text-books\naccessible at the present time, and the difficulty may be met by assigning\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF BIOLOGY\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n86 1\n\nlessons, supplementary to the laboratory work, from one of these.\nFor the teacher who has a limited knowledge of the subject, or who\ndoes not expect to continue the work of teaching biology, this is probably the most satisfactory way. But the books available may be behind the\ntimes, and, while a book may be satisfactory in most respects, it is never\nwithout some fault, in the eyes of the teacher. It may completely satisfy\nthe ideas of the author under the conditions for which it was written, but\nthere is no text which will meet every requirement in any part of the\ncountry. For example, the specimen on which the illustration is based in\nthe text may not be available for laboratory study.\nEvery teacher has felt that if the good in one book or the theories\nof one author could be combined with one or two others, an ideal textbook would result. A professor in a college attains this ideal by combining the knowledge he gleans from various sources in his lectures. But\nit is doubtful whether pupils of the second year of the high school are able\nto take profitable lecture notes without making the lecture a tedious dictation and a great waste of time. The student expects and needs a textbook, and it is probably not advisable to withhold it. If each teacher\ncould make a text of his ovyn, in which he could combine the good in all\nthe works to which he has access, and if the hobbies of some authors could\nbe eliminated, and the teacher could incorporate a few of his own,\nand if the text need never get behind the times, the arrangement would\nbe most agreeable and satisfactory. The writer has been able to accomplish this with results, satisfactory to himself at least, by a series of\nmimeographed schedules which are given out, a sheet at a time, and written in the books with the laboratory notes. Of course, a part of these\nschedules consists of information which is merely copied. Things like\nthe history of biological science or the theories of the mechanical nature\nof protoplasm can be presented in no other way. But the major part is\ncomposed of questions on the laboratory, lecture, or field work, which are\nintended to bring out the relationships of the forms studied and the\ngeneral biological laws or facts. The following are two examples which\nwill illustrate the point better than an explanation :\nBotany study schedule No. i. — (Answer in the form of a continuous essay in the\nnotebooks on the left side of the page.) Will there be a greater difference between the\nplants of two different branches than between those of two different classes of the same\nbranch ? Why must this be true ? Between what two divisions will there be the least\ndifference ? Of what does the scientific name of every plant or animal consist ? Where\ndo the lowest plants of the plant kingdom live ? What conditions are found in such\nplaces ? Warm air causes water to evaporate, whether it be in ponds or in the bodies of\nplants. If the water in a plant evaporates faster than it can be replaced, the plant wilts\nand dies. What do land plants, trees for example, possess which prevents the water in\nthem from evaporating too rapidly ? Why must gloeocapsa live in a moist place ? etc.\nZoology study schedule No. jg. — Develo^ent of the nervous system. What was\nthe first animal we studied that had a nervous system ? Describe this system. Of what\ntwo essential parts does the system in this cij^se consist ? What is the characteristic and\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\npeculiar form of a nerve-cell ? What is the function of each part ? Of what is a\nso-called nerve-fiber composed ? What was the form of the nervous system in the\nnemathelminthes ? What is the position of the nerve cords ? etc., etc.\n\nThese study schedules are mimeographed on sheets of white paper\nabout 7 by lo inches, and one of this size can be used for the assignment\nof lessons for about two weeks.\nBy the use of such a system as the above not only does the teacher\nwork with his own text-book, but the pupils, in answering the questions,\nmust depend upon their own laboratory work and the notes they have\ntaken. This makes the accuracy of the notebook an important detail, and\nthis fact the students are not slow to see. They feel that the book is their\nown work, and with the greater interest that this thought brings they are\nmore careful about the material that goes into it.\nIf both the laboratory course and the work outside the class are offered\nby means of schedules, we have a perfectly elastic system, which may be\nmodified from year to year, and is easily expanded in one place or cut\ndown in another to fit the scarcity or abundance of laboratory material.\nIt may also be used as supplementary to a text-book. The teacher need\nnot necessarily be able to use a typewriter to get out sheets of the kind\nmentioned, as there are persons in every city who are willing to do this\nwork at a nominal sum.\nSUMMARY\n\nThe writer advocates the following plan for the course in high-school\nbiology :\n1. Laboratory work upon the fauna and flora of the locality in which the course is\noffered, and the specimens in the laboratory. This is to be supplemented by {a) field\nexpeditions, and {b) collections by the student.\n2. Work done outside the class. This is to be guided by schedules which consist of\n{a) general information, and {b) questions based on the field and laboratory work.\n3. The keeping of careful notes on both the above divisions of work.\n\nSuch a course encourages independent thought on the part of the student, and tends to keep the teacher from becoming narrow thru the use of\na single text. The greatest disadvantage attending its use is the amount\nof w^ork involved. This labor, however, decreases each year, and even\nduring the first year it does not amount to much more than that which the\nadoption of a new text-book involves.\n\nA NEW\nWILLIAM\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\nTOWNSEND PORTER, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY\nHARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nIN THE\n\nNo profession is older than medicine and none more new. In the\nmedical schools subjects taught three thousand years ago standby the side\nof those unknown in the youth of men still active.\nAnatomy is more\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA NEW\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\n863\n\nancient than the obelisks ; embryology and bacteriology are children of\ntoday. Physiology, too, is of recent origin. It has broken away from\nanatomy. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes taught both subjects in the same\ncourse of lectures. The teaching of physiology has naturally been greatly\ninfluenced by methods employed in the teaching of anatomy. Descriptive\nanatomy became the most conspicuous discipline in medicine at a time\nwhen the chief mental training was obtained from books. Joined to the\npowerful example of the most liberal education of that period was the\ndifficulty of obtaining material for dissection. Thus necessity supported\nthe mistaken theory that natural science could be learned from verbal\ndescription. To this day in many schools most of the instruction in\nanatomy remains didactic and consists of books, diagrams, and more or\nless misleading models.\nPractical necessity and false theory have kept the teaching of physiology also upon the wrong path. Physiology, it is true, does not need\nthe cadaver, but it needs much that seemed impossible. It is even\nyet believed that the cost of apparatus and other materials is prohibitory,\nthat students cannot master the details of exact experimentation, that\ndelicate apparatus cannot be trusted in their hands, and that instruction\nto the extent required cannot be given to large classes because the course\nwill become too complicated to be carried out. So, in physiology as in\nanatomy, an apparently unavoidable makeshift has supported incorrect\ntheory. Nature is studied apart from nature — by reading or hearing\ndescriptions at second hand of what some third person saw. This error\nhas been strengthened by the example of teachers of the law. The\nfundamental difference between the natural sciences and other disciplines,\nsuch as the law, has been forgotten. The material of the law is in books.\nWords give with accuracy the principles and rulings which constitute the\nlaw. It is not so in natural phenomena. These cannot be well described.\nIf words would serve, the blind would see. You cannot know a man's\nvoice until you have heard it. No one would willingly employ a\nphysician who had never examined a patient. Yet there are many books\nthat describe as well as books can the symptoms of disease. Disease is\nthe abnormal action of living organs ; physiology treats of their normal\naction. If their abnormal action cannot be learned from books, neither\ncan their normal action.\nEfforts have been made to better the hearsay method of teaching\nphysiology. In most schools of medicine the lectures in physiology are\nenlivened by occasional demonstrations. In a few schools certain experiments are performed by the students themselves. Yet the mediaeval\ntradition still holds. The stress is upon the didactic teaching. The\nstudent rests on the authority of the •professor and the text-book. The\nexperiments follow the lecture and attempt to verify its statements. The\nweakness of this method is easily perceived. A natural phenomenon\ncannot be understood without personal experience, either of the phe-\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nnomenon itself or of other phenomena so closely related that the memory\nof them will combine in the mind to form a sense-image of the new phenomenon. Ifthere has been no personal experience, there will be no\nmemories to rouse and words will fail. Many of the phenomena in physiology— forexample, the peristalsis of hollow viscera — are entirely unlike\nanything else in nature; they must be personally sensed. Other physiological phenomena are so complicated as to defy reproduction in the\nmind by combination of the memories of their many constituents. These\nare unanswerable arguments. It is well, however, to submit to actual\nexperiment the reactions of the student to the stimuli of education. I\nhave made such observations on the students in the Harvard Medical\nSchool during the past ten years. From the first to the sixth year of this\nperiod what I have called the traditional method of teaching physiology\nwas employed. The examination of students taught in this way showed,\nas was inevitable, an undeniable lack of comprehension of physiological\nphenomena lying outside the student's own experience. Moreover, these\nstudents treated physiology as a descriptive and not as a rational science.\nTheir point of view was wrong. In this they were undoubtedly influenced\nby their study of anatomy. Anatomy is a descriptive science; it deals\nwith units, and these units are at rest. The student aims at visual memory ;\noften he satisfies himself with the memory of a diagram or a model.\nPhysiology deals chiefly with units in action ; each influencing the others.\nThe circulation of the blood, for example, is not a fixed state, to be\nmemorized, but is, at any given moment, an equilibrium resulting from\nthe interaction of many shifting factors. The factors must be severally\nknown and the result of their interaction be reasoned out. If the factors\nhave not been acquired largely by personal observation, the mind will not\ngrasp them with sufficient clearness to enable their subsequent combination. The truth of these remarks is borne out by the failure of students\nto answer certain questions even when they had known for weeks that\nthese questions would be asked at the examination. For the most part,\nphysiology cannot be memorized, but must be understood. The final test\nof the undergraduate is comparison with a strong professional. The\nquality of sound learning is the same the world over. Students taught\nphysiology by the didactic method cannot meet this test.\nMoved by these observations, I proposed in 1898 a new method of\nteaching physiology, and this method has been four years in use in the\nHarvard Medical School. In the new method, the fundamental experiments and observations which form the solid ground in every field of\nphysiology are divided into sufficiently small groups and arranged in the\nmost instructive sequence. With the fundamental experiment of each\ngroup are placed the accessory data. The meaning of this term will be\nclear from the following example. Consider the function of the roots of\nspinal nerves.\n\nThe fundamental experiment here is Johannes Miiller's\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA NEW\n\nMETHOD\n\nOF TEACHING\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\n865\n\nwell-known section and stimulation of the nerve-roots. The accessory\ndata are such of the observations and opinions of his successors as are\nnecessary to give a clear picture of the present state of knowledge of this\nsubject. The Harvard student makes for himself the fundamental observation, and immediately afterward considers the accessory data provided\nin text-book and lecture. He proceeds systematically from the fundamental experiment and accessory data of one group to those of the next,\nin an ordered and logical series.\nThe fundamental experiment and the accessory data are taken as\ndirectly as possible from the original sources, and (for university students)\nthe reference should be given in each case.\nIt will be obvious that the new method is not an extension of the old.\nIt is, in fact, an exactly opposite process. The old method is chiefly\ndidactic. The new is a systematic course of experiment and observation\nby the student himself. In the old the student rests on the professor and\nthe text-book; in the new he relies on the fundamental experiments done\nwith his own hands. In the old his experiments follow the lecture and\nattempt to verify its statements ; in the new his experiments precede the\nlecture and are discussed by the lecturer in relation to the work of other\nobservers. In the old the stress is upon the didactic teaching; in the\nnew the stress is upon observation. Under the old method students in\nthe Harvard Medical School used to ask: \" Who is the authority for that\nstatement ?\" Under the new they ask: \"What is the experimental evidence ?\" The old method insensibly teaches men to depend upon\nauthorit})^ but the new directs them to nature.\nIt should be observed that this new method serves for the instruction\nof all students, from beginners to those engaged in research. The beginner performs the fundamental experiment in each group and studies the\naccessory data. The advanced student performs the fundamental experiments and as many of the accessory experiments as may give him the\nspecial training he desires. The research student has before him the\nclassical observations and the original sources of the problem he has\nchosen.\nIt should be noticed also that the new need not violently push aside\nthe old method of instruction, but may replace it chapter by chapter, as\nthe means and the energy of the instructors shall permit.\nIt has been urged against the new method that there are fundamental\nexperiments which require more time than the student can possibly give,\nor which are too complicated to be successfully performed by him. The\nnumber of these has certainly been much exaggerated, and is daily lessened\nby inventions that secure simplicity without loss of accuracy. Pending\nsuch labor-saving inventions, the experirftents which consume much time\nare done (in the Harvard Medical School) by committees of students, and\nthe results reported to, the entire class.\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe question of \" ways and means \" should now be considered. The\nnew method requires :\n1. Printed accounts of the fundamental experiments and observations in physiology,\ntaken from the original sources, and arranged in the most instructive sequence. For\nuniversity students the reference to the original source should be given in each case.\n2. Accessory data grouped about the fundamental experiments. The accessory\ndata should also be taken as directly as possible from the original source, and the reference given in each case.\n3. Apparatus of precision designed with the utmost simplicity upon lines that permit its manufacture in large quantities at small cost.\n\nEspecial consideration should be given to this apparatus for the laboratory teaching of large numbers of students. The making of physiological apparatus distinguished by simplicity of design, sound workmanship, and low cost is of high importance to the development of\nphysiology. The ordinary student of physiology is essentially a book\nman, while the professional physiologist is essentially a laboratory man.\nStudent and professor should go the same path — the only road that ever\nhas led or ever will lead to a sound knowledge of a natural science. Few\nsteps can be taken along this road without apparatus of precision. Physiological apparatus has hitherto been made upon the \"model\" plan, each\npiece for itself, without regard to the number of mechanical \"operations\"\nrequired, and with little or no thought as to the subsequent maintenance\nof the apparatus in good condition. The individual laboratory instruction of each student with apparatus made on the old lines would be\nbeyond the means of any large school. Hence, the sound training of\nlarge classes in physiology depends absolutely upon the invention of\napparatus that shall serve for exact experimentation, i. e., the repetition\nof classical experiments, and that shall also be designed with reference (i)\nto its \" manufacture,\" (2) to its storage and issue, and (3) to its maintenance in good condition. By \"manufacture\" is meant technically the\nmaking of a number of pieces of the same apparatus consecutively, by\npreference upon special lathes and with special tools. For economy the\nnumber of steps or \" operations \" should be the fewest possible, as each\noperation must be repeated many times. The labor of setting a \"turret\nlathe\" which will make eight consecutive operations upon the same piece\nof metal is as great for one piece as for a thousand. Astonishing economies may also be secured by the use of special automatic tools.\nFurther, it is essential that the apparatus be compact, and that important parts be protected so that they may not be injured when the apparatus is handled rapidly by persons of small experience. Storage and\nissue must be carefully studied to prevent hopeless confusion and the\nrapid deterioration of the plant.\nFinally, the apparatus should be designed with especial reference to\ndurability and cleanliness; otherwise there will be a heavy charge for\nmaintenance.\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABORATORY\n\nWORK\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\n867\n\nThe supply of apparatus of this type bears the same relation to the\nadvance of physiology that the commissariat bears to the advance of an\narmy.\nIt is obvious that the above conditions cannot be fully met without\nprolonged labpr, but it has already been pointed out that the new may\nreplace the old method chapter by chapter, as the means of the instructor\nshall permit. This has been done in the Harvard Medical School. Thus\nthe two methods have been compared in practice upon the same students.\nThe superiority of the new method is beyond question.\nThe new method may be applied without change in universities and\ncolleges, and perhaps in high schools. Its essential feature — namely,\npersonal acquaintance with at least one phenomenon in each group\nbefore that group is discussed — should be the basis of instruction in the\nlower schools. It is the foundation of all true knowledge in the natural\nsciences.^\n\nLABORATORY\n\nWORK\n\nJAMES\n\nHEAD\nHIGH\n\nE. PEABODY,\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nOF THfi\nSCHOOL,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF\nNEW\nYORK\nCITY\n\n[ AN ABSTRACT\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\nBIOLOGY,\n\nMORRIS\n\n]\n\nPhysiology has not hitherto had an honored place in the school curriculum, because anatomical details or the dry rules of hygiene have been\ntoo frequently emphasized, rather than the interesting and profitable\nprinciples of physiology ; the subject has often been taught by teachers\nwho have not made a specialty of biology, and physiology, in the minds\nof too many pupils, is synonymous with instruction as to the effects of\nalcohol and narcotics.\nIt is easy to interest boys and girls in the functions carried on in their\nown bodies. It is important for their health and happiness that they\nknow how to care intelligently for the organs of these bodies. An intelligent public sentiment respecting sanitation, street-cleaning, and the\nwork of boards of health can be best developed by a proper teaching of\nphysiology, and this subject, when taught by the laboratory method, has\nreal educational value.\nAt the outset it is important to emphasize the fact that physiological\nprocesses can never be understood unless the pupil is given some idea of\nat least the simpler principles of chemistry. He must become more or\nless familiar with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ; he must know\nhow to test for carbon dioxide, for acids, and for alkalis ; and he must\nlearn something of the common procej^es of oxidation, neutralization,\nI In the preparation of this address the writer has drawn to some extent upon his former publications,\n'* The Teaching of Physiology,\" Philadelphia Medical Journal^ September i, 1900, and Physiology at\nHarvard^ second edition, Cambridge University Press, 1903.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand evaporation. For unless these lessons are taught early in the course\nand taught by experiment, the boy will find his foundation weak when he\nattacks the more difficult processes involved in digestion, respiration, and\nexcretion. Most of these simple lessons can be taught with common\nmatches, a few chemicals, and some pieces of glassware. If a pupil once\ngets clearly in his mind the nature of elements, compounds, and process\nof oxidation, an immense amount of subsequent labor and disappointment-will be saved.\nIn the important subject of foods, the pupil should first familiarize\nhimself by laboratory experiment with the five or six nutrients that are\nfound most commonly in foods. For the starch tests a quart of iodine\nsolution can be made for a small sum, and this, put into small bottles, will\nsupply a large class. Most of the experiments in food analysis can be\ncarried on successfully at home, the only real difficulty being that the\npupil is likely to get so interested in his experiments that he forgets to\nlearn his other lessons. When he has followed the simple directions\ngiven him, has tested ten to twenty foods, and has been called upon to\ndefend his results in the class-room, a boy is not likely to forget that\ncereals usually contain a large amount of starch, and that this nutrient is\nabsent in foods of animal origin. Instead of relying on. text-book\nauthority, he has demonstrated beyond a doubt that potatoes and flour\ncontain a large amount of starch, and that peas and beans commonly\nhave less of this nutrient. The conflicting results derived from the testing of spices furnish a good text for a discussion of food adulterations.\nThe Fehling's solution test for grape sugar can be performed at home,\nthe necessary chemicals and test-tubes being furnished the pupil. The\npresence or absence of proteids, fats, mineral matters, and water should\nlikewise be experimentally determined at home or in the class by the\nindividual pupil, and a comparison made of the results obtained. Each\npupil has now a concrete idea of some of the most important compounds\nhe is to meet continually as ingredients of his food, as components of the\nblood, or as essential constituents of his body.\nIt is impossible, of course, to demonstrate by experiment the uses of\nthe various nutrients, and so with laboratory study there must be combined a considerable amount of class-room instruction. Indeed, we should\nbear in mind that laboratory work must always be followed with and supplemented byvigorous questioning — a process which keeps clear in the\nmind of the pupil the essential points in each experiment and the relations of the various facts that have been learned.\nThe uses of foods, proper methods of cooking, and the study of food\neconomy are, to my mind, among the most important of the topics connected with human physiology. These topics are treated more or less\ninadequately in most school text-books, but fortunately the publications\nof the United States Department of Agriculture are availiable even in the\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABORATORY\n\nWORK\n\ntJSt HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSIOLOGY\n\n869\n\nlarge quantities required for individual study. The best bulletins for\nhigh -school use are Foods : Nutritive Value and Cost, and Meats : Composition and Cooking. The colored food charts which are so useful in class\nrecitations are unfortunately out of print, but the charts and tables in the\nbulletins named above can be used to almost as good a purpose.\nA study of half a dozen of the common tissues should next be undertaken, because these tissues are met with again and again in considering\nthe processes of digestion, circulation, and respiration. Get a butcher to\nsaw in halves the leg bones of a sheep, and supply each pupil with half a\nbone and a dissecting knife. At the close of fifty minutes of laboratory\nwork he should have learned the essential characteristics of bone, cartilage, connective tissue, and fatty tissue. Another laboratory period spent\nin studying pieces of beefsteak will fix in mind muscle tissue, and will\nserve to review fat and connective tissue. It is perhaps best to reserve\nthe discussion of glandular tissue, nerve tissue, and respiratory tissue until\na later time.\nThe study of cell structure and cell functions should now be introduced, and two or three days may be well spent at this time on amoeba\nand Paramecium. The pupil should be led to see that these single-celled\nanimals carry on processes essentially the same in kind as those performed by the highest animals. It is perhaps well to consider in the\nfollowing order the ten most important functions carried on by animal\ncells : (i) locomotion, (2) taking in of food, (3) digestion, (4) circulation,\n(5) assimilation, (6) taking in of oxygen, (7) oxidation or metabolism, (8)\nexcretion, (9) sensation, and (10) reproduction.\nWhile it is not impossible to do this kind of work, even when the\nteacher has to go from room to room, school principals should be led to\nsee the enormous advantage, both to pupil and teacher,of the single laboratory. The room for this subject need not be equipped with special\nfurniture, for ordinary desks will answer almost as well for the work in\nphysiology. One essential condition, however, is an adequate supply of\nfresh material, which can be furnished by any local butcher who has\naccess to a slaughter-house. These supplies are, of course, to be paid for\nout of the public funds, just as are text-books and chemicals. After the\nlaboratory has been equipped with permanent apparatus, the total expense\nof the course ought not to aggregate more than eight or ten cents per\npupil.\nSuppose our topic is muscle, and we are aiming to lead the pupil to\nget first-hand clear ideas of its structure. Pieces about the size of one's\nthumb, cut from the leg muscle of a cow, should be placed on each desk,\ntogether with a dissecting needle. In small classes it may be best to allow\neach pupil to discover what he can and t© report his observations orally.\nOne can easily feel thru the flesh and determine that the skeleton of\nthe upper arm is formed of one long bone which has an enlargement at\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "^70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Science\n\neither end. The two bones of the forearm can also be distinguished and\ndescribed. We cannot, of course, count the small bones of the wrist, but\nthe range of motion between them can easily be shown. . In the palm and\nfingers the position and shape of the bones can be determined almost as\nwell as by studying a prepared skeleton. Having learned all that is possible from his own arm, the pupil's attention should be directed to a study\nof an articulated skeleton. Before any text-book lesson is assigned on a\ngiven set of bones, the bones should be pointed out by the pupil either on\nhis own body, or on the skeleton, and their form and use studied.\nThe position and action of the muscles of the arm are even more\neasily determined. Why should a boy learn from a book that his biceps\nmuscle on contracting becomes harder, thicker, and shorter, when by a\nfew laboratory directions he can so clearly demonstrate the fact? He can\nmake out, too, that the lower tendon of this muscle is attached in the\nregion of the forearm, and, after grasping this tendon between the thumb\nand forefinger, he can by turning the forearm satisfy himself that this\nmuscle is joined to the radius and not to the ulna. A similar study of\nthe fleshy part of the forearm reveals to the pupil that the muscles of the\nfingers are located in this region. By closing and opening the fingers the\nlong tendons which pull on the fingers can be traced from the forearm,\nalong the wrist and the palm or back of the hand, to the bones of the\ndigits. One can easily see how clumsy would be the hand were all the\nflexor muscles of the fingers located in the palm, as are the flexors of the\nthumb.\nThe essential points in the structure of the skin, of the nails and hair,\nof the action of the blood-vessels, sweat glands, and nerves in the hand,\ncan also be found out by the individual pupil. It may seem to take\nlonger to acquire these facts by observation than from text-book lessons ;\nbut that the laboratory method of study is far the better is clear from the\ninterest manifested by the pupil in carrying on his work, from the greater\nclearness with which he can describe what he has learned, and from the\nfact that he can in a moment's time, even when writing an examination\npaper, test the accuracy of his statements by a repetition of his original\nobservations. It is amusing at times to watch a class while taking its\nfinal test in physiology. If anyone who had not watched the laboratory\nwork thru the term were to enter the examination room, he would be at a\nloss to interpret the apparent contortions of the muscles, joints, and other\norgans of the pupil's body.\nThere is no time to suggest some of the interesting and instructive\nlaboratory experiments which can be used to make clear the processes of\ndigestion, circulation, respiration, and sensation. When possible, these\nexperiments should be performed by each pupil on his own body. If models\nand pieces of apparatus are to be used instead, they should be as simple\nin their action as possible, and attention should always be called to the\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABOR A TOR Y WORK\n\nIN HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSIOLOG\n\nY\n\n8 71\n\nfact that no model can be made to work exactly like the living organs\nand tissues.\n, '\nBoys and girls are by instinct comparative anatomists and physiologists, and the study of the human body offers rare opportunities to\ndevelop this instinct. Suppose your class has been studying the skeleton.\nIf there is a natural-history museum within an hour's ride, take them\nthere, give them a set of questions which will apply to the skeleton of any\nvertebrate, and set\" them at work on the skeleton of a giraffe, a horse, or\nan elephant. Unless your experience is exceptional, you will find, an\nexcited group of boys and girls plying the skeletons and you with questions as to the position and use in the specimen before them of the\nvarious bones they have studied in class.\nTeeth, too, are wonderfully interesting when studied comparatively\nand in relation to the food which the animal eats. The school museum\nshould contain at least the skull of a horse, a cow, a dog, and a rat or a\nsquirrel, for these can easily be procured by the teachers or pupils. These\nare common animals with which every boy is familiar, and he is thoroly\ninterested in making a study of the machinery by which these animals\ngrind, tear, or gnaw their food. Other profitable subjects for comparative\nstudy are the various methods of locomotion employed by vertebrates and\ninvertebrates, their methods of getting their food, the ways in which they are\nprotected, and the sense-organs which they possess. Much of this observation can be done at home, or afield, or in zoological parks by the individual\npupil, if once he acquires the habit of noting resemblances and differences.\nIf you wish to teach cleanliness most effectively, devote a half-dozen\nlessons to the study of bacteria. Let the pupils experiment at home with\nmilk and with a hay infusion. Expose culture dishes containing nutrient\nagar to the air in the corridors before and after sweeping, and let the pupils\nnote the growth of the colonies of bacteria day by day. Teach the boys\nand girls the principles of inoculation and sterilization, and if possible\nshow them with high-power lenses the living germs under the microscope.\nEmphasize the filthiness and the danger of expectoration (better call it\nspitting) in public places, and call attention to the splendid work done by\nboards of health and by such men as our New York Waring and Woodbury.\nPhysiology, then, need not be uninteresting and unprofitable. If\ntaught by laboratory methods, it is repldte with interest. From an educational point of view it well deserves consideration as an inductive\nscience, and in its practical bearings it is even more useful than the other\nsciences which are now honored in the school curriculum. As physiology\nteachers, however, we have much to do along the lines of choosing our\nsubject-matter and of developing our pedagogics. When we have done\nthis and are able to point to years of si^ccessful experience, this subject inwhich we are interested will be given the place in the school curriculum\nwhich it so richly deserves.\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "872\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nCHEMISTRY,\nAND\nITS\nPREPARATORY\n\nRELATION\nTO IT\n\nTO\n\nIRA REMSEN,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nBALTIMORE,\n\nOF\n\nJOHNS\n\nHOPKINS\n\nWORK\nM.D.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nCollege courses should be elementary even in the case of those\nstudents who have had a preparatory course in the high school, for it is\nimpossible to give the student clear ideas without going over the subject,\nno matter how good the student or how good the teacher. It is with\nchemistry as with other subjects — repetition is necessary. How much\nEnglish or Latin, or any other language, can be taught in a year one hour\na day?\nOne reason why language courses are so valuable pedagogically is that\nthey involve so much drill. Day after day, year after year, the same general conceptions are dealt with and illustrated by new examples, until\nfinally these conceptions become a part of the mental equipment of the\nstudent. The mind has received lasting benefit. On the other hand, in\nchemistry every day brings something entirely new and not clearly connected with what has gone before. The student cannot take any clear\nideas with him. If my experience is worth anything, he rarely does, even\nafter a year's work. He has had too many impressions. He knows\nabout as much of chemistry or chemical phenomena as he would of a\nlanguage if he had spent a year in studying its' grammar and had tried to\nread a passage from a different author every day. No matter who the\nstudent, or who the teacher, a year's course in chemistry cannot do very\nmuch for a student. Most of the work will have to be done over again\nin some way, if clear ideas are to be gained. Nevertheless, this work is\nvaluable, as it prepares the mind for subsequent work.\nThe ideal course in chemistry has not yet been worked out. Indeed,\nI am not sure that there is an ideally correct course. I fancy that it would\nbe well for a student to follow different kinds of courses, so that he may\nlook at the facts and the principles from different points of view.\nIn an elementary course, whether in high school or in college, I\nshould like to see the facts emphasized, and I should always try to connect the work of the day with the experiences of everyday life. This is, I\nbelieve, sound pedagogics.\nIt is certainly sound sense.\nTheory, in my opinion, should play a subordinate part in elementary\ninstruction, tho 1 do not feel that it should be excluded. The atomic\ntheory is meaningless to one who knows nothing of the facts, and it means\nlittle to one who knows little of these facts.\nProfessor Agassiz said, and I am sure thinking teachers will agree with\nhim : \" One can see no farther into a generalization than just so far as\none's previous acquaintance with particulars enables him to take it in.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\nRUFUS\n\nPHILLIPS\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nCHEMISTRY\nIN ITS\nWORK OF A COLLEGE\n\nRELATION\nCOURSE\n\nWILLIAMS,\nTEACHER\nOF CHEMISTRY,\nSCHOOL,\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nENGLISH\n\nTO\n\n873\n\nTHE\nHIGH\n\n[an abstract]\n\nMany of our high schools give a fairly good course in general chemistry— experiments, theory, and principles — some taking two years and\nincluding qualitative analysis and a little quantitative work. Yet in a\ngreat majority of the higher institutions the work must be repeated.\nTo be obliged to go over again in college the preparation of oxygen,\nthe properties of sulphur, the compounds of iron, which he has already\nstudied experimentally and theoretically, the student regards as a useless\nwaste of time, and reasons that if he must take the subject in college, he\nwould better spend his time in the preparatory school on some other\nbranch, the rudiments of which will not be repeated. Thus high-school\nchemistry is placed at a disadvantage in comparison with other elective\nsubjects.\nTwo sets of reasons are advanced for this failure of the colleges to\nrecognize preparatory chemistry from the fitting school. The first and\nchief of these is the fact that in a majority of such schools the student\ndoes not go deep enough into general chemistry to warrant his taking up\nat once the higher branches — quantitative or even qualitative analysis.\nHe has not had theory enough nor practice enough. A second reason is\nthat some students offer chemistry for admission, others do not. Hence\nthere must be an elementary course in college for those who have not had\nthe subject prior to entering. Into this class are also put those who have\nstudied chemistry in the schools. Thus, side by side in the laboratory,\ntaking also the same lecture notes, are those who do not know an element\nfrom a compound, and those who have passed the searching collegeentrance examination.\nWishing to know what is the actual practice in the higher institutions,\nI sent to each of the twenty-three colleges and universities contributing\nto the College Entrance Examination Board the following among other\nquestions : \"Are those students who have passed elementary chemistry on\nentrance obliged to take general chemistry again if they continue the subject, or may they go on at once with more advanced work ?\" The colleges belonging to this board were selected because they are united on a\ndefinite object, and are supposed to allow candidates for admission to offer\nchemistry. The result would probably not vary much if other colleges had\nbeen interviewed. Of twenty-three replied to this question (for everyone\nanswered it), seventeen are to the effect that the subject must be repeated,\ntho a few say that, if the course has been as thoro in the high school as it\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nis in the particular college, the student may go on, implying at the same\ntime that this rarely, if ever, happens. In two cases chemistry was not\nallowed as an entrance elective. One states unqualifiedly that students\nmay go on; another, that they may, but that very few continue the subject. Thus the almost unanimous verdict is : Repeat. And the offense\nwith which the high school is charged is inadequate preparation.\nWishing to get at the evidence which weighed in the minds of the\njudges, I put to the same twenty-three institutions this question: \"In\nwhat part of the work do you find those offering chemistry most deficient ?\"\nTo this question fifteen direct answers were given, and as they form the\nimportant evidence on which my client is convicted, I quote them :\nANSWERS\n1. Elementary general principles.\n2. A comprehension of underlying principles. Pupils acquire facts, but do not understand their relation to general principles.\n3. Want of application.\n4. Work is not thoro; mostly taught from books. Ground covered too great for time\ndevoted to it.\n5. Elementary logic. Students coming to college are very deficient in reasoning.\n6. Equations and laboratory work.\n7. Making, putting up, and using apparatus ; a thoro knowledge of the non-metals ;\nquantitative experiments.\n8. Their failings will vary with the instruction they have received.\n9. In general.\n10. Perhaps theoretical more than descriptive.\n11. Have generally \" done \" a large number of experiments, but are sadly deficient\nin chemical laws.\n12. In theory and in knowledge of metals.\n13. Equations and familiarity with fundamental principles. Three-fourths of the\ntime at high schools is wasted in trying to cover too much ground.\n14. They fail because they will not study, and I think in many cases they were\nnever taught how to study.\n15. The fifteenth and last is a venomous arraignment of high schools, untrue as it is\nunkind. Its author says: \"The preparatory schools are not in a position to give\nstudents anything like the comprehensive instructon in elementary chemistry. In the\nfirst place, they can rarely afford to hire a chemist to give the instruction. They only get a\nschool-teacher who has a smattering of chemistry, and not a real chemist. In the second\nplace, they never have much apparatus, so at best preparatory chemistry does not amount\nto much. The student does not get enough of it to amount to a row of pins. Now, on\nthe other hand, the university professor begins at the beginning. He cannot skip oxygen\nor hydrogen or nitrogen or water or the atmosphere because the students have heard these\nnames once or twice in school ; \" etc.\n\nSuch a scathing anathema, besides degrading the high-school teacher's work, and elevating to the pedestal the university professor's, shows\nignorance of high-school chemistry as taught today. Hundreds of these\nschools have as teachers graduates in chemistry from colleges and\ntechnological schools, and scores have degree men from German and\nAmerican universities who are \" real chemists,\" and whose work compares\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\n875\n\nfavorably with that done in college. Again, it is the exception that high\nschools now building and recently built are not well equipped with laboratories. Within ten miles of this spot there is a high-school chemical\nlaboratory on which there was laid out for repairs alone last year more\nthan $10,000, and another high-school plant i© the same city whose\noriginal cost more than thirty years ago was $40,000. Two weeks ago,\nhappening to be in a city of only 25,000 people, in another state, I visited\na high-school laboratory better equipped than any college laboratory\ndoing the same grade of work that it has been my fortune to examine.\nThis statement might have been true twenty-five years ago; it is\nprobably true now of some remote country high schools. That it is made\nby only one out of twenty-three shows that most colleges recognize the\nimproved conditions in high-school work.\nYet from these replies of representative higher institutions there seems\nno doubt that preparatory schools are trying to do too much and are\nreally doing too little. Where is the fault, and what is the remedy ?\nA majority of the replies state distinctly that the deficiency is in laws\nand general principles ; that students cannot sufficiently correlate facts\nand theories. The teaching of laws, general principles, and chemical\ntheory assumes, therefore, paramount importance and constitutes the great\ndesideratum. Elsewhere I have dwelt upon the importance of theory\nteaching, and the verdict of these colleges is a convincing corroboration.\nWhile the inculcation of principles and laws is acknowledged by every\ninstructor to be the most difficult part of his work, something to be\navoid d by the easy-going teacher and slothful student, yet it is recognized as the only thing that can give a broad grasp of the subject, and,\nwith requisite experiments, yield the largest results. The tendency in\nsome quarters to omit the application of these broad principles, to abolish\nthe text-book, to abuse the laboratory by excessive use to the exclusion of\nrecitation and lecture, should be viewed with only temporary alarm, for\nsuch abnormalities will finally right themselves when the ideal course is\nadopted.\nEntering college on chemistry is a comparatively recent thing. The\ncolleges are the pacemakers, and the high schools are trying their best to\nkeep up.\nIn the elective system that subject must take the place of so much\nmathematics, or some ancient or modern language. To be the equivalent of any of these, a great deal of ground must be covered — the\nnon-metals and the chief metals; laws and general principles; the chemical theory, including nomenclature, symbolization, etc. The fitting\nschools have tried to cover all this extensive ground, and, as most of these\nschools give but one year of three to five Itours per week to chemistry, the\nresult has been — to borrow Mr. Morgan's phrase of \"undigested securities \"— a vast amount of undigested facts. Little wonder the students ar^\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndeficient in \" elementary logic,\" in power of \" application,\" and that\n\"their failures vary with the instruction they have received,\" or failed to\nreceive. The colleges, on the other hand, have set examinations to fit a\none-year crammed course, and have admitted students that were confessedly unable to go on with the higher branches of the subject, and were\nthus forced to repeat in a more thoro manner the work of the preparatory school.\nThis unnatural loss of time and energy cannot long continue in a\nquickened educational atmosphere. Two roads lead out of the woods.\nLet the authorities explicitly state that thoro preparation in the entire\nfield of general chemistry cannot be had in less than two years of\nfive hours per week in a well-equipped laboratory. Make the examination rigid enough to meet this demand, and when the student has\nentered college, do not require him to repeat his work, but give him\nadvanced standing, as he would have in Latin or mathematics. This is\none road. The other, and I believe better, one is : Limit the requirement to one year's work ; cut out the consideration of metals, except\nas they incidentally appear in salts and acid radicals ; demand a thoro\ncourse in the non-metals, the chemical theory, laws, and general principles.\nThen, as in the other case, do not ask the student to waste another year\nor half-year in repetition, but give him advanced work, beginning with\nmetals.\nEither of these plans would relegate the rudiments of the science to\nthe high schools, as is fitting. Why should the college teach high-school\nchemistry any more than high-school English or high-school algebra ? I\nbelieve it is almost, if not altogether, as important that every high-school\ngraduate should know something of the composition of the air he breathes,\nthe constituents of the food that nourishes him, and the reactions of the\nfuel that keeps him warm, as to know the binomial theorem or the proof\nof \\\\\\Q pons asinorum. Why require the latter as a prerequisite to entrance\nupon a liberal education, and omit the former ? When colleges take the\nsame stand concerning the fundamentals of chemistry which they assume\nin English and in mathematics, a great advance will have been made. As\nCaesar is read in a preparatory Latin course, and not again studied in\ncollege, let oxygen, carbon, and silica be relegated to the secondary\nschools, and the college course begin with metals, analysis, etc. This\ndivision line is purely arbitrary, but it serves my purpose of illustration.\nAny other division mutually agreed upon by conference of representatives\nof the two classes of institutions would serve equally well. I believe it to\nbe entirely practicable for a conference of college and high-school men to\nlay out a course with experiments to cover the required ground so satisfactorily that no repetition shall be needed.\nI believe this matter is worthy the most serious consideration from an\neconomic standpoint.\nLast year President Butler gave an address before\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nDepartment J\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\n877\n\nthis Association on the waste of time between the primary school and the\nuniversity, and this week the discussion has been renewed under another\nform by the college presidents. Right here is our chance for contribution. Save a year in chemistry. I believe it to be the plain duty of\ncolleges and high schools to co-operate in formulating such a plan.\nEspecially it seems to me that a strong point can be scored by the examination board that has undertaken the task of unifying entrance examinations and preparatory work, of setting a model which the high schools\nshall attain unto, in order that a year of school life be not lost, that the\nstudent may begin in college where he leaves off in the high school, with\npreliminary work reasonably complete and satisfactory.\n\nDISCUSSION\nCHEMISTRY\nHENRY\n\nP.\n\nTALBOT,\n\nFROM\n\nPROFESSOR\nINSTITUTE\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\nOF ANALYTICAL\nCHEMISTRY,\nTECHNOLOGY,\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nMASSACHUSETTS,\n\nThe increase in numbers in the secondary schools renders it more and more difficult\nto provide adequately for pupils with varying aims. Since the majority of the pupils of\nsuch schools is made up of those who will not enter upon college work, the question may\nfairly be raised as to what sort of instruction is best for this large class of students, and\nwhether such a course may also be found suitable as a preparation for college work.\nFor the pupil who will not pursue the study of chemistry farther, that course may be\nassumed to be best which will contribute most to his general information and culture by\nacquainting him with' a wide range of chemical facts, while at the same time it trains,\nby means of laboratory practice, his power of observation and his capacity to associate\nconclusions drawn from a given set of observations or data with those already within his\nknowledge. Such a course should include the fundamental principles of the science,\nbut not the more complex principles or theoretical conceptions. It demands a\nteacher who is well informed, who takes pains to discourage the mere memorizing of\nfacts, and at the same time stimulates curiosity and interest, guides the student in the\nlaboratory, correlates the various parts of his instruction, and emphasizes the principles\nwhich he teaches by copious applications.\nWith such a teacher in command this course should also serve acceptably as a foundation for college work. The college instructor can, with this as a basis, and with the\nadvantage of added maturity of the student, develop the more advanced principles and\ntheories of the science, with confidence that the student will be capable of drawing upon\nhis own fund of knowledge for instances in which these abstract conceptions find application. Itis not contended that no differentiation should be made between the work of\npupils destined for college and those less fortunate, but rather that this differentiation\nneed not be so marked as it often is at present, nor go so far as to entail a decided burden upon the teachers.\nThe teaching of chemistry in the secondary schools has a tendency to include too\nmuch, especially of \" theory,\" when the mental immaturity of the the pupil is taken into\nconsideration, together with the time allotted to the subject. Every teacher should make\nall possible effort to keep himself well and broadly informed, but should be sure to limit\nhis instruction to the capacity of his class, holding himself ready, however, to stimulate\nand instruct the exceptionally thoughtful and progressive pupil.\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "B78\nTHE\nLyMAN\n\nNATIONAL\nLABORATORY\n\nG. smith, president\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfSciencfe\n\nTHE\n\nPLACE TO TEACH\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nof new\n\nENGLAND ASSOCIATION\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nTEACHERS,\n\nChemistry has become a very important study in high schools, because laboratory\nwork is both agreeable and profitable, and above all because it teaches pupils to think.\nThe subject should be learned mainly in the laboratory, and a careful record of all\nexperiments should be made as a part of the pupil's laboratory work. Encourage him\nto make every possible effort on his own part, and lead him, but never push him. Keen\npower of observation, ability to judge wisely, and habits of scientific honesty are the\nmain points to be emphasized. The teacher can best accomplish these ends by keeping\nas much as possible at the pupil's elbow and making necessary suggestions.\nText-books are not essential. Pupils need more hours for laboratory work and less\nhome study of chemistry. Quantitative experiments and the principles of chemical\ntheory, including some work in the simpler problems of physical chemistry, are more\nprofitable for the beginner than is qualitative analysis. Teach the pupil to respect the\nbalance. Use industrial and sanitary science only so far as it illustrates chemistry. Give\nadditional instruction in these subjects, for they are valuable.\nInductive teaching must not be confounded with research, where all the aids of\nteaching are lacking. Exploring new fields is an entirely different matter. All education must be specific, and the chemistry course must be well defined and carried out with\nperseverance. Train boys for the responsibilities of democracy, where intelligence, dis>\ncriminating judgment, deliberate action, and sturdy integrity mean liberty.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCHEMISTRY: FROM THE CITY SUPERINTENDENT'S\nPOINT OF VIE IV\n\nW. F. KUNZE, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, RED WING, MINN.\n\nThe high school has for its object the preparing of its pupils for the activities of life\nand for the higher institutions of learning. To arrange the high-school course so as to\narticulate with the needs of active life and the entrance requirements of colleges is the\nproblem of the city superintendent of schools.\nChemistry has now been universally conceded a place and rank in the high-school\ncurriculum, but its limitations and mode of presentation are still much-mooted questions ;\nconsequently there is a deplorable lack of unity in the aim and method of teaching chemistry. This is a state of affairs due very largely to the colleges and universities. Their\ncourses of instruction are widely divergent, and their entrance requirements are far from\nuniform. The instruction given in the colleges to those who expect to teach chemistry in high schools is in most cases identical with that given to those who intend to\nbecome analysts. The teacher of chemistry needs less technical knowledge, but a more\nthoro understanding of general chemistry. He must be imbued with a spirit of investigation. Furthermore, he should be able to point out the far-reaching relation of chemistry\nto commerce, industry, and daily life. In short, he should see to it that chemistry is the\nmeans of making the school life touch the real life of the pupil at as many points as possible. Superintendents are hampered in not being able to secure properly qualified\nteachers of chemistry. The colleges and universities must come to the rescue, not by fixing uniform or hard and fast entrance requirements, but by devoting their energies to the\ntask of furnishing well-qualified teachers for our high schools. With a supply of good\nteachers the city superintendents will soon solve the problem as to what should constitute\na high-school course in chemistry, and when that has been accomplished, the matter of\nentrance requirements will take care of itself; but until that is done, we will continue to\nwaste the time of our boys and girls in the high school under the pretext of teaching\nthem chemistry.\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\nTHE\nLYMAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nNORMAL-SCHOOL\n\nC. NEWELL,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nOF\n\nVIEW\n\nCHEMISTRY\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nCHEMISTRY AND\nLOWELL, MASS.\n\nPHYSICS,\n\n879\n\nTEACHING\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe function of the normal school is to prepare its students for work as teachers in\nthe public schools. In some normal schools the instruction anticipates teaching in the\nhigh school, but the majority of normal schools confine their instruction to students who\neventually teach in the primary and grammar grades. It is this type of school that the\nspeaker has in mind.\nChemistry occupies a unique position in the curriculum of the normal school. Like\nalgebra, geometry, and psychology, it is seldom taught as a distinct subject in the\ngrammar schools, but, unlike mathematics and psychology, it has a direct bearing on\nseveral subjects which have a fixed place in the course of study of the grade schools.\nSuch subjects are physical and commercial geography, physiology, hygiene, and nature\nstudy. Indeed, certain parts of these subjects are chemistry pure and simple, while the\ninterpretation and application of other parts are largely measured by the teacher's knowledge of chemical facts and principles.\nSufficiently pursued and properly supervised, chemistry provides a large share of\nthat element so essential in successful teaching, namely, an inherent tendency to observe\nand consider all the facts before pronouncing a final judgment. Too often the teacher\nconfuses fact and theory, simply because no opportunity has been taken to learn to discriminate between the two. This contribution of chemistry to the equipment of a teacher\nis so intangible that it is often overlooked in normal-school work, but its vital importance\ncan scarcely be overestimated. To see the truth and be convinced by it, to distinguish\nwith certainty the best in the midst of the inaccurate and to draw unerring judgments —\nthese are invaluable adjuncts to the qualifications of a teacher.\nThe problem of the normal-school teacher of chemistry is to furnish material which\nshall not only contribute the needed information, but also provide that training needful\nfor the success of the future teacher. The work to be effective must be a combination of\nutility and scientific training. It is wrong to assume that if a young teacher only has\nfacts, she will in some mysterious way speedily acquire the ability to use them efficiently;\nor, on the other hand, if she is only subjected to training, it is of little moment when,\nwhere, or how she secures facts. Both assumptions are pernicious. The aim in all\nnormal-school instruction, particularly in experimental science, is to provide work which\nwill yield information and trainmg simultaneously.\nAn effective course in chemistry in the normal school will center around certain\nbroad topics; namely, air, water, carbon, acids, alkalies, salts, sulphur, and the\nimportant metals. These topics, with their numerous subdivisions, furnish abundant\nmaterial for work in both class-room and laboratory. An experience of several years\nshows that it is possible to include in such a course a study of the elements oxygen,\nhydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, chlorine, sodium, potassium, iron, lead, copper, zinc,\nand their important compounds. A course of this kind can be so arranged as to cover\nsuch important topics as the function of air and of water in nature, the cycle of carbon,\nthe manufacture of acetic acid, alcohol, soap, sugar, starch, sulphuric acid, lime, common\nsalt, and ammonia, the iron and steel industry, the role of carbon dioxide, the decay of\nanimal, vegetable, and mineral matter, and the manufacture of metals from their ores.\nIt is the speaker's conviction that laboratory work should occupy the greater part of\nthe time devoted to chemistry. Facts gleaned from books are fleeting, but when they are\ndriven home by actual verification, they become permanent knowledge. Take, for\nexample, the composition of air: The student reads in a book that it contains one-fifth\noxygen and four-fifths nitrogen, but these proportions are apt to be transposed; indeed,\nthey often are in examination papers. But when the student finds in the laboratory by\npersonal labor that a given volume of air actually does consist of one-fifth oxygen and\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfour-fifths nitrogen, the proportions will not be forgotten, especially if the experiment\nhas involved arithmetical calculation. This experiment, often regarded as too difficult\ncan be accurately and readily performed with simple apparatus.\nThe laboratory work in chemistry must undergo constant inspection by the normal\nteacher, so that the student will unconsciously acquire a willingness to observe all the\nfacts with patience and precision, and to accept as truth only those conclusions which are\nthe outcome of logical deduction from facts.\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nALBERT\n\nS. PERKINS,\n\nIN ITS\nCOLLEGE\n\nDORCHESTER\n\nRELATION\nCOURSE\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nDORCHESTER,\n\nOF A\n\nMASS.\n\nWhatever is best for the non-college pupil is best also for the college pupil. Not\nonly the high school of today, but of the future as well, is to be considered. It is by no\nmeans improbable that the German system may prevail, in our country, the high school\ntaking the place of the Gymnasium.\nThe condition most humiliating which confronts the high-school chemistry teacher is\nthat practically no higher institutions provide a second course for those who have studied\nchemistry in the high school.\nThere is a lack of harmony among teachers of chemistry in secondary schools as to\nwhat subjects should be taught ; there is also a lack of thoroness and too great conservatism in adopting modern ideas. The old high-school chemistry was too simple both in\nits subject-matter and in its methods. It is not enough to commit to memory facts, no\nmatter how important, and illustrate these by individual laboratory work and lecture\ndemonstration.\nThe aim and scope of high-school chemistry is : First, the work should not\nrequire repetition in the college. Secondly, the course should be inductive, everything beginning with the pupil's own work in the laboratory, supplemented by lecture\ndemonstrations, quizzes, recitation, text-book, and reference-book work. Thirdly,\nreceptiveness on the part of the teacher to modern thought. The law of mass action\nand the electrolytic theory are fundamental principles of the course. The pupil will\nunderstand modern ideas, if the teacher understands them clearly himself. Both qualitative and quantitative experiments should be performed according to the subject studied.\nThe sole aim of such a course is to teach boys and girls to think along scientific\nlines, but many facts are incidentally acquired. The high- school pupil is amply able to\nbegin qualitative analysis, which should constitute the second course.\nThis course is best for the non-college boy, for the college boy, and also for those\nentering technological and medical schools, since its purpose is to make pupils think\nalong scientific lines, and since in the accomplishment of this purpose the most important\nfacts and principles of the science are acquired.\n\nPHYSICS\nJOHK\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nC.\n\nPACKARD,\n\nBOYS AND GIRLS: AN INTRODUCTORY\nCOURSE\nDEPARTMENT\nBROOKLINE,\n\nOF SCIENCE,\nMASS.\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWe are living in an age of applied science. What effect is this tremendous fact producing, at the present moment, upon the courses of study\nin our schools and colleges?\nOur institutes of technology are flourishing\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nBOYS\n\nAND\n\nGIRLS\n\n88 1\n\nas never before. Manual-training schools are springing up with the greatest rapidity all over the country. The number of students enrolled in the\nscientific and technical courses of our correspondence schools is reckoned\nby the hundred thousand. But — and this is the significant fact — the\nphysics of our secondary schools, to say nothing of the chemistry and the\nbiology, is steadily giving way to such old-time subjects as Latin and\nalgebra.\nWhat does it all mean?\nI can only hint at a partial reply.\nThe miracles of science are all about us. The schoolboy, intensely\ninterested, comes to our laboratories with a thousand eager questions\nabout dynamos, motors. X-rays, telephones, electric lights, wireless telegraphy, submarine boats, automobiles, and a host of similar things,\npressing for an answer. What is the result ? In too many cases he is\nintroduced at once to the dix'hcult subject of exact measurement, required\nto make immediate use of such unfamiliar instruments as the diagonal\nscale, the vernier caliper, and the balance sensitive to a centigram ; to\nreport his results in terms of the metric system ; to discuss errors, sources\nof error, percentages of error, averages, and probabilities; to deduce laws,\nmany of which he knew before, from data that cannot be made to prove\nanything, and to apply these laws to a set of problems that have no apparent relation to his immediate scientific environment, or to the questions\nthat he is so anxious to have answered. What wonder that under such a\nregime the boy so often becomes discouraged, and that physics ceases to\nbe supremely attractive !\nWe must teach principles, but we must keep these principles in close\ntouch with their applications. Illustrated lectures upon the applied science\nto be found in our schools, our streets, our houses, and our factories, with\njust as much of the human element as can possibly be introduced, together\nwith extracts from periodicals containing bits of the latest scientific news,\nshould be a vital part of every course for beginners in physics. The\nmethod of research is not the method for the immature mind. Skill in\nmanipulation of apparatus, with a development of the \"habit of mind\"\nbelonging to the \" scientific method,\" may be the primary objects of\ninstruction in .our own mind, but they are side issues when viewed from\nthe standpoint of the average boy. We must be content to attain these\nhigher ends gradually as a final, not an immediate, result. We must\nremember, moreover, thru it all that interest is our greatest lever.\nApplications of fundamental principles which are so evident to us are\nnot so easily related to those principles by the immature mind. We must\nkeep up the connection if we would maintain interest. A course in\noptics should lead to the care of the eyes, to the manipulation of the\ncamera, to a study of the compound microscope, with a hint at the wonders revealed by it, and to the analy»isof the celestial telescope, achromatic\nlenses, eyepieces ; and all with special reference, emphasized by a few\nslides, to the great universe of worlds overhead.\nA course in electricity\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nshould teach a boy how to wire a building properly, the cost of electric\nlights, the adjustment of the telephone, and the theory of wireless\ntelegraphy, as well as the resistance of a wire and the electromotive\nforce of a Daniell cell. A course in heat should cover ventilation, and\nthe heating of buildings, with a discussion of the relative values of various\nkinds of fuel treated from an economical standpoint. A course in sound\nshould include the testing of the ear as well as the elaboration of the\ntheory of longitudinal waves in the air.\nWith these ideas in view, we have introduced into our own school a\ncourse of applied physics, in which the laboratory waits upon the lecture\nand the discussion. It is intended for the average boy and girl who does\nnot expect to go to college. Pupils preparing for Harvard pursue a distinct\ncourse by themselves. The arrangement has worked well. We should be\nglad if each pupil could be given an opportunity to take both courses, but\nthis is impossible in the present crowded state of our curriculum.\nThis general course differs from the college preparatory course of our\nown school in these respects at least :\n1. Less attention is paid to mathematical problems, except to such as\nnaturally arise in connection with the lesson in the laboratory or in the\ndiscussion concerning affairs of daily life. A problem in connection with\nthe readings of a water-meter, for instance, would be likely to receive more\nattention than one concerning the pressure of water in a closed vessel\nsupplied with .a pipe rising from a hole in the cover.\n2. Greater stress is placed upon purely qualitative work, including\nthe display of many illustrative experiments upon the lecture table.\n3. Keenness of thinking is exalted far above skill in manipulation,\ntho the latter is by no means neglected.\n4. The text-book is subordinated to the notebook and the reference\nlibrary.\n5. Far more attention is given to the subject of applied electricity,\nrendered possible by the prominence of the qualitative element in the\ndesign of the course.\nThese points of difference have arisen partly from the fact that many\nof the pupils taking this course are less mature, and in some respects less\nable, certainly along mathematical lines, than their more fortunate college preparatory associates. The majority could doubtless accomplish\nthe senior work in one year more.\nThe course is required of the juniors, except the classicals, and occupies four periods a week for one year upon the school program, about\nhalf of the time being given to laboratory work.\nThe greatest difficulties with which we have had to contend are these:\nI. The labor involved in reviewing so much paper-work. This has\nbeen met to some extent by requiring the pupils to report by means of\nsketches and brief notes rather than by \"much English.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\ntM\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n883\n\n2. The \"making up\" of lessons missed on account of absence. This\ndifficulty has been partly overcome by the assignment of topics in a suitable\ntext-book provided for the purpose, to be reported upon in writing by the\nabsentee.\n3. The heterogeneous nature of an average class in a general high\nschool provided for boys and girls. This is our hardest problem. It may\nlead at sometime or other to a still further subdivision of classes.\nIn conclusion let me say that nothing in this article should be construed as reflecting in any way upon the college preparatory course as\noutlined so ably by one of our leading eastern colleges. I am only contending that this particular course, as usually interpreted, is not adapted\nto all, and that in general it should be preceded by a more elementary\nqualitative course of applied science.\n\nPHYSICS\nIRVING\n\nO. PALMER,\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nSECONDARY\n\nOF PHYSICS,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEWTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nPhysics, because of its value for training, for culture, for ethical\ninstruction, should receive much greater attention than is now accorded\nit by organizers of secondary-school curricula. Trite tho it be to say it,\nI conceive that the most important function of any instruction at the\nsecondary-school age must be to prepare the instructed for future usefulness and happiness ; that is, for best citizenship. While the character and\npersonality of the teacher are of prime importance in this preparatory\nwork, the subject-matter taught and the method of teaching are of scarcely\nless moment. Physics, by virtue of the character of its subject-matter,\nand more especially because of the method of treatment appropriate for\nthose portions of it which are of secondary-school grade, furnishes\nmaterial and method valuable in the preparation for \"complete living.\"\nThe teacher of physics should no more allow himself to forget this phase\nof his work than does the teacher of history or literature. He is primarily engaged in helping to prepare young men and young women for\nlife; secondarily, in teaching his subject. So much in passing with reference to some of the more general and larger questions with which\nphysics-teaching in secondary schools is directly or indirectly connected.\nMy chief concern at present is with the more limited question of matter\nand method of instruction in the subject itself.\nThis brings me at once to the consideration of the laboratory ; for I\nbelieve the equipment and use of the laboratory to be the most important\nfactor in the work, and I consider This to be true for the instruction of\npupils fresh from the elementary school at twelve or thirteen years of age,\nas well as for those of eighteen, in their senior year; true for students\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "SS4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nwho are preparing to meet examinations for admission to college or a\nscientific school ; true for those who are studying physics as a part of a\ngeneral education, and for those who take it because it chances to be in\nthe course ; true for the boy who studies physics only one year, as well as\nfor those who are permitted to continue the subject thru a large part of\nthe secondary-school course.\nThe time allotment for the subject should be such that the pupil may\nhave laboratory practice, numerical problems, recitations, and lectures.\nThe share of time devoted to each of the four will be dependent somewhat upon the age and maturity of the class. In general, the younger\nthe pupils, the larger the proportion of time spent in the laboratory —\nmore time being needed for the discussion and assimilation of a single\nexperiment, as well as a greater variety of experiments bearing on a single subject. Except in case of boys of unusual natural qualifications, or\nthose who are in the last year of a stiff high -school program, laboratory\nwork should not be in the nature of a course on physical measurements.\nI would hardly even mention significant figures, and would place slight\nemphasis on percentage error; nor yet should we go to the opposite\nextreme of giving simple qualitative experiments which merely illustrate,\nif they illustrate anything, principles with which the twelve-year-old boy\nhas for some time been more or less familiar. It is undesirable to insult\nthe intelligence of the boy, even tho he may not be able to return the\ncompliment. The following is an example of an experiment of the type\nto which I refer — recently in use in some quarters, I believe:\nExperiment : Carefully examine your pencil ; drop it on the floor; pick it up. Has\nit suffered any change ?\n\nWe select rather for the pupil's laboratory work fundamental experiments\nwhich are quantitative in character and demand care, skill, and strict\nattention on the part of the worker, yet are not beyond his ability. There\nare plenty such. The place for the purely qualitative illustrative experiment is the teacher's lecture or the demonstration table.\nIn the actual arrangement of laboratory work, we believe in and practice the duplication of apparatus, in case of most experiments, to equal\nthe number of workers in a class, especially emphasizing this with the\nyounger sections. This means working always with practically an even\nfront and giving all the members of the class the benefit of all discussions which follow the laboratory exercise. We have no more use for the\nrotative plan than for the crazy quilt or the patchwork of the New England grandmothers. We supplement laboratory work with numerical\nproblems, not too difficult, for the purpose of clarifying pupils' ideas and\naiding in fixing the principles involved in the laboratory exercises. Incidentally these problems furnish a practical and satisfactory basis for correlation with elementary mathematics — a subject on which much yet\nremains to be said and done.\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHASE\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nTEACHING\n\n885\n\nThe recitation fosters exactness of statement and facility of expression.\nThe lecture arouses interest and enthusiasm, and helps to vitalize and\nhumanize the subject. Designedly following chronologically the other\nphases of the work, one of its most important features is the treatment of\nthe practical application of the principles already dealt with in laboratory\nand quiz. When the boy has an elementary knowledge of the principles\ninvolved, it is of some value to him to \"see the wheels go 'round\" of very\nlittle use without this knowledge. Further, the continuous performance\nat a variety show costs less money in the end. When he knows the\nprinciple of conjugate foci, he is ready properly to appreciate the magic\nof the lantern. When he has fully learned that steam does work, falls in\ntelnperature, loses energy in expanding against pressure, the steam engine\nis something more than the plaything of an hour. He must take his\nsweets as dessert, not before meat.\nI have briefly outlined some of the matter and the methods which\nwe employ, and believe in employing, in the school which I represent.\nThruout the course we try to avoid two extremes — one that of making the\nsubject too scientific ; the other, the too utilitarian point of view. We do\nnot wish to make physics, like the theory of numbers, the favorite subject\nof a certain mathematician because \" it has never been prostituted to any\npractical use,\" nor do we care to have the pupil mistake the laboratory\nfor a toy shop. A satisfactory foundation is laid for later college work in\nthe subject, and excellent preparation given those whose formal education\nends with the secondary school.\nI believe I shall be well within the limits of the truth if I say that in\nmy city the powers that be, educationally speaking, are convinced that\nthe more than two hundred pupils who study physics in the high school\nare satisfactorily employing their time and justifying the use of the five\nthousand square feet of floor space given over to their work. If these\npeople are correct in their views, it is because the laboratory is an instrument for training in the highest type of honesty ; because the course\ngives greater breadth of view and a better attitude toward life ; because\nthe pupils are trained to think and to do.\n\nTHE\nGEORGE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL PHASE OF PHYSICS\nAIMS AND METHODS\nR. TWISS; HEAD\n\nTEACHING:\n\nOF THE\nDEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE, CENTRAL\nSCHOOL,\nCLEVELAND, O.\n\nHIGH\n\n[an abstract]\n\nJohn Tyndall, that prince amori^ teachers, insisted that physics should\nbe used, not as a branch, but as a means of education.\nThis means, it\nseems to me, that, instead of trying merely to teach physics, we ought to\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ntry, thru the teaching, of physics, to help in educating boys and girls into\na broad and efficient manhood and womanhood. Experience shows that\nthe study of physics can develop the power to observe conditions and\nphenomena; to compare, contrast, and classify them; to discriminate\nrelations and facts; to reason from the known to the unknown ; to judge\nconclusions ; to use the hands and senses with promptness and skill ; to\nexpress facts and relations with clearness, conciseness, and precision.\nExperience shows also that the training and discipline afforded by\nphysics, as well as the knowledge that it gives of world-wide principles\nand universal laws, contribute largely to that sense of balance and proportion, that ability to rate ideas, which goes by the name of culture, and\nwas defined by Matthew Arnold as knowing one's self and the world.\nThere exists a consensus of opinion among leading teachers that the\npurposes in view are best accomplished by the use of three methods in\nclose correlation. These have been termed the lecture method, the recitation method, and the laboratory method. Each of the kinds of\ninstruction has its place, and they should supplement one another in such\na way that the pupils may always progress by a series of firm steps from\nfamiliar ground to new and higher standpoints from which they can get\nwider views of the field and prepare themselves for the next advance.\nThe nature of the lesson to be unfolded, the attending circumstances,\nthe mental condition and attitude of the class at the time — all conspire\nto determine which of these methods of instruction is best for a given\nportion of the work. In any method also the same conditions will\ndetermine whether it is better to apply inductive or deductive reasoning\nin developing the topic.\nUsually both should be used correlatively.\nIn proceeding from facts and laws that already are part of the mental\nproperty of the pupils, to facts, laws, and theories that they have not yet\nacquired, the best training is given and the greatest interest excited by\nguiding them thru the same kind of mental operations as those by which\nthe great discoverers have progressed. The skilled scientist marshalls all\nthe observed phenomena and all the known laws related to the subject\nunder investigation. He seeks to discover a general statement or law\nthat includes all the particular phenomena, or endeavors to frame a\nhypothesis that explains all the facts. Having stated the law or enunciated the hypothesis, he reasons from the general statement to particular\ncases not already observed or studied, deduces the facts or phenomena\nthat should follow as necessary consequences of the law or hypothesis,\nand immediately proceeds to test his conclusions by careful experiments.\nIn these experiments he eliminates as many as possible of the errors, and\nmakes careful corrections for those which he cannot eliminate. This is\nthe deductive method; and by its rigid tests, as time and study go on,\nthe hypothesis may rise to take rank with recognized theory or established truth, or it may fall into limbo with those that have been weighed\nand found wanting.\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHASE\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nTEACHING\n\n887\n\nOf course, the student cannot go over the entire ground that had to\nbe investigated by the original discoverers of the truths he is to learn.\nIt is the business of the teacher, who knows beforehand the conclusions\nto be reached, to eliminate from the discussion all that is irrelevant or\nunprofitable for teaching purposes, so that the student may acquire in a\nfew hours the results of years of patient, scientific investigation. Thus\nhe not only acquires it, but he acquires it by the same sort of mental processes that originally brought it to light. In doing so he is trained in\nthe mental operations thru which all conclusions of value in the material\nworld are reached. When the student thru this training begins to feel\nthat he is accumulating power to solve practical problems and to produce results thru the operation of the laws of nature upon matter, there\nwill no longer be any need of urging him to work and study. The\nacquisition of conscious power is the strongest incentive to effort.\nThe lecture method may well cover the whole subject in its broader\noutlines, and, besides indicating the logical connection of the different\nphenomena, laws, and theories, should show the relation of physical laws\nto everyday life.\nExperiments should be made by the teacher at the lecture table whenever they are needed. Great care should be taken to use only those that\nare sufficiently simple and direct to make the conclusion clear and convincing. An experiment made with complicated apparatus and involving\nintricate reasoning is worse than none.\nThe pupils should take notes on the lecture and in this work should\nreceive careful direction and some supervision. Important facts and\nconclusions should be stated slowly in order to give time for recording\nthem. Often the notes may be omitted, but when they are required\nthey should be made in proper form. The teacher should avoid too\ngreat formality in the lecture, encouraging all pertinent questions, and\nsometimes allowing the members of the class to adduce evidence from\ntheir own experience and to state conclusions. Thus he can hold their\nattention and make sure that they follow him. They should always be\nfree to approach the lecture table in order that they may see well. It is a\ngood plan to let some of them assist in the experiment wherever they can\nreally help.\nThe recitation is perhaps the most important means of instruction.\nThe development of topics in logical sequence and in their relations to\none another should be guided and controlled by the teacher, who plans\nthe recitation beforehand, and so gauges the amount of ground to be\ncovered that the lesson can be completed, rounded out, and summed up\nin the hour.\nThe attention of the class should^be kept strictly upon the subject and\nthe principle of unity preserved. Minor questions should be asked at\nrandom and volunteer answers encouraged in order to keep all minds\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nactive and prevent the flagging of attention. The pupil should always be\nrequired to make his statements to the teacher and class in clear, grammatical English, and loud enough to be heard by all.\nThe purpose of the cross-examination or quiz is to clear up obscure\npoints and fortify conclusions. It compels the student to examine the\ngrounds for his opinions and test the logical correctness of his thoughtprocesses, so as to eliminate unwarranted assumptions, hasty inductions,\nand false steps in deduction. The teacher should keep the minds moving\nrapidly, but not so fast that they cannot hold the pace. When a pupil\nmakes a hasty induction, he should be compelled to check it by a further\nexamination of observed facts and previously established theory. When\nhe makes careless deductions, he should be thrown back upon himself in\norder to make him prove his steps. In effect the quiz should be con-^\nstructive, not destructive, positive not negative. If badly conducted, the\nquiz will discourage the pupils and destroy their confidence in their ability\nto form opinions of worth, so that impatience and abandonment of effort\nare likely to result. This is particularly true of girls. If skillfully and\ntactfully conducted, the quiz will leave the pupil possessed of stronger\nconfidence in the uniformity of nature's laws and processes, and in his\nown ability to judge facts and draw conclusions. Having gone successfully thru the ordeal, or having failed himself and seen another go\nsuccessfully thru it, he will come to feel that he has critically examined\nthe grounds for his opinions, and that, having ruled out the fallacious and\nthe inadequate, he has proved all things and is holding fast to that which\nis good.\nBesides testing the progress of the pupils and ascertaining their needs,\nthe recitation may be used to develop new topics, either inductively or\ndeductively, by leading questions, thus substituting the self-activity of the\npupils for the passive condition which they often assume under the lecture\nmethod. In all the recitation work, impertinent questions and quibbling\nshould be promptly checked ; while, on the other hand, pertinent questions and candid argument by the pupil, even tho fallacious, should be\ntreated with respect, for this encourages independent thinking.\nIn planning the recitation a little time should be allowed for the\nincidental enlargement of subtopics, when unusual interest is excited.\nSometimes the pupils will get to thinking with great activity and enthusiasm\non some subsidiary line, and the skillful teacher will be prompt to take\nadvantage of this profitable mental condition. The unity of the recitation plan, however, must be preserved. It is a great mistake to allow the\nassociation of ideas to lead the pupils so far away from the main line of\nthought that they do not return to it to sum up at the end. The association of ideas is a good servant, but a bad master.\nLaboratory exercises should be most carefully chosen in accordance\ni^ith the purposes in view.\nEach exercise ought to possess certain\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHASE\n\nOF PHYSICS\n\nTEACHING\n\n889\n\nessential characteristics. First, it should compel close observation and\ndiscrimination, and develop in the experimenter some skill and selfreliance. Second, there must not be so many things to observe as to\ncause mental confusion. Third, it ought to contain the basis for the\ndevelopment of a generalization, or it should verify a principle already\ndeduced. Fourth, the reasoning involved in reaching the conclusion\nmust be simple and direct enough to be made by the student himself with\nvery little assistance. Fifth, it must be so easy of manipulation that the\npoorest of the qualified students can do the work with fair success. Sixth,\nit must be susceptible of a respectable degree of accuracy ; else the student\nwill have no faith in it nor in what it is intended to teach. Wherever practicable, the parts should be arranged so that the results reached may check\neach other, thus enabling the students to judge their accuracy by the\nagreement of results themselves, instead of by comparison with the results\ngiven in the books. Seventh, it must involve no more operations than\nthe ordinary worker can finish without bustle or hurry in the allotted time.\nIf this be but forty-five minutes, the operations can, in some cases, be\ndivided between two periods ; in others the operations may be divided\namong the students of a group and the results collated in order to reach\nthe results or conclusions. Eighth, there ought to be a sufficient number\nof these experiments so that, when supplemented by those made at the\nlecture table, the main outlines of the subject shall rest back upon them,\nor upon deductions which can be shown to rest back upon experiments\nand observations of a similar kind.\nThe number of pupils in a laboratory division should not exceed fifteen for one teacher. With long experience more can be handled, but all\nthe conditions are difficult and unfavorable. The best results are reached\nby having all the pupils work simultaneously upon the same problem. In\nmost experiments it is better to provide each with the requisite apparatus,\nand let him work singly; in a few experiments, two, three, or four may\nwork together with advantage. Each pupil should keep in a laboratory\nnotebook a complete record of the experiments, under the headings : purpose, apparatus, operations, observations and numerical results, sources\nof error, and lessons learned. The aim should be to make this record\nneat and systematic in form, and also accurate, clear, concise, and simple\nin expression. The notebooks should be inspected by the teacher often\nenough to secure reasonable compliance with these requirements.\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor E. H. Hall, of Harvard Univeristy. — lam glad to hear a discussion\nregarding a course of study in physics for tho^ who are not going to college. In the\nfamous conference of ten years ago, all agreed that there should be the same courses of\nstudy for those who are and those who are not fitting for college. It seems time to raise\nagain the question, especially regarding different courses for boys and girls. Many pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nare invited into the high school by courses in shorthand, typewriting, and manual training\n— pupils who would and did not go ten years ago. They have different interests and\nshould be educated in a different way from college pupils. I hope Mr. Packard will\nwrite a book describing his course, altho I do not accept his selection as the best. But\nthere should be publicity. The fact that his course works well with him is no proof that\nit will work well elsewhere. It should be published and tried by a dozen teachers. The\nproof of the pudding is in the eating, and not in the recommendation of the cook. If anything, his course keeps the interest a little too much at fever heat. Fever heat is not health.\nThe course is too much like some of the features of the Sunday newspaper. As to the\norder of physics and chemistry, I have noticed that where chemistry is taught the third\nyear and physics the fourth, the subject-matter given under the head of chemistry is\nlargely physics.\nProfessor C. R. Mann, of the University of Chicago, favored the outline of physics-teaching given by Mr. Twiss, and agreed with Professor Hall that the time had come\nto take formal steps to settle the question of a different course of physics for those not\npreparing for college.\n\nA\n\nCOURSE\n\nCHARLES\n\nF.\n\nIN\nWARNER,\n\nPHYSICS\n\nFOR\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nPRINCIPAL\nOF THE\nMECHANIC\nSPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nHIGH\nARTS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe subject assigned to me implies that there are some distinctive\nfeatures in the independent manual-training high school — or technical\nhigh school, if the latter name be preferred — which should naturally have\na controlling, or at least a modifying, influence upon the instruction in\nphysics in such schools. Our first business, therefore, is to settle what\nthese distinctive features are.\nThe most obvious characteristic of technical high schools is found in\nthat which gives them their name and their right to a distinct place in our\neducational system. Whatever else they may teach, they must always\nmake the manipulation of materials their specialty. In such schools\nconstant attention is given to the expression of constructive processes at\nthe drawing table, and to the practical working out of these processes at\nthe bench, the forge, and the lathe. This brings, or should bring, the\nboy, during his high-school days, into constant contact with many fundamental industrial methods, compelling him — or perhaps it would be\nbetter to say inviting him — to learn the use of hand and machine tools,\nand to become familiar with the appliances for generating and distributing power. It is for him a schooling in applied science or, better still,\napplied physics, for he is constantly employed in operations which involve\nfundamental physical properties and laws. For the girl, when similar\neducational opportunities are open to her, practical methods imply constant practice of the same general character, tho along different, because\nfor her more appropriate, lines. In high schools where mechanical work\nis required of all pupils it cannot be questioned that there is for both boys\nand girls, but especially for boys, immediate and constant application of\nthe fundamental principles of physics.\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSlCS\n\nFOR\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nS91\n\nTwo important consequences follow from thus recognizing the importance of physics as related to the distinctive work of technical high\nschools. In the first place, there arises in the mechanical departments a\ndemand that the teaching of physics should be thoro and practical. In\nthe second place, the science department, not unwilling to respond, but\nrealizing that the enlarged opportunity to enforce its teachings thru practical applications means increased responsibility and more work, demands,\nin its turn, a chance to meet this responsibility and to effect a closer correlation of its work with that of other departments, especially with\ndrawing, shop-work, and mathematics.\nTo meet these two natural and most reasonable demands, the first\nrequirement is more time, much more time, than is commonly given to\nphysics. The second requirement is that the study of physics should be\nbegun early — the first year, if possible — and not delayed till the third\nyear, when more than half of the rich opportunities for illustration and\napplication afforded by the mechanical departments of the school have\nbeen left behind. The third requirement is that the course of study in\nphysics, the method of instruction, and the equipment in books, apparatus,\nand teaching force should be planned, so far as practicable, upon a technical basis, and without much reference to the practice which obtains in\nother high schools, where a single text-book and simple illustrative apparatus, made for that purpose alone, will suffice. In the technical high\nschool several text-books and a good reference library of modern scientific and technical books are indispensable, and the student should be\ntaught the use of measuring instruments of the commercial type, and be\nmade familiar with other scientific apparatus of the kind actually found in\nuse in the arts and industries.\nA second peculiarity of the technical high school may be found in the\ncharacter of its membership. They are often schools for boys only; and\neven when open to both sexes, the proportion of boys is larger than in\nother high schools. Last year, in Cambridge, the Manual Training High\nSchool registered over 53 per cent, of the boys entering the three high\nschools; and when we examine into the tastes and capacity of these boys,\nwe find that a statistical percentage understates the effective proportion\nof the boy element that inclines toward mechanical training ; for excepting the small number of boys who, for good reasons, elect classical studies\nwhich are the specialties of other schools, it is, generally speaking, the\nlazy, indifferent, good-for-nothing boy who avoids the manual-training\nhigh school. There is too much work for him there. Naturally it attracts\nthe active, inquiring, normal boy. It probably gets three-fourths of the\nboys of this kind who enter high schools. Such a majority of boys in the\ntechnical school means much in determining the extent and character of\nthe course in physics, which is pre-eminently a study for boys.\nA third characteristic remains to be noted, and perhaps it should be\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nconsidered as the most important. It may be described as the stirring,\nlife-giving atmosphere which pervades all departments of a school\ndesigned to emphasize the practical element in all its teaching. Such\nschools, more faithfully than all others, reflect the spirit of the age — an\nage of wonderful achievement in the application of natural forces to the\nservice of man, an age of applied science. These schools came into\nexistence in answer to the demand for a method of secondary education\nwhich should give the touch of modern life to the work of the schoolroom,\nso that there should be a vital connection between the information and\ntraining gained, and the associations and activities in the world outside\nthe school. All the studies of a technical high school should feel the\ninspiration of this new idea, and it is the glory of a school of this kind\nthat all its lines of work can take on more or less of a practical tone.\nInstruction in mathematics is enriched by practical applications found in\nthe shop tools and machines. The English department finds in the\nmechanical work a wealth of subjects for theme-writing. The study of\neconomic history and commerce is greatly helped by a knowledge of\nindustrial processes. But no study can match physics in the ability to\nestablish vital relations, not only with the various mechanical departments\nof a technical high school, but with all other lines of work. Physics gives\na living purpose to much of the teaching of algebra and geometry, and\nreceives in turn incalculable assistance in the solution of its problems and\nformulas. In its higher phases physics is a mathematical quite as much\nas it is an experimental subject. It touches the subject of language in\ndemanding that accurate and adequate expression be employed in the\nstatement of its principles and laws, both in oral and in written English,\nand in the preparation of notes and papers. Physics has played an\nimportant part in many of the great epochs of history; it has won its\ndecisive battles, and can claim its share of saints and martyrs and heroes\nwho, thru their devotion to this branch of science, have contributed to the\nadvance of civilization. It occupies a place of honor in history and biography. In the world at large physics is acknowledged to be the center on\nwhich hangs our knowledge of natural forces, the foundation on which\nhave been laid the most characteristic achievements of the age, whether it\nbe called the age of steam, of machinery, of transportation, of steel, of\nelectricity. Among all the sciences that deal with material things physics\nstands first. In a school, therefore, which recognizes in its work, so far\nas a school can, the activities of modern life, physics should take the position which the world has assigned to it as its rightful place among the\nnatural sciences. If such schools do their full duty by physics, they may\ncompensate for the loss of popular interest in the science, as shown by\nthe constantly diminishing numbers electing this study in the ordinary\nhigh schools. It has been crowded out by wrong methods of presentation, by the temptation of easy studies, by lack of time, by failure to\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\nFOR\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n893\n\nappreciate its usefulness. The technical high school can remove all these\ndifficulties.\nI have prepared a chart outlining the course of study in physics as\nplanned for the Mechanic Arts High School of Springfield. It will be\nnoticed that an attempt has been made here to meet the peculiar conditions which obtain in schools of this character and to fulfill the requirements of a complete course in physics — perhaps the most complete yet\nattempted in secondary schools. It is a four-year course. During the\nfirst two years the entire subject is covered as thoroly as possible ; and so\nfar it is a required study for all students. During the third year physics\nis made almost entirely a laboratory subject, and the work is largely\nquantitative. The fourth year the same method is continued in electricity\nfor those who elect it, and optional courses are offered in some of the\nmost common practical applications of physics. The last two years of\nthis course are not required for all students.\nThe topics given in this outline are not intended to be complete, but\nsimply to indicate the range and quality of the work. Much depends\nupon the method of presentation. The methods of exact measurement\nand mathematical reasoning are avoided as much as is wisely possible\nduring the first two years. This is when boys are interested in dynamics\n— in how and why things go — how boilers, engines, motors, dynamos,\ntelephones, and scores of other things are made, and how they work. It\nis not the right time for methods of scientific research ; and these must\nbe used sparingly even in the advanced years. The boy's natural zeal\nfor this study from his own point of view must not be killed ; neither\nshould he be allowed to fritter away his time in playing with scientific\ntoys and gimcracks. He should be put to work — he may think he is\nplaying — upon apparatus and machines of life-size and of real dynamic\nvalue. The great usefulness of physics, its countless applications, the\nstories of its discoveries and inventions, its fascinating theories, and its\npromises of future development, if rightly presented, will sustain the\nnatural interest of any live boy thru a course in physics as complete as\nthe length of his school days will permit.\nTHE\n\nOUTLINE\n\nFirst Year : Four periods (forty-five minutes each) weekly for thirty-eight weeks.\nTopics. — {a) Elementary conceptions of matter, motion, force, work, power, and\nenergy. The general law of machines and applications in simple machines. Pressure in\nliquids, with problems in computing liquid pressure due to gravity; buoyancy and application in specific gravity; atmospheric pressure and the barometer ; Boyle's law in simple\nform; pumps, siphons, and other hydraulic and pneumatic appliances. Transmission\nof pressure, with problems in computing interior pressure.\n{b) Magnets and their influence upon%magnetic bodies; terrestrial magnetism;\nmagnetic charts and instruments. Electrostatics. The simple voltaic cell and typical\nvarieties. Important effects of the electric current, with common applications. Measurement of resistance by the method of substitution.\nArrangement of voltaic cells, electric\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "§94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nbells, and incandescent lamps in series and in parallel (including special grouping), with\nillustrative problems. Divided circuits, with practical problems. The principles of\ncurrent induction ; induction coils and transformers ; the telephone ; the dynamo and the\nmotor.\nThe thermopile.\nMethod. — A combination of text-book lessons with laboratory instruction and a\nlimited number of lecture table demonstrations. The laboratory exercises are qualitative,\nquantitative, or constructive, as best suits the topic under consideration, and they require\nabout one-third the total time given to the year's course.\nCorrelative work. — Problems in algebra, drawing, wood-work, and iron-work.\nSecond Year: («) Three periods weekly for thirty-eight weeks on heat, light, and\nsound; and {b) five periods weekly for sixteen weeks on mechanics; (<:) college preparatory physics (elective).\nTopics. — {a) Discussion of the nature and sources of heat; temperature; the effects\nof changes of temperature ; common applications and laws. Determination of coefficients\nof expansion. Conduction, convection, radiation, absorption, and reflection. Cooling by\nradiation, dew-point, and humidity. Quantity of heat and its measurement. Specific\nheat and its determination. Latent heat and its determination for water and steam.\nApplications.\nDiscussion of the nature of light and its propagation ; the principles of photometry ;\nshadows ; the pinhole camera. The laws of reflection ; images in plane, concave, and\nconvex mirrors ; parallel mirrors and mirrors at an angle of 90° or less. Refraction and\nthe index of refraction ; common applications. Prisms and lenses ; measurement of focal\nlength of lens. Optical instruments. The eye. The spectroscope and spectrum analysis.\nFluorescence and phosphorescence.\nPolarization of light.\nThe nature and origin of sound ; sound waves ; velocity in different media. Loudness, pitch, and timbre. Measurement of tuning-fork vibrations ; wave-length ; resonance. Discussion of musical instruments and the musical scale. The human voice ; the\near ; the phonograph ; the telephone.\nMethod. —Text-book lessons and discussion, with lecture table demonstration and\nquantitative laboratory work, requiring about one-third the total time given to the year's\ncourse.\n{b) Theoretical mechanics and its fundamental terms — force, stress, tension, pressure,\nstrain, equilibrium, acceleration — explained. Discussion of motion, inertia, momentum,\nthe moment of any force, the composition and resolution of motions and forces, the conditions of equilibrium.\nWork and energy, and reduction to formulas.\nThe elements of applied mechanics outlined in the explanation of the mechanical\nadvantage and the true use of machines. The elementary machines recognized, and their\nlaw verified experimentally. Study of the applications of the principles of applied\nmechanics in the shop tools and machines.\nMethod. — Text-book study (Lodge's Elementary Mechanics') and class-room discussion, with much mathematical work. Measurements of school tools and machines,\nwith papers assigned to be carefully prepared and presented in class.\nCorrelative work. — Problems in geometry, drawing, pattern-making, and forging.\n(<:) College preparatory physics. — The laboratory course required for admission to\nHarvard University.\nThird Year: Physical measurements (elective) — four periods (forty-five minutes\neach) weekly for thirty-eight weeks.\nTopics. — Measurement of the fundamental units, length, mass, and time, according\nto both British and metric systems, and computations based on these measurements.\nAccurate measurements of dimensions of six brass solids, and computations of surface\nand volume. Discussion of errors and significant figures. Exercises in ruling scales on\nboth paper and steel. Determination of sensitiveness of balance ; methods of weighing ;\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICS\n\nFOR\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n895\n\naccurate determinations of density ; determination of the length of the seconds pendulum\nand the value oi G. — Calibration of the thermometer, and accurate determinations of\nspecific heat, latent heat, and coefficient of expansion. Measurement of curvature and\nfocal length of lenses ; angular prism ; index or refraction ; magnifying power of lenses,\nand the study of the spectra.\nMeasuring instruments used. — Meter rod; steel scale; diag*^ nal scale; vernier\ncaliper; micrometer caliper; graduated tube; spherometer; dividing engine; beam\nbalance (sensitive to l/ioo gm. for kilo load); specific gravity flask ; Jolly's balance;\nAtwood's machine ; Kater's pendulum ; thermometer ; calorimeter ; standard barometer ;\nand spectrometer.\nMethod. — Quantitative laboratory work, with strict requirements as to laboratory\nnotebook, and class-room discussion.\nCorrelative work. — Chemistry; college preparatory algebra and geometry; machineshopi practice; and the elements of machine design.\nFourth Year : A choice of four electives — {a) electrical measurements ; {b) electrical\nconstruction; (r) applied mechanics; {d) power-plant practice — steam and electrical.\nSix periods (forty-five minutes each) weekly for thirty-eight weeks.\n{a) Electrical measurements. — Magnetic lines of force ; determination of H and M;\nuse of tangent galvanometer; measurement of resistance by various bridge methods and\nalso by direct measuring instruments ; determination of specific resistance ; verification of\nlaws of divided circuits ; measurement of electromotive force and current strength.\nMethod. — Laboratory, notebook, and class-room discussion.\nCorrelative work. — Trigonometry; use of trigonometric tables and logarithms.\n{b, c, and d) Application of principles already learned to practical work, with such\nnew rules and formulas as may develop by practice in each of the three lines of applied\nscience.\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 8, 1903\n\nThe department was called to order in the Normal Art School at 9 : 30 A. M. by\nPresident Harlan P. French, Albany, N. Y.\nAfter the secretary had reported the names of school boards which expressed their\nwillingness to attend, the chair introduced Calvin W. Edwards, president of the board of\neducation, Albany, N. Y., who read a paper on \" School Boards : Number of Members,\nTerms of Service, Mode of Selection.\"\nGrafton D. Gushing, president of the school committee of Boston, opened the discussion. He was followed by W. W. Ghalmers, Toledo, O.; Galvin M. Woodward, St.\nLouis, Mo,; E. A. Donelan, St. Joseph, Mo.; and J. E. Armstrong, Ghicago, 111.\nB. F. Hunsicker, president of the board of education of Reading, Pa., then read a\npaper on \"School Boards — Their Functions: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial.\"\nDiscussion followed by Superintendent Thomas M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass.; Albert\nGehring, Cleveland, O.; Mr. Freeman, Washington, D. C; and Mr. Armstrong, Chicago,\n111. The chair then appointed the following committees :\n.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nOscar B. Wctherhold, Reading, Pa.\nCalvin W. Edwards, Albany, N. Y,\nJ. H. Thiry, Long Island City, N. Y.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nMiss Sarah J. Wilmarth, Maiden, Mass.\nB. F. Hunsicker, Reading, Pa.\nWilliam George Bruce, Milwaukeej Wis.\n\nAdjournment.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9\n\nThe department convened at 9 : 30 a. m.. President French in the chair.\nThe president called for the report of the special committee appointed last year on\nSchool Savings Banks.\nDr. E. A. Donelan, chairman of the committee, reported the following:\nResolved, That the penny savings bank system should be established in our schools.\nYour committee to whom the foregoing resolution was referred, having had the same under consideration,\nwould respectfully recommend its adoption for the following reasons :\nMany children form habits of spending their change, or money received, for articles that are not only\ninjurious to health, but lead to extravagant habits.\nEconomy and frugality should be inculcated in children while young, that they may not become spendthrifts, and come to want in after-years.\nIn youth good habits must be fixed.\n\nAdopted.\nThe discussion preceding the adoption was participated in by Mrs. Josephine\nAhnefeldt Goss, Grand Rapids, Mich., and J. H. Thiry, Long Island City, N. Y., the\n897\n\" father of the school savings bank system in theJJnited States.\"\nHon. Charles Holden, member of the board of education of Grand Rapids, Mich.,\nthen read a paper on \" New Departures in School Administration.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "898\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\n\"Consolidation of Rural Schools\" was the subject of papers read by Hon. William\nK. Fowler, state superintendent of public instruction of Nebraska, and John T. Prince,\nagent for Massachusetts state board of education,\nAlfred Bayliss, state superintendent of public instruction of Illinois, and Lewis D.\nBonebrake, state school commissioner of Ohio, participated in the discussion.\nB. F. Hunsicker, of the Committee on Resolutions, then submitted the following\nreport :\nWhereas, This year's meeting of the Department of School Administration has revealed a strong\ninterest in the subject of school-board organization, and more particularly as to the mode and manner of\nselection, number of members, and representation ; be it\nResolved, That the president be, and he is hereby, instructed to appoint a committee of five, representing various sections of the country, who shall gather and formulate the necessary statistics and present the\nsame with their conclusions at next year's meetings ; and be it further\nResolved^ That said conclusions shall embody, as far as possible, definite recommendations as to the\nquestion of large or small school boards, ward or representation at large, long or short terms, appointive or\nelective systems, etc.\n(Signed)\nMiss Sarah J. Wilmarth.\nB. F. Hunsicker.\nW. G. Bruce.\n\nAdopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following list of officers to serve the\nensuing year :\nYox President — B. F. Hunsicker, Reading, Pa.\nFor Vice-President — Grafton D. Gushing, Boston, Mass.\nFor Secretary — William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Executive Committee — Harlan P, French, Albany, N. Y. ; Albert Gehring, Cleveland, O. ; Israel\nH. Peres, Memphis, Tenn. ; Charles Holden, Grand Rapids, Mich.\n\nA. E. Donelap then introduced the following resolution :\nWhereas, Manual training schools or industrial education, is approved by our best educators;\nResolved, That in order to secure greater results and give all classes an opportunity to share in its advantages, children in the seventh and eighth grades should spend an hour each day in educating the hand in\nsome practical art that will serve them in after life.\n\nThe resolution, was referred to the Executive Committee, with recommendation that\na report be submitted next year.\nThe president-elect of the department, Hon. B. F. Hunsicker, of Reading, Pa., was\nthen introduced to the meeting.\nAfter a brief address, he declared the department adjourned.\nWilliam George Bruce, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS.\nSERVICE,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nNUMBER\nOF MEMBERS, TERMS\nAND MODE OF SELECTION\n\nOF\n\nI\nCALVIN\n\nW.\n\nEDWARDS,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nALBANY,\n\nN, Y.\n\nSome boards are large, and others are larger. Some are elected bywards and some at large. In some cities they are elected at the same\ntime with other city officials, while in others special elections are held for\nthe members of their boards of education.\nIn some places only those\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n899\n\nwho are voters can vote for members of the board; in others, all taxpayers\ncan vote for them ; while in still others the fair sex can exercise the voting prerogative, provided they are taxpayers or have children in the\nschools. A law of Georgia provides that in the city of Savannah nine\nmen shall constitute the board of education, and that '' they are created a\nbody politic and corporate, with perpetual succession of members, for the\npurpose aforesaid,\" etc. In other words, if one of the members should\ndie or resign, the remaining members of the board elect his successor.\nSome boards are appointed by the mayor; others, by the common council; still others, by the judges; and in one case at least the governor of\nthe state appoints a portion of the board. Usually boards of education\nare considered city officials, but in New York state the highest court has\ndecided that they are state officials.\nThere are probably other methods than those already quoted for the\ncreating or constituting of boards of education, but enough have been\ncited to show that there is great diversity in this direction, as there also\nappears to be in the number of members considered necessary to administer the school affairs of a municipality.\nNUMBER\n\nOF\n\nMEMBERS\n\nIt is not necessary to go into details to show the varying size of\nboards in different cities, but, so far as I know, the smallest boards consist of three members. I have no means of knowing which city now has\nthe largest membership in its board, but I was amused to learn that \"one\nNew England town had originally two hundred school trustees — one for\nthe direction and supervision of each school-teacher in the public-school\nsystem.\" I also learn that in 1875 the membership of the Boston School\nCommittee was 1 16.\nThis great diversity in the manner of constituting school boards, and\nthe difference in the number of their members, which have existed for\nmany years, show clearly that the American people have been simply experimenting in this direction in order to discover, if possible, the best\nsystem. It has remained for Albany, however — which was the first city\nin the world to establish a telephone system, the first to establish electric\nstreet lighting, the first to run electric cars, and the first in many other\nthings — to take the lead also in this and establish the ideal system — a\nsmall board, a long term of service, with members selected by the mayor.\nI am not prepared to say that a board consisting of three members is\nlarge enough properly to care for the interests of the schools in such cities\nas Boston, New York, and Chicago; but I do contend that in cities of less\nthan 250,000 three members will accomplish more for the good of the\nschools, and work with less friction, than* larger board, and that limiting the number of members in the large cities to the smallest number\npossible will materially increase the usefulness of such boards.\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "900\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[Administration\n\nSpeaking now of the cities of the second cl^ss, I shall be met with the\nobjection that it would be impossible for a board of three members to\nattend to all the manifold details connected with the government of the\nschools, repairs to buildings, building new schools, transferring of teachers and pupils, and so forth, unless they gave up all other business and\ndevoted their whole time to it. That would be a valid objection, under\nthe laws governing a large majority of the school boards of this country,\nbut my answer to that objection would be : Change the laws and relieve\nthe boards from all these details by putting them where they belong,\nunder the charge of the paid officials of the board or city.\nI can perhaps better illustrate my idea on this phase of the subject by\nstating some of the provisions of the law under which the present board\nof three members was appointed at Albany, N. Y. ; and my point may be\nmade clearer by showing the practical .working rather than by quoting\nthe text of the law. Under the old law,- all transfers of teachers and\npupils from one school to another were passed upon either by the whole\nboard or by a committee. Under the new law, the matter of transfers is\nplaced in the hands of the superintendent of schools, who is a paid officer\nof the board. Under the old law, the matter of repairs of school buildings and the erection of new schoolhouses came entirely under the charge\nof the board, and it was obliged to get out plans and specifications, advertise for bids, let contracts, and supervise the work generally. Under the\npresent law, in the case of repairs, ordinary or general, the superintendent of buildings — another paid officer of the board — examines what is\nto be done and makes his report, giving estimated cost of such repairs as\nare necessary. In the case of extensive repairs of any kind, the board\nvisits the schools to examine as to the necessity of such repairs, and, when\nsatisfied that the repairs should be made, simply passes a resolution to\nthat effect and sends a letter to the city engineer asking him to see that\nthe work is done. The city engineer, who is a paid city official, draws\nthe plans and specifications, advertises for bids, lets the contracts, and\nsupervises the work. When the work is completed, he reports the same\nto the board, and, if the work is satisfactory, the president of the board\napproves the bill and the incident is closed.\nThe appointment of teachers is equally free from detail. The board\nhas the appointment of all the teachers in the high school, and the principals of all grammar and primary schools ; but for the assistant teachers\na merit list is made up once a year by the superintendent from reports of\nthe training-school principal and teachers, and from the state department. This merit list is submitted to the board and, when approved,\nremains unchanged for a year, and whenever there is a vacancy, the person at the head of the list is chosen ; and the rule to take the name from\nthe head of the list is absolute.\nThe\n\ntransferring\n\nof these\n\ndetails to others does not in any sense\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n'\n\n9^1\n\ndiminish the power or the responsibility of the board, while the concentration ofpower in a small membership gives the board larger importance\nand better ability to accomplish good results. All the officers of the\nboard, as well as all the principals and teachers, are under its immediate\ncontrol to the same extent as they were under the old law, when a larger\nboard was expected to attend to all these matters of detail. The city\nengineer and the board of control simply carry out the recommendation\nof the board as to repairs and kindred expenditures, and have no power\nto authorize any expense in connection with the schools, except on such\nrecommendation.\nIt will be seen from this brief illustration that, while under the law\nthe duties of the board are largely legislative rather than administrative,\nat the same time the power and responsibility are concentrated and not\ntaken away from them ; and this is in direct line with the best thought of\nthe day, which demands concentrated, rather than divided, responsibility\nin official action.\nThe tendency for the past few years, so far as the number of members is concerned, has been from the greater to the less, rather than from\nthe less to the greater. Mr. Donald L. Merrill, in 1899 writing in regard\nto a proposed reduction in the Chicago school board, says: \"I am\nstrongly of the opinion, based upon a long experience in school work,\nthat the public interests will be better served if the membership of the\nboard of education is reduced in number.\" President Nicholas Murray\nButler writes : \" The school committee should be small, because a small\none is more efficient, less talkative, cannot cut itself up into small committees, and cannot apportion out patronage.\" President Andrew S.\nDraper says : \" It should not be so large in number as to become a\npublic debating school.\" George Morris Phillips, principal of the State\nNormal School at West Chester, Pa., in writing on this subject, said :\n\" The smaller the school board the better. We have had a good deal of\nexperience in Pennsylvania, and large boards invariably work badly.\"\nOther testimony could be given in this direction by those who have\nstudied the subject, but this is sufficient to show the tendency.\nNo one will dispute the fact that when a committee of twelve or more\nis appointed in a church or society to do any specific work, such work, in\nnineteen cases out of twenty, is done almost entirely by about three members of such committee. When this same thing is not true as to the\nworkings of a large school board, it may be inferred that such progress as\nis made comes about very largely thru a series of compromises. This is\nno reflection on the individual members of such boards, but is merely evidence of the varying phases of human nature. We are so constituted\nthat, while our own road to a desired* object seems perfectly clear and\nplain, we are utterly unable to see that the other fellow's road to the same\nobject is equally good, or perhaps better.\nNeither is this to be con-\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "902\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nsidered an insfnuation that large boards have not done, or are not doing\ngood work in the cause of education. They have done and are doing a\nnoble work for the children of our country, as the results all over our\ngreat land will show, but they have done it rather in spite of their size,\nand not because of it ; and I contend that the same, or better, results\ncould have been obtained by a much smaller number of members on the\naverage board.\nBut, you will say, if five members can do better work and accomplish\nmore than nine or twelve or fifteen, and if a board of three members can\ndo even better work than one of five, why not carry the principle out to its\nlogical Conclusion and appoint a board of one member and give him the\nentire charge of the schools ? I would answer by saying that; I would\nadvocate that plan, provided a man could be found in the community who\npossessed the necessary qualifications for such a position and was willing\nto accept it. A person, in order to fill a place of that kind successfully and for the best interests of the schools, should have the judicial\ntemperament in a marked degree. He should be without prejudice,\nand would also need to be very deeply interested in the cause of education. You and I might say, \" Of course, I could fill a position of\nthat kind, for I am broad-minded, and would be perfectly fair in all my\ndecisions. I would have no prejudices, and if I disliked an officer of the\nboard, a principal, or a teacher, it would only be because there was a\ngood reason for it.\" But if we were to attempt to select one of our\nfriends for the position, doubts would begin to arise in our minds. This\none would lack one qualification and that one another. One would be\ntoo hasty in his decisions, and the next one would allow his likes and dislikes to influence his actions. In fact, it would be practically impossible\nto find a man in any community in whom the people would have sufficient\nconfidence to trust him with responsibilities so great and varied.\nIn a board of three members any two act as a balance wheel for the\nother one, and if they are carefully selected by the appointing power,\nthere will be no danger that the work of the board will not be carefully\nand expeditiously attended to.\nAn argument not to be overlooked in favor of the small board is the\nfact that, as it brings greater power and responsibilities, so also it brings\ngreater honor to the members. For that reason, the position becomes\nmore attractive to the leading professional or business man, who would\nnot care to accept membership in a large board, with the necessary attention to detail and the divided responsibility.\nWithout saying anything as to the qualifications of the members of our\nboard in Albany, further than that they have the reputation of having\nmanaged the business of the schools successfully, I think I can safely say\nthat not one of those appointed under the new law would have cared to\naccept membership in a large board under the old law, altho Albany was\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n9° 3\n\nexceptionally favored even under the old law, as its membership was composed of leading business and professional men of the city. This,\nhowever, I think, was somewhat exceptional, and I believe the large\nboards generally have not attracted the best business and professional men\nof the community.\nTE.RMS\n\nOF\n\nSERVICE\n\nIt seems to me there is only one valid reason for a short term for a\nmember of a school board, and that is that if, by any possibi'lity, a member should be appointed who proved himself thoroly incompetent, you\ncould get rid of him more quickly; but that objection falls to the ground\nif the appointing power is sufficiently careful in making selections.\nThe bright boy who goes into a business office is more valuable to his\nemployer the second year than he is the first, and still more valuable the\nthird than the second. The young man who starts in to learn a trade, or\nthe young professional man who hangs out his shingle, becomes more\nvaluable to himself and others as he gains experience. The same rule\napplies to members of a school board.\nThe term of service in our board is six years, and the term of one of\nthe members expires every two years, so that when the law is in full operation, if a member retires\" at the end of his term and a new member is\nappointed to his place, there still remains one member who has had two\nyears' and another who has had four years' experience on the board. Six\nyears is none too long, and it is long enough, for a good many men who\ncompose our school board are doing the work as much because of civic\npride and interest in the education of the young as for any honor that\nmay come to them thru their position ; and if such men feel at the end of\ntheir term that they have borne their share of this particular burden, they\nshould be allowed to retire, and their work should be taken by other\nequally public-spirited citizens.\n. MODE\n\nOF\n\nSELECTION\n\nMuch has been said and written as to the best method of choosing\nschool boards. I have already mentioned a number of the methods\nemployed in different states and cities, and wish to call particular attention to the one method which I consider the most objectionable, and that\nis the election of members either by wards or at large.\nWhen a person is elected as a member of the board from his ward, it\nis not always because he is the best man for the place, but because he\nbelongs to the political party which happens to poll the most votes in\nthat particular ward; and the tendency is to make him feel that his duty\nis to see not so much what he can do for the schools as what he can do\nfor his ward; and it has been knowfl to happen that what he does for\nhis constituents turns out to be a very bad thing for the schools.\nThe same objection applies when members of the school board are\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nelected at large at the same time other city officials are chosen. One\nwriter, in commenting on this mode of selection, expresses this idea very\nforcibly when he says :\nWhen men are elected on a general ticket, it is almost always the case that schoolboard positions are looked upon as the tail end of the ticket. Men who fail to receive\nnominations for other positions, regarded by party managers as more responsible or more\nlucrative, are given school-board nominations as a consolation prize. Then, in the board,\nmembers play for partisan advantage continually, while the school suffers.\n\nI believe thoroly that the appointment by the mayor, no matter what\nhis party affiliations may be, will tend to the best results in the administration of the schools of our cities, and that it will do more to remove our\nschools from politics than any system of election that can be devised.\nThe Report of the Educational Commission of the City of Chicago for\n1899 contained a recommendation which I should like to quote:\nIf, however, the board of education is not to be directly elected by the people, the\nexperience of other cities as well as the history of the public-school system of this city\njustify the appointment of the board of education by the mayor. This plan, moreover, is\nin harmony with the principle of concentration of authority and responsibility. The\nmayor, above all, represents the entire city, and nowhere, if not in his hands, can this\nduty be placed with full expectation that his action will meet the general sentiment and\ndesires of the people. He may be held strictly responsible for the appointments he\nmakes ; and since the citizens are on no point more sensitive than in regard to the administration ofthe school system, the mayor can be reasonably relied upon to act in this\nmatter both conscientiously and intelligently. It is safe to say that no city administration, however strongly intrenched in public esteem, would act in any manner prejudicial\nto the schools without incurring quick and sure condemnation.\nThe objection has been raised that the plan here proposed might result in a partisan\nboard of education. The peculiar sensitiveness, however, of the American people in\nregard to their school system is more than a counterbalance to the natural inclination of a\nmayor to appoint the school trustees solely from among his political friends. The advantages that he might gain for himself or for his party by such appointments would certainly\nprove only temporary, if the action of the board should show anything but a disinterested\ndesire for the good of the public schools.\nIt is with confidence in the truth of these considerations that your commission recommends giving the mayor the appointment of the board of education.\n\nOne who knew the conditions might easily have been pardoned for\nbelieving that, however true these statements might be, as far as other\ncities were concerned, they would not apply to Albany. In the first place,\nAlbany is the capital of the state, and it is a common remark that there is\nmore politics to the square inch in that city than in any other city in the\nstate. The deduction would be that in such a political center it would be\nimpossible to divorce such appointments from politics. In the next place,\nit has been the custom for years for men of prominence in business and\nprofessional life to interest themselves in educational matters and serve as\nmembers of the board, so that it was not a question of getting better men,\nbut of changing the law so that it would be possible to concentrate the\npower and responsibility in a small board, and in that way do better work\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n905\n\nand do it more expeditiously. The result has fully justified the recommendation which I have quoted.\nAt the time the law was under discussion, it was claimed that it was a\npolitical move, but I am happy to say that even those men who feared the\nchange would lead to the introduction of partisan politics into the school\nsystem, and those newspapers who opposed the passage of the law for the\nsame reason, are now cordial supporters of the board; and I have yet to\nhear the first word of criticism of any official act of the board. I am also\nglad to be able to state that no question of politics or political expediency\nhas ever come before us, and altho the board consists of two members of\none party and one of another, there has never been the slightest hint of a\ndivision along political lines on any question that has come before the\nboard. Any opposition there may have been to a small board has disap>\npeared, and I believe that if the matter were put to a vote in Albany\ntoday, the vote for a small board would be simply overwhelming.\nThe attainment of this result in a political storm center like Albany\nshows that the people, and the political leaders as well, are imbued with\nthe American idea in regard to schools, and will do their utmost to\nadvance their best interests. It also shows that if the idea of \"small\nboards, with a long term of service and appointment by the mayor,\" can\nbe made to work successfully in a city like Albany, it should be even more\nsuccessful in cities where the conditions are different, and where perhaps\nthe members of the large boards are not so able or so deeply interested\nin the cause of education as were the members of our large board under\nthe old law.\n\nII\nGRAFTON\n\nD.\n\nGUSHING,\n\nPRESIDENT\nBOSTON,\n\nOF THE\nMASS.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE,\n\nThe number of members on school boards in this country varies\nfrom three to forty-six. In Boston the school committee had, before\n1895, 114 members.\nIt now has twenty-four members.\nThere can be no doubt about the general proposition that a small\nbody of men can work more quickly and mare harmoniously than a large\none. Witness the fact that the average number of directors in a corporation ismall — seven perhaps. Some corporations have more directors, some less. Harvard has five, for instance. Boards of trustees are\nrarely large. The president of the United States has a small cabinet. It\nseems, therefore, a fair deduction that the business sense of the American\npeople has taught them that the board which directs the policy of a large\nundertaking shall be small enough to allow of informal discussion.\nWhen a board is so large that it is necessary to introduce formal parliamentary procedure, you have lost, to a certain degree, the personal\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nrelationship which smooths over. differences of opinion. Parliamentary\nprocedure arouses antagonism, excites party feeling, awakens distrust;\npersonal attacks are made and are answered; some new measure is introduced, and members of the board find themselves suddenly violently\narrayed on one side or the other, where an informal discussion of the subject might have led to a satisfactory compromise. Set rules are necessary\nto a large board, and rules are destructive of good feeling. Points of\norder are made ; parliamentary tactics are resorted to ; and the result is a\ngeneral feeling of bitterness. Men who would treat each other with great\ncivility in private intercourse do not hesitate to put the worst construction on an opponent's motives in a formal meeting, and the pacifying\neffect of personal contact is lost. Put these same men around a table and\nlet them talk things over, and the chances are that the question will be\nsettled amicably.\nThe chief duty of a school board is, I take it — or ought to be — to\ndirect the general policy which is to be followed. The details should be\nleft to paid officials. All appointments of teachers should be made by\nthe superintendent of schools, subject only to the approval of the board,\nand should be made, as far as possible, from a classified list. The method\nof appointments from a classified list is not ideal ; it is, however, the\none best suited to our human failings. I know of nothing more mischievous than interference by individual members of school boards in the\nappointment of teachers. It is subversive of all discipline and system,\nand can only lead to favoritism and a disorganization of the service.\nThe carrying out of all other details should be left to the permanent officials, subject to the general control of the board, both on the physical\nand on the educational side. Unfortunately, school boards often insist on\ncaring for the details themselves. They do not know how to delegate\npower. This is another unhappy result of too large boards. Members\ncreate unnecessary work for themselves, partly under the impression that\nthey are fulfilling a duty, partly in order to exercise authority. In a small\nboard members find their general duties of supervision all that they can\nattend to.\nIf this definition of the proper duties of a school board is a correct\none — namely, that a school board should only lay down the general\nlines of policy and exercise general supervision, leaving the execution of\nthe details to permanent officials — it follows that a school board is very\nlike a board of directors, a board of trustees, or the president's cabinet.\nIf a small body of men can wisely and without undue waste of time\nadminister vast affairs, it is not unreasonable to suppose that our educational system can best be administered in the same way. Indeed,\nwherever small boards have been established they have, I believe, worked\nbetter than larger ones. It must be remembered that a school board is\nnot a representative body in the same sense that a legislature is. A city\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n9*^7\n\nis a whole, and is not, certainly as regards its school system, divided up\ninto districts with conflicting interests. The school system should be\nadministered as a whole, and this can be done more wisely by a small\nnumber of men.\nTerms of service in the principal cities of this country are three, four,\nor six years. Three years seems to me a satisfactory term. A busy man\ndoes not like to bind himself for too long a period. It is unwise to elect\na new man for too long* a term, as he may prove unreliable. Less than\nthree years is too short a time to enable a man to acquaint himself with a\ncomplicated system. There is not the objection to a second term that one\noften hears advanced in the case of a governor of a state or of the president. It is in the nature of things almost impossible for a member of a\nschool board to use his official position to secure for himself a re-election,\nunless indeed the city is entirely dominated by a political machine; and\nin that case the board would probably be made up of corrupt men,\nwhether the term was long or short.\nOne finds in this country almost every conceivable method of election\nand appointment to school boards. Where school boards are elective,\nthe preliminary step of the nomination of candidates is quite as important as the final step of their election. In Boston the two great political\nparties nominate candidates for the school board in the city convention.\nAs this body is too large to make nominations expeditiously, the power\nis delegated to a committee of twenty-five, one from each ward. It is easy\nto see that such a system cannot reasonably be expected to work well. A\ncommittee so composed is a fertile field for political manipulation, and\nthe choice of candidates is the result of a series of compromises among\nthe representatives of the different wards. The school committees nominated by the political parties in Boston gradually became worse and\nworse until a number of public-spirited citizens felt obliged to take some\naction. They formed a nonpartisan, nonsectarian association, known as\nthe Public School Association. The movement has been very successful.\nThe Republican city convention has, for the last few years, accepted all\nthe nominees of the association. The Democratic city convention has\naccepted such of them as were Democrats. The general result has been\na distinct improvement in the membership of the school board.\nIt must not be supposed that the work of an association of this kind\ncan be done in a year or two. It takes a long time to educate public\nopinion, and it takes perhaps a still longer time to persuade the welldisposed that it is necessary for them to come out and be counted at the\npolls. The principal reason for our failure to govern ourselves wisely in\nour cities may be attributed largely to the indifference of those who look\nupon politics as an occupation beneath them and unworthy of any effort\non their part. This indifference must be met for the present, until a time\nwhen the public conscience is more thoroly awakened to the duties as\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "9o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nwell as to the privileges of self-government, by the activity of some\norganization of men whose motives are above reproach. It is the only\ndirection in which I can see any immediate hope of improvement in our\nmunicipal government. Such an organization has, I understand, been\nsuccessful in city politics in Chicago, and we are to try the experiment in\nBoston before long. The Public School Association has limited its\nactivity to the nomination and election of members of the school board,\nand has become, within its limited sphere, a political party. It enrolls\nvoters, distributes literature, holds meetings, sends checkers to the polls,\nand routs out on election day negligent voters. All this requires work,\nmoney, organization.\nBesides nomination for the school board by political parties and by a\nprivate association, there are two other methods of nomination. In one\ncity a nominating committee is selected by the judges; in another,\ncandidates are nominated on a petition signed by 200 householders.\nOne finds in the United States almost every conceivable method of\nappointment and election to school boards : appointment by the mayor,\nwith and without the approval of the city council ; appointment by the\njudges of one of the courts ; appointment by the city council ; appointment of a part of the board by the governor and election of the\nremainder by the city council ; appointment of a part of the board by\nthe governor and election of the remainder by the people ; appointment\nby the aldermen, subject to confirmation by the city council; appointment of a large board by the mayor, which board elects an executive\ncommittee ; election by districts of a large board, which in turn elects a\nsmaller central board ; election in town meeting ; and, lastly, election to\nvacancies by the board itself, which is thus a self-perpetuating, close\ncorporation.\nOf all these various methods we can, I think, dismiss all except election at large and appointment by a mayor, a court, or a governor. Election by districts is so notoriously bad that it is not worth discussing here.\nOur municipal governments are so often corrupt that no one can wish to\nsee a closer connection between them and the schools, and therefore\nany system in which a city council has a voice is bad. Appointment,\nhowever, by individuals holding high office, to whom responsibility for\nan unworthy appointment may be brought, or appointment by a body\nlike the bench which should be free from any suspicion of undue\ninfluence, is of course reasonable and defensible. But for myself I must\nconfess that an elected school board seems more consistent with our\ninstitutions and our traditions. I do not mean that I do not believe in\nappointive positions. I most distinctly believe in an appointive judiciary\nand mistrust an elective one. I believe that many, if not all, commissions should be appointive. I believe in giving the chief executive\npower to appoint heads of departments. But I draw a distinction\nbetween different classes of positions.\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n9^0\n\nIn one class, I put those offices which need not respond directly to\nthe wishes of the people, as, for instance, the judicial offices. We have a\ntraditional body of laws which must be applied and interpreted in a consistent and unvarying manner. Sudden changes of interpretation following a popular election would be fatal to a proper administration of\njustice. A judge must give his decisions in accordance with definite legal\nprinciples. The vox populi ha.?, no place in a court, and a judge should\nnot be subjected to having his decisions reviewed at the polls. In the\nsame class I would place permanent commissions, such as park commissions and commissions whose duty is continuous investigation or inquiry.\nIn ^he same class, tho for different reasons, I would put heads of departments. The chief executive of a city or nation is an elective officer, and\nas such is supposed to represent the will of the people. In order that\nhe may carry out his policy he should be allowed to appoint the men\nwho are to direct the various branches of his administration, so that his\npolicy may be worked out as a consistent whole.\nIn the second class I would put all offices which should respond to\nthe will of the people — mayors, governors, legislatures, city councils,\nand school boards. The schools touch the life of the people more\nintimately than any other department of government, and it seems to\nme only reasonable that the people should be able to express directly\ntheir wishes in the management of their schools. Now, I am quite prepared to admit that at any given time or in any given city an appointive\nschool board may be better than an elective one, just as I am willing to\ngrant that an autocratic government may, at any given period, be wiser\nand more liberal than a popular one. A people may be happy and\nprosperous under a benovelent despotism, and greater individual liberty\nmay exist than in a democracy. That is not the question. It is possible\nto sacrifice future development for improved conditions in the present.\nIt is conceivable that an autocratic government may impose on a people\na measure that is wise and for their good, but which the people would\nnot have consented to voluntarily without a long period of education.\nLet me give an illustration. The Russian government introduced the\nsingle gold standard by a decree. The rulers were convinced of the wisdom of the measure; the people were not consulted. Compare our\nAmerican method of procedure with the Russian. The gold standard\nwas adopted only after a long struggle and a severe process of self-education attended by material loss. But our people had in the meantime\nfought their way to a higher stage of intellectual development. I would\nnot sacrifice this self-education for any amount of present gain. I am\naware that the schools are the most important factor in this process of\nself- education, and that any influence which hampers the schools retards\nour development. Hence it may be argued that it is important to secure\nthe best school boards irrespective of any other consideration.\nI admit\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "910\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIONAL\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Administration\n\nthe importance of good school boards, but I feel that it is more developing to learn to govern ourselves wisely than to have good school boards\nprovided for us by an appointing power. The schools touch us too\nclosely in our daily lives to allow us to neglect their management as we\nneglect other departments of our government. The practice of selfgovernment is essential if we are to preserve our liberties. The education we need most today is political. We are educating ourselves\npolitically when we see the necessity of exerting ourselves to get good\nmen for our school boards and go out and do it. Having once\naccustomed ourselves to do it in one department, we shall learn to do it\nin all departments. Not until then can we boast that we are an intelligent, self-governing community.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS— THEIR\nEXECUTIVE,\n\nB. F. HUNSICKER,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF THE\n\nFUNCTIONS: LEGISLATIVE,\nAND JUDICIAL\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nREADING,\n\nPA.\n\nMuch has been said and written in the past few years about the typical school board ; but as yet we have neither the typical school board nor\nhave we agreed upon any one plan of school-board organization as the\nideal. Opinions differ widely, and it is only remotely possible that there\nmay be a uniform plan in school government in this country.\nSome believe in centralizing in the school board almost unlimited powers, with detailed duties for the individual members of such board; and\nperhaps equally as many think that the school board should be a passive\nbody, merely ratifying — and often not that — what has been done by\npaid officials, especially the superintendent, making him the educational\nexpert and the executive head of the professional factors, and practically\nthe executive head of the whole school system.\nMy opinion is that the school board is not a clerical bureau, empowered to appoint a few officials, pass upon bills, vote away its duties, and\ncongratulate itself that it has so little to do. A typical school board, as\nI understand it, is a creation of the law-making power; its members are\nelected by the suffrages of the people ; it has granted to it the power to\nestablish, maintain, and control free public schools, and these powers\nshould not be shirked nor entirely delegated to officials.\nThe officials should not be hampered by unnecessary red tape, yet the\nschool board, representing as it does the people, should be a vital factor\nin a school system, and it and its committees should fully consider all\nmatters of sufficient importance to effect the entire school system or any\nimportant part of it. The life of our public schools depends on the\ninterest and co-operation of the people, and this can best be maintained\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n9^\n\nby keeping directors in touch with the work and the people in touch with\nthe directors.\nA review of several school systems will help little in reaching a conclusion as to what functions a school board should retain and what it\nshould delegate to officials, nor are we likely to evolve from the numerous perplexing and complex systems anything like the model school\nboard suited to all. It is perhaps, after all, a local question, and one\nwhich each community must settle for itself. Nevertheless, it is an interesting topic, and all can at least be helped by an exchange of opinion.\nThe number of members that compose a board is an unimportant\nfactor in the question now under consideration. New York has twentyone members in its school board ; Pittsburg has thirty-seven members in\na central board and over two hundred in local boards; Minneapolis has\nseven; Reading, sixty-four. As far as I can ascertain, the number of\nmembers has little effect on the functional policy of the board. In some\ninstances large school boards retain little power, in others small school\nboards retain much power, and vice versa. Hence the solution of the\nproblem does not lie in the number of members a board may have.\nIt has been suggested that the method of selecting a school board\nwould settle the question of efficiency ; but school boards, whether elected\nby the people or appointed by mayors, judges, or governors, have alike\nbeen good and bad, have alike had little or much power; hence the\nsolution does not lie there.\nIt is not within the province of this paper to deal with the mode of\ncreating school boards, nor to determine the number of members that\nshould compose a board ; but since the people, in either the appointive\nor elective system, are responsible for the school board, indirectly if\nappointed, directly if elected, its powers should be liberal.\nAn investigation of the functions of boards in several cities, however,\nis not always encouraging toward this end. In Cleveland, under what is\ncalled the federal system, one man is the school board, exercising all the\nfunctions. This plan seems to meet with some approval, but whether a\ncentralization of all power in one man is wise is still a doubtful question.\nIn many western -cities the school boards are vested with all powers,\nadministrative, judicial, legislative. They owe no allegiance to any\nother local authority in school matters. As a rule, there are six members. This plan has been successful. Here in Boston, I understand, the\nschool board has been gradually getting more power. Before 1875 the\nboard, I believe, had not the authority even to determine the location of\na schoolhouse, that power being in the hands of the city council. In\nsome cities the mayor is ex officio meijjber of the board, in others he is\npresident, and in a few he has the veto power. In Buffalo there is no\nschool board ; the city council transacts all school business ; and the\nsuperintendent is an officer elected by the people, and is the head of the\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ndepartment of education. In many cities, notably Atlanta, the school\nboard can do nothing without the consent of the council. While the\ntendency is is to give enlarged powers to such school boards, yet almost\ninvariably councils retain the power of appropriating money. In Baltimore many of the acts of the board are subject to the decision of the\ncouncil. Minneapolis and St. Paul, the twin cities of the Northwest,\nrepresent a marked contrast. In the former the board has virtually absolute power and levies its own taxes ; in the latter the board cannot even\nhold its property and is subject to the dictates of the council. It is clear,\nthen, that there is a medley of plans as well as a diversity in the powers\nof functions of individual boards.\nSchool boards have little real power, and their duties are more or less\nperfunctory unless they have absolute control of their finances. If compelled to prepare estimates to be approved by city councils, their functions\nbecome a nonentity. The board can plan nothing with any degree of\ncertainty. In many western cities, such as St. Louis, Denver, and Minneapolis, the board levies and collects taxes. In Milwaukee the same plan\nprevails, unless the city council decides otherwise by a two-thirds vote.\nIn Detroit a fixed sum per pupil must be granted by the council. Beyond\nthis the council has absolute power to appropriate or to withhold. In\nPhiladelphia councils make the appropriations. In Reading the school\nboard levies the school tax, and collects and expends the money, as it\nmay deem proper.\nThe method of electing the superintendent varies much. San Francisco, Buffalo, and several other cities elect by popular vote. The\nCleveland superintendent is appointed by the one school director, and is,\nperhaps, the most powerful of school superintendents. He has not only\nabsolute power over all that relates to instruction, but he examines,\nappoints, and removes teachers. His appointment must be confirmed by\nthe council. In Washington the school board does not appoint its superintendent; therefore, as has once been the case, the board may be defied\nand ignored.\nAnother point is the selection of teachers. Examinations are only a\nhelp in the selection of teachers. Many who pass good examinations are\npoor teachers, and vice versa. In most instances the judgment of the\nsuperintendent should prevail, but the power of confirmation should lie\nwith the board.\nIn all this multiplicity of systems and plans it is, as I have said, a difficult matter to decide upon a typical plan, and I suppose that will never\nbe done. Personally, I feel that the school board should be a legislative,\nan executive, and a judicial body. It is more than a body of directors of\na large corporation that employs a superintendent, and only inspects the\nmonthly, quarterly, and annual reports. A system which is constantly in\ntouch with the people will, on the whole, result in the greatest good to\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBOARDS\n\n9^3\n\nthe people. Public opinion may at times be at fault, but when any proposition must run the gauntlet of a superintendent, a school board, and\npractically the whole community, there is less liability to error and abuse.\nIn my opinion, the legislative functions of school boards should be\nunhampered. They should have power to levy tax, to collect and disburse\nmoney. If the school board is to be held responsible for the successful\nadministration of the school system, it must have discretionary power both\nas to the amount of money required, as well as to the disposition of the\nsame. Councils and school boards should be independent bodies, each\nattending to the duties in its own sphere. Will this lead to extravagance?\nIf the people are alert, it will not. On the contrary, if a board has not\nthis power, it is helpless and really cannot be made responsible for the\ncondition of the schools. It should make its own estimates and be held\nstrictly responsible for the money it expends. Briefly put, it should have\ncomplete control of the revenues. To make a city council a dictator, to\nwhom the school boards must bow, is a perversion of responsibilities and\na misinterpretation of the functions of a school board in its fullest sense.\nThe board should elect its superintendent ; if it does not, he is not\nresponsible to it. In small places it might be impossible to find a suitable candidate, if the superintendent were elected by the people. In\nsome New Jersey cities it is said superintendents are elected 'vfrho do not\neven claim to be school men. Where the superintendent is appointed by\none man, it is easier for him to convince that one man than a body of\nmen of the wisdom of a certain policy.\nThe school board, too, should elect its teachers, altho in this particular\nit should be chiefly guided by the superintendent, who alone, I think,\nshould examine the teachers.\nIn its executive function the school board, while delegating much to\na secretary, much to committees, much to the superintendent, should be\nthe body to approve or disapprove the acts of its officers and committees.\nWhen a superintendent issues a course of study, it should have the stamp\nof authority from the board. Before the secretary or treasurer pays a bill,\nit should be approved by the board. These officials may then feel that\nwhat they are doing is also the will of the executive over them.\nThe question where the authority of the board should end and that of\nthe superintendent begin is, perhaps, the most mooted question in school\naffairs. How much power should the board retain ? How much should\nit delegate to a superintendent ? Should the board be purely a legislative\nbody and the superintendent an executive head ? In my opinion, the\nboard is the executive head of the school system. The superintendent is\nthe educational expert and head of professional factors, and an advisor to\nthe board in other matters.\nIn its judicial capacity, perhaps, the board should have least to do.\nBut there comes the time when superintendents and other officers are\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "9^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nunable to reconcile jarring factors in a school system ; then the board\nshould step in and say emphatically what must be done. The organization of the board at Reading, Pa., is satisfactory in many respects. While\nit does not hamper its officials and generally votes \"yes\" on all recommendations, yetit is well understood that, unless the recommendations\nare worthy, it will not hesitate to turn them down. Another admirable\nfeature of the Reading board is that it is nonpartisan. It is a large body,\nit is true, and yet this has its advantageous side, because it keeps more\npeople interested in the welfare of the schools. Since 1864 Reading has\nbeen acting under a special charter, and so satisfactory is it that again and\nagain has the board refused to accept the general state law making the\nboard a political body and appointing the city treasurer the receiver of\nschool taxes. Under this special charter all school property is the common property of the school district, and the members of the board have\npower to levy and collect taxes. The latter duty is delegated to a school\ntreasurer. Various committees make recommendations, but all matters\nmust receive the sanction of the board. In fact, the board retains its\nexecutive, legislative, and judicial functions, being governed in a large\nmeasure by the recommendations of its officials. While perhaps not an\nideal or model plan, it seems to be a satisfactory one for the conditions\nwhich environ us.\n\nNE W DEPAR TURES\nCHARLES\n\nHOLDEN,\n\nMEMBER\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nOF BOARD\n\nADMINISTRA\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nGRAND\n\nTION\nRAPIDS, MICH.\n\nNo Other public institution in the world has had such marvelous development as the common-school system of the United States. From the log\nschoolhouse, with its primitive furniture, scanty equipment, and curriculum of three R's, to the frame building, with its accessories, was a great\nadvance. The growth of academies, union schools, high schools, and\nuniversities for classical and original research has been easy and natural,\nowing to the ever-increasing, unsatisfied craving for knowledge which has\nbeen characteristic of men thru every age.\nThe aim of education is to develop boys and girls, physically, intellectually, morally, and spiritually, that they may meet life's duties and\nproblems with success.\nCitizenship is the ideal which is constantly held before the pupils in\nour public schools. Every effort is put forth by intellectual men and\nwomen to promote the welfare of the public schools. Many of America's\nbrightest minds have been centered on this problem ; yet from the most\nobscure personages in the country districts to men of national prominence we have complaints that there are flaws in the great educational\nstructure ; not that these men agree as to what the flaws are, for each one\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\n^^^\n\nDEPARTURES\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n9^5\n\nhas his individual hobby to which the system does not conform. On the\nother hand, these men, like all good American citizens, have in their heart\na just sense and pride of ownership in the public schools. The children\nform a bond of union between the home and the school, as nothing else\ndoes or can, causing the people to feel that the schools belong to them.\nThere have been many changes in the administration of schools since\nthe days of our grandfathers. This is especially true in the West, where\nin two generations cities large and small have replaced the forest with its\nroving Indians and beasts of prey.\nIn dealing with my subject it is not my purpose to attempt the introduction of original or novel suggestions as to new methods in school\nadministration. There are some methods now being tried which might\nbe more universally adopted to make the schools more effective. Much\nhas been said about the '.'everyday church.\" Why not more universally\nurge the adoption of the everyday school, and make every school building\nthat can be so utilized the very center of higher educational and social\nlife in city and country districts thruout the land?\nMen have begun to see the reasonableness of the idea, and are working\nto that end. Hoping to convince scoffers, we began in a small way with\ntwo playgrounds in the most congested part of our city; we now have six,\nand more will follow. Since the experiment has proved successful, the\nidea will continue to grow. Those of you who are residents of this historic Boston may be proud that your city has the honor of being first in\nproving the efficiency of the playground idea. Some cities may have\nbeen somewhat slow to follow your example, but these are awakening to\nthe necessity of playgrounds, which will soon be recognized as a universal\nneed. In every town which is large enough to make street cars a necessity there will be found those who have no place to play except in the\nstreet, with its temptations and dangers.\nThe teachers are seeking to inculcate the sense of ownership in the\nschool lawns and yards, by getting the children interested in beautifying\nthe grounds. This has been successful in Grand Rapids to the degree\nthat owners of large factories have caught the spirit and have ornamented\ntheir grounds with plants, shrubs, and flowers, in some instances creating\nveritable miniature parks, pleasing and restful to the eye of the workmen\nat the bench or forge. More than this, our board of trade is now contemplatingbeautiful\na\nparkway or boulevard driveway which shall link\ntogether all our city parks and continue into the suburban districts via\nthe river road. I speak of this only to illustrate how far-reaching the\nworking out of an idea may become, eventually encompassing an entire\ncommunity. There would be fewer poor fences and unpainted houses in\nthe country if school superintendents ^nd trustees would co-operate with\nteachers and pupils in making school buildings and grounds attractive.\nIn many localities this is being attempted.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "916\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\n7Y0NAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[Administration\n\nFollowing oat the idea of making the school stand for more in the\nsocial and economic life of our home city, we have had lectures by citizens\nwho spoke with authority on some topic which would interest the children. Local musicians have tendered their services, and, following the\nexample of other cities, we ha^;e had May festivals — seasons of song —\nin which the children heard the best classical music rendered by the most\ntalented local musicians. The children who could sing were formed into\nchoruses and trained to sing classical selections, thus learning to love and\nappreciate the best that composers have written. To have sung in one\nsuch chorus must be a character-making experience in the life of any boy\nor girl. Such good results have been obtained from these experiments\nthat there followed the introduction of the following resolution by our\ncommittee on schools, which was adopted :\nTo the Honorable Board of Education of the City of Grand Rapids:\nYour Committee on Schools to which was referred the resolution relative to extending the use of the school buildings, finds as follows :\nThat for the past fourteen years in New York city, under the direction of the school\nboard, evening lectures and entertainments have been given in many of the school buildings. The last year there were three thousand such lectures at one hundred different\ncenters, and the total attendance was almost a million people. They were found to be\nespecially valuable in that they increased the interest of the people in the schools and\nthat they made it possible for many people to complete an otherwise imperfect education.\nThe appeal is almost exclusively to youths and adults, and the character and extent of the\nreading of the people are greatly effected.\nYour committee sees no reason why some such work cannot be done here, and we\nrecommend that a trial of it be made next year in four of our school buildings.\nThe number of evenings to be devoted to this work should be eighteen, beginning Nov.\n2 and continuing to March 26, giving two evenings a week to each building. The work\nmay be divided somewhat as follows: two evenings, called parents' evenings, devoted to\nthe exhibition of the work of the pupils and also of pictures; two musical evenings,\none largely vocal and the other instrumental, with some running talk upon musical\ncompositions or composers ; the remaining fourteen to be devoted, three to science, four\nto American history, two to municipal art, three to literature, and two to travel. Your\ncommittee believes that there are many persons in the city who are competent to speak\non these subjects entertainingly, and who will welcome the opportunity of assisting the\nboard of education in so good a work.\nWe believe that it is conservative to estimate an attendance of at least one hundred\nfor each of these evenings, so that such a plan as this would reach more than seven thousand people, chiefly adults, and largely the fathers and mothers of the children under\nour care.\n\nThis work we hope to see successfully and permanently established.\nThe subject of vacation schools appeals most strongly to those of you\nwho are from the larger and more congested cities, where their real\nnecessity has been thoroly demonstrated. It is a shame, however, that\nthe great need in some places seems so tardy of recognition when there\nare so many eager little ones, hundreds of whom are blind or deaf or lame.\nThey want to see the lake and the green fields and the sparkling brooks.\nThey have no way to play and nothing with which to play at home amid\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNEW\n\nDEPARTURES\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\ng i7\n\nthe slums. This emphasizes the value of teaching the children how to play\nduring the recreation hours. \"I want a hammer,\" \" I want a saw,\" is the\nappeal of empty hands for tools and training. *'I have no mamma, and\npapa is away all day,\" measures the length of the vacation day, not only\nto the child in the home without equipment, but in a neigborhood without a playground.\nParents and children to whom a summer vacation means joyous freedom under the open sky, by shore or bank, in the woods, in the valleys,\nor on the mountains, should share with their less favored but more needy\nneighbors such summer privileges as these bookless nature schools\nbenignly afford. The practical demonstration of the necessity for vacation schools and the ^successful results which follow their establishment\nshould warrant their provision and management. In doing this we cannot be too thoughtful of the growing, developing children, who are to\nmake this nation what it shall be when we of this day and age are no\nmore.\nThoreau says : \" It is the art of mankind to polish the world, and\neveryone who works is scrubbing in some part.\" Manual training does\nnot aim primarily to teach the boy to make a joint or the girl to make a\nloaf of bread ; these are incidental. The real aim is to teach the child to\ntranslate the work of the mind into useful action. Let the child get the\nidea of the world's work on a large scale. See to it that he understands\nthat all honest work is God's work. Let him be instructed that all work\nis assisting in the process of polishing the world, and that \"cleaning with\nthe hands\" is just as honorable as \"scrubbing with the head.\" The\nsooner young people come to this knowledge, the better it will be for the\nworld and the individual alike.\nLearning how to do things and how to make things is becoming\na more important element in the educational effort in this country each\nyear. The tendency is a hopeful sign in education, not only because it\ndignifies and ennobles handicraft, but because it represents an effort to\nmeet the demands of what is certain to be an age of great industrial\nactivity. \" Manual training \" is a gradually growing term, and is assuming abroader and deeper meaning in its unfoldment. Its purpose is to\ntrain the hand to be the complement of the mind.\nThe kindergarten and manual-training school should be the ideal\nschool of complete impression and of complete expression ; a perfect\nschool of civilization, confined not alone to the lowest grades, but to\nevery grade.\nHand- and mind-training should accompany each other in the same\nclass, in the lesson, in the same moment thruout the entire school life,\nif we would develop better men and women ; thus developing better\nhouses, farms, factories and shops, better edifices of all kinds, and better\nart to adorn them.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "91 8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nPurposeful and universal manual training will give our children new\nideas of social relations; it will develop useful citizenship, thru a knowledge of the value of the state to the citizen and of the value of the citizen\nto the state. It will produce more men capable of thinking and expressing\ngreat thoughts. Such men will be of eminently greater value to society\nbecause of their ability, not only to think, but to express great thoughts.\nColleges might do more to prepare students for public life. Let me\nadd my indorsement of what Andrew D. White said at the recent reunion\nof his class at Yale. He suggested the establishment of chairs of instruction in \"comparative legislation,\" the purpose being to teach, not only\nwhat laws are, but what they ought to be. Another line suggested was that\nof \"comparative administration,\" teaching what kind of administration\nexists, and also what should exist. He would amplify the teaching of\ninternational law, and emphasize the history of civilization with political\nethics in view as an end and an aim of instruction. He would revise the\nteaching of United States history with a view \"to promote a deep feeling of\nenlightened patriotism and stimulate a desire to join high political activities for noble ends.\" He would get away from the theoretical and into the\npractical ideas of life, which, followed out from the beginning by means of\nmanual training, would be a sensible conclusion of a college course in\nthis most practical age.\nWe are justly proud of our reputation for material prosperity; but\nthis must be more than a name in order that a foundation may be established upon which a higher life may be built. The possession of mighty\nqualities made the men of early days great, and the men of the future will\nnot be great unless they shqw the same courage, resolution, tenacity, fertility in resource, and hardihood which men of old have shown. We must\nabhor that which is evil, clinging to the good, and insisting upon selfrestraint, self-mastery, and regard for the rights of others. If we and our\nchildren utilize the opportunities to develop these traits which are being\nconstantly presented, in the future we shall, as President Roosevelt predicts, \"make of this republic the freest and most orderly, the most just\nand most mighty nation.\"\nOne of the strongest features for the development of the natural prosperity of the future is the school savings banks, designed as they are to\ncultivate thrift and economy. All boards of education should encourage\ntheir establishment. They were first introduced into Michigan in our\nGrand Rapids school in 1894, and have proved a great success from the\nvery beginning. At the close of the second year the deposits were nearly\n^25,000 — an increase of $4,500 over the previous year. The parochial\nschools have introduced the savings-bank system, and with them the\nresults have been equally successful. Many cities have made inquiry of\nus as to the system ; it is growing in favor thruout the country, and its\nuse promises to be general.\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n919\n\nBelieving that the museum is a necessary educational adjunct to\nthe public school, we have established, under the care of a competent committee and curator, a well-assorted collection of specimens in\nnatural history, comprising stuffed and embalmed animals, birds, reptiles,\nand fish ; minerals, fossils, shells, and entomological specimens. These\nwe have placed at the disposal, not only of the pupils of the schools, but\nalso of the citizens in general. Our ultimate purpose is to develop a\nmuseum which shall be, not alone a free exhibition of antiquities, but\nillustrative of the development of modern industry, giving representation\nto all forms of applied arts which are worthy of a space therein; for\nexample, textiles of various weaves from primitive life to modern\ntimes, showing the progress made in their manufacture. We aim to\nkeep ever before the pupil practical illustrations of man's advancement\ntoward the higher life. The museum becomes the natural center for\nthe more extended use of the stereopticon which is coming to render\nsuch large service in the teaching of many subjects, especially geography,\nhistory, literature, nature study, and art. It is also the basis of illustrative\nmaterial for evening lectures in the neighborhood centers.\nIn closing, let me say just a word regarding the selection of teachers.\nToo much care cannot be exercised in appointing teachers who understand and appreciate child-life thru a knowledge of the \"laws of psychology. We should be diligent lest a teacher incapable of understanding\nyour child or mine attempts its guidance. It would seem the part of\nwisdom to promote the expansion of the functions of boards of education\nas guardians of the educational needs of the community and of all agencies that make for social betterment.\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nI\nWILLIAM\n\nK. FOWLER,\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nLINCOLN, NEB.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThis subject is variously expressed as the \" consolidation of school\ndistricts,\" the \" centralization of rural schools,\" and the \" transportation\nof pupils at public expense.\"\nThe ideal plan contemplates the discontinuance of the small schools\nwithin a given area, say a congressional township, and the maintenance\ninstead of one graded school at some point near the center of the township. To illustrate : Suppose a township is divided into nine rural-school\ndistricts, each comprising four square miles of territory, with a low\nassessed valuation, a high tax levy, a small, neglected, and dilapidated\nframe schoolhouse varying from 16X24 feet to 24X30 feet, with three\nwindows on each side, one window and a door in one end, and a stove j\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nand without basement and interior closets. This schoolhouse, if located\nat the center of this school district of four square miles, will be two miles\nby section-line roads from the homes at the corners of the district.\nSchool is maintained six, seven, or eight months during the year, under\nthe jurisdiction of a board of three, and in our busy western section of\nthe country is usually taught by a young woman under twenty-one years\nof age, who is paid $30 a month for teaching school, building fires, and\nsweeping out. In this school we may find an average daily attendance of\nsixteen pupils — a high estimate by the way — representing all ages from\nfive to twenty years, all grades from the primary to the grammar school,\noccasionally with two or three high-school branches crowded in, and\nfrom thirty to forty daily recitations. The attendance is irregular and\nspasmodic, and tardiness is often the rule, children continuing to arrive\nuntil ten o'clock. Pupils are *'put back\" term after term by the \" new\"\nteacher, as records are usually destroyed or lost. Apfparatus is either\nunknown or out of date, blackboard scanty, and furniture rickety. This\nis the good old-fashioned \"deestrict skule\" taught by the new woman of\ntwenty, who has succeeded and supplanted the old man of forty — and of\nforty years ago.\nConsolidation or centralization proposes to discontinue these small\ndistricts as separate organizations, and these rural schools and schoolhouses, and to establish in lieu thereof one central graded school for the\ntownship — say a four-room frame or brick schoolhouse, well constructed,\ncorrectly lighted, heated, ventilated, and seated; with basement and\ninterior closets; a janitor, a principal, and three other teachers; thirtysix pupils, and three grades to the room ; twelve to fifteen recitations\ndaily; and provisions for transporting the pupils by public conveyance\nto and from the schoolhouse daily. We should then have a township\nboard of education of five or seven members ; would and could pay the\nprincipal $60 to ^70 a month, and the three assistants about ^45 a month\neach. With reference io the attendance of pupils : nine times sixteen is\nequal to four times thirty-six. But the attendance would be better,\nlarger, more regular; pupils would be more punctual, and their progress\nprovided for systematically. Their health would be better and better\ncared for, and their happiness would be greater.\nThis is the ideal plan. Conditions in many rural communities may\nbe vastly improved by consolidating and centralizing in part, by discontinuing permanently or temporarily a school district and uniting it to an\nadjoining one.\nARGUMENTS\n\nFOR\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\n1. Insures a much larger percentage of enumerated pupils enrolled.\n2. Prevents tardiness among transported pupils.\n3. Reduces irregular attendance, the percentage of transported pupils from two subdistricts being each 94, the highest in the township (Lake county, Ohio).\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n921\n\n4. Pupils can be better classified and graded.\n5. No wet feet or clothing, nor colds resulting therefrom.\n6. No quarreling, improper language, or improper conduct on the way to and from\nschool.\n7. Pupils are under the care of responsible persons from the time they leave home in\nthe morning until they return at night.\n8. Pupils can have the advantage of better schoolrooms, better heated, better ventilated, and better supplied with apparatus, etc.\nQ. Pupils have the advantage of that interest, enthusiasm, and confidence which\nlarge classes always bring.\nID. Better teachers can be employed ; hence better schools.\n11. The plan insures more thoro and more complete supervision.\n12. It is more economical. Under the new plan the cost of tuition per pupil, on the\nbasis of total enrollment, has been reduced from $16 to ;^ 10.48 ; on the basis of average\ndaily attendance, from ^26.66 to ^16.07. This statement is for the pupils in subdistricts\nNos. 10 and 13, Lake county, Ohio.\n13. It permits a better grading of the schools and classification of pupils. Consolidation allows pupils to be placed where they can work to the best advantage, the\nvarious subjects of study to be wisely selected and correlated, and more time to be\ngiven to recitations. Pupils work in graded schools, and both teachers and pupils are\nunder systematic and closer supervision.\n14. It affords an opportunity for thoro work in special branches, such as drawing,\nmusic, and nature study.\nIt also allows an enrichment in other lines.\n15. It opens the door to more weeks of schooling and to schools of a higher grade.\nThe people in villages almost invariably lengthen the school year and support a high\nschool for advanced pupils.\n16. It affords the broader companionship and culture that come from association.\n17. It quickens public interest in the schools. Pride in the quality of work done\nsecures a greater sympathy and better fellowship thruout the township. The whole community isdrawn together.\n18. Public barges used for children in the daytime may be used to transport their\nparents to public gatherings in the evenings, to lecture courses, etc.\n19. Transportation makes possible the distribution of mail thruout the whole township daily.\n20. By transportation the farm again, as of old, becomes the ideal place in which to\nbring up children, enabling them to secure the advantages of centers of population and\nspend their evenings and holiday time in contact with nature and plenty of work, instead\nof idly loafing about town.\n21. The teacher's work is so well organized that the average recitation period is\ntrebled.\n22. One or two large families cannot \" freeze out \" the teacher.\n23. The farmer and his family are more content with their self-sustaining occupation.\n24. Ethical culture, free from the dissipations of social life as manifested in cities.\n25. Parents who are observant say that the cost of shoes worn out in walking to the\nseparate schools and the cost of medicine and doctor bills more than pay for the transportation.\n26. Transportation makes it easier to maintain a quarantine in case of disease and\nprevent the spread of contagion.\n27. By centralization there will be fewer afW better teachers in our schools. It will\nbe a case of the survival of the fittest. Better salaries will be paid those who do teach,\nthus enabling a person to make it possible to acquire a high school and normal training\nbefore attempting to teach.\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "92 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\n28. By centralization all the children of the township have the same chance for\nhigher educational advantages, which under the present plan only five or ten persons are\nable to get by leaving home and going to the city.\n29. By centralization we go a long way toward the solution of the problem \" how to\nkeep the boys on the farm.\" We bring to the farm that which he goes to the city and\ntown to secure. Such a school may become the social and intellectual center of the community. With a library room, music, debating club, etc., our boys and girls will hesitate\nto leave home and such a school for the uncertainties of city life.\nARGUMENTS\n\nAGAINST\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\n1. Depreciation of property; decreased valuation of farms in districts where schools\nare closed.\n2. Dislike of sending young children to school far from home, away from the\noversight of parents ; and of providing a cold lunch for them rather than a warm\ndinner.\n3. Danger to health and morals. Children obliged to travel too far in cold and stormy\nweather ; obliged to walk a portion of the way to meet the team, and then to ride in damp\nclothing and with wet feet ; unsuitable conveyance and uncertain drivers ; association with\nso many children of all classes and conditions ; lack of proper oversight during the noon\nhour.\n4. Insufficient and unsuitable clothing ; expense to parents of properly clothing their\nchildren.\n5. Difficulty of securing a proper conveyance on reasonable terms, or, if the parent is\nallowed compensation, of agreeing upon terms satisfactory to both parents and school\nofficials.\n6. Local jealousy ; an acknowledgment that some one section of the township\nhas greater advantages and is outstripping any other locality.\n7. Natural proneness of some people to object to the removal of any ancient landmark\nor to any innovation, however worthy the measure or however well received elsewhere.\n8. Less freedom of the individual pupil to advance at a rate best suited to him.\n9. Saloon at the center.\n10. Too long distances; bad roads, blocked in winter for weeks.\n11. Invasion of individual rights.\n12. If fatal diseases are carried to or start in these schools, then most all of the children of the township are exposed to them.\n\nWe are in the midst of an industrial revolution. The principle of concentration has touched our farming, our manufacturing, our mining, and\nour commerce. There are those who greatly fear the outcome. There\nare those who prophesied disaster and even the destruction of society on\nthe introduction of labor-saving machinery. We have adjusted ourselves\nto the new conditions thus introduced. Most of us believe that we shall\nagain adjust ourselves to the new industrial conditions. The changes in\nindustrial and social conditions make necessary similiar changes in educational affairs. The watchword of today is \" concentration,\" the dominant\nforce is centripetal. Not only for the saving of expense, but for the better quality of the work, must we bring our pupils together. No manufacturing business could endure a year run on a plan so extravagant as the\ndistrict system of schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n923\n\nIn answer to an inquiry for the latest phase or condition of the consolidation of rural schools, the state department of public instruction of\nthe several states sent the following brief expressions of opinion, in addition to the printed matter hereafter referred to :\nArizona. — There has never been any concerted action in Arizona in the matter of\nconsolidation of rural schools. In such a sparsely settled country, the districts being in\nmany instances several miles apart, the consolidation plan cannot be satisfactorily worked\nto any extent.\nCalifornia. — There was a measure enacted at the recent session of the legislature\nauthorizing consolidation (Assembly Bill No. 532). As yet it is only an experiment in\nCalifornia, but we anticipate good results from it when it shall have been tried» Of course,\nwe think it adapted only to those sections of the state where there are good roads and\nwell-populated communities.\nColorado. — Conditions are such in Colorado that we have practically done nothing\nin this line, but interest is now being awakened.\nGeorgia. — Consolidation has gradually been going on in this state, altho there have\nbeen no laws passed on this subject. The matter is left largely with county boards of\neducation. In most cases they have proceeded very slowly in the matter, but have\nobtained good results.\nIllinois. — There seems to be a widespread interest in this state concerning the matter of consolidation of rural schools. There was no legislation passed during the last session of the general assembly. It is probable, however, that by the next biennial session\nthe sentiment will be so strong that the legislature will be disposed to act.\nIowa. — The work of consolidation goes forward merrily in this state.\nKansas.— Consolidation is rapidly gaining favor in this state. Where it has been\ntried there is no fault found with it.\nMichigan. — We have just secured the necessary legislation by which we are now\nable to centralize schools, using a portion of the public money for the transportation of\npupils. That was all that was necessary, and we are now in shape to begin an active\ncampaign and to reach some definite practical results.\nMinnesota. — There are but three or four consolidated districts in Minnesota as yet,\nbut in about a dozen places schools are temporarily suspended and the pupils are being\ntransported at public expense to adjoining districts. This plan was authorized by the last\nlegislature.\nMissouri. — Not much has been done in Missouri along the line of consolidation of\nrural schools. There is a law authorizing it, but the people have taken action in only four\nplaces, and in two only of these have the schools been consolidated ; in the other two it is\nsimply district combination.\nNorth Dakota. — Consolidation has been tried in several of the counties in this state,\nand the reports which are on file indicate that this plan is entirely satisfactory and a great\nimprovement over the old system.\nOhio. — The plan of consolidation gives 'general satisfaction in this state where the\nconditions are at all favorable. It is the solution of the question of better schools in rural\ndistricts.\nOklahoma. — We are just beginning the plan in Oklahoma. It is being discussed in\nevery county. We are having trouble, however, because most of the districts have issued\nbonds and can not lose their identity.\nOregon. — We are urging the consolidatioa idea and are meeting with very much\nencouragement, altho we have not as yet any consolida.'ed districts. It takes time to overcome the inertia of long-settled customs. We are particularly anxious that no districts\nconsolidate unless they make a success of it. We find the best way to get it before the\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\npeople is to present it in mass-meetings, where we bring before the people maps showing\nthe boundaries of the districts, roads, residences, etc.\nSouth Dakota. — So far the work in consolidated schools has been superior to that\nin the single district system and has been a saving to the people of about one-fourth. The\nattendance has also been better.\nEspecially is this true of students of the higher grades.\nTexas. — Very little has been done in this state in the way of consolidating rural\nschools. There are perhaps one or two counties which have during the past year to some\nextent tried the consolidation plan, but these few cases have not been sufficient for a test.\nMuch has been done in public addresses and in letters from the state department to\nencourage the consolidation of schools.\nUtah, — A bill to provide for the consolidation of the school districts was introduced\nin the last legislature, but it failed to pass. Consolidation is being effected in many of\nour counties, however, on a small scale. Central schools are steadily increasing in numbers. Utah's rural districts are somewhat different from the rural districts of most states.\nTowns have sprung up at the mouths of canon streams. There the people live, while the\nfarms are from one to ten miles from their homes.\nVermont. — Vermont is making some progress in the matter of consolidation of rural\nschools. The hilly nature of the state is a very grave difficulty in the extension of this\nmovement. The people of Vermont are always conservative but make assured, the\nmoderate, progress.\n\nI append herewith for reference a list of printed articles on the consolidation ofschool districts, centralization of schools, and transportation\nof pupils :\nCalifornia.— Assembly Bill No. 532, or' Senate Bill No. 482 : \"An Act Providing for\nthe Formation of Union School Districts and the Maintenance therein of Union Schools,\"\n1903.\nConnecticut. — Report of the Board of Education, together with the Report of the\nSecretary of the Board, 1900. Laws Relating to Education; chap, ix, \"Consolidation of\nSchool Districts,\" pp. 52-60; \"Conveyance of Children,\" pp. 267-71. Report for 1902,\n\"Conveyance of Children,\" pp. 186-88 ; \"Consolidation of Schools,\" pp. 332-35.\nFlorida. — Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the two\nyears ending June 3, 1900 : \" Reports of County Superintendents,\" pp. 331, 341, 352, 379,\n391, 412; summary, p. 19.\nGeorgia. — Thirtieth Annual Report from the Department of Education for 1901 :\n** Consolidation of Districts and Transportation of Pupils,\" pp. 21-23 > \"Consolidation of\nRural Schools and the Transportation of Children,\" pp. 98-106.\nHawaii. — Report of Inspectors of the Department of Public Instruction, December\n31, 1902: \"Consolidated Schools,\" p. 23.\nIdaho. — Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1900 :\n\" Rural School Districts,\" pp. 6, 7.\nIllinois. — Twenty-fourth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction,\nJuly I, 1900, to June 30, 1902 : \"Consolidation of the Small Districts,\" pp. 11-14.\nIndiana. — Twentieth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction for the school years ending July 31, 1899, and July 31, 1900: \"The Rural School —\n{a) The Small School, {b) Transportation of Pupils,\" pp. 520-87. Twenty-first Biennial\nReport for years ending July 31, 1901, and July 31, 1902: \"School Economy— (a) The\nSmall School, (b) A New Organization in the Country,\" pp. 155-61; \"Consolidated\nSchools,\" pp. 727-62.\nIowa. — Biennial Report of the Department of Public Instruction for the period ending\nSeptember, 30, 1901 : chap, ii, \"Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Children,\" pp. 29-97 (issued also in pamphlet form).\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n925\n\nKansas. — Thirteenth Biennial Report of the Department of Public Instruction for the\nyears ending June 30, 1901, and June 30, 1902: \"The Consolidation of Rural Schools,\"\npp. 38-48. Circular of Information Regarding Consolidation of Rural Schools, March i,\n1902.\nLouisiana. — Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Education,\n1900-1901 : \"Attendance,\" pp. 6-8.\nMaryland. — Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the State Board of Education for the\nyear ending July 31, 1902. Minutes of the Association of School Commissioners of Maryland, session of 1902 : \"Resolution of State Superintendent Commending Consolidation\nof Rural Schools,\" p. xliii.\nMassachusetts. — Sixty-second Annual Report of the Board of Education, together\nwith the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board, 1897-98 : \"The Consolidation of Schools and the Conveyance of Children,\" by G. T. Fletcher, agent of\nthe Massachusetts Board of Education, pp. 435-59. Sixty-third Annual Report, 1898-99 :\n\"Expense of Conveying Children,\" pp. 155-59. Sixty-sixth Annual Report, 1902:\n\"Conveyance of Pupils,\" pp. 101-4.\nMichigan. — Sixty-fifth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction\nfor the year 1901 : \" The Rural High School,\" pp. 5-11; \"An Investigation of the Centralized Schools of Ohio,\" pp. 12-30; \"Transportation of Pupils,\" pp. 31-34 (issued also in\npamphlet form).\nMinnesota. — Twelfth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for\nthe school years ending July 31, 1901-1902: \"Bulletin No. i. Consolidation of Rural\nSchools and Transportation of Pupils at Public Expense,\" pp. 271-90 (issued also in\npamphlet form).\nMissouri. — Fifty-third Report of the Public Schools for the year ending June 30,\n1902 : \"The Rural School Problem,\" pp. 4-11.\nMontana. — Circular Letter of the State Superintendent on \" The Consolidation of\nSchools.\"\nNebraska. — Sixteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public\nInstruction, January, 1901 : \"Transportation of Pupils and Instruction in Neighboring\nDistrict,\" pp. 40-42. Seventeenth Biennial Report, January, 1903: \"The Rural School\nProblem : A solution, Consolidation of School Districts, Centralization of Schools, and\nPublic Transportation of Pupils,\" pp. 400-409 ; \" School Buildings and Grounds in\nNebraska,\" pp. 228-65.\nNew Hampshire. — Fifty-second Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction,\n1902: \"Consolidation,\" pp. 278, 279.\nNew Jersey. — Annual Report of the State Board of Education and of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the school year ending June 30, 1902 : \" Reports from\nCounty Superintendents on the Transportation of Pupils,\" pp. 59, 84.\nNew York. — Forty-second Annual Report of the State Superintendent for the school\nyear ending July 31, 1895 '• \"The Consolidation of School Districts,\" p. Ixxxvii. Fortyfourth Report, 1897: \"The Rural School Problem,\" p. xi. Forty-sixth Report, 1899:\n\"Consolidation of School Districts,\" pp.55, 56. Forty-seventh Report, 1900: \"Consolidation ofSchool Districts,\" p. 11 ; \"Contract with Adjoining Districts,\" p. 13. Fortyninth Report, 1902 : \"Consolidation of Weak Districts,\" p. Ixix.\nNorth Carolina. — Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for\nthe school years 1900-1901 and 1901-1902: \"School Districts,\" pp. xviii-xxvi ; \"The\nRural Schools,\" p. Iviii ; \" Signs of Hope and Evidences of Progress,\" p. Ix, third paragraph \"Consolidation\n;\nof Districts,\" pp. 365-73 (Educational Bulletin No. l).\nNorth Dakota. — Seventh Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the two years ending June 30, 1902 : \"Consolidation of Rxxral Schools,\" pp. 24-28\n(issued also in pamphlet form); 291, 300, 303.\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nNova Scotia. — Annual Report of the Superintendent of Education for the year ending July 31, 1902 : \"Consolidation of Sections,\" p. xi.\nOhio. — Forty-seventh Annual Report of the State Commissioner of Common Schools\nfor the year ending August 31, 1900: \"Centralization Law.\" pp. 12-15. Forty-eighth\nAnnual Report, 1901 : \"Centralization of Schools,\" pp. 18, 19.\nOntario. — Report of the Minister of Education for the year 1902 : \"The Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils,\" pp. xxii-xxvii.\nOregon. — Fifteenth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction,\n1902 : \"General Survey of Educational Work,\" pp. 233-36.\nPennsylvania. — Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the year\nending June 3, 1901 : \" Centralization of Schools,\" pp. vi-vii. School Laws of Pennsylvania, 1902 : \"Consolidated Districts,\" pp. 2-4.\nRhode Island. — Fifty-seventh Annual Report of the Commissioner of Public\nSchools for the year ending April 30, 1901: \" Size of Schools,\" p. 73; \" Extracts from\nReports on Consolidation and Transportation,\" Appendix, pp. 27, 29, 33-35, 37, 64,\nloi, 129-131. Public Laws Pertaining to Education, 1903: chap, iioi, \"An Act Providing for the Better Management of the Public Schools in the State\" (in pamphlet\nform).\nSouth Dakota. — Sixth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1901-1902 : \" The Centralization of Rural Schools,\" p. 3 ; \" Circular Letter of State\nSuperintendent,\" p. 15 ; \" Reports from Various Counties,\" pp. 40, 66, 74, 77, 79, 94.\nVermont. — Thirty-seventh School Report of the State Superintendent of Education,\nOctober, 1902 : \" Union of Schools and Conveyance of Pupils,\" pp. 22-24 ; \" Educational\nThought and Effort,\" p. 56; \" Statistics on Transportation,\" p. 134; \"County Reports,\"\npp. 146, 194, 219, 222.\nVirginia. — Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1900-1901:\n\"The Rural School,\" p. xxvi ; \"Consolidation and Transportation,\" pp. xxvii-xxviii.\nWashington. — Sixteenth Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1902 : \"Consolidation of School Districts,\" pp. 183, 184.\nWest Virginia. — Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Free Schools for the two\nyears ending June 30, 1902 : \"Centralization and Consolidation of Schools,\" pp. 27-29.\nWisconsin. — Biennial Report of the State Superintendent for the two years ending\nJune 30, 1902: \"Consolidation of School Districts and Transportation of Rural School\nPupils at Public Expense,\" pp. 41-62 (issued also in bulletin form).\nReport of the Commissioner of Education, 1898-99: chap, xi, \"Consolidation of\nSchools — The Kingsvilie, Ohio, Plan,\" pp. 526-29. Report for 1900-1901 : chap, iii,\n\"Consolidation of- Schools and Transportation of Pupils — A Visit to the Centralized\nSchools of Ohio ; \" \" Consolidation of Schools and Conveyance of Children \" (report made\nby G. T. Fletcher, agent of Massachusetts State Board of Education) ; \" Transportation\nof Pupils in Indiana;\" \"An Inquiry Regarding the Conveyance of Scholars in New\nHampshire;\" \"Transportation of Pupils in Nebraska and Instruction in Neighboring\nDistricts;\" pp. 161-213. Report for 1900-1901 : \"Transportation of Pupils to School,\"\ngiving status in twenty-two states, pp. 2396-2401.\nJournal of Proceedings and Addresses of the Fortieth Annual Meeting of the\nNational Educational Association, held at Detroit, Michigan, July 8-12, 1901 : \"Centralization of Rural Schools,\" by Lewis D. Bonebrake, State School Commissioner of Ohio,\npp. 804-11. P^orty-first Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, Minn., July 7-11, 1902: \"The\nFinancial Phase of the Consolidation of Rural Schools,\" by Charles A. Van Matre,\nCounty Superintendent of Schools, Muncie, Ind., pp. 224-30 ; \" Progress in Consolidation\nof Rural Schools,\" by J. W. Olsen, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, St. Paul,\nMinn., pp. 793-97Department of Agriculture, Year Book, 1901.\n\"Some Problems of the Rural Common School,\" by A. C. True, pp. 133-54.\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n927\n\nJournal of Proceedings and Addresses of the National Educational Association,\nMilwaukee meeting, 1897: \"Report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools,\"\nappointed at the meeting of the National Educational Association, Denver meeting, July\n9, 1895 • \"The County as the Unit of School Organization,\" pp. 132, 133 ; \"Comparative\nCost of the Township and District Systems,\" pp. 133, 134 ; \"Transportation of Pupils,\"\npp. 135-40 (also in pamphlet form).\nReport of a Visit to the Centralized Schools of Ohio — A Study of the Centralized\nSchools of Ohio, by O. J. Kern, Rockford, 111.\nReport of a Visit to the Centralized Schools of Ohio by the State Superintendent of\nMichigan and Hon. A. E. Palmer, Lansing, Mich.\nCentralization of Rural Schools, by J. Fred Olander, Superintendent of Schools,\nBrookings county, Brookings, S. D.\nReview 0/ Revtetvs, December, 1902: \"Consolidation of Common Schools,\" by F.\nNelson, p. 702; \"Consolidation of Common Schools,\" by W. B. Shaw, p. 706.\nOutlook, December 27, 1902 : \"Country Schools — The New Plan,\" by C. H. Matson,\npp. 981-84.\n/v?r«w, March, 1902: \"Consolidation of Country Schools and the Conveyance of\nChildren,\" by C. E. Blake, p. 103.\nEducational Review, October, 1900: \"Transportation of Rural School Children at\nPublic Expense,\" by A. A. Upham, p. 241.\nWestern Teacher (Milwaukee, Wis.), June, 1903 : \"Two Views of Consolidation,\" pp.\n354, 355.\nPennsylvania School Journal (Harrisburg, Pa.), August, 1902: \"Centralization of\nTownship Schools,\" by Superintendent W. W. Ulerick, pp. 68-70. April, 1903 : \" Leadership and Rural Schools,\" by Superintendent Samuel Hamilton, Allegheny, pp. 446-51 ;\n\" Township High Schools,\" by Arthur J. Simons, pp. 452-55.\nModerator- Topics (Lansing, Mich.), April 9, 1903 : \" A Report of Progress,\" by State\nSuperintendent Delos Fall, p. 524. April 16, 1903 : \" Centralized Schools,\" by Commissioner Elliott, Oakland, Mich., p. 542. May 14, 1903: \"Procedure in Consolidating\nSchool Districts,\" by State Superintendent Delos Fall, p. 625. June 11, 1903: \"Rural\nHigh Schools,\" p. 712.\nNormal Instructor and Teachers' World (Dansville, N. Y.), June, 1903 : \" Need of\nSecondary Instruction in Country Schools,\" by State Superintendent Alfred Bayliss,\nSpringfield, 111., p. 9.\nAmerican School Board Journal (Milwaukee, Wis.), August, 1992: \"Progress in\nConsolidation of Rural Schools\" (read before the Department of School Administration,\nNational Educational Association, Minneapolis meeting, 1902, by State Superintendent J.\nW. Olsen, St. Paul, Minn,), p. 6. November, 1902 : \" Arguments in Favor of Consolidation of Rural Schools,\" p. 8.\nSchool Jou?-nal i^eyf York city), September 13, 1902 : \" Progress of Consolidation in\nRural Schools,\" by J. W. Olsen (see American School Board Journal, August, 1902).\nApril 4, 1903: \"Consolidation of Schools,\" p. 375; \"Rural School Conditions,\" by W.\nS. Deffenbaugh, pp. 375-77. June 27, 1903: \"Centralization of Rural Schools,\" pp.\n781-84.\nWestern Journal 0/ Education (723 Market street, San Francisco), June, 1903:\na special number on \"Consolidation of School Districts and the Transportation of\nPupils.\"\nWorld's Work (New York city). May, 1903: \"Teaching Farmers' Children on the\nGround,\" by George lies.\nEducation (Boston), Vol. XIX, pp. 261, 4134 \"The Rural School Problem,\" by John\nOgden.\n\"Address on Education for the Improvement of Agriculture,\" by James W. Robertson, Commissioner of Agriculture and Dairying for the Dominion of Canada (printed by\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nWilliam Macnab, 3 Prince street, Halifax, N. S.), pp. 21-29.\n\"Improvement of Education in the Rural Schools,\" by James W. Robertson (Ottawa, Can.).\nEducational News (Edinburgh, Scotland), July 4, 1903 : \" The Grouping of our Public\nSchools,** by C. H. Owen. July 25, 1903 : \"The Rural School Problem and the Inverness Congress,\" by C. H. Owen.\nAtlantic Educational Journal (Richmond, Va.), July, 1902: \"Concentrated School\nDistricts and the Schoolhouses for Them,\" by S. F. Venable ; \"The Movement for Better Schoolhouses in North Carolina,\" by Annie G. Randall ; \" The Housing of Rural\nSchools,\" by Robert Frazier ; \"An Ideal Rural School,\" by Lawton B.Evans. May,\n1903: \"The Power of an Idea — A Story and a Suggestion,\" by David E. Cloyd;\n\"Extracts from Addresses Made at the Sixth Conference for Education in the South.\"\nJune, 1903: \"The Ideal Rural School,\" by Charles S.Bali; \"Consolidation in Tennessee.\"\nOhio Teacher (Athens, O.), September, 1902 : \"The Centralization of Rural Schools,\"\nby C. G.Williams. October, 1902 : \"The Centralization of Rural Schools,\" by A. B.\nGraham. December, 1902: \"The Centralization of Rural Schools at Kingsville, O.,\"\nby L. E. York. January, 1903: \"Gradual Consolidation of Rural Schools,\" by A. H.\nDixon. February, 1903: \"The Centralization of Township Schools,\" by John J.\nRicheson.\nSchool News (Independence, Mo.), June, 1902: \"Central Schools and Transportation of Pupils,\" by W. H. Johnson, superintendent of Jackson county, Mo. September,\n1902: \"Central Schools and Transportation of Pupils,\" by W. H. Johnson. November,\n1902: \"A Rural High School.\" December, 1902: \"The Rural High School,\" by J. B.\nMcDonald. January, 1903 : \"Transportation of Pupils in Elsworth County, Kansas,\"\nby W. W. Maze ; Report of Raytown High School.\nTexas School Journal (Austin, Tex.), December, 1902 : \"Rural Schools,\" by John C.\nMoore; \"Transfers,\" by J. H. Hill. January, 1903 : \"What We Want — Rural Schoolhouses.\"\nThe People (Cambridge, Mass.), July, 1899: \"Dublin, N. H., School Matters;\"\n\"Natural School Unit ; \" editorials. June, 1900 : \" Equal Education in New England,\" by\nW. Scott, secretary New England Education League. August, 1901 : \"A School Study\nof a New England Town.\" March-May, 1902: \"Transportation.\" June- August, 1903:\n\"A School Experiment.\"\nAmerican Education (Albany, N. Y.), February, 1903 : \"Two Views.\"\nAdvocate of Christian Education (Berrien Springs, Mich.), March, 1903 : \"The Consolidation ofSchools;\" \"Centralizing Districts.\"\nCanadian Teacher (Toronto, Can.), September, 1901: \"Centralization of Country\nSchojDls\" (editorial). October, 1901 : \"Centralization of Schools.\" November, 1901:\n\"Centralization Again\" (editorial). December, 1901: \"Centralization at Last,\" by\nWilliam S. Carter, inspector of schools. January, 1902: \"Centralization Again,\" by\nM. D. Worden (with editorial comment). February, 1902: \"Centralization Again\"\n(editorial). May, 1902: \"Centralization of Rural Public Schools,\" by M. Parkinson\n(editor).\nWorld Review (Fine Arts Building, Chicago): \"The Passing of the District School,\"\nby M. Vincent O'Shea, University of Wisconsin.\nSchool Education (Minneapolis, Minn.), January, 1903: \"Rural School Consolidation,\" byW. M. Hays, University of Minnesota.\nMidland Schools (Des Moines, la,), March, 1902 : \"Buffalo Center Township Graded\nSchool,\" by J. C. Johnson ; \" Consolidation in Pottawattamie County,\" by Superintendent\nMcManus; \"The Consolidated School System,\" by O. V. Holcomb.\nFarmer's Tribune (Des Moines, la.), June 17, 1903 : \"Is the Central School a Fad ?\nHas it Come to Stay ?\" by O. E. Gunderson.\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n929\n\nSuccessful Farming (Des Moines, la.), February, 1903: \"The Consolidation of\nRural Schools.\"\nPrairie Farmer Home Magazine (Chicago), March 26, 1903: \"The Centralized\nSchools,\" by G. H. Campbell.\nFarm, Field, and Fireside (Chicago), May 30, 1903: \"Farming to Be Taught in\nRural Schools.\"\nFamily Herald and Weekly Star (Montreal, Can.), February ii, 1 903: \"A Novel\nExperiment in Rural Education \" (an outline of Sir William MacDonald's plan for the\nimprovement of education in the rural districts by the consolidation of schools and the\nestablishment of gardens for nature study), by George D. Fuller.\nNebraska Farmer (Omaha, Neb.), July 30, 1903: \"The Consolidation of Country\nSchools\" (editorial).\nFarmer's Call (Quincy, 111.), December II, 1902: \"Better Country Schools.\" January\n22, 1903: \"Consolidating Country Schools.\" January 29, 1903: \" Move up, Brethren !\"\nMarch 19, 1903 : \" Consolidated School Bill.\" May 14, 1903 : \" Farmers Should Be Heard\non School Consolidation,-\" by Francis B. Livesey.\nOhio 7^(2r/«<?r (Cleveland, O.), April 24, 1902: \" Gustavus* O., Central Schools,\" by\nC. G. Williams. September 4, 1902: \"Centralization of Schools.\" April 23, 1903:\n\"Centralize the Right Way.\"\nHerald (Wabasha, Minn.), May 30, 1901: \"Centralization of Rural Schools,\" by L.\nP. Cravens.\nRegister (Blue Earth, Minn.), May 30, 1901: \"Concentration of Schools,\" by J. E.\nGilman.\n\nII\nJOHN\n\nT.\n\nPRINCE,\n\nAGENT\nOF\nEDUCATION,\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nSTATE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nIn 1869 the legislature of Massachusetts passed a law authorizing\ntowns to raise and appropriate money for the conveyance of pupils to and\nfrom the public schools. At the same session in which this law was passed,\nit was voted for a second time to abolish the district system. There may\nbe no connection between these two events, but behind them both was a\nspirit of unrest. The people of the country towns had at last come to\nrealize that a too close adherence to the principle of local self-government in education was working an injury to the smaller towns, and that\nthe remedy lay in adopting a policy by which the town at large would\nshare the obligations and privileges of school control. The rapid depopulation of country towns, and the increasing inability of these towns to\nsupport their schools, helped to encourage the movement of consolidating the schools, and thereby of making the rural schools share in some\ndegree the privileges of a graded system.\nThere is no record available to show how much the rural schools were\nimmediately affected by the passage of the transportation law just referred\nto. We only know that within twenty years after the law was passed\nupwards of two hundred towns had, tcf a greater or less degree, availed\nthemselves of the provisions of the law and were spending in the aggregate more than twenty thousand dollars annually for the conveyance of\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "93°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfAdministration\n\npupils. From that time to the present the idea of consolidating the\nschools has been constantly kept in mind by the people, as shown by the\nincreased amount appropriated each year for the transportation of pupils.\nThe total expenditure for this purpose last year was $165,596, which\nexceeded the expenditure of the previous year by $13,823, showing that\nthe conveyance of pupils to and from school at public expense is still\ngoing on. The extent of the practice is shown by the fact that only fiftynine of the 353 towns and cities of the commonwealth reported no expenditures for the conveyance of pupils last year, and that a good proportion\nof these fifty-nine towns neither have rural schools nor are likely to have\nthem. It should be said that not all the money reported as appropriated\nfor the. conveyance of pupils was expended for carrying pupils from closed\nschools ; but the sum expended for any other purpose is comparatively\nsmall, and therefore the amounts given are an approximate measure of\nthe extent to which the schools have been brought together.\nNo statistics have been gathered as to the exact number of rural schools\nwhich have been consolidated thus far, but a careful estimate indicates that\nat least 10 per cent, of the so-called ungraded schools have been discontinued, and that the pupils of the discontinued schools are being carried\nat public expense either to central graded schools or to other ungraded\nschools.\nThere is yet another way of ascertaining the strength of the present\nmovement in the consolidation of rural schools, and that is thru the testimony of persons who have tried the plan or who have seen the effects of\na fair trial of it. In a special inquiry made a few years ago by an agent\nof the Massachusetts state board of education, the fact wa? brought out\nthat in a large majority of the places where the experiment of consolidation had been tried there was a pronounced sentiment in favor of its\ncontinuance. Several reasons were given for this opinion, among which\nwere increase in the regularity and punctuality of pupils, an improved\ncharacter of school buildings and equipment, enhanced interest on the\npart of pupils, and a reduction in the cost of school maintenance. The\ninquiry brought out another fact, altho it was an incidental one, and that\nwas the evident need of making the educational conditions in the state at\nlarge more nearly equal — a need which has been recently met, in part at\nleast, by a substantial increase of the state grant to the more needy towns\nof the commonwealth.\nIn view of all these facts, it is fair to conclude that in Massachusetts at\nleast the plan of the consolidation of rural schools is no longer an experiment, but is recognized in most of the towns of the commonwealth as a\nhelpful means of raising the standard of education in rural communities.\nWhat is true of Massachusetts is doubtless true of several of the twenty\nstates which are reported as having adopted in one form or another the\nplan of consolidation.\nIn Iowa the plan which has been in operation for\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n931\n\nsome time is favored by 95 per cent, of the county superintendents and by\nthe state superintendent. In Connecticut the law permitting the closing\nof schools and transportation of pupils, as reported by the state superintendent, \"has been immensely advantageous to the state.\" In Ohio the\nstate commissioner is loud in his commendation of the plan which has\nbeen in operation several years. In Vermont over seven hundred schools\nwere closed in a single year, and the amount expended for the conveyance of pupils more than doubled in six years. In New Hampshire the\nadvantages enumerated in favor of discontinuing small schools and conveying the pupils are: (i) economy, (2) better teachers and equipment,\n(3) better supervision, (4) regularity of pupils' attendance, and (5) a better educational spirit.\nCommissioner Harris in his last report, in speaking of the consolidation of rural schools, says :\nUpon the success of this movement rests the chief hope for the improvement of the\nrural school. It is fortunate that a device which changes the ungraded school into a\ngraded school involves a saving of expense. The improvement is well worth trial, even\nwere it to double the cost of the rural school ; but, as will be seen by statistics, it is secured\nwith an actual saving of expenditure. Better teachers, more sanitary buildings, less personal exposure on the part of the pupils, better classification, and many lesser advantages\nare commending this reform over the country.\n\nAdded to the advantages enumerated above may be mentioned the\nimproved facilities for breadth and fineness of social culture. Life in\nmany rural communities is circumscribed by unavoidable limitations,\nwhich may in part be overcome by extending the associations of the children and so enriching their lives. The dangers, of course, of a too great\nextension of associations must be recognized, but it is assumed that in\nany plan of union the conditions of contact will be carefully guarded in\nthe interests of all. Experience has shown, however, that the dangers of\ncertain kinds of contamination are far greater in small country schools\nthan in the larger graded schools, where there is protection in numbers.\nBeing assured of the possibilities for good in the consolidation of\nrural schools, we have next to inquire how best it may be accomplished.\nShall the local school board, as in Massachusetts, Ohio, and New Jersey,\nbe given full authority to consolidate the schools and to transport the\npupils; or shall it be subject to certain legal restrictions, such, for\nexample, as exist in Indiana, where the trustees of a school district may\nact only upon petition of a majority of the voters; or as in New Hampshire, where only a certain percentage of the school money may be\nexpended for the conveyance of pupils; or as in Rhode Island, where\nschools only may be closed that have an average membership of less than\ntwelve; or as in Iowa, where the bocfrds are limited in their appropriation for transportation to five dollars for each person of school age ? Shall\nthe law governing the transportation of pupils designate the minimum\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "932\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ndistance at which pupils may be carried to school, as in Vermont and\nKansas ? Or shall the township or district be allowed, as in some states,\nto offer a mileage to pupils living at a distance from the school as an alternative to free transportation ?\nHowever meritorious some of these features of consolidation may be\nin themselves considered, it is a matter of grave doubt whether they\nshould be made subjects of legislation even upon the basis of suggestion\nor permission. The conditions of a single state, even of the smallest\nstate, are so varied that no general policy or line of action can be defined\nby law, without doing a possible injury in special localities. Take, for\nexample, the designation by law of the minimum distance at which\npupils may be conveyed to school. Everyone knows that what is a\nproper distance for pupils to walk to school under some conditions is\nquite too great under others. The circumstances of companionship, of\nthe character of the roadway, and of the age and sex of the pupils all\nhelp to determine what the maximum walking distance for pupils should\nbe. The designation of two miles as the minimum distance for free\ntransportation of pupils, as in Kansas, would work a severe hardship\nin the case of young girls, who might be 'obliged under the law to walk a\nmile or a mile and a half over a lonely road ; while, on the other hand,\nthe offer of free rides for all pupils living over three-fourths of a mile\nfrom the school, as is done in Ohio and Pennsylvania in certain districts,\nmight have a somewhat demoralizing influence upon healthy boys of\ntwelve or fifteen years of age.\nAgain, the designation of a minimum sum, as in Iowa, for the transportation of each pupil must work an injury in certain cases, quite as\nmuch when the sum named is too great as when it is too small. In the\none case there would be the temptation to extravagance and excess; in\nthe other, to discomfort and neglect. The danger is especially manifest\nwhen school boards find it necessary to strike a bargain with the carriers.\nThe smallness of the amount which the driver or proprietor of a school\ncarriage is sometimes forced to accept is an indication of the possible\nmeagerness of service rendered in the form of unfit carriages and poor\noversight. Such bargaining and results are a reminder of the old-time\npractice of auctioning off the teacher's board to the lowest bidder.\nBut perhaps the saddest results of sharp bargaining come from the\npractice followed in some places of paying a small sum for each pupil or\nfamily living at a distance from the school, with the understanding that\nthe father may or may not perform the service of transportation for which\nhe is paid. In too many cases it is feared the children are forced by the\nparsimony of the father to endure much hardship and perhaps loss of\nschool privileges — a result of small moment compared to the pauperizing influence of the transaction upon all concerned. These are some of\nthe conditions of the consolidation of schools which the state may well\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n033\n\navoid, at least by any specification of statutory requirement. There may\nbe others equally objectionable. The point that I would urge is that few\nspecifications of organization should be made in the law providing for the\nconsolidation beyond the giving of large and reponsible duties to local\nboards.\nAmong the first questions to be decided in considering a possible\nscheme of legislation in relation to the consolidation of schools is whether\nit is best to make the plan universal and obligatory. While it must be\nadmitted that great good has been accomplished in the past by the closing\nof small schools and the transportation of the pupils to other schools,\nand while the testimony seems to favor an extension of such a plan, it\nmay well be questioned whether it is desirable for all the rural schools,\neven for all the small rural schools, to be consolidated. In this age of\nreform we must not insist upon making the number of schools fewer only\nfor the purpose of making the number of pupils in each school larger or\nof decreasing the expense of school maintenance. The truth is that our\nschools will be more rather than less expensive in the future, and they will\nalso be smaller rather than larger. While we are urging that our graded\nschools of forty and fifty pupils must be reduced to twenty and thirty,\nthat better individual work may be done, we can hardly agree with some\nsuperintendents in the assumption that country ungraded schools of\nfifteen and twenty, or even ten, pupils are too small, or that on account\nof their size alone they should be closed. And when we get over the\nnotion that a plan is good because it is cheap, we shall not make so much\nof the argument of economy. The only or chief determining factor of\nany plan of organization is efficiency. Judged by that standard, a school\nof twelve or fifteen pupils, who are under twelve years of age and who\nlive within a mile of the school, may possibly do better service for the\nchildren than could be done under some conditions of consolidation.\nIn such a comparision of conditions, it must be understood that the\nteachers in both classes of schools are equally good. One weak point in\nour comparision of ungraded and graded schools has been that we have\nhad in mind a teacher for one class of schools who is dear at six dollars a\nweek, and a teacher for the other class who is cheap at six hundred a\nyear. The test of our argument in favor of transportation will appear\nwhen we think of the six-dollar teacher in the central school, or better\nwhen we think of the six-hundred-dollar teacher in the small isolated one.\nBe it remembered that I am not now arguing in favor of the ungraded\nover the graded school; much less am I urging the wisdom of keeping the rural schools as they are. I am trying only to show that the\nprinciple of consolidation should not be applied to all ungraded schools,\nand that therefore no general law should be passed by any state enforcing its adoption. The most that I would urge is the passage of a law\npermitting schools to be closed and the pupils conveyed at public expense\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "934\n\nMATIOMAL\n\neducational\n\nassociation\n\n[Administration\n\nwhenever, in the estimation of the township or county board, it is desirable to do so. I would put few restrictions upon the action of this board,\nbelieving that an elective body to which is given large powers will act\nwisely in the interests of the people.\nIn the law authorizing boards to carry pupils to and from school, the\nprovision may be made that all precautions shall be taken to protect\nthe pupils from harm or injury of any kind. It might be well also to\ngive all persons who have a grievance of any kind the right of appeal to\nthe state board of education. In placing so much power and latitude of\naction in the hands of township or county boards, the assumption is that\nthere are no small district boards, or, if there are such boards, that they\nwill be abolished. If the state is not yet ready to abolish the district system and must for a time endure its blighting effects, the better course\nperhaps is for each district or district board to arrange for the transportation of the pupils in case the school is closed, each board to retain its\norganization.\nWith few requirements and restrictions beyond what I have named,\nand with ample means at its command, the local school board will have\nthe opportunity of generously meeting the educational needs and wants\nof the more sparsely settled sections. It will recognize the limited social\nand educational opportunities of the children of these sections, and will\ndo all in its power to overcome th_ose limitations by providing the best\nservice and the most ample accommodations possible. Whenever it is\nseen to be best for the social and educational well-being of the children\nof a neighborhood to close a school, the safest and most convenient\narrangements for the conveyance of the pupils should be made. As far\nas possible, the plan should be followed of taking the children from their\nhomes to the central school. The vehicle provided for the conveyance\nof the children should be safe and comfortable, and the driver should be\ncarefully selected. So important is the matter of a proper care and oversight of the children in transit that the entire project of consolidation\nand conveyance ought to depend upon whether a suitable person may be\nfound for the service. Provision should be made for caring for the\npupils during the noon intermission. — a precaution, by the way, which\nshould be taken in any school where the pupils remain at noon.\nIn some neighborhoods and towns it may seem wise to apply the\nprinciple of consolidation only to the older pupils, the younger pupils\nbeing left in small ungraded schools. In such cases the possible increase\nof expense attending the transportation of pupils should not stand in the\nway of efficiently meeting the needs of the pupils.\nWhat has been said thus far applies especially to the elementary\nschools. The practice of consolidation may be quite as wisely followed\nin high schools. Whenever circumstances seem to make it desirable or\nfeasible to close the small high schools of two or more towns, and to pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department ]\n\nCONSOLIDA\n\nTION\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n935\n\nvide for the transportation of pupils to a strong central school, it should\nbe done. This may be done by placing the management of the central\nschool in the hands of one or more representatives of each local board,\neach board to provide for the transportation of its own pupils.\nI have endeavored in this paper to make clear the following points:\n1. That the advantages attending the consolidation of rural schools have been\nshown by experience to be so great that the plan should be extended to all communities\nwhere it can be conveniently carried out.\n2. That the consolidation of schools should not be uniform or compulsory thruout all\nsections of a state, but should depend upon local needs and conditions.\n3. That in the law providing for the consolidation of rural schools few specifications\nof organization should be made, beyond the giving of large and responsible duties to\nlocal boards.\n4. That in any plan of consolidation cipecial attention should be given to arrangemerits which will insure the greatest degree of convenience, safety, and freedom from\ncontamination.\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJuly 8, 1903\n\nThe Library Department met in the Second Church of Boston at 9 : 30 A. M., and was\ncalled to order by the president, Dr. James H. Canfield, librarian of Columbia University,\nNew York city.\nThe meeting was opened by an address by Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, who gave a greeting from the older library interests to the new.\nThe president. Dr. Canfield, gave a brief opening address.\nThe first paper of the morning was presented by Alfred Bayliss, state superintendent\nof public instruction of Illinois, on \" Some Co-operative Suggestions.\"\nThe second paper was presented by Miss Electra C. Doren, librarian, Public Library,\nDayton, O., on \"Public-Library Work for Public Schools.\"\nCharles B. Gilbert, New York city, followed with an address on \" From the School to\nthe Library.\"\nC. G. Leland, director of school libraries, New York city, read a paper on \" Class\nLibraries.\"\nN. D. C. Hodges, librarian. Public Library, Cincinnati, O., presented a paper on the\ntopic, \"Is the Public Library a Promptuary of the Public School?\"\nGeneral discussion was opened by F. W. Nichols, superintendent of schools, Evanston, 111., followed by Principal William C. Hess, of New York city.\nA committee on resolutions was appointed, with Martin Hensel, Columbus, O., as\nchairman.\nA committee on nominations was appointed, with W. C. Lane, of Harvard Univer*\nsity, as chairman.\nThe session adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July id\n\nThe department met in the assembly room of the Boston Public Library at 9 : 30 a. m.,\nand was called to order by the president, Dr. Canfield.\nThe meeting was opened by a paper, \"The Library as an Adjunct to the Secondary\nSchool,\" by O. E. Holland, of the Male High School, Louisville, Ky.\nThe second paper was presented by Miss Clara B. Mason, principal of the Clifton\nHigh School, Omaha, Neb., on \" Some Experiments in Nebraska.\"\nAt the close of the paper Dr. Canfield called on Mr. Horace G. Wadlin, librarian of\nthe Boston Public Library, who gave the department a very cordial welcome to Boston\nand to the library. Mr. Wadlin outlined briefly the work that is done in Boston by the\npublic library for the public schools.\nThe next paper was presented by, William H. Brett, librarian of the Public Library,\nCleveland, O., on \" Library Instruction in the Normal Schools.\"\nThe last formal paper of the morning was presented by Miss Mary Eileen Ahern,\neditor of Public Libraries, Chicago, 111., on \" What May Be Accomplished by Definite\nInstruction in the Normal Schools.\" ^\nThe president was obliged to leave at the close of the paper and invited Mr. Melvil\nDewey, state library director of New York, to take the chair.\n937\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "93^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIOJ^\n\n[L'brary\n\nThe theme for general discussion was : *' The Relation of the Normal Schools to\nLibrary Work,\" opened by James M. Green, principal of the State Normal School, Trenton, N. J., who was followed by E. Oram Lyte, principal of the State Normal School,\nMillersville, Pa., and J. N. Wilkinson, president of the State Normal School, Emporia,\nKan.\nThe Committee on Nominations, thru its chairman, W. C. Lane, of Harvard University, reported the names of the following persons, who were elected as officers for the\nensuing year :\nYoT President— \"R-euhen Post Halleck, superintendent of Boys' High School, Louisville, Ky.\nFor Vz'ce-Preszdent— Nathan C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of Public Instruction, Pennsylvania.\nFor Secretary — Miss Mary Eileen Ahern, editor of Public Libraries, Chicago, 111.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions, thru its chairman, Martin Hensel, reported the\nfollowing :\nI\n\nWhereas, A library post bill has been introduced in Congress by Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge and\nHon. G. P. Lawrence, providing for the mail carriage at rates now granted to magazines and newspapers,\nof bo ks from libraries suppoited wholly or in part by taxation or tax exemption; and\nWhereas, The legislatures of Massachusetts and California, the American Library Association, the\nMassachusetts State Teachers' Association and Library Club, and many other bodies and prominent persons in all parts of the country, have indorsed said bill; and\nWhereas, A library post, as above, is believed to be economic and promotive of library and educational co-operation, and social progress;\nResolved, That the Library Department of the National Educational Association hereby commends\nsaid bill to the favorable consideration of Congress, the President, and the postmaster-general of the\nUnited States.\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed by this Association to co-operate with the Library\nPost Committee of Boston, the American Library Association Committee, and others interested in the\nabove postal readjustment.\nResolvfd, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the President and the postmaster -general of the\nUnited States, and to the Committee on Post-Offices and Post Roads of the next Congress.\n\nn\nResolved, That the thanks of the Library Department.be extended to the city of Boston and the various <\nassociations, institutions, and individuals who have contributed so generously to the success and pleasure of\nits meeting.\n\nThe first resolution was discussed by W. C. Lane, Melvil Dewey, and others, and\nboth resolutions were unanimously adopted.\nA committee, composed of James H. Canfield, of New York, Miss M. E. Ahern, of\nIllinois, and Reuben Post Halleck, of Kentucky, was appointed to co-operate with other\nassociations interested in the postal readjustment.\nThe department then adjourned.\nMary Eileen Ahern, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nSOME\nALFRED\n\nBAYLISS,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCO-OPERATIVE\nSTATE\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF\nSPRINGFIELD,\nILL.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nIn the processes of the schools the book has long appeared to be the\nsole instrument. To recognize the value of motor activity, rightlydirected, as an agency in education is not to undervalue books. Manual\nIt\ntraining puts the growing youth into primary relations with things.\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nCOOPERATIVE\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\n939\n\nsupplies a physical basis for spiritual accomplishments. It diminishes\nthe distance between the man who acquires wealth and the man who\ninherits it. It exhibits the relation of an estate to the labor which created\nit. Mr. Emerson somewhere alludes to the fable that the gods in the\nbeginning divided man into men, that he might be more useful to himself; just as the hand was divided into fingers, the better to answer the\nend. So the functions of society are parceled out to groups of men, who\nperform various services. In the last analysis the services of the section\nhand who keeps the track in order are as essential to the safety of the\ntraveler as those of the president of the road. A great building is the\nproduct of the architect's idea, the builder's skill, and the sweat of the\nhod-carrier's brow. Into all this manual training gives insight, and thus\njustifies itself as an elementary educational force. But it does not\ndiminish the value of books. On the other hand, it tends to set them in\nright relations to education as tools to be used, rather than infallible\nsources of light and guidance.\nWe are in a fair way to become a bookish people. While our territory\nhas increased fourfold and our population sixteenfold, libraries have\nbecome as a hundred to one, and books in libraries as a thousand to one.\nEvery little red schoolhouse even has its library, or suffers the consequence of diminished self respect and a lower rating in its class.\nLibraries, once for the use of the learned only, have become common.\nThere is a characteristic architecture, so that the stranger within the\ngates may as readily find the free library as the free school. The training\nschool for librarians is duly recognized. We are thus committed to the\nfree-library idea. There have even appeared advocates of compulsory\nfree libraries. If quantity were all, if every printed and bound volume\nwere a book, the visible supply is not inadequate. To the dwellers in\ncities and towns, at least, the common provisions for the self-education\nobtainable thru the reading and study of books are, or soon will be, fairly\ncommensurate with the provisions for common education in the free\nschools.\nSince the school and the library are \"both common educational\nagencies, they should work together. This they are doing to an extent\nalmost unthought of a few years ago. To fix the reading habit, to give\nit right direction, thru such a knowledge of books as will give the power\nto discriminate, the will to choose, and mastery to use and enjoy, has\nbecome the common problem of teacher and librarian. What task could\nbetter combine duty and pleasure ? What partnership could be more\ndelightful ?\nTwo or three concrete Illinois cases may serve to illustrate methods\nof school and library co-operation.\n*\nI. A football captain was graduated from the young normal school\nat Charleston\nthe year before last. Not finding an opportunity tp\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\n\"accept a position\" as principal of a town school, he very sensibly\n\"hired out\" to teach in the country. The neighborhood in which he\nfound himself was not tributary to a library, but the children, he soon\nfound, were very hungry for books. Having been an all-around student,\nindoors as well as out, and a good mixer, he had friends back at the\nnormal school ; among the rest, the accomplished professor of music, the\nentire membership of the orchestra, the glee club, and the librarian. By\nmeans of his relations with his musical friends he found it easy to give\nhis people such a concert as many of them had never heard before. It\ngoes without saying that the athletes went along and paid their way in.\nThe net appreciation was a little more than sixty dollars. On the morrow\nof the concert there was a protracted conference with his friend the\nlibrarian, the result of which was an order for a real little library^ in lieu\nof the heterogeneous bundle of books which so often follows equally wellintended efforts. Now, this much has been done many hundred times in\nIllinois within the last ten calendar months. The point to this instance\nis that when the library went forward to that school there went with it,\nfor good measure, a complete card catalogs with all the necessary suggestions for its use. This was merely a manifestation of the genuine\nlibrarian's instinct. But it supplemented that energy and initiative of\nthe young athlete most admirably.\n2. The public library at Rockford has long been an intelligent ally of\nthe public schools in that city. Traveling cases of books for the grade\nschools are an established part of its work. It has lately added a feature,\nless conventional, but more generous, because its benefits are not confined\nto the city limits. During the week of the county institute the county\nsuperintendent is made a sort of preferred creditor on a large scale.\nThe rules are suspended, and he is permitted to use books in and for the\ninstitute practically without restriction as to number. The limits of this\npaper do not permit a detailed account of the working out of this plan,\nbut the better acquaintance with books and how to use them is of great\nvalue to the schools of that county. Think of the discontent produced\nin the mind of a young teacher who had qualified for the examination in\nUnited States history, for example, by the study of one text-book — even\nthe best published — after but a single week of such reading under judicious guidance ! This experiment has led to the purchase of hundreds of\nbooks by the teachers for their own use, as well as a distinct improvement of the quality of the school libraries, and much insight into the\nmanner of relating them to the school work.\n3. I have lately seen an illustration of co-operation between a public\nlibrary and the common schools which combines more of the current\npractical suggestions to that end than can often be found in a single city.\nThe population of Galesburg is well within the limits beyond which Bishop\nSpalding tells us it would be better if cities did not grow.\nIt is the seat\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nSOME\n\nCO-OPERATIVE\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\n941\n\nof two colleges and a free kindergarten. There is a high school with\nexcellent manual training and domestic economy departments, a principal who can lead a chorus, push a jackplane, umpire a ball game, and, if\nneed be, do a stint in the class-room. His last graduating class numbered 106. Several of the schools have lately taken to planting flowers.\nPeople come from a distance to see them. These signs all point to a\ngood public library.\nThe gift of Mr. Carnegie to Galesburg was fifty thousand dollars.\nThe city added a like sum. The building is worth the full hundred thousand, and could not be bought or rebuilt for a cent less. The location is\nideal. Across the way is the largest graded schooL On the same block\nis the high school. Less than two blocks away is Knox College. As one\nenters the library building, the office of the superintendent of schools is\nthe first door to the right and the children's room the first to the left.\nThe assistant librarian in charge is a teacher in the public schools,\ndetailed for this duty by the board of education. She is both a trained\nteacher and a trained librarian, and works under the eye of the head of\nthe schools and the head of the library; to some extent under the\ndirection, and entirely to the satisfaction, of both. The size of the children's room is about thirty by sixty feet. The cases extend all around\nthe room, and the highest are within easy reach. The tables and chairs\nare of suitable height and size. The books are accessioned and cataloged and distributed exactly as in the main library, except that the children go to the cases instead of the finding list or catalog to select their\nbooks. They carry both books to the librarian who makes the necessary\nentries on the card, and the children then put the returned book on its\nproper shelf. In this way ihey have learned not a little about classification and library methods. The librarian thinks this one advantage over\nthe more usual way of sending books to the schools on the traveling plan.\nI was told that the children enjoy the sense of proprietorship in their\nroom, and go to it much more freely than they could be induced to go to\nthe library before the division was made. The circulation in the whole\nlibrary from October 3, 1902, to May i, 1903, was 49,354 volumes. The\nnumber of books taken out from the children's department was 17,985, or\nalmost 36^ per cent, of the whole circulation.\nAmong the advantages of this plan the following impressed me most:\na) The head librarian is not without interest in the children. She\njoined forces with the superintendent of schools in providing for the children's room and the segregation of the children's books, and in overcoming\nthe inertia of that element in the building committee which could not quite\n*'see the use.\" She now finds that there are times when the separate\ndelivery is a great convenience.\nIt gives the older readers more room.\nh) The assistant in charge of the children's library, being also a\nteacher, keeps in touch with the schools both by reason of her special\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nknowledge and her affiliations. A teacher says : \" Have you read ^^/^//\"\n\"No.\" \"Read it, then; and I think you will want a copy or two.\" As a\nresult a book that proves as attractive as Water Babies^ or A Dog of\nFlanders, finds its way to the shelves — and \"is out all the time.\" Or a\nteacher reads to the children a chapter from a book, and sends it back to\nthe library. Or the librarian lets a book lie on her table without note or\ncomment; the children understand. There is little or no direct advertising of \"good\" books. The children browse among the cases and find\nwhat they want.\nThey are allowed to select.\nc) The librarian becomes a specialist. She learns children's tastes\nand tendencies. Like older people, beginning to read, they choose the\n\"evergreen tree of diabolical knowledge\" (fiction) first. Then they take\nto nature books, books of birds and animals. Thompson-Seton and Mr.\nLong, notwithstanding Mr. Burrough's objections, are very popular. So\nare Kipling's \"Jungle Books.\" Then the girls want books of travel, and\nthe boys of adventure. Then comes a demand for biography, and later\nscience and history. The librarian had noticed this much, as well as a\ngeneral tendency to better reading, and not a little concerning individual\ntastes.\nd) The children's library room is a convenient place for preliminary\nprovisions for special days. Two or. three large bulletins and the tops of\nthe cases all around the room were covered with bird pictures. One of\nthe professors in Knox College had talked to the children and teachers\nabout the birds of the locality. The pictures could not come down for\nweeks; the children were not thru with them. A bulletin of all the\nbird books in both libraries had to be prepared.\ne) Special bulletins illustrating the biographies are sent from the\nlibrary to a school. The librarian knows just how to make them, and\nmaterial accumulates very rapidly after the children learn that they may\nhelp supply it. An Indian week developed unusual interest, and called\nout unsolicited loans from many people to whom it had never before\noccured that there was anything for them to get or to give in any department of the public library. It was found that there were baskets,\nblankets, pottery, arrow-heads, tomahawks, and other stone implements\nenough in Galesburg partly to restore the Smithsonian Institution in case\nof emergency. There is an inlet to the universal child mind thru the\nmind of the papoose.\nOne of the very best Illinois county superintendents certifies that he\nbelieves that, whenever he can place a good library in a school, there will\nfollow a noticeable improvement in the conduct of the children. A\nteacher in Rockford, soon after the traveling libraries began to go out\nfrom the public library to the schools, told the president of the library\nboard that one of the little fellows in her room said to her: \"These\nbooks beat a curfew law for me ; I haven't been down town a night since\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n943\n\nthey began to come.\" I commented upon the easy, natural behavior of\nthe Galesburg children. Miss Stone said it was partly acquired in the\nlibrary, tho she had never said anything about it. She thought books\nhad an influence upon manners. There was a little street Arab in one\nof the schools who was the despair of the teachers, but since he had\nbegun to read, the teacher took occasion, when the signs were foreboding, to make an errand for him to the library. He always returned\nhappy, and the \"spells\" seemed to become less frequent.\nWhatever the devices or terms of the co-operation between the library\nand the school, these things go right to the merits of the question. If\nto the conduct which is three-fourths of life we can add the manners\nwhich are the color of life, let the critics make such list of our shortcomings as they can in truth, and we shall stiU be doing the main thing\nin education for which both schools and libraries are instituted and\nbooks are written.\nCo-operation between the librarian and teacher — in the Galesburg\nspirit — means a very great deal in this direction. We must, I think, in\ncarrying it out, make little use of set courses of reading, or any other\nform of rigidity. It is not the office of books to think for us. They\nshould inspire thought. We see the material world with our own eyes.\nWe ought to see and feel the spiritual with our own minds. The books\nshould illumine, animate, and exalt, but not enslave us. Mere booklearning is in just disrepute among men of affairs. They have observed\nthat book-worms and bibliomaniacs are not, therefore, educated. Subjection to the book means arrested development. We are dead, or, what is\nworse, dying, when growth ceases. But books, rightly chosen and rightly\nused, furnish the knowledge which illuminates, the companionship which\ncheers, and the ideals which, transmuted into action, cause the continuing\ngrowth by which alone a man may reach his full stature.\n\nPUBLIC-LIBRARY\nELECTRA\n\nCOLLINS\n\nDOREN,\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nDAYTON,\n\nO.\n\nWe shall speak of public-library work for public schools as it has been\ndeveloped since 1878 and as it is now going on in the average city and\ntown of today, where the two have grown side by side for a space of\nsome years. However important the lines of work which have been\nundertaken, their significance is even greater in respect to what is indicated than in respect to what has been accomplished. These main lines\nwill be reviewed with the intent to sh^w tendency in development, needs,\nand possibilities. They may be brought under four general heads;\nnamely, extra illustrative, bibliographic, reference, and circulation.\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe cloistering of books by public libraries did not really begin to\ngive way until more than one book at a time was allowed to be taken out\nfor a longer period than a fortnight, and this happened first to the public-school teacher. It was done by allowing the privilege of a teacher's\ncard whereby any teacher could draw a number of books, for schoolroom use, the number varying, according to the means and liberality of\nthe library, from five volumes to fifty for a period varying from a month\nto a school year. It was begun twenty-five years ago in Massachusetts.\nWhere the time limit is long the library carries a number of duplicates.\nIn most libraries this arrangement has developed into the collection of\nschool duplicates, or a school department of the library, operated much\nas a traveling-library system, sending books to schoolrooms. In five\nor six instances these have further developed into branch libraries for\nneighborhoods.\nParallel with the liberalizing of the circulation of books outside of the\nlibrary has risen the freer use of them within the walls. The needs of\nthe students have called forth the reference librarian, have made necessary rooms for class use in the library, and have brought about the system\nof special reserves of circulating books where a whole class of students\nmust use them at the same time.\nIn all of these changes the teacher will recognize the reflection by the\nlibrary of the methods of instruction in the school, but it must be\nacknowledged that, for the most part, the library has had to work out\nits relation to the school from its own view of the needs of the situation.\nBibliographic aids have been specialized from the old classified finding list. Among the most widely useful things done for the schools has\nbeen the publication of graded and annotated lists of the school libraries\nof Pittsburg, Evanston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, and the state of Wisconsin.\nFor current books, the lists of the New York State Library and of the Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota library commissions will be found especially\nhelpful. The American Civic League makes a practice of collecting and\nlending such aids to libraries. Almost all libraries prepare and post occasional book lists in connection with picture bulletins on school subjects,\nsuch as are offered by the celebration of holidays, authors' birthdays, or\nthe life of a hero or artist; in nature work, by the noting of the birds,\nflowers, or insects of the season ; in history, in connection with some\nnotable current event. The publication of such lists, the books of which\nare necessarily limited to the local library's collection, is usually in the\ncurrent issue of the library's bulletin. A collection of these is often 'a\ngreat help to the librarian or teacher, but the number, the variety of\narrangement, repetition, and lack of selection make them, at best, a burden to handle. The relief for this is a card index catalog, elastic and\ncapable of being kept to date, on school subjects. This analytic cataloging has not only the advantage of being a permanent tabulation of the\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depantnent]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\nFOR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n945\n\nlibrary's resources upon subjects of frequent call, but, as often happens\nin school work where many want to use the same material at the same\ntime, it meets to some extent the need of duplicates. The publication\nupon cards of the catalog of a selected list of one thousand children's\nbooks in the Cleveland and Pittsburg libraries is to be hailed as a special\naid, particularly since this is to be kept up for current issues. The\nminute analysis of the books considered, based upon the actual call from\nthe school side under simplified subject entries, and the giving of contents and annotations, make it the liveliest bibliographic guide to\nteachers which has yet been offered for the field of children's books.\nThese cards can be procured at a nominal cost.\n** Extra illustrative matter\" is the happy term invented by Mr. Edwin\nWhite Gaillard for designating such adjuncts to the use of books as the\npicture bulletin, special exhibits, collections of photographs, lantern\nslides, specimens in natural history, ethnology, geology, etc. It is, in\nfact, the enlivening of words thru objects, whether real or pictorial. The\nplacing of a selected collection of objects with the books of the library\nwhich relate to them is the special feature and the latest application of\nthe museum idea,*and a most important development of public-library\nwork for public schools.\nUpon this point I cannot do better than to cite you the \" Museum Number\" of Public Libraries (January, 1.903). In it is an instructive account,\nof the institution and growth of one of the first public-library museums in\nthe country by Dr. W. J. Conklin, president of the Dayton Library and\nMuseum Board. How to make best use of such collections is brilliantly\nsuggested in Mr. Gaillard's article on his work in the Webster Free\nLibrary, New York city. Other valuable suggestive material will be found\nin the bulletins of the Children's Museum, Brooklyn Institute, and from\nthe reports of the Smithsonian Children's Museum. It is gratifying to\nnote that in most of the new libraries now erected, however modest as to\nsize, pi ovision is made for a museum. The usefulness of such collections\nis enhanced by the posting of informing labels, accompanied by references to books. Excellent examples of such treatment are to be found in\nthe Smithsonian report above referred to. A subject card catalog of the\nmuseum, filed side by side with the public card catalog of books, is also\nof great value in relating the material to be found in each.\nThe collection, storage, and filing of lantern slides — an inspiration\nto the modern recitation — has already been pointed out as another field\nin which the public library may serve the school. In almost every library\nof any size, photographs are kept for reference and loan, a notable collection of this kind being that of the Buffalo Public Library.\nThe work with picture bulletins ia^already so well known as hardly to\nneed mention, except to say that it is an idea susceptible of many and\nuseful variations, as, for instance, reciprocal exhibits between library and\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "946\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nschool. In Dayton, Pittsburg, and one or two other places an experiment of this kind, in which the exhibits of the school work by grades\nwere placed in the library beside parallel material on the same lines\nfrom books, proved successful not only in drawing children to see their\nown and each other's work, but in bringing to the library many parents\nwho had never before visited it.\nOf seventy-one of the larger public libraries of the country, but twentyfour do not report special work with public schools. Forty-seven report\nwork in one or more lines as described above. Of this number, thirtynine have school duplicate collections. Buffalo has 27,000 volumes ;\nPittsburgh, 15,000 volumes; a number have from 3,000 to 5,000 volumes\nin these school collections. Fourteen have published lists for school use;\nthirteen attempt exposition, more or less formal and systematic, of library\nmethods in the schools; and six have museum collections in direct connection with the library.\nProbably further development in library work for schools will for some\ntime to come be in the direction of more intensive work in the lines\nalready opened. Granting that the general work of grading and annotating books for schools is disposed of by the lists which have already been\npublished, and these need only to be kept to date, are our bibliographies\nof school subjects sufficiently explicit and specific for the day-to-day work\nof the class-room ? Are they brought within a fortnight of the latest\nthat is available from the library in magazine articles as well as books ?\nSupposing our analytic cataloging to be thus complete and promptly filed,\ndoes the teacher use it ? Are the magazine references selected and collated ? Is such matter sent to the teachers interested ? Do they know\nthat they can depend absolutely upon the library for such collating?,\nClearly there is work for a new kind of specialist — one who shall know\nday by day what are the subjects of instruction, even the particular portions of them to be presented in all the grades, to which such supplementary matter will be pertinent. Should the teacher be asked to do this for\nherself ? And, if so, can she do it ? In the direction of insuring ability\nfor such research, both bibliothecal and pedagogic ability, much is to be\nhoped from library instruction to normal-school students and a normalschool course for library students, such as is projected by the Cleveland\nPublic Library. Thru the reciprocal training of librarian and teacher\nmust come the really vital relation between library and school.\nBut we must consider the town to which such things have not yet\ncome. How may we bring about the necessary intimacy between library\nand schools? For tools — that is, book lists, catalogs, and indexes —\ncannot take the place of persons in the sense of making relationship.\nProbably the most practical thing at present will be the interchange\nof visits between librarians and teachers to look over each other's work.\nThere may be occasional conferences to consider books and school courses\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORiC\n\nFOR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n947\n\nand extra illustrative material. The librarian may be invited lo parents'\nmeetings at the schools, and in return can personally invite parents and\npupils to the library. When there is such occasional, extra, or substitute\nwork needed at the library, as for instance in vacation libraries in schools,\ngraduates from the normal school having had sonie previous instruction\nin library methods can be employed for certain kinds of work. Thus\nthey may get a very practical view of the inner workings of the library\nand gain an impression of sources to draw from for their future work. In\nsome such way frequent contact will lend light to the work of each of us.\nFor instance, in Dayton we have a course in the \"short story\" from the\nhead of the English department in the high school, and a brief library\ncourse in children's literature for normal-school students and teachers who\nhave indicated an interest in it. All that we need for such things is a\ndesire for them, plenty of books, and a room to meet in.\nThere are a few things which each public library may do for each\nschool district of the city in the way of bringing children's literature and\nthe possibilities of the children's museum to notice. Copies of the Smithsonian Children's\n\"\nMuseum Report \" and of the Brooklyn Institute \" Children's Museum,\" and copies of the N. E. A. library handbook may be\ndistributed by them. The above mentioned annotated and graded lists\nof school duplicate collections might be made to serve as catalogs to the\nschools by sending a copy to each with the local library's call number\nwritten in. A traveling museum in the sense of \"extra illustrative material\" is possible, given two things: a person and a place for the work.\nThere should be in a public library, if not space for exhibit, at least a\nplace for storing, sorting, mounting, labeling, and distributing such\nmaterial. The person should be a kind of teaching curator who can\ntra^n schoolboys as helpers in his work ; one who will collect, select,\nexclude, exchange; who will supplement for the school course both books\nand teachers.\nThe library may be made a uniting social influence between the school\nand its immediate neighborhood. For at least ten weeks of every year the\nschool buildings are unoccupied. Where they are at a distance from the\nmain library they would, at a slight expense for fitting a room with outside entrance, shelves, etc., provide an easily accessible branch, a neighborhood library where the near-by people could find a pleasant retreat\nfrom uninteresting, perhaps crowded and noisy, surroundings. This\nwould be a useful summering of school duplicate collections, and thus\nmight be carried over the children's interest thru the dangerously disintegrating effects of the long vacation. Introduce a magazine readingroom for adults, the weekly story hour for the little ones, and a reading\nhour for the older children. This i»eighborhood library could, because\nsmall, express in itself a wholesome ideal of the home and, less formal in\nits workings than the larger main library, do much for socializing the finer\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "94^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nelements of life. Thus in the movement for the larger use of school\nbuildings the public library can be niade to play a useful part.\nIf there is one criticism to be made of the school, it is that there is not\na sufficient demand upon the library from that source, nor is it, when it\ndoes come, always sufficiently explicit to enable the library to do its best.\nSome teachers — excellent ones, too — fear the encroachment of outside\nreading upon the school routine, because it is a diversion from the teaching, dissipates attention, etc. We believe there is good ground for such\nobjection, but if the library's work is more intimately correlated with the\nschool course, and the \" looking up\" done for the teacher, it should give\nhim time to choose from this selection, and thus to minimize the tendency\nof pupils ** to scatter.\" The great secret, of course, is to know how to use\nbooks as a power ; and for this there is no specific but the knowledge and\nlove of books themselves.\nBut to consider the institutional side only, it is, after all, the freedom\nwith which the library may work in any direction that gives to it its greatest influence. Perhaps in no other institution of a city do more diverse\nor important streams of community interest meet and mingle, without\njostling or limiting one another, than upon the neutral ground common\nto them all — the public library; and perhaps no better service is rendered\nto a community than the furnishing of just such a place for the interplay\nof ideas and the freeing of those agencies which make for the spiritualizing of social interests. That it may be in any degree true of a library\nmust be due to its accessibility in the center of the city and its extension\nthru schools and branches ; to the openness, the freedom within its walls;\nto the catholicity displayed in book selection, and the certain witness to\nthe many-sidedness of life thereby affirmed. It has been well said by a\nwriter in a recent number of the Outlook :\nMaterial America needs no stimulus ; its triumph is already at hand. It is spiritual\nAmerica that needs constant revelation and definition ; and it is to be the high service of\nthe literature of the future, as it has been of the literature of the past, to hold the ideals of\nthe nobler American clear and beautiful above the dust and tumult of a vast and powerful\ncommunity.\n\nAnd is it not equally true that by a finer, more intimate union of\nlibrary and school the literature both of inspiration and of information is\nto be brought into the relations where it can and must influence the\npeople ?\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nCHARLES\n\nAND\n\nB. GILBERT,\n\nTHE\nNEW\n\nPUBLIC\n\nYORK,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nN. Y.\n\nEducation is a continuous, vital process. It begins with the first\ndawn of consciousness, and ends, if ever, only with the cessation of conscious life. The great educative force which, plus that very uncertain\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n949\n\nquantity known as heredity, really determines what each person is and\nshall be, is environment. This, however, is vague, general, a matter of\nchance, and may be good or evil, so that even the least civilized human\nbeings do not depend entirely upon its effects, but seek to direct educative influences during the period of infancy at least.\nTo reinforce the vague education of environment, civilization has\nfound it wise very carefully and specifically to direct education in childhood to the end that it may be good and not evil. Usually the directed\neducation has stopped with childhood. It has aimed to send forth into\nlife the young reasonably well equipped to meet its problems, with a\ncomfortable, but foolish, faith that environment will then take care of\nthem. But environment is a dangerously erratic and unreliable fosterparent, and efficiency in life seems to have been determined by the law\nof the survival of the fittest, rather than by the education of aU to their\nbest. So the question has arisen : Cannot some educational means be\ndevised thru which the child's interests in higher things, aroused in\nschool, may be made continuous; may serve as a guiding thread in that\neducational labyrinth known as environment ?\nThe movement now so strong, and growing in force so rapidly, is one\nof the most significant and promising educational movements of this\neducational age. The followers of the comparatively new profession of\nthe librarian are accomplishing no greater good than thru the intelligent\nand earnest support and direction they are giving to this department of\ntheir work; and the teachers, tho somewhat slowly, are awaking to its\nimportance. The librarians rightly regard their work as educational, and\nas a twin-sister of that of the teacher. It is gradually dawning upon the\nother twin that she is not an only child.\nliideed, when we recall that of the years of legal infancy less than\none-third are school years for the average child, and that the school years\nconsist of little more than one-half of the days, and that the school days\nare composed of only about one-fifth of the hours, we see how very small\na fraction of the time of the average child is devoted to school work;\nand the rest of the time, if possibly we except the hours of sleep, is all\neducation, so that the little sister, School, appears very little indeed compared with the great stepmother. Environment. And it is possible that\nthe other twin, Library, may, with proper direction, come to be really of\nmore consequence than School. If the library can be so co-ordinated\nwith the school as to direct the reading out of school hours, the influence\nupon the life of each child will be beyond computation.\nLet us take for granted that the library and school must work\ntogether, and consider brrefly in a very practical way some of the things\n*\nthat may be done.\nIn the first place, their work must be differentiated. They do not\ncover the same territory, and to attempt to do so is sheer waste of time.\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nLibraries should not furnish schoolbooks, nor should schools, if libraries\nare available, attempt to supply children with general literature. I do\nnot think it wise even for schools and libraries to be under the same legal\nmanagement, but the two must co- operate, must supplement each other.\nGranting, then, that the library should not in any way transgress the\nrecognized and established work of the school, what can it do to supplement that work ? That is, what should the children get from the public\nlibrary ?\n1. They should get an acquaintance with an abundance of good\nbooks. Such books should be easily accessible, carefully selected, but\nnot too minutely selected.\n2. The children should get from the public library, thru this abundant supply of accessible books, a love for books ; a sufficient love to\nprompt them to make an effort to get them, and discriminating judgment\nleading them to choose and read good books.\n3. They should get familiarity with the library itself. They should\nacquire the library habit ; it should become easy and natural for them to\ngo to the library for the supplying of their various intellectual wants.\nThey should know where different desirable things are, and what the processes are by which access to them may be obtained. A canvass of the\nintelligent citizens of any community would show a most surprising\nignorance of the uses of a public library; of how to get books; of how to\nlook up matters that are obscure; of how to satisfy intellectual and\naesthetic wants when the means are at hand and plentiful. This prevailing ignorance should all be removed thru the co-operation of the public\nschool and the public library, so that to the next generation the use of\nthe public library shall be perfectly simple and natural.\nNow, how are these desirable things to be accomplished ? There\nseem to be two prevalent methods advocated by prominent librarians\nwho are interested in this particular subject. One is what I believe may\nfairly be called the \"Buffalo method\" — that of taking books from the\nlibraries to the schools and supplying the needs of the children there,\nmaking the teachers assistant librarians. This certainly has some advantages : it is easier to direct the reading of children into specific channels and to see that they have the books they need, and it saves the\nchildren the trouble of going to the library, which would doubtless keep\nsome of them from getting the books at all. But it has a very grave disadvantage, itseems to me, and that is that the children, while getting the\nreading habit, are not getting the library habit. They come to look\nupon the school as not only an institution for giving them instruction in\nvarious subjects, but as a source of supply of certain specific wants which\nreally are supplied by another agency. There is danger that many of\nthe children who have become interested in reading the books furnished\nby the librarians thru the teachers, when they leave school, will find the\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\n95 ^\n\nembarrassment attendant upon making the acquaintance of the public\nlibrary great enough to deter them from going often, and that the reading habit already formed will decline; or that the boys and girls will\ntake up the poorer literature that is available in cheap forms, and not go\non, as they should, to better things.\nThus the library, while, with the best motives in the world, it is\nsupplying the wants of the children and cultivating taste, is doing too\nmuch, and is in reality interfering with the success of its own work later.\nWhat we want as the result of the co-operation of the library is not\nmerely the children in the schools reading many books, but boys and\ngirls who have left school still reading many books, and regarding the\nlibrary as the legitimate successor of the school as a source of intellectual\nand spiritual supply.\nThe other plan, which is, so far as I can gather, more general, is that\nof supplying the schools with library cards which are distributed to the\nchildren, the teachers acting as friends and advisers in the selection of\nbooks. The furnishing of these cards is supplemented in various ways by\nbulletins giving the names of books and descriptions of the working of\nlibraries, so that the children are in every way encouraged from the very\nstart to use the library to supply their need for books. This has the\nadvantage that it is cultivating the library habit. The children come to\nlook upon the library as a friend ; are made familiar with it and its various\ndepartments, and know how to get their wants supplied ; and when they\nleave school they are pretty likely to continue to use the library ; and so\nperhaps the greatest good is done, at least to some.\nThe plan suffers from this disadvantage that the children will not\nalways get all the books they want or need. The distance to the library\nfrom their homes is so great in many cases, necessitating the cost at least\nof car-fare, that many children will go without books rather than bear this\nexpense; and often the special need for certain books to illustrate and\namplify the work of the class will have passed before the children have\nsecured the books. All this is discouraging. Undoubtedly, if the books\ncould be furnished directly in the schoolroom, children would read more.\nThe teacher could say to the children of a class, when studying a certain\nsubject: \"You will find further matter on this subject in these books\nhere ; \" and the children would take them and read them.\nThere is, in connection with this, a still greater disadvantage: The\nearnest children, those who are already fond of reading, will, in most\ncases, overcome the obstacles and will get the books from the library; they\nwill become fond of going to the library and will avail themselves of the\nlarger selection there possible ; but the children who most need the stimulus will go without the books rather tkan persist in the effort until the\ntaste has been formed. The most important work, perhaps, in schools as\nwell as in libraries, is to be done with the children whose homes furnish\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nno incentives to reading or study, and whose intellectual caliber is not\nvery large. These are the people who will never acquire the reading habit\nand will never learn to use the library, unless they learn in school ; and\nthese are the ones who are discouraged by the distance and the cost.\nHow shall these difficulties be obviated? I believe by a combination\nof the two plans. They must be combined in proper and varying proportions. For quite young children, and especially for children who have\nnot yet become much interested in reading, there should be libraries\nfurnished to the schools, as is done in Buffalo — books supplied to every\nroom which the child can take home ; books carefully selected by the\nteacher and the librarian, interesting and stimulating and helpful to the\nrest of the work in the schools.\nBut this is a mere beginning. Stopping here is stopping too soon.\nGradually, in connection with the use of the various methods of which I\nhave spoken, the children should become accustomed to go to the library.\nTheir wants should not all be met by the books furnished to the school.\nMore and more, as they advance in grade and become interested in reading, they should be sent to get what they want from the library. It is\nvery important, when this is done, that the library people meet them\nproperly and see that their wants are supplied, so that they will come\nagain.\nI believe that by a combination of the two methods — furnishing books\nwhen necessary and gradually persuading children to go to the library for\ntheir books — the two objects can be accomplished. Of course, it is taken\nfor granted that every school should contain a large supply of what we commonly called \" reference \", books ; but there are many of these that are\nexpensive and cannot be furnished to each school, so that every library\nshould have rooms especially devoted to children, where teachers can\ntake classes for the study of particular subjects from rare and expensive\nbooks, pictures, and atlases, or where the children can go by themselves\nand find able and willing assistants to help them in the use of these more\nelaborate appliances.\nThe children's room of every library is coming to be regarded as the\nmost important room, and rightly. It should be an attractive place,\nwhere the children live a comparatively free life among books, where they\n\"actually smell leather.\" The assistants should not be too officious, but\nshould be helpful. Children should be left to mouse for themselves, so\nlong as they do no harm, or unless they are evidently wasting time to\nsuch an extent as to lose interest or really feel the need of help. The\nassistants should merely watch for the psychological moment and give\nthe needed help.\nNo definite instructions can be given regarding this point ; it is a\nmatter of sense and sensitiveness. Children who have no definite wish\nneed sometimes to be guided to something by skillful questioning; and\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMISSION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCLASS\n\nLIBRARY\n\n953\n\nchildren who know what they want should have it, unless it is bad, and\nthen sometimes a skillful librarian can turn the child's fancy, which is a\nmere whim, into a better channel.\nThe essential things to bear in mind are that children who go to the\nlibrary should be made welcome; should learn to like the place; should\nfind that some definite wants are supplied there, and yet should realize\nthat it is a place of business. They should never leave feeling disappointed, but should often go away with a better choice and a better book\nthan last time.\nThe relation of teachers to librarians is a very important matter. It is\nneedless to say that they should be on good terms, and more — they should\nbe mutually complementary. It is not necessary for teachers to become\ntrained librarians, nor for librarians to take courses in a normal school;\nbut each should know something of the work of the other and should feel\nthat reference may be made to the other with entire confidence. Teachers\nshould attempt to create an appetite for books furnished only by the\nlibrary, and librarians should seek to gratify the appetite created by the\nteachers. Librarians should endeavor to ascertain what the schools need,\nand the teachers should be anxious to tell them. If they work together\nin this way, the amount of technical work to be done by each can be\ngreatly reduced, and yet the effect secured. Children will be supplied\nwith the books that they need to supplement their school work, and also\nto fill in the spare time devoted to reading. Thus the schools will be\nhelped in their work of helping children, and at the same time the children will be gradually acquiring the habit of going to the library for what\nthey want, so that by the end of the grammar grades they will have\nbecome library habitues, and the necessity for taking books to school in\nconsiderable quantities for distribution shall have entirely ceased ; and\nthus the teacher will help the librarians in their work of helping the\nchildren.\n\nTHE\nC.\n\nG.\n\nLELAND,\n\nMISSION\n\nOF THE\n\nCLASS LIBRARY\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nLIBRARIES,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.\n\nY.\n\nWe hear much nowadays from our own prophets, and noticeably since\nthe so-called American invasion of Europe much has been written on the\nother side, concerning the human wear and tear in the States. All of\nwhich, if accepted, would go to prove beyond a doubt that the vital force\nof the nation is rapidly being consumed.\nWe may scoff at birds of ill omen and at the anxiety of our cousins\nwho resent being shot thru undergroi^d tubes of American steel or\nwhirled over the surface on American trolleys. We may well be proud of\nour captains of industry, and enthusiastic and hopeful over the marvelous\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nindustrial progress and development which these latter years have brought.\nBut there must come to the most optimistic at times certain doubts and\nmisgivings.\nSpeed, energy, decision are not the only qualities worthy of emulation,\n\"In quietness and confidence shall be your strength,\" said a wise old\nwriter; and surely the world owes much to its contemplative races and\nthose who, in the words of a great teacher of the last century, \" feed the\nmind in a wise passiveness.\"\nThat we have not added materially to the world's great literature is a\npertinent fact often brought to our notice.\nOur schools may crown every hill, and there may be few places left\nwhich do not boast a public library ; but these libraries are full of books\nwhich never would have been written if material prosperity had so\nengrossed the world as it does today. At all costs, then, we must\nendeavor to relegate the material to its proper place. For this very purpose, to counterbalance these modern tendencies, all the reserve forces of\neducation have taken the field, inspired by the same spirit of combination\nand co-operation which dominates the business world. By concentration of effort in this direction we have reason to expect great results.\nInterest centers, however, not in the forlorn hope, but in the main\nattack conducted by the grade teacher in the common school, who faces\nher class of boys and girls for six hours every day. It is a well-known\nfact that the great majority of our school children leave the public school\nbefore they reach the higher classes; so the necessity of sowing early, if\nwe would reap at all, is obvious.\nSays President Hyde :\nIt is not of so much consequence what a boy knows when he leaves school, as what\nhe loves. The greater part of what he knows he will speedily forget ; what he loves\nhe will feed on. Therefore a love of good literature .... is from every point of view\nthe most valuable equipment with which the school can send its boys and girls into the\nworld.\n\nThe great hopes, then, bound up in this movement to bring back that\nclass of solid, cultured citizens who read thoughtfully and intelligently,\nwho browse in the green fields of literature, who are the bone and sinew\nof the community, will be realized only when less time is spent in teaching the child how to find the gain percentage or the greatest common\ndivisor, and more time in teaching him what to read after he has been\ntaught how to read ; when normal and training schools send out more\ngraduates who are perhaps not so well equipped with methods and theories of teaching, but who have an intimate personal acquaintance with the\nworld's best and greatest books ; when courses of study shall not be so\novercrowded as practically to prohibit the reading of books other than\nthose required ; and when there shall come with the few years of school\ntraining the inspiration to continue it, and a practical knowledge of how\nthis may best be accomplished.\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMISSION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCLASS\n\nLIBRARY\n\n955\n\nFor this, the most essential phase of the work, the teaching corps has\nbeen strongly reinforced.\nThe public library may be comparatively a new factor in education,\nbut it is by no means a secondary one. It shows no disposition to be\nplaced in reserve, but strives for a position at the front, out on the firing\nline with the public school. The teacher touches elbows with the librarian ;to the former's knowledge of the child, the latter brings his knowledge of the book, the book itself, and the association with that institution\nwhich is commonly known as the \"people's university.\"\nWith branches and children's rooms the library draws many to its\nlarger collections, but it can reach the greatest number of citizens only\nunder the most favorable conditions in the school thru the medium of the\nclass library. The plan of placing a small selection of books in each\nteacher's class-room for her pupils to draw and take home or use in school\nis not new. This system has been tried with success by many schools\nwithout library assistance or supervision. Its value is established in either\nevent, but only thru systematic co-operation will far-reaching results be\nattained.\nIt is as reasonable to expect the teacher to bring the hornbook or the\nNew England primer into active service as to expect her to make use of\nthe old-type school library, which is so often only an accumulation of^\nbooks. Even a well-organized central collection will not suffice at this\nperiod of the child's development. Bring the books to the children, and\nlater on they will go to the books.\nConsider for a moment an ideal state of affairs, but by no means an\nimpossible one : We have a new school building, complete in every way,\nequipped thruout with all that is modern and approved, with one exception: the newly varnished library shelves contain no books. The principal and public librarian, however, are in accord. Neither seeks to\nmagnify the importance of his work above that of his brother. It seems\nto them not so vital whether the library furnish the books or whether the\nschool funds are drawn upon. The important point is to provide the\npupils of this school with helpful and inspiring books at the most hopeful, impressionable time of their lives. Under such circumstances a plan\nis soon agreed upon, and the difficulties are met as follows :\nLet the requirements be, first, books for twelve class-rooms — twelve\nlibraries of about fifty books, at an average cost of thirty dollars per\nlibrary ; secondly, a small, carefully selected reference library, estimated\nat one hundred dollars. The librarian may draw on his limited resources\nfor six class libraries for the higher grades, and the vacant places are\nfilled in by school funds raised for this purpose. These required books\nare selected from a graded list of the b«st books for the different ages,\nprepared by the librarian, but in which the teacher has had a voice.\nThey are purchased and cataloged for the school by the library.\nWhen\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nby the opening of school in the fall the twelve class libraries are ready to\nbe installed, the children will of course be in no uncertain mood, but the\nteachers may be about equally divided between hope and fear. A staff\nmeeting should be called and the plan gone over thoroly. The principal\nand the librarian may here be so eloquent over the possibilities that the\nprofessional pride will be touched, the doubting ones won over, and the\nhopeful ones filled with enthusiasm.\nEach teacher is made librarian for her own room and given a free\nhand in regard to all details, with the exception of keeping a record of\nthe use of the books. Such statistics should be collected and tabulated\nby an assistant from the library once a month. The new books and the\nnew plan will not fail to produce an extraordinary interest at first, but\nthis will become normal after the novelty has worn off. An assistant\nlibrarian, elected by the class or appointed by the teacher, will relieve her\nof much of the clerical part of the work. The boys of the manual-training\nclasses in many instances will make cases for the library, as the matter\nof accommodating the books is often a serious one. In each class a special pride is taken in the library. Rules for conducting it are made and\nenforced. A community spirit is aroused. I have in mind one class\nwhich publishes a school paper to maintain and add to its class library\nand to purchase pictures for the room.\nThe teacher brings the books to play in her daily work, not only at\nthe time of the story hour, but many a prosy recitation^ is brightened\nwith a passage or poem of interest selected from the bookcase at her side.\nShe takes advantage of the many opportunities to draw out the dull and\nlistless boy with bright and attractive books, to find profitable occupation for the idle, to put the right book in the child's hand at the right\nmoment. And for this most essential phase of school work she has not\nonly her limited selection of fifty books, but back of it all the large\ncollections of the library and the librarian's helping hand.\nThe school is by no means the sole beneficiary. The books drawn\nfrom the class libraries and taken home by the children arouse thruout\nthe whole family an interest in reading and in libraries. Adults are\nreached in this way who could not be. influenced in any other.\nAfter all, it is the personal work which counts, and the librarian,\nin connection with his duties of visiting the teachers and changing and\nreplenishing the libraries, has many opportunities.\nThere should be short talks on books of interest, on ways to use the\npublic library, on reference-books and how to use them. Every graduating class which goes out from the school should be reminded of what the\nlibraries of the country are doing to help every ambitious boy and girl\nto build on the foundation laid by the teacher in the grammar school.\nFor, as has been said many times, the existence of the tax-supported\ninstitution, such as the school and the library, is justified only on the\nthe ground that it makes better, happier, and more useful citizens.\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nPUBLIC\n\nIS THE\n\nLIBRA RY A PROMPTUAR Y FOR\n\nPUBLIC\n\nN. D. C. HODGES,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY A PROMPTUARY\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS?\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nFOR\n\nCINCINNATI,\n\n9 SI\n\nTHE\nO.\n\nWhen asked to take part in the proceedings of this department, I felt\nmuch as must an aged bird when asked to join in the flight of migration\nof its kind. Loath to leave the comfort of his winter home, and remembering the ceaseless labor, the incessant whirring of wings, the shrill\ncalls of the leaders, as now and then they think they see some guiding\nlandmark ; followed, to be sure, by a period of rejoicing in a new habitat ;\nand then the return over the same path, only to be back again at the\nstarting-point — who would blame the bird, after years of such experience, for letting his mates fly their cycle, while he lives a quiet life, lengthening his siestas, if need be, under the shade of luxuriant, tropical foliage ?\nHad I been guided by the dictates of reason, I should not be where\nI am ; but, yielding to some higher law which I only half comprehend, I\nrose with the others. Content to follow, I hearkened for the occasional\nnote of guidance or of warning. There were those who told of the books\ngood for children and the books bad for children, of the ways in which\nchildren can be induced to read the good books which the \"Adam\" in\nthem abhors, and to eschew the bad books which the same \"Adam\" craves.\nThen the teachers were taken to task by some for not working overtime to bring the children and the good books together, and praised by\nothers who have found teachers more than ready to co-operate in library\nwork. There were stray notes singing of bulletins, tho these were evanescent. And all the while there was the whirr and whirr of great numbers.\nI was not equal to the pace, grew weary, and dropped.\nAnd what I lighted on was a dictionary of synonyms. I had regarded\nthis book as a help invented by man for his own good, but it led me into\nsuch diflficulties that for a time I was inclined to regard this special volume as an invention of the devil. The scholarly professors of our colleges,\nliving just a little in the world of dollars and cents, but mostly in some\nother of which only glimpses are gained by less fortunate mortals, are\nshocked when they hear their haunts, their beloved halls, spoken of as \"t»he\nplant.\" That word they would have applied only to a factory, but protest\nagainst its application to their college buildings, the more when these\nhave ceased to be mere brick and motar, having with time absorbed something of the humanities, not from books, but from contact for generations\nwith impulsive youth guided and molded by sympathetic teachers and\nitself. Who would call a library a storehouse ? No one in this gathering\nsurely. And yet it was of a library as a storehouse that I had mind to write.\nIt was in this way that I picked out of the dictionary of synonyms the\nterm \"promptuary,\" saying to myself: Ah! that has the right smack.\n\nIt\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "958\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nall went very well until I had time to consider what I had swallowed.\nThe word is properly pigeon-holed in our dictionaries, but it is labeled as\ncoming from the Latin, and at first I could not find that Latin would\nacknowledge its offspring. Storehouses the Romans had, but they persisted\nin calling them horrea^ and this for many centuries. In the last days of\nthe empire, if it had any last days, the horrea may have h^coxw^ promptuaria,\nbut of this I am not so certain. Anyway, the longer word is late\nLatin ; and I am sorry we have it in English instead of its cousin of more\nancient lineage.\nHorrea, or promptuaria, the Romans had them, and had them to\ntheir injury, perhaps to their final downfall. They came into existence\nsomewhat in this way, tho you may not have to travel far to find a historian who will give the story a different turn. Cornelia, daughter of Scipio\nAfricanus the Elder, was mother of two boys, and, being ambitious for her\nchildren, and for herself, was constantly urging them to do something\nthat she might be known as the mother of the Gracchi rather than as the\ndaughter of Africanus.\nThis was in the second century before the birth of Christ. Rome had\nby far not reached the summit of her glory, but her conquests were\nalready considerable, and with the changed economic conditions there\nwere troubles in the land. The Roman freemen, frequently called away\nto the wars, found their farms slipping from their hands and falling into\nthe possession of fewer and fewer wealthy landowners, who were working\nthe fields with slave labor. The country was no longer attractive or possible as a place of abode for the common people, and they drifted to\nRome, where they walked the streets with their hands in their empty\npockets and with little more to do than attend to their sovereign duties at\nthe meetings of the comitia in the market-place.\nUnder such conditions, if anything is done, it is as likely as not to be\nthe wrong thing. And there were the Gracchi urged on by their mother\nto do something. If you read the pages of the historians, you will find a\nnumber of opinions about the Gracchi, of which each may choose that\nwhich best suits his temperament. For some the Gracchi were wellmeaning reformers, for others they were demagogs ; and then there are\nthose who hold them as erratic individuals, mere dreamers, with cleverness\nenough to keep the confidence of the people for a time and with the\naudacity to do unlawful acts.\nThe Gracchi found their supporters in the unthinking mob, and they\nreasoned that this mob furnished the rank and file of the legions which\nhad pushed the boundaries of the republic back and back toward the edges\nof the earth. Such labor should receive its wage, and this wage should\ncome from the spoils and tributes of the conquered provinces. The\nGracchi did several things to win the support of the freeman, but Caius\nGracchus is responsible for beginning the distribution of corn at prices\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRAR\n\nY A PROMPTUA\n\nRY FOR PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n959\n\nfixed below those of the market, or even free, without charge. A business\non such a basis grows, and there is no known limit to the sizes of the\nstorehouses required for the largesses. To be sure, these men had\nreceived all the pay promised them for their services, but it was in their\npower to vote themselves more, and there was the leader to guide them to\na course that proved destructive to the last remnant of their self-respect.\nFrom the beginning of the world, or soon after, it has been only by\nhard labor that corn has been produced in quantity sufficient to fill the\nmany mouths open for it. So conspicuous is this necessity of labor in\nhuman economy that it is a question whether the labor is not really an\nend in itself. We have no special concern at this hour with corn ; we are\nhere to talk books. We all think books, on the whole, excellent, and we\ngive not a little thought to ways and means for administering to the public a larger and ever larger potion of books. With the intractable adult\nwe do not concern ourselves so much. It is more the children, whom we\nhave in our power, to whom we give our attention.\nBooks cost money, as does corn, and most parents, when they have\nbought the necessary corn, have little money left for buying books. It is\nonly natural for them to retort, when urged to buy for their children\nheavier doses of books, that this they cannot do and that the books must\nbe paid for by somebody else. Here is a danger. The gifts of corn to the\npeople of Rome accelerated their deterioration into an abject and contemptible mob, bent only on procuring bread and amusements without\nthe trouble of working. That the supplying of free books for the current\nconsumption, as it were, of the people will have the same effect is too\ntrite a statement to allow of any amplification. We all know it to be true,\nbut some are tempted to use public money in this way ; it is all so very\neasy. If it is for the welfare of the state that the rising generation shall\nbe given a taste for the best in literature, granting that the forcing\nprocess is feasible, those responsible for the children should be obliged\nto supply the needed books. Until this necessity shall be made clear\nto the lawmakers, I would prefer the self-supporting families growing up\nin ignorance of the letters, which, after all is said, are only for the few\nwho rise into the intellectual aristocracy.\nThe intellectual aristocracy, as I would constitute it, might not receive\nrecognition at the hands of the four hundred. The mark of each member\nis, of course, brains, often enough oddly shaped brains. Some of the members are not great readers ; still as a class they use books, and use them to\nthe advantage of the community. The books they use are so numerous\nin these days that only here and there one with money in his pocket — of\nwhich most of the aristocracy I am considering have little or none — can\nbuy those bearing on his special department of knowledge. The munificence of the wealthy has helped to furnish books, and buildings to range\nthem in ; and by the middle of the last century it had been made clear to\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthe lawmakers of England and America that the expenditure of public\nmoneys for working libraries was justifiable. These working libraries,\nour public libraries, contain the books in which are recorded the literature\nof power and the literature of knowledge which the community should\nhave at its elbow, as it were. It is this availability of literature which for\nfifty years and a little more has been recognized as a real necessity. The\ncommunity cannot have in any other way than by purchase at public\nexpense the great mass of literature of knowledge — a literature which is\nincreasing so fast with the advances of the sciences. And that there may\nbe something really interesting on the shelves, as our scientific men and\nwomen threatened with mental purblindness put it, there should be a liberal admixture of the literatures /^r excellence, or in time our race may be\nreduced to mere turners of stop-cocks and pressers of buttons.\nIt costs money, and considerable money, to place at the command of\nthe community libraries with such multifarious resources, and any expenditure of library money which interferes with the building up of such libraries is a blow to the best library interests of the public. In some towns\nthe library funds have been diverted for the purchase of schoolbooks. In\none town of a hundred thousand people a thousand copies of a single\nbook were bought. The only purpose of the public library in that town\nwas as a storehouse, of which the librarian became the keeper. The dole\nof books from the storehouse corresponded to the corn dole to the\nRomans. Any dole weakens the giver by exhausting his resources, while\nit injures the recipient by undermining his vigor. I would have libraries\nwhich any intelligent reader would recognize as libraries, and not imagine\nthem storehouses from their resemblance to the familiar cuts of publishers' warerooms.\nBut all this has been said before. There has not been so much damage from the introduction of book doles ; still there has been some. I\nutter my cry simply that I may be counted with my mates. I utter it only\nas one note in the chorus, and I am content if the impulses of the Zeitgeist\ncarry us sometimes here, sometimes there, or, as has happened to man as\nwell as bird, back to some early starting-point.\nGENERAL\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nWilliam C. Hess, principal of the East Side English High School, New York city,\nreferred to the papers of the morning as a refreshing treat for any live school man.\nHe emphasized the necessity of school people taking a larger interest in these library\nmatters which were growing so rapidly, and getting a correct view of the progress of\nthe work, so that they might not come in with second-hand suggestions on work that\nwas already progressing beyond their knowledge. He called attention to the fact that\nthe progressive work of the West, or of the middle West, showed to the disadvantage of\nthe East as judged by the papers of the morning. If the co-operation between the libraries\nand schools had grown to the point shown in the discussion of the papers presented, one\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAS AN\n\nADJUNCT\n\nTO SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n961\n\nmust not wonder at the fact that the literary center had passed to Indiana. He wished to\nsay, however, that all advancement had not been made within the past twenty-five years.\nFifty years ago the state of New York had these school libraries, and he at that time\nwas connected with a school having a library of ten thousand volumes. The reproach\nof Sydney Smith that no one read an American book was rendered nil by the works of\nCooper and his class, before New England had produced Longfellow and Whittier and\n-^\nBryant.\nThe speaker cautioned the school people against buying books in series. Library\npeople were apt to be better acquainted with the books themselves than the busy teachers,\nand the conferences should be mutual that one might learn of the books and the other of\nthe needs of the child. He mentioned several of the books in the Abbott series as not\nbeing suitable for young people. Books for children are to be treated warily. The life of\nthe story is often lost in pruning it down to fit the childish intellect. While it is true that the\nmajority will not read the classics in the original, or in great English, they will appreciate\nand understand such translators as Lamb and Sydney Lanier, and will afterward be\nattracted to the great wellsprings themselves. Teachers should be able to bring in\nlists of books treating of the topics under discussion in the schoolroom from a different\npoint of view and in a different style from that presented in the text-books.\nW. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education. — No other department of\nthe National Educational Association, it seems to me, has a more important work to\nperform than the Library Department, in bringing about an intelligent and effective\nco-operation between the public schools and public libraries.\nIt is the province of the schools to teach its pupils how to read. The work of the\nschools will give only a slight knowledge of books, unless it is supplemented largely by\nthe public library. The schools teach the field of knowledge as divided into groups. It\nis from the books which the students are induced to read that the full scope of the field of\nknowledge may be learned.\nI would make a plea for more attention to literary art. I cannot agree with Spencer,\nwho said that literary art belonged to leisure hours. The principal part of literary art is\nthe work of the poets. Homer, Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton each contributed\nlargely to the development of the human race and its government.\n\nTHE\nE.\n\nO.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nHOLLAND,\n\nHEAD\n\nAS AN ADJUNCT\nSCHOOL\nOF\n\nTO THE\n\nENGLISH\nDEPARTMENT,\nLOUISVILLE,\nKY.\n\nSECONDARY\n\nBOYS*\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nOur great captains of industry have found it both expedient and profitable to combine forces in order to exercise economy in the conduct of\nbusiness. The results have been increased trade, higher wages, and larger\nprofits. Both employer and employee have been benefited by this\nco-operation, and today we find as a consequence that the business men of\nAmerica have wrested the commercial supremacy from Europe. For several years we educators, both librarians and teachers, have realized how\nessential it is to join our forces. We kffow that both of us are important\neducational factors of a community, that one is not the superior of the\nother, and that whatever either one does to improve society is certain to be\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "962\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nof benefit to both. There is no jealousy to overcome. The only questions\nwe are asking are : How can we assist each other ? What can the libraries do to help the schools, and what can the schools do in their turn to\naid the libraries in the splendid work they are doing? If someone will\npoint the way, the desired results will quickly follow.\nAll accept the statement that the schools should dominate and direct\nthe educational life of the schoolboy and the schoolgirl, while the library\nshould direct and continue the mental growth of the mature person.\nBut the success of the library in its more advanced work depends largely,\nif not entirely, upon the success of the schools. Consequently, my subject, \"The Library as an Adjunct to the Secondary School,\" is as essential to the welfare of the library as it is to the progress of the schools\nthemselves. If the library is to become in fact as well as in name the\n\"peoples' university,\" it must assist the teachers in awakening in the\npupils a desire for an educational life that will not be content with the\nmeager results of the class-room, a demand for a mental horizon broader\nand brighter than that given by any school system of today, and a yearning for true and abiding culture, which cannot be realized except thru\nyears of right living. President Eliot has truly said : \"It is always thru\nthe children that the best work is to be done for the uplifting of a community.\" Ifthe high-school pupils do not learn to use the public library,\nthe highest growth and culture of a community are impossible. Yet I do\nnot mean to infer that this work should be postponed until the high-school\nperiod, for it should not. We know that considerably more than onehalf the school children leave the schools before the age of twelve. As\na consequence, if anything is to be done for these children it must be\ndone before the end of their school days. Happily, the experience of\nmany of our most prominent educators proves that from the third grade\non a love for the best literature can be developed in the children. This\nexperience is, indeed, comforting, for if these children, who must go out\ninto the world and begin the struggle so early, can really be led to have a\nlove for the best literature, we may be sure that the work of the library\nand the school has not been in vain.\nBut to the subject, \"The Library as an Adjunct to the Secondary\nSchool.\" Today we find that our high-school graduates are poorly\nequipped in a number of particulars. I believe the public library can\nassist the high school in a great measure to overcome these deficiencies,\nbut it is incumbent upon the high school to show the former how it can\nrender this assistance.\nTo begin with, our graduates, as a rule, are unable to think accurately\nand rapidly.\nThis inability is due, first, to the fear or unwillingness of the highschool students to exercise their own powers of thought and expression;\nand, secondly, to the blind worship by both teacher and pupil of the\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAS AN\n\nADJUNCT\n\nTO SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n9^3\n\nclass-room text. Under this kind of teaching blind memory usurps the\nplace of an active brain ready to react upon all educational stimuli. The\nmodern library, has helped to expose this fallacy, and the text-book is\nbecoming a mere guide-post on the roadway of knowledge. A wiser use\nof books is to be found today in our public library under the laboratory\nmethod. But the first step in the newer educational process must come\nfrom the teacher; for elementary bibliographic training should be given\nin the high school proper. This means that the teacher must know what\nthe library contains, so he may be able to explain how to use the student's\ntools — the library catalog, and such reference-books as Poole's Index,\nCumulative Index, References for Literary Workers, Dictionary of Names,\nBriefs for Debate, and so forth. The best plan of all would be to have\nthese compilations in the school building, so that references could be\nobtained at any time under the direction of the teacher. No additional\nstudy, however, need be added to the high-school curriculum, for a little\ntime given to the work by the various instructors will produce excellent\nresults. I do not believe there is a single subject in the secondary school\nthat cannot be made more interesting and more valuable thru the assistance of the public library. Pupils taught to use the library are certain to\nhave all their mental activities quickened ; they are able to think more\naccurately and more rapidly. But we must look to the future for the best\nresults. If the students catch the true spirit of inquiry and acquire the\nhabit of using the library, they will continue their education for many\nyears after their school days cease. For this alone co-operation between\nthe school and the library is important.\nSecondly, the great majority of our high-school students do not take\nan active, intelligent interest in the affairs of city and country.\nThis is likely due to the fact that little of the school work has any\ndefinite bearing upon the present. As a result man}«^of our pupils upon\nthe completion of their high-school course step into a new world, not the\nenchanted land where fairies tread, but into the mids*: of scenes of activity where the facts gleaned from text-books seem to have no bearing.\nThey are temporarily lost. Their education appears to be a handicap.\nYet this, of course, is not true, for as soon as high-school boys can find\nthemselves, they forge ahead in their work. But is it necessary lo drop\nour students into such a maelstrom ? They should get a knowledge of the\npractical world thru the co-operation of school and library, both of which\nmust be brought into actual touch with the everyday life of the community.\nAt first the high-school student is not expected to get much real\ninformation from his library work ; his task at the beginning is to become\nskilled in the use of his tools, the many Reference-books. Both librarians\nand teachers are agreed that at thia time it is often dangerous to burden\na boy or a girl with too much information.\nYet I am certain that you can\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nget the students so interested in a subject that they will want all the information you can give them. Arouse the school over some practical question of today and notice the result. This year we arranged a debate with\na neighboring school upon the question : '^Resolved, That municipalities\nshould own and operate their lighting, water, and street-railway systems.\"\nAt once a large number of the students began to study the question, for all\nwanted to make the debating team. Each student soon realized that he\nmust study his opponent's side as carefully as he did his own, and thus be\nable to anticipate many arguments offered by the opposition and to prepare a ready ^nd, if possible, a final answer for them. No need then to\ninsist that the students work, for they spent all of their leisure time in the\npublic library getting arguments, and consulting authorities, and statistics.\nI am sure these students received more benefit from this work than they\ndid from any single subject in the high-school curriculum during the past\nyear. After more of such work, these students will go out into the world\nto take an active and intelligent interest in practical affairs. In a measure they have learned to stand upon their feet and play the game of life.\nMobs are not composed of men who see different sides of a question, and\nfalse arguments fail to convince people who have learned to make their\nown deductions.\nThirdly, a large number of our secondary-school students fail to\nappreciate what is best in literature.\nAnd we must not forget in our discussion that no one can impart that\nwhich he does not have. No teacher can bring a student to a real love for\nthe best literature, unless the teacher himself has that love. I believe that\nin the past we have too often been content with knowing that a teacher\nco.uld impart facts in history, literature, and the languages, while we have\nbeen indifferent to this other important qualification, which the teacher\noften lacked. What if the instructor does impart certain interesting\nand valuable facts? -^The truth is that the secondary school can do little\nmore than give the student a smattering of knowledge, most of which he\nstraightway forgets. But often the teacher, by becoming a friend and\nadviser of the pupil, can lead him to an appreciation of the best literature,\nwhich will have so much to do with his future growth and culture. This\nis especially worthy of our consideration when we realize that teachers\nthru definite experiments have discovered that boys and girls are most\ninfluenced by the books they read. In this work the librarian can render the teacher a great deal of assistance. He can send collections of\nbooks to the class-room ; he can advise with the teacher when certain\nclassics should be read ; he can become acquainted with the students and\nencourage them, for he should remember that very soon he must assume\nentire control of their reading. Besides, both librarian and teacher can\nfrequently prevent the high-school students from frittering away their\ntime during the summer vacation, which of course should be a period of\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department)\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAS AN ADJUNCT\n\nTO SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\n9^5\n\nrelaxation, but certainly not of dissipation of energy and corruption of\ntaste. Much good can be done in this work, if there is practical cooperation between teacher and librarian. Then, in addition, the librarian\ncan aid the teacher in encouraging students to get a select library of their\nown.\nThis will do a great deal to develop a true literary appreciation.\nFourthly, most of our high-school students are deficient in moral\ntraining as a result of insufficient study of the great moral qualities in\nliterature.\nBut I am not advocating a course of ethics for the secondary school.\nI do believe, however, that the librarian can assist the teacher in getting\nthe high-school boys and girls so well acquainted with the great characters\nin literature, history, and biography that they will be strongly influenced\nby them. And since psychologists assert that most of us must be imitators, we should accept the statement, remembering, however, that we can\ndetermine to a certain extent what characters we shall imitate. Heroworship is natural to the high-school boy and girl, and we must see to it\nthat these heroes are of the right kind. Imitation of bad characters in\nbooks has induced boys to hurry west to exterminate the poor Indian or\nto become a modern Jesse James ; or, what is still worse in many respects,\nit has caused thousands of children to become incompetent citizens, lacking in principle, and devoid of honor. Imitation of good characters has\nled people to sacrifice their lives for their country, as did William the\nSilent ; or to follow in the wake of an army, to repair the havoc wrought\nby war, as Miss Clara Barton and her noble sisters are doing today; or,\nbetter still in many ways, it has done much to develop thousands of vigorous, cultured men and sincere, refined women, who seek opportunities\nfor public service. Imitation, generally unconscious, is very potent, and\nwho can say how much good has been wrought by such characters as\nJean Valjean or even David Harum and Peter Stirling ? If we can get\nour students to admire and love the strong and true characters of a book,\nand to despise and even loathe the bad ones, we may rest assured that the\nfuture will justify our labor.\nTo sum up, then, both teacher and librarian should remember that, if\nthey are to be of the greatest assistance to the boys and the girls of the\nsecondary school, they must teach the students to do as definite laboratory\nwork in the library as in the study of physics, botany, and chemistry; to\nspurn the poverty of the class-room text, and to demand a full share of the\nriches of the world's inexhaustible mine, the public library; they should\nmake clear to the students that school life from its very beginning is a\npreparation for the world of practical affairs, and that graduates of the\nhigh school, as a result of their culture and education, should be able to\nimprove the social and political conditions of the city and country. Both\nteacher and librarian should lead the students to a true appreciation of\nthe world's best literature, combining with the practical mind, in keeping\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[tSbraiy\n\nwith our materialistic world of today, an imagination capable of comprehending the beautiful imagery of our poets, and thereby insuring real\ngrowth and culture. And these two educators, realizing that moral training depends so much upon the imitation by the child of the l.ives of\nothers, must see to it that the boys and the girls come to admire and love\na number of the great characters of literature, history, and biography.^\nIn concluding, let us, both teachers and librarians, ask ourselves this\nquestion : Do we understand and sympathize with the social conditions\nof the larger class of our population — the class that must be changed, if\nthere is to be any perceptible improvement in the life of a community ?\nKnowledge of books, fine education, great libraries, and splendid school\nbuildings can never take the place of a heart beating in true sympathy\nwith the life of the people. Material wealth and ingenious devices are\nworth while, but the moving force today, as it has been since the beginning of time, is the active, energetic men and women, who have true sympathy for childhood, real insight into human nature, and who are devoting\ntheir lives to the betterment of the world.\n\nSOME\nCLARA\n\nB.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nMASON,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nEXPERIMENTS\nOF\n\nCLIFTON\n\nHILL\n\nIN NEBRASKA\nSCHOOL,\n\nOMAHA,\n\nNEB.\n\nThe American people are rapidly solving the problems which concern the great mass of citizens. In the national standard of intelligence\nand culture there is unbounded interest, in the two most potent factors\nfor the elevation of intellectual life, the public schools and the public\nlibraries, interest them most deeply.\nThe lad who reads deeds of manliness, of bravery, and of noble\ndaring feels the spirit of emulation grow within him, and the seed is\nplanted which will bring forth fruit of heroic endeavor and exalted living.\nThe life of the girl who reads books filled with kindly thoughts, generous\nsympathy, truth, and tenderness will be inspired and shaped by the pages\nshe reads.\nTraining the child to read and love good literature is, then, the most\nimportant work to be done for him, as it is the one thing that continues to\ncontribute to his education so long as he lives. For years we have taught\nhim to read, but we have often lost sight of the fact that it is the use made\nof that ability which contributes to his weal or woe. Said Charles Dudley\nWarner: \"A person who has learned how to read, but not what to read,\nis placed in a position of great danger.\" Says President Eliot : \" The\nschooling which does not result in implanting a permanent taste for good\nreading has failed in the main end of democratic education.\" It is a work\nthat begins with the mother at the story hour, and should never be lost\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nLIBRARY\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nIN NEBRASKA\n\n967\n\nsight of by parents, teachers, and librarians until the taste for desirable\nreading has been formed and the student is in possession of the ability\nand means to secure it. In accordance with this idea, public libraries\nhave been established, maintained, and justified on the same grounds as\nthe public schools.\nTwenty-seven years ago the \"modern library movement\" was born.\nIt was then that the Library Journal came into existence, the American\nLibrary Association was founded, the government library reports were\nissued, and the first suggestion of the good to be derived from a possible\nco-operation between schools and libraries was made by Charles Francis\nAdams, Jr. Since then the tunneling of. a passage way from the school\nto the library has gone steadily on. Not for a moment have the workmen\nput down their tools ; not once have the two great factors in our educational system clashed. The librarian and the teacher have joined their\nknowledge of the book and the child, and the good results cannot be\nestimated, despite the theory advanced by some that the modern school\nand library methods will be directly responsible for the rearing of a generation of nervously overwrought intellectual dyspeptics.\nEvidence of the increasing force of the public-library movement in\nthe West is visible on all sides. Convinced that the important function\nof the library is to furnish means of self-culture without prescribing a\ncourse, meetings for the harmonizing of methods and the stimulation of\nthose engaged in the work to united action are being held with great\nfrequency.\nAs a matter of fact, there is more activity in these matters in the central West than in any other part of the country. Whether popular\nintelligence is higher than elsewhere or not, it is attested by the\nstatistics that the western people stand higher in the percentage column\nof literacy than those of any other section of our country, Nebraska\nheading the list. Libraries take root and flourish only among people\ndevoted to intellectual improvement, and interest in the library movement is one of the best gauges of popular culture and general educational\nprogress.\nIt is, then, fitting and proper that the National Educational Association should wish to hear from that state in the Union which shows the\nsmallest percentage of illiteracy ; and I come to you today with the\nassurance that the teachers and librarians of Nebraska are fully alive to\nthe possibilities of the library as an agency co-operating with the public\nschools ; and now that uniform methods of classification and systems of\ncard cataloging on a scientific basis have been adopted, the strides in the\ndirection of use are rapid and almost bewildering. The teachers appreciate all the library offers them and aek for more. They are zealous\nto create the atmosphere from which the child breathes in love for good\nbooks, and are constantly pondering the twofold question, as to how the\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "968\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nlibrary may be rendered the most serviceable to the schools, and how to\norder school work so as to give pupils command of the contents of good\nbooks in their subsequent careers.\nIt is not without interest and profit to review the growth of library\nwork in Nebraska. While there have been a few libraries in the state for\ntwenty years, the work is yet in its infancy, and those engaged in fostering the healthy growth of this infant are keenly awake to any signs of\nthat larger development and wider usefulness which are certainly to be\npart of the library work in the state.\nThe material progress during one year has never been remarkable.\nThere has been a steady and active interest in those communities where\nlibraries are established, and an awakening interest yearly in many places\nwhich have not heretofore supported them. The six largest libraries are\nnow the Omaha Public Library, the libraries of the University of Nebraska,\nthe Nebraska State Normal School, the Peru Normal, the Omaha Creighton\nCollege, and the Lincoln city Library.\nFrom a scanty collection of two thousand volumes in a dingy little\nroom, the Omaha library has grown in twenty years into one of the finest\ncollections in the West. The nucleus, made up of the off-scourings of\nprivate shelves, has come to such dignity that it can barely be contained\nin the commodious building dedicated to the purpose by the book-loving\npublic, and made possible by the generous bequest of Byron Reed who\ngave to the city all the rare books, newspapers, periodicals, manuscripts,\nautographs, coins, and medals of his collection, together with the ground\nupon which the building stands. It is a great educational institution —\nat once a school, college, and university, which keeps open doors to every\nman, woman, and child who chooses to cross its threshold. It is a potent\ninfluence in the life of the town, an ornament, and a benefaction.\nA spirit of co-operation and sympathy has ever existed between the\nlibrary officials and the school authorities. Each teacher may have the\nprivilege of holding more than one card, and practically every member of\nthe corps makes use of it. Most generously does the library provide\nworks bearing on the subjects pursued in the classes, and the children's\nlibrary is the pride and boast of the city.\nOne of the most progressive features of the Omaha schools is the\nnature study, each grade being assigned a tree, a vegetable, a flower, and\na bird for special study. This study is done by consulting various sources\nof information and opinion under guidance. Teachers and pupils gather\ninformation and material from books, from nature, from any source which\nyields help. This source method has done much toward turning the steps\nof students in the direction of the library and emphasizing the interdependence ofthe two great factors in our system of education.\nThe librarian and many of her assistants have been teachers. All arc\nfamiliar with the course of study.\nWhen the nature work was introduced,\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME\n\nLIBRARY\n\nEXPERIMENTS\n\nIN NEBRASKA\n\n969\n\nas if by magic the walls of the children's room were decorated with plates\npresenting all the birds in their natural colors, and as far as possible the\ntrees and flowers studied, while upon tables were books bearing upon\nnature work. Then there were bird talks, and talks on trees and flowers,\nby those who had made special preparation.\nA sixth grade studying Oliver W. Holmes was invited to a lecture on\nsea shells where the pupils saw the \"Chambered Nautilus,\" heard the\npoem explained and beautifully recited, examined other curious shells,\nand were told of books in the library upon the subject.\nA new development of the picture bulletin came last year. Bearing\nin mind the fact that the grades had for reading lessons extracts from\nGulliver's Travels^ a bulletin was prepared illustrating the volumes, with\nexplanatory notes and references. Most successful did it prove. Pilgrim's Progress, Canterbury Tales^ and Don Quixote followed. In every\ncase it caused such a demand for the books that it was impossible to\nsupply enough. These bulletins are often sent to the schools and circulated in the same manner as the books.\nThe Nebraska State Library is making very rapid growth, and is one\nof the largest law libraries in the United States. It has liberal appropriations, and is enabled to buy almost everything printed in English having\nto do with the subject of law.\nIt is a matter of pride to Nebraska that there is one library building\nin the state that even the most critical can recommend as a model ; such\nis the new Carnegie Library at Lincoln, and its influence on the library\narchitecture of the state is already noticeable.\nThe year just gone by has seen the establishment of several new\npublic libraries in the smaller towns. This feature of work in Nebraska\nmust necessarily be slow in developing. Cities in the state with a population of from four to twenty thousand are few, relatively — much fewer\nthan in most western states — and it is hard to know just where to draw the\nline between one that can properly support a library and one that cannot.\nNot alone in the larger cities is the spirit of co-operation growing.\nI quote a letter from the librarian at McCook, Neb.:\nThere is a close intimacy between the schools and the library. We have many books\nof reference which are used in the science, literature, history, and geography classes. The\nteachers send classes to the reading-room, where, under supervision of the librarian, they\nare required to read and report on a given subject.\nIn the juvenile department we have taken special pains to provide helps in the way\nof kindergarten and primary work, and the teachers take advantage of these.\nWe had the Turner Art Exhibit for three days in December for the purpose of\nsecuring pictures for the schools and library. We secured fifteen good reproductions of\nthe world's masterpieces, which we have placed in the various schoolrooms.\nWe have a stereopticon for illustrated talk^n tours to various places and the homes\nof noted men and women. This is under control of the library board, but will be used as\nan auxiliary to the class-room work.\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "970\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThis librarian has been a teacher. What a help to have come so\nclosely in contact with the child-mind, and how fortunate the children\nand the teachers in that little city to have such intelligent service !\nThe Nebraska Library Association was organized in 1895. Its\nmembership included a mere handful of people from the libraries of\nLincoln and Omaha, with one or two from other places. In this handful were two library-school graduates, and several other educators who\nhad been in touch with the movement in other states and were ambitious\nto have Nebraska awakened. A commission bill was drafted and introduced in the legislative session of 1897, and again two years later. The\nnewspapers disseminated knowledge of traveling libraries and library\ncommissions. But it was seen that stronger influence must be brought\nto bear. Thru the efforts of librarians and teachers, the interest of some\nof the members of the federations of clubs for women was enlisted, and\nthese in turn brought the matter before their federation in such an effectual way that the fall of 1900 found the organization committed to the\nundertaking of securing the desired legislation. Thru the federation,\nthe Library Association, and the teachers, the legislature of 1901 yielded\nto the now popular demand and made Nebraska the twentieth state to\nestablish a public-library commission.\nA close study of the law brings out the fact that its mandatory\nfeatures contemplate chiefly the encouragement of the establishment of\nlibraries where none exist, the improvement of those already established,\nand the collection and reporting of facts concerning libraries. The permissive feature of the law relates to traveling libraries.\nIn order to carry out their trust more worthily, members of the commission, at their own expense attend meetings of the American Library\nAssociation and consult with representatives of other states. Their plans\nhave been based on the experience of other states. They have no evils\nto correct, no abuses to reform. The work is educational and constructive, and the aim is to make the state a better and more attractive one in\nwhich to live. These features show themselves in the spirit of the work\ndone and the spirit with which it is met by the people of the state.\nNothing has been paid to members of the commission, and almost the\nentire traveling expenses of the secretary in visiting towns has been paid\nby the communities visited, tho the law makes distinct provision for this\npayment from state funds.\nNebraska has about fifty collections, of forty volumes each, traveling\nabout the state. They remain about three months in a place. As an\neconomical way of getting the best books to the most readers at the least\ncost, the traveling library has no competitors. The books have been\nkept in drug stores, barber shops, post-ofhces, schoolhouses, and dwellings. The librarians, whether barbers, druggists, teachers, or housewives,\nhave shown tact and intelligence with the libraries, and correspondence\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nwith them gives proof of the important part they play in\ntional development of the state.\n\nthe\n\n971\n\neduca-\n\nThus are the librarians, the public-school teachers, and others interested in general educational progress in Nebraska working together for\nthe day when every person who wishes access to the storehouse of a free\nlibrary will be able to have the demand satisfied, whether he lives in a\ngreat metropolis or in a city or town of moderate pretensions. The lawmakers are having the subject brought to their attention and are passing\nthe necessary legislation. The field is full of promise, the state work\nbeing that of growth and adaptation to conditions, rather than a following of precedents. The teachers are interested in the library meetings,\nmany of them appearing upon the programs. The librarians attend\neducational meetings and appreciate the efforts to further intimate relations between schools and libraries. Soon, very soon, will come the day\nwhen the people will insist that the numberless mechanical things that\ncan well be left out of our school work be exchanged for the souluplifting work of getting literature into touch with young life. Let not\nthe tired, overworked teacher and toiling librarian despair ! We now\nknow better, and we shall do better in time. Out ideals are growing\nluminously clear, and we will hold the light steady until the people are\nconvinced as to what should be done, and then the best provisions will\nbe made possible for all whose feet cross the threshold of our great\npublic schools and libraries.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nCLEVELAND,\n\nI\nWILLIAM\n\nH.\n\nBRETT,\n\nLIBRARIAN\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nO.\n\nMy purpose in this paper is to emphasize a need which I know is\nurgent in our libraries, to indicate what I believe to be a similar nee*d in\nour schools, to ask whether our normal schools may not furnish the means\nto supply this need in the schools and, at the same time, render a great\nservice to the libraries, and to describe briefly one modest attempt which\nis being made to answer this question.\nThe need which I venture to suggest as existing in the schools is one\nwhich is due to the increasing use of the library by the schools, to its\nincreasing importance as a factor in educational work — an importance\nwhich is more fully recognized than ever before, as the establishment of\nthis department of the great National Educational Association and its\nsuccessful meetings for several years past bear witness.\nOne of the most interesting panoramas on the continent is that from\nMorningside Heights, looking out as it does in one direction toward the\nbroad Hudson, with its white sails and swift steamers, and in the other\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "972\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nthru the teeming streets and broad avenues of the great metropolis. On\nthis height, amid these surroundings, stands a building which is at once a\nnoble and a beautiful architectural creation, a monument of filial affection, and the home and laboratory of one of our greatest universities.\nIts central position in the magnificent group of university buildings, present and to come, appears to me not only to indicate the importance of\nthis library as the center of the life and activity of the university to which\nit ministers, but to suggest the important place which the library is coming to fill in educational work generally.\nThe importance of the library in the college work has long been recognized. The library was the first department to be founded in our older\nuniversities. Its use has been greatly enlarged and systematized in the\npast four years, and the same period has seen a broader use of books introduced into our secondary and elementary schools. Modern work in\ncomposition, history, literature, and science, render necessary a wide\nrange of reading outside of text-books and require a free use of the\nlibrary. This need has been partly met. Teachers have made use of the\nlibrary in preparing their work and have encouraged the use of books by\ntheir pupils. Librarians have very generally promoted this by granting\nspecial privileges to teachers, by the purchase of books with a special view to school use, by placing small collections in the schools, by\nco-operating in the supply and management of school libraries, and by\nthe establishment of children's departments, with opportunities for club\nand class study.\nThis is all good but it does not meet the entire need. It is not altogether sufficient to bring a library within use of the schools, to bring\nthe books and the pupils together. The pupils need to be taught how\nto use the books. This is important for the school work in hand. It is\nvastly more important, as a part of their equipment for whatever work\nthey may do in life, that they be able to use books effectively, that\nthey be able to reach promptly and certainly what they may need in\nbooks, to recognize it and estimate its value fairly. To do this requires\na knowledge of the means and methods of using books, as_well as a\ntrained and critical judgment. This knowledge of means and methods\nmay measurably be secured by proper instruction, and the critical ability\nand judgment will certainly improve in the process. The pupil needs\nthis for his own work, and the teacher doubly for her own sake and that\nshe may impart it. This would seem to indicate that, while such instruction may well be carried thru the school course, it should certainly be\ngiven in the normal school.\nI have already spoken of the co-operation of the schools and libraries.\nAn examination of the reports of about seventy American libraries shows\nthat, with few exceptions, they are co-operating with the schools in various ways, and that; in a few of them, some\nattempt, usually rather\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLlBRAkV\n\niNSTkUCTlON^\n\nIM THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n973\n\ninformal, is being made to give instruction in the use of the library. The\ngreat increase of libraries in America during the twenty years past, which\ncorresponds in time with this increasing broader use of books in schools,\nhas been accompanied by a remarkable development of library methods.\nThe principal qualification of the librarian of the older days was that he\nshould be a book lover and a reader, whose knowledge of the books should\nbe the catalog of the library, and his love for them its principal safeguard.\nThen came the period when classification, cataloging, indexing, and the\nmethods of housing and caring for books were being developed, and the\nimportance of the technical was emphasized, unduly at times no doubt.\nNow the proper balance is being attained, and it is fully recognized that\nthe equipment for library work should include a thoro, liberal education,\nextensive reading, a love for books, and an enthusiasm for their use, the\nwhole based upon a thoro technical training. To secure such service is\none of the great problems of the library today. There has been, however,\na marked improvement in recent years. The increased use of our public\nlibraries has not been merely an increase in volume, but in value, due\nlargely to more efficient service.\nAn instance may illustrate. The library staff of one library which I have\nin mind did not include, a dozen years ago, anyone who had more than a\nhigh-school preparation, and a considerable number of them had even less.\nThere was no college graduate, nor anyone who had special library training. Now on the staff of the same library the minimum preparation of all\nappointees during recent years is a high-school course; it has a considerable number of college graduates, several library-school graduates, and\nprobably one-third of its number have technical training, to the extent at\nleast of a summer-school course. The change which has taken place in\nthis particular library is, I believe, fairly typical of that in many libraries\nthruout the country. While there are, as above indicated, a fair proportion\nof those having special preparation, the salaries in a majority of the positions are not sufficient to attract those who have added special technical\ntraining to a college course, and the public schools are, and must continue to be, the main source for supplying the workers in our libraries.\nIf the high-school graduate, taking a library position, has been a lover\nand a reader of books, her value is greatly increased ; but at the best she\ncomes into the library without any knowledge of library methods, and must\nbegin a course of training at the expense of much time and care on the\npart of the senior assistants, and at the much more serious cost of delay,\nannoyance, and poor service to those whom she serves during the period of\nher apprenticeship. The college graduate must begin in the same way,\nand learn by the same experience, and at a similiar cost, altho her greater\nmaturity and broader outlook should — *nd, other conditions being equal,\ndo — enable her to make more rapid progress.\nThe public library, however, needs in those who enter the ranks of its\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nworkers a greater maturity and a broader education than that of the\naverage high-school graduate, together with at least an elementary technical training. This leads me to turn again to the normal school, with\nthe question whether, in supplying the needs of the school, it cannot also\nsupply the needs of the library.\nMy attempt to answer these questions both as to the school and the\nlibrary shall be a brief account of some work which has been done along\nthis line, and something further which is planned in the normal school at\nCleveland, with whose work I am somewhat familiar, as I am not with the\nwork elsewhere.\nFor several years past the junior class of this school has received special\n» instruction in the use of the public library from one of its teachers, and,\ndivided into sections, has spent an afternoon of each week for one term\nin the library. They were first instructed in the classification and in the\narrangement of the classes on the shelves, and were required to draw from\nmemory a plan of the library showing the location of the different classes.\nThis exercise is particularly valuable as this library is arranged in open\nalcoves and rooms, and all users have the advantage of free access to the\nshelves for selections.\nThey were then instructed in the use of catalogs and bibliographies by\nwhich books are chosen and found, in the use of the individual volume by\nmeans of its index and table of contents, in the use of the various periodical and other indexes by which the files of periodicals and other miscellany\nare made available, and in the scope and use of the fundamental referencebooks, such as dictionaries, general and special encyclopaedias, biographicals, dictionaries, gazetteers, and atlases. With this as a basis, problems\nwere assigned which were intended to give them practice in the use of the\nmeans for research already indicated and to train their judgment as to\nbooks.\nA specimen problem may serve to illustrate this work. The subject\nwas Robert Louis Stevenson, and it is assumed that the pupil has the\npreliminary preparation just indicated.\n1. Use the biographical and other dictionaries for life and work. Observe and compare\nthe kind of information given in each (i.e., that in the International with the Century\nBook of Names), and consider the circumstances under which either might be of use. In\nwhat encyclopaedias would you expect to find an account of Stevenson ? In what annual\nwould you be likely to find him, and how refer to it ?\n2. From the catalog choose books on the life of Stevenson, say four. Give reasons\nfor choice. (Should expect some of the reasons for choice to be : author a known authority or known intimate of Stevenson, contents of book as indicated by catalog entry;\nchoice might also be influenced by time of publication, etc.) The chief aim is to have\nthe student use the data in the library and observe.\n3. From the books chosen, select one. Give reasons for selection. Selection here is\nmade by cursory examination. A glance at the table of contents and index, and a rapid\nexamination of the book as to style. Verbosity, for instance, and egotism betray themselves promptly in any book.\nRead the book selected, making notes.\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n975\n\n4. Notes as made by the student to be read by the teacher. Object — a lesson in\nnote-taking, which is also a lesson in reading discriminately.\nPoints considered are :\nClearness : Would one unfamiliar with the subject understand?\nConciseness : Is there a waste of words ?\nJudgment : Are essentials and nonessentials considered ?\n(It is not necessary that the teacher should know 'all the books on Stevenson on\nwhich the notes are made, tho, of course, she should thoroly know the life of Stevenson. Internal evidence as to accuracy is worth a great deal, and the work of one student\nsheds light on that of another.)\n5. Use of magazine articles, using indexes and articles as previously catalogs and\nbooks were used, and making notes similarly. Choice of articles likely to be useful\nfrom the known character of the magazine.\n6. Critical articles, using the department of literature, essays, etc.\n7. Work out material on hand, including juvenile books, to prepare lessons for\nten-year-old children on Stevenson. Exercise one of section and adaptation. Intention to base it on the broader work already done.\n\nSimilar work was done along other lines, as, for instance, in American\nhistory, the students being required to examine the books in the library\nand to select one valuable as an original source, another as a work for general reading, another for younger readers, basing the choice on an examination of the book as to its scope and arrangement, the reputation of the\nauthor and his opportunities, critical notices, and other available sources\nof information, giving reasons for choice.\nThese are probably fair specimen problems, but serve only to suggest\nthe scope and variety of the work which has been done during the past\nfour years.\nThe work was planned and carried on, until recently, by an experienced teacher in the normal school, who has in many other ways during the\npast ten or twelve years done much to bring about a closer co-operation\nbetween the schools and the library. In the opinion of those who have\nfollowed it closely, the work is valuable, and the result fully as great as\ncould be expected from the amount of time given to it.\nAt the beginning of the last term a special instructor was employed\njointly by the library and the school with a view to enlargement. The\nwork was carried on thru the last term of the year on the same general\nplan, but more time was given to it by the special instructor than had\nbeen possible heretofore.\nNext year it is proposed to carry the same course of instruction in the\nuse of books and collections of books thru the entire junior year, instead\nof confining it to one term as heretofore. This will make it possible to\nsomewhat enlarge the scope of the instruction.\n. It is further planned to offer, in the normal school, as postgraduate\nwork, a course of technical library training which will occupy about onethird of the school hours during the entire year. It will include alphabeting, classification, cataloging, accessioning, shelf-listing, and other\nstrictly technical subjects.\nIt will be open primarily to graduates of the\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nnormal school, to those who are already in library work and wish to\nincrease their technical skill, and to those who have passed the required\nexaminations and are eligible to library appointments. If there is room\nin the class, others who seem qualified to profit by the instructions may\nbe received. For the benefit of those who are not graduates of a normal\nschool, an opportunity will be offered to elect studies from the normal\ncourse sufficient to fill up with the technical work the entire time for the\nyear. The studies suggested are history and theory of education, ethics,\ncomposition, history, geography, and advanced German.\nThe work as planned in the junior year will clearly be for the benefit\nof the schools. The graduate work will be for the immediate benefit of\nthe library, but that is the narrower view of its purposes. The school and\nthe library are working together for the same ends. The library can do\nno more important or nobler work than to aid the schools, and everything\nwhich benefits either great institution eventually and certainly benefits\nboth. My justification for presenting to you an account of the work\nwhich is still so tentative and immature must be the hope that a discussion of this subject may bring to light other efforts which are being made,\nor plans that are being formed along the same line, and that by such discussion the importance of the need may be emphasized.\nII\nMARY\n\nEILEEN\n\nAHERN,\n\nEDITOR\n\nOF\n\n\"PUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES,\"\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nSince a normal school is a school whose students are taught to be\nleaders of others in educational effort, it is a legitimate question for a\nnormal school to ask what it can do in the matter of giving library instruction. The normal school has a legitimate part in that work — a part that\nis distinctly its own, and in performing which it in no way infringes on\nthe work of the regular library school. No one questions its place in dealing with handicraft — it does not assume, in so doing, to be a technical\nschool in the broad sense.\nThere is a differentiation, however, to be made in the instruction to be\ngiven to one who is to take charge of a regular public library — a library\nthat serves all the public under a trained librarian — and the instruction\nto be given one who is to be a teacher first, and whose library work is to\nbe only a part, but an important part, of the regular school routine. To\nbegin with, there should be a clear understanding in both cases that library\ntraining means more than learning to write backhand, or arranging catalog cards in logical order. Without entering into a discussion of just what\nis contained in the phrase \" library training,\" let us try to find out what is\nto be expected from the teachers in the public schools on the library side,\nand point out, if possible, how the normal school may prepare them to\nmeet the situation.\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n977\n\nA prominent English writer on educational topics has this to say of the\npresent situation in that country :\nWhile the libraries are by no means doing all they might, or all they will do in years\nto come, for the schools, we must not forget that all they do has been evolved from the\ninside ; neither the general public nor the teachers have given much assistance, at least not\nuntil within a very few years. All we know about the library comes from the staff. Is it\nnot time we heard from the laity ? What sort of political parties should we have if all\nplatforms were drawn up and all the nominations made by office holders only ? The\nteachers must come to the aid of the community here, and just as men of science are\nexpected to instruct and elevate the public at large outside of the laboratory or the lecture\nroom, so the teacher must assist in the cause of good books for those outside the schools\nas well as for her own pupils.\n\nThis statement is as true regarding our own conditions as it is of the\nsituation in England.\nIt has seemed to me that definite instruction ought to be given to the\nstudents of the normal schools along two lines : first, regarding the place,\npower, scope, and necessity of the public library, an institution organized\nand administered with the purpose of entering into close relations with\nevery effort of the community for advancement, among which may be\nplaced the public and private educational institutions; and, second, such\ndefinite instructions should be given to the students of the normal school\nas to give them a knowledge of the use of books as friends as well as tools,\nand of such part of library economy as will show them how to give intelligent instruction to their pupils in the use of the schoolroom library first,\ngraduating them later into the public library.\nNormal-school students should be brought to know the history, development, and functions of the public library. Such study will give them a\nbroader conception of the field of books by the knowledge of the historical setting; it will give them a greater respect for the necessary machinery, and the people who maintain and develop it, by the knowledge that\nit has a scientific basis and has had definite growth; and the appreciation\nof the scope and aim of the library, as it has been so admirably expressed\nby Mrs. S. C. Fairchild — the function of a library as an institution of\nsociety is the development and enrichment of human life in the entire\ncommunity by bringing to all the people the books that belong to them —\nwill in itself make a broader thinker and better teacher in all lines as well\nas in the study of books.\nIf normal students go out with the definite purpose of co-operating with\nthe public library in all its work, they will have an equipment that will\nwork,. not only for their own good, but also for the betterment of the community which they serve. The public library is going into every community, and the public needs to know how to use the institution to the best\nadvantage. It should be the aim, then, of the normal school to instill in\ntheir students the idea that they are^o co-operate with the public library\nas a co-ordinate branch of public instruction, co-operating practically and\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ndefinitely as teachers thru their pupils, and the work which their pupils are\nundertaking, and co-operating more generally as intelligent citizens in\nsustaining the library and putting back of it an aroused public sentiment.\nThe books worth considering may be divided into two classes — tools\nand friends. The first includes reference-books, bibliographies, etc. The\nsecond consists of literature, biography, and travels. It is necessary to\nknow the best tools among the books, just as it is in any other calling ;\nand no one will dispute the fact that as intelligent care should be exercised\nin choosing friends among books as among people.\nMuch has been said and written about the indiscriminate use of books,\nand public libraries are sometimes accused of being unmixed evils, because\nthru their offices people, and particularly young people, are doing so much\npurposeless reading. There is a ground, more or less ample, for the complaint. But where are these people, and particularly these young people,\nto learn how to use books, to grow into the habit of serious reading or\nreading for a purpose ? We must leave the older ones to the tender\nmercies of the club workers and teach the teachers how to teach the use of\nbooks to the children. Emerson recognized the lack in this direction when\nhe said that \" colleges, while they provide us with libraries, furnish no\nprofessor of books, and I think no chair is so much needed.\" Colleges\nhave more chairs now than they had in Emerson's day, but they are but\nlittle further advanced in establishing professorships of books.\nThe normal-school course should inculcate in the minds of the teachers who are going out a deeper sense of their responsibility in leading\nchildren to read thinkingly and with a purpose in mind. The teacher is\nthe next nearest the child after the mother, and, if properly trained in the\nwork, thru her he learns of many books and by her is influenced strongly\nin making them his friends. Just as children read too much and with too\nlittle reason for it, beyond the fact that they like to read, so do they like to\neat, to play, to swim, and to do a dozen things which they are not allowed to\ndo indiscriminately and at their own sweet will, until such a time as habits\nof self-restraint are established. This view of its duty of library instruction, will lead the normal school to give a place of importance to the\nstudy of children's literature. A teacher is expected to know how to judge\nof text-books, their value at certain periods of progress, or their place in\nthe study of the subjects they contain. Of equal importance is the knowledge of the value of certain books and their place in the development of\ncharacter. When the normal schools shall teach this, and to do it thoroly,\nthe point will be lost of such remarks as those made by the New York\nPost last month, when it said :\nThe normal and training schools have become so absorbed in the work of- making\nteachers that they have neglected the equally necessary work of making cultivated men\nand women. During the years when the embryo teachers should have been reading, they\nhave been studying methods. The energy that might have made them readers and thinkers has been expended in teaching them where to put straight lines neatly drawn in carmine ink.\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n979\n\nWhen students in the normal school have realized their own power\nand responsibility to teach children to read as a delight, and not as a task,\nthey will come to the study of the use of books as tools, and of the simplest parts of library economy, prepared and eager to grasp the details in\nits true relation — as an easy means to an important end.\nA book as a book is not a thing for worship ; it is only that for which\nthe book stands that is to be reverenced ; but this can come about only\nwhen the book in all its various phases and relations is understood. This\nbegins with the study of the book itself — how it is made, what constitutes a well-made book, the influence of .good paper, good type, good\nbinding, beauty of cover design and illustrations, the title-page, prefaces,\ncontents, index, etc. In a normal school where manual training is\nattempted, bookbinding is good as a handiwork, besides being practical.\nThe normal school — and colleges, too, for that matter — should give\nthoro instruction in the best general bibliographical helps. It would\nseem a part, and a very necessary part, in the instruction in these days of\nlaboratory methods that the student should be familiar at least with the\nnames of the best writers on the various subjects under discussion. The\nstudy of each subject as it comes up should develop a little bibliography\nof that subject. In the ordinary school library, and in many public\nlibraries, the list of reference-books, always expensive items, will not be\nvery long, and the normal-school students, thus familiar with the best general reference-books, will be able to tell the best sources of general information and give a reason for saying that one book is better for a particular\npurpose than another. I once saw a high-school teacher laboriously looking in the Encyclopcedia Britannica for a sketch of General Grant; and I\nshall never forget the disgust on the face of another when she had come\nto the library expecting to find an article she wanted in Poole, and found,\nas she expressed it, a long list of titles instead. Children swarm to libraries in droves to get material for their essays, without a word of previous\ninstruction as to where or how or when to obtain it. Teachers frankly\nadmit that they do not know how to instruct them in library use, since\nthey were not shown how to do the work themselves.\nIn some normal schools the power and helpfulness of the library are\nlessened by the place assigned it in the rank of its work. In the catalog\nof those schools one will see the heads of the various departments listed,\nfollowed by assistants and instructors, the librarian and janitor closing\nthe list. A live librarian will dignify the ofifice, no matter where it is\nranked, and such an arrangement is pointed out only to call attention to\nthe fact that its position in the printed list of instructors is indicative of\nthe regard in which it is held and the extent to which its work is understood by the powers that be of the^school. The librarian generally in\nsuch a case will be a keeper of books and the monitor of the study-room.\nThere will be no attempt at library instruction, or, if there is, it will be an\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "98o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nelective, more or less intermittent, taken up perhaps in the senior year.\nFrom the first the normal student should feel that the library is the neverfailing source of helpfulness, inspiration, and expansion to which he may\nturn when he will, freshman or graduate, and find that help or companionship that makes clear the path before him.\nA saving of time and effort can be made by adding to the course of\nthe study of books definite instruction as to the institutions and other\nsources which furnish aid and information of value to teachers and\nschools. This will include the scope of the various state publications\nbearing on school and library matters, the various publishing centers, the\npurpose of the Library Department of the National Educationai Association, of the Children's Section of the American Library Association, of the\nlibrary commissions, and of all agencies dealing with the dissemination of\nbooks among children particularly.\nIt is a matter of deep regret that the Executive Board of the National\nEducational Association did not take advantage of the permission given\nit by the Council last summer and have prepared and distributed the\nlittle handbook proposed by the American Library Association committee\nin co-operation with the National Educational Association, which should\npresent an outline for normal-school library work. The outline was\napproved by forty of the leading normal schools of the country ; and\nsomething of the kind must be provided before there is a definite betterment of the conditions, on account of so obvious a lack that is so little\nmet.\nThe outline is appended at the close of this paper.\nThose who are to become teachers should have instruction in what\nbooks there are in the world, how to get them, and how to use them.\nThe normal school, training the teacher to go out to teach the coming\ngeneration, is the most economic place to have this instruction given,\nand, having the training schools in connection with them, the adaptation\nof the books and work to the children can be tested and adjusted, at the\nleast cost in time and effort. How long will it be until normal schools\nsee the part that is theirs and do it as it should be done?\nOUTLINE\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMANUAL\n\n1. Bookmaking — including paper, type faces, composition, printing, and binding.\n2. Difference between books as regards their making. Importance of well-made\nbooks.\nCare of books.\n3. Book-buying — price lists, trade catalogs.\n4. Book-handling — stamping, labeling, book pockets, book plates.\n5. A lending system — book cards, students' cards, professors' cards, special privileges.\n6. The library rooms — location, size, arrangement, furniture.\n7. List of books essential in a normal -school library, reference-books especially.\n8. Elements of reference work — dictionaries, encyclopaedias, annuals, periodicals,\nindexes, and bibliographies.\n9. English and American Hterature — best handbooks, books on method.\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n981\n\n10. Books for young people — lists, prices, etc.; books and articles on the subject.\n11. Books in the schoolroom — general works for teachers, books for children, different methods of using them : for reference, for reading, for lending.\n12. Schoolroom collections, furnished by the school board or by the public library.\n13. A general library in a school building — advantages, disadvantages, character,\nmethods of use.\n14. Relations of teachers with the public libraries.\n15. Importance to teachers of collecting libraries of their own.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJames M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. — The normal\nschools, in the nature of things, cannot undertake to give special training in library work,\nccnsistent w.th their supposed function, viz., to prepare teachers for the common-school\nbranches of the state. It is legitimate, however, and proper for the normal schools to\nfurnish their students with a somewhat liberal catalog of the best bibliography on each\nof the branches in the course of study, and, so far as possible, to have these students consult these books in the library during their course in the normal school. Furthermore,\nthe normal school should familiarize each of its graduates with a course in English adapted to the different grades of pupils in elementary and secondary schools, and reading\nsupplementary to this course.\nA course of study should in English have reference to psychology. That is, each\nmaster in any style of composition contributes to a certain phase of mental development\nespecially; for ins'ance, George Eliot to the metaphysical, Butler to the logical, Dickens\nto character. Such a notion of a course of reading would give definiteness in library\nwork.\nEach normal student could be taught to consult the card catalog and the simple\nprinciples of classification on which the catalog is based.\nE. Oram Lyte, principal, State Normal School, Millersville, Pa. — It is the duty\nof the normal school to prepare teachers for the schools of the country. As far as\npossible, every boy and girl should be taught to be at home in a library, with all that\nthis means. Every child should be led to acquire a taste for good literature, and be\ntaught where to look for good literature. He should be made to feel how precious a thing\na good book is. He should be taught to love good books, how to care for them, and how\nto use them. Many of our children do not have the opportunity of acquiring these\nlessons at home, but must look to the school for them, if they are to be learned at all. It\nis evident, therefore, that some knowledge along the line here suggested should be part\nof the qualifications of every good teacher. The teacher has the right to demand of the\nnormal school a certain amount of training to prepare him to give these lessons to\nchildren.\nYou will all agree with me that among the definite lessons that may be provided for\nin a library course in a normal schjol there should be included lessons in selecting books\nfor pupils of various grades, in buying books, in caring for books, in using books, in\nteaching pupils the care and use of books, etc. These lessons include the more technical\nones of classifying and accessioning books, shelf-listing and cataloging them, etc. Lessons should also be given in the use of magazines and newspapers, of pamphlets of\nvarious kinds, and of government publications.\nEvery normal-school library should contain lists of books for school libraries costing\nfive dollars, ten dollars, twenty dollars, fifty dollars; or, what is better, the books themselves should be put in a library case, and properly arranged, for the normal-school\nstudent to examine.\nNormal-school students should be made acquainted with the travel'\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ning library. If the normal school were to make itself the center of a system of traveling\nlibraries for public schools — and this can be done — normal-school students could be\npractically taught the use of the system and would demand that the schools they teach\nafter they leave the normal school should receive the great benefits to be derived from\nsuch a system.\nIn concluding let me say that the duty of the normal school with respect to definite\nlibrary instruction is plain ; the task is an easy one ; and the public will welcome any\nsteps we may take to bring the blessings of good literature into the hearts and lives of\nthe children of the land.\nPresident J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.— The effort made\nat the State Normal School of Kansas for many years past to give training in using the\nlibrary has seemed either too much or too little : too little, when students with only enough\ntraining given to them to show that everything must be in its place have not become as\nenthusiastic as they should be about library work, and have not cared to go among our\nopen shelves, but rather to continue calling on the librarian to find their books ; too much,\nbecause asking busy students to master a self-help that they do not see will help them in a\nregion where they know of few well-organized libraries. We have thought it best to go to\nthe length of giving a course of library instruction such as is offered by the best summer\nlibrary schools. We are not pretending to do more in this line than we can do. We are\nnot going to allow our students to believe that the instruction given here can rank with\nwhat is given in the regular library schools. We believe that the public-school teacher is\nthe most effective agent for introducing good library management into our state. We have\nfew public libraries in the ordinary sense ; we have had for years provision for a library\ntax for the public schools. That money has been squandered because few teachers knew\nhow to use it to the best advantage. The normal school is the agency for reaching the\nentire state on this subject. I have seen students there from every one of the more than\none hundred counties of the state, and I want them to see work going on in our library\ncourse that will impress them with the possibilites in this direction. Our high schools\nand our small colleges are not able to secure the full time of library-school graduates, but\nthey will seek teachers who know how to manage the small library as a side matter.\nThere is no other way to make school libraries effective, and why should not the normal\nschool give teachers the training for this part of their work ? Thru such leading in the\nschool libraries, our public libraries will be brought into recognition of the value of\ntrained librarians. A normal school is like the voice of one crying in the wilderness :\n\"Prepare ye the way!\"\nMelvil Dewey, director, New York State Library, Albany, N. Y. — We have from\nthe beginning said that it is not worth while to spend too much time with the old people,\nfor we might as well try to work plaster of paris after it is stiff as to try to shape the\nreading habits of those above thirty. Nothing is comparable with sending out a boy or\ngirl with a taste for good reading. If he will read day by day thru life, he is doing the\nbest thing. The majority of parents cannot train the children in this way; it is the work\nof the teachers. We have only recently gone to the normal school for this help. Education is in two halves, the home and the school. Tho both should go along together, we\nshould also drive them tandem.\nWe in the libraries get those who choose to come. No one ever proposes a compulsory library attendance. You in the school must give a taste for the library, or the\nchildren will never come to the library. I do not believe anyone thinks the normal school\nshould take the place of the library, but it should teach the use of the library by its own\npi>pils, who are preparing themselves for teachers ; and, secondly, it should train these\nstudents how to take care of their private libraries. Teach them how to handle wisely\ntheir own libraries, and they will be able to teach others to use books wisely.\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n983\n\nTeachers are the best men and women to serve on library boards, and the normal\nschools should train students in this direction also. It is necessary to impress upon them\nwhat the scope and the functions of the public library are. They should be shown that a\npile of books is no more a library than a heap of bricks is a building. Study clubs, traveling libraries, and traveling pictures, all center around the library, and are for use at\nhome as well as in school. If we can impress their use on every teacher, we have done\nthe greatest possible service. In my own time at Amherst, just across in Mount Holyoke\nwas a turning of the motto, \"not to be ministered unto, but to minister,\" into the saying,\n\"not to be ministers, but ministers' wives.\" You are training students not to be librarians, but to be the librarians' most efficient allies.\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 8, 1903\n\nThe department met in the First Baptist Church at 9 : 30 A. M., and was called to\norder by President Edward E. Allen.\nThe following program was carried out :\nPresident's Address — Edward E. Allen, principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of\nthe Blind, Overbrook, Pa.\nTopic I : \" The Influence of the Study of the Unusual Child upon the Teaching of the Usual\" — Frank\nH. Hall, ex -superintendent of the Institution for the Education of the Blind, Jacksonville, 111.; George E.\nJohnson, dean of the Lower School, University School, Cleveland, O.\nDiscussion — Francis Burke Brandt, professor of pedagogy, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. ;\nCharles F. F. Campbell, London, England.\nTopic II : \" Should the Scope of the Public-School System Be Broadened to Take in All Children Capable of Education ? If so, How Should This Be Done?\" — Mary C. Greene, ex-superintendent of special\nclasses for the blind in the board schools, London, England.\nDiscussion — Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical education, Columbia University, New York\ncity; Ellen Le Garde, director of physical training, including that of backward children, public schools,\nProvidence, R. I.; John T. Prince, agent of Massachusetts Board of Education; Walter E. Fernald, M.D.,\nsuperintendent of Massachusetts School for the Feeble- Minded, Waverly, Mass.; Mr. B. Pickman Mann,\nWashington, D. C.\n\nThe president appointed as committee on nominations :\nA. L. E. Crouter.\n\nF. H. Hall.\n\nE. A. Fay.\nG. E. Johnson.\nW. E. Fernald.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July 10\n\nThe department met at 9 : 30 A. M., President Allen in the chair.\nThe following program was presented :\nTopic III : \" How Can the Term * Charitable' Be Justly Applied to the Education of Any Children ?\"\n— Edward A. Fay, vice-president of Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C., editor of American Annals\nof the Deaf.\nDiscussion by William B. Wait, principal of New York Institution for the Blind, New York city.\nTopic IV: \"What Teachers Need to Know about Sense Defects and Impediments : Messages Chiefly\nfrom Specialists in Medicine\"— Clarence J. Blake, M.D., professor of otology. Harvard Medical School,\nBoston, Mass.; Myles Standish, M.D., instructor of ophthalmology. Harvard Medical School, Boston,\nMass.; Allen Greenwood, M.D., ophthalmic surgeon, Boston City Hospital; Eugene A. Crockett, M.D.,\nassistant in otology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass.; Mrs. E. J. Ellery Thorpe, specialist on\nspeech defects, Newton Centre, Mass,\nTopic V: Report of committee on statistics relative to children in the public schools of the United\nStates who need special methods of instruction.\n\nThe president appointed the following committee to continue the investigation into\nthe number and conditions of pupils having defective faculties who attend the public\nschools, and to report at the next meeting of the department :\nF. W. Booth, Mount Airy, Pa., Chairman.\nPercival Hall, Washington, D. C.\nClarence J. Blake, M.D., Boston, Mass.\n\n^. H. Burritt, Batavia, N. Y.\nF. Parke Lewis, M.D., Buffalo, N. Y,\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "9^6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nThe following minute was presented by Dr. E. A. Fay, and adopted :\nThe Department of Special Education of the National Educational Association desires by this minute to\nexpress its high appreciation of the character and services of its late member and former president, Dr.\nJoseph Claybaugh Gordon, who died April 12, 1903. Dr. Gordon was active in the meeting of the Round\nTable of Teachers of the Deaf, held in connection with the meeting of the Association in Milwaukee in 1897\nwhich resulted in the establishment of this department. He was elected the first president of the department,\ntook a prominent part in all its meetings, and was a strong believer in the possibilities of its usefulness.\nIn his death we mourn the loss of one whose work as teacher, superintendent, writer, and speaker gave\nhim a high place in our ranks, while his amiable disposition, attractive personality, and genuine friendship\nwon our affection and esteem. We offer to his bereaved wife and children the assurance of our sincere and\nrespectful sympathy.\n\nOfficers were elected for the ensuing year, as follows :\nPresident — J. M. Jones, Columbus, O.\nVice-President — F. W. Booth, Mount Airy, Pa.\nSecretary— EXxzia^atCa. Van Adestine, Detroit, Mich.\n\nUpon motion, the department adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nSarah Fuller, Secretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENTS\nEDWARD\n\nE.\n\nALLEN,\nTHE\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF\nOF\n\nTHE\nTHE\n\nADDRESS\nPENNSYLVANIA\nBLIND,\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nOVERBROOK,\n\nFOR\n\nPA.\n\nWhen President Eliot last winter summoned the presidents of the\ndepartments of the National Educational Association to meet him in Boston, he stated that he wished each department to limit itself, if practicable,\nto four topics to be treated in two papers and four discussions each. He\nthen called upon each president in turn for the subjects he wished to\nhave discussed in his department. My turn came last. I then said that\nevery topic or subject that_had been mentioned by the presidents of the\nfifteen other departments had definite relation to some phase of our special\nwork of educating and training children requiring, in some part of their\nschooling, special means of instruction. I brought forward about twenty\ntopics suggested by our own work, every one of which could with just as\nmuch propriety be discussed in one or another of the other departments\nof the Association, thus showing that at one point or another our special\nwork not merely touches their work, but is their work, as theirs is ours.\nNow, if this be true, what need is there for a department of special\neducation ? My answer is, first, that if the work of teaching and training\nchildren hampered by defective faculties not merely presents questions of\ninterest to general teachers, but can also help them solve certain difhcult\nproblems in their own work, then it is imperative that the best means be\nhad for bringing these matters into full and proper notice, and neither a\ngood nor a proper place can be found for them in departments where\nhosts of questions of much moment would certainly crowd out our ques-\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nOF THE\n\nUNUSUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n9S7\n\ntions; and, secondly, that any instrumentality, such as our department\nnow is, which will offer to our special teachers a program sufficiently\nattractive to bring together from twenty to forty of them, and put them\nin more or less close touch with many thousand other teachers at a great\nconvention like this one, is helpful and broadening to them, and has\nsufficient reason for being.\nAgainst this second position it is sometimes urged that teachers of\nspecial classes cannot be expected to attend every year these conventions\nin the various sections of this great country. That is very true. But to\nmy mind the very fact that the meetings are held so often and in such\ndifferent parts of the land makes our departmental meetings all the more\nuseful; for they thus reach different teachers each year, and so have a\nwider influence than if they reached the same ones over and over again.\nThe objects of this department are identical with those of any other\ndepartment of the National Educational Association ; viz., to afford an\nadequate opportunity for the discussion of topics relating to one special\nfield of work, but interesting and instructive to all teachers; and to\nprovide a means of affiliating this special work with general education.\nAs we are gathered here, we represent the education of children deficient\nin three distinct ways. The teachers of each one of these three kinds of\nchildren have different ways of gaining their ends, and have their meetings\nwhere these may be discussed with profit.\nAt these meetings of the National Educational Association there should\nbe no intolerance, no exploiting of specialties, but the discussion of general subjects in the spirit of absolute good fellowship. The charitable\nside of our work is so patent to the outside public that the educational\nside is largely lost sight of. Here is a chance to emphasize this more\nimportant side of our work. If this department is to be a success, it seems\nto me that it must be conducted on the broadest possible lines.\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nFRANK\n\nOF THE\nSTUDY\nOF THE\nUNUSUAL\nUPON THE TEACHING\nOF THE USUAL\n\nH. HALL, EX-SUPERINTENDENT\nOF THE\nINSTITUTION\nTEACHING\nOF THE\nBLIND, AURORA, ILL.\n\nCHILD.\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nThe \"unusual child\" can be found in any community or in any\ngroup of half a dozen children. It may be true, as some have claimed,\nthat there is no \"usual child,\" no \"average child.\" Each is in some\nimportant respect unlike every other. ^ The study of any one of these is,\nof course, helpful in the teaching of any other. But there are classes of\nunusual children, made so by a common deprivation, whose study may\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "988\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nbecome a source of unmeasured helpfulness in the teaching of normal\nchildren.\nI refer to the blind, the deaf, and the deaf-blind.\nThe influence of the study of such children upon the teaching of the\nusual child has thus far been quite unimportant, for the reason that little\nattention has been given to this phase of educational research. We have\nrelegated the teaching of these classes to specialists of supposed unusual skill\nand exceptional insight. Their work has been regarded as quite unlike\nthat of the teacher of normal pupils and fraught with untold difficulties.\nThese specialists have sometimes received undue praise for what they have\naccomplished. This is especially true of teachers of the blind. That which\nhas happened as a result of enforced narrowness and consequent concentration has too often been attributed to the marvelous skill of the expert\nteacher. A sympathetic and admiring public has wasted much breath in\nsuch expressions as \"wonderful,\" \"marvelous,\" \"astonishing beyond\nmeasure,\" without in the least degree realizing that that for which these\npeople are praised, is the natural result of a narrowness on the part of\ntheir pupils which is not apparent to the casual observer.\nIt is certainly time for the student of educational psychology to begin\na systematic study of the blind, the deaf, and the deaf-blind, with the\nhope of finding what may prove helpful to the teachers of normal pupils.\nPermit me to suggest a line of research that seems to give promise of valuable results; and pardon me if I yield to the temptation to predict the\noutcome of such investigation, coming to me, as it does, after many years\nof association with large numbers of blind people, some opportunity to\nobserve the deaf, and the privilege of making a most careful study of two\ndeaf-blind children.\nThe necessity of a sense-basis in the educational process is conceded\nby all. It is also well understood that thought does not deal mainly with\nthings of sense, but first with the images of these and then with imaginative creations. Hence \"emancipation from bondage to the things of\nsense \" is a necessary concomitant of sense-training. It is the \"emancipation\" that is the difficult step in the educative process. Hence in the\ntraining of the usual child there may be greater danger of devoting too\nmuch time to sense-perception than too little.\nWith the normal child the securing of a sense basis involves the action\nand interaction mainly of three senses — feeling, hearing, seeing. Just\nhow much each of these contributes to the necessary working sense-basis\nconstitutes thus far an undetermined and perhaps indeterminate problem.\nBut here, as elsewhere in human indeterminates, approximation is doubtless possible.\nA great side light upon this problem may come thru the study of the\nunusual child. If one desires to know what seeing contributes to a desirable working sense-basis, in no other way can one hope to accomplish so\nmuch as by a comparison of children educated in darkness with the usual\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nOF THE\n\nUNUSUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n989\n\nchild. If one would know what hearing contributes, in no other way can\none hope to accomplish so much as by comparing children educated in\nsilence with the normal child. The comparision of the deaf with the blind\nfurnishes another invaluable side light, while what has been accomplished\nwith the deaf-blind invites the most careful and thoro research.\nLet the following questions be answered by those who have had opportunity for knowledge upon this subject :\n1. Are the congenitally blind more imaginative than the congenitally deaf?\n2. Are the congenitally blind more imaginative than normal people ?\n3. Are the congenitally deaf less imaginative than normal people ?\n4. Are the congenitally blind more imaginative than those who have lost their sight\nafter six years of age ?\n5. Are the congenitally deaf less imaginative than those whose hearing became\nimpaired after they were six years of age ?\n6. Do the congenitally blind spend less time in sense-perception thau normal\npeople ?\n7. Do the congenitally deaf spend more time in \"reveling in the endless panorama\nof sense-perception \" than normal people ?\n8. Do the congenitally blind image, and think — see the relation of images in any\nfield with which they are familiar — more quickly and easily than normal people?\n9. Do the congenitally deaf image and think — see the relation of images in any\nfield with which they are familiar — less quickly and easily than normal people ?\n10. Is the sense-perception basis for the mental operations of the congenitally blind\nnarrower than the sense-perception basis of normal people ?\n11. Is the sense-perception basis for the mental operations of the congenitally deaf\nas broad and filled with a greater number of details than the sense-perception basis of\nnormal people ?\n12. Are the deaf handicapped mainly in their thinking power — their power to image\nand see relation ?\n13. Are the blind handicapped mainly in their earning power — their power to use\nthe results of their thinking in a way that will be helpful to other people ?\n14. Can the blind, if provided with the necessary book equipment, do the greater\npart of high-school work and of college work more easily by far than the deaf and almost\nas easily as normal people ?\n15. Can the deaf, if properly trained, contribute to the general good in much larger\nmeasure and in a greater variety of ways than the blind and almost as easily as normal\npeople ?\n\nIf, after due investigation, the foregoing questions are all answered in\nthe affirmative, as I believe they must be, it will be apparent —\n1. That while sense-perception gives a necessary thought-basis, within certain limits\nthought-power seems to be in inverse ratio to the amount of sense-perception.\n2. That, while a large amount of sense-perception tends to dull the edge of the\nthought-power, it is not incompatible with good earning power ; often, indeed, contributes\nto it.\n3. That in the education of the blind a main effort should be to provide a broader\nsense-perception basis.\n4. That in the education of the deaf a main effort should be to train in imaging and\nseeing relations.\n5. That in the education of the usual child it is of the utmost importance that a proper\nbalance be maintained between these two kinds of mental exercise.\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "99°\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nEducated blind people have in a large measure what the world calls\nculture. They can think and enjoy many of the products of art and of\ncivilization. Some of them have \" poise, serenity, and contemplative\ndelight.\" They are quite at home in literature, history, and music. If\nthe main business of life were enjoyment of the intellectual and spiritual\ntype, they would be well equipped. But, with the exception of the few,\nthe very few, who are especially gifted, they find almost insurmountable\nobstacles in their efforts to take care of themselves ; to provide for themselves food, clothing, shelter, books, musical instruments, and the thousand\nand one material things that are necessary to the enjoyments of the common life and of the higher life. The very fact that they have spent less\ntime with the things of sense gives more time for the things of the intellect, the heart, and the spirit. If the educatiqn of blind people is mainly\na matter of mental acquisition and personal enjoyment, as it sometimes\nis, their earning power is thereby diminished, and they go out into the\nworld to be provided for, not by people who are grateful for valuable\nservices performed, but by a more or less disguised charity at the hands of\na spasmodically sympathetic public. The blind are handicapped by their\ndefect in their power to do for others, and, sometimes by their education,\nin their disposition to do.\nEducated deaf people are usually self-supporting. In many occupations their defect is not a serious handicap. In scholarship they are, as a\nclass, far below the blind. In power and disposition to earn, they are the\nsuperiors of the blind. A colony of deaf people would succeed in caring\nfor each other and for themselves much better than a colony of blind\npeople. The deaf would have less poetry, but more bread and butter;\nfewer artists, but a greater number of useful artisans. The two classes\nmight get along very well together, if the deaf would consent to do the\nphysical labor for the community, and the blind attend to the intellectual\nand spiritual needs. ''The ear,\" it is said, \"is the avenue to the heart;\"\nbut eye and hand are necessary in making provision for the stomach.\nThe foregoing thoughts seem to point to conclusions which ought to\ninfluence and modify the work of the teacher of the \" usual child.\" Too\nmuch time devoted to sense-perception, and too little time devoted to\nimaging and seeing the relations of mental images, will make the usual\nchild too much like the deaf child — quick to see with the natural eye,\nand perhaps well able to take care of himself and to provide for his own\nphysical necessities, but not profoundly thoughtful, not able to see quickly\nwith the mind's eye, to image and see the relations of things not present to\nthe senses, hence incapable of the higher appreciations and enjoyments.\nToo little time devoted to sense-perception in the teaching of the usual\nchild may result in making him like the blind, narrow — he may think\nhimself very broad because of his familiarity with literature and history\nand bookish science, yet narrow and profound — but incapable of using his\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department J\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNUSUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n99 1\n\nknowledge for the good of other people, hence incapable of earning\nenough to provide for his own physical wants and for such material necessities as make the higher intellectual life desirable and possible.\nThe deaf, the blind, and the deaf-blind are unsymraetrical in their\ndevelopment. It should be the care of the teacher of the usual child to\navoid the anomalous results that necessarily come from growth in darkness\nor in silence. To this end a proper balance must be maintained, particularly in the first years of school, between eye-training and ear-training.\nIn the early life of the normal child the eye and the hand give the\nchief part of the sense-basis necessary for thought. At this time of life\nthe ear is the principal instrument for training the imaginative faculty.\nIf these two kinds of training are mutually well balanced, the result will\nbe a symmetry that can be expressed in terms of efficiency (and this is the\nonly desirable symmetry). Increase the eye-training beyond the normal\namount, and the result may be a moderate degree of efficiency on the\nmaterial side of life, with serious and irreparable loss on the spiritual and\nintellectual side. Increase the ear-training, the training in responding to\near-symbols (and later to eye-symbols), beyond the normal amount, and\nthe result may be inefficient intellectuality — particularly inefficient so far\nas peformance that will be useful to other people is concerned.\nI have suggested what seems to me to be a most important lesson for\nthe teacher of the usual child that comes to me from a study of the unusual child. It is quite possible that I am in error ; that I have generalized on in sufficient or imaginative data. Be this as it may, I cannot be\nwrong in the assumption that the unusual child furnishes an unusual\nopportunity for most valuable psychological and pedagogical research.\nIn no other way can we be made to realize so fully the educative\nimportance of sight as by a careful study of the blind. In no other way\ncan we be made to realize so fully the educative importance of hearing as\nby a careful study of the deaf. It is believed that light will yet come out\nof the darkness and voices out of the silence that will help to illuminate\nand make clearer and plainer the path of the teacher of the usual child.\nThere is great work for Department XVI on the lines herein indicated.\nNeither can this be done by any one class of specialists, nor by combination of all classes that have specialized in the education of abnormal or\nsubnormal children. But there should be associated with those who deal\nchiefly with subnormal mentality, others who are mainly interested in the\nbroader and more important problem of determining educative values in\nthe work of training normal pupils.\nLet the evidence be brought forward and sifted, and the data collected\nfor such generalization as may be helpful to all who are engaged in the\ngreat work of teaching, whether their^upils are normal, abnormal, or subnormal ;whether they deal with the usual child or with the unusual child.\nThe help of all is necessary, and the results will be helpful to all.\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "992\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nII\nGEORGE\n\nE. JOHNSON,\n\nDEAN\n\nOF\n\nTHE\nLOWER\nSCHOOL,\nCLEVELAND, O.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWhen Dr. Hughlings Jackson formulated his \"three-level\" theory of\nthe nervous system, and applied it successfully in the diagnosis of epilepsis and mental diseases, he made a valuable contribution to surgery\nand the knowledge of the physical causes of mental disorders, and also to\npsychology and education. The fact that the control of certain bodily\nmovements and the seat of certain mental operations lie in definite\nregions of the brain, and that different areas of the brain come into complete functioning at different ages, is as applicable in education as in\nsurgery.\nWhat pathology has done for psychology, the study of unusual children can do for the understanding of the normal child. In the study of\ndefectives we examine a section of the mind. Here mental defects are\nwritten in the large. Since knowledge of the external world comes\nmainly thru the three avenues of sight, hearing, and touch, by a process\nof subtraction we see what it is that the mind receives thru these avenues,\nand we understand more clearly the relations of sight, hearing, and touch\nin instruction and the acquisition of knowledge, and are enabled better to\nselect and apply methods in school work.\nAgain, \"evolution\" and \"physiological psychology\" are the key-words\nto method in the new education. To the teachers of defectives we are\nmost indebted for the theory and practice of physiological education,\ndictated first by Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, and first successfully\npracticed by Periere, De I'Epee, Itard, and Seguin. To Periere we are\nindebted for the first formulation of the physiological method. He not\nonly conceived the idea of substituting one sense for another, but also\nsaw the physiological significance of sense-training. This is the first\ngreat contribution of the student of the unusual child to the teacher of\nthe usual.\nAnd I shall be pardoned for saying here that the world hardly yet\nknows its indebtedness to that man, by birth a Frenchman, by adoption\nan American, who has inspired hundreds of teachers of defectives by his\nzeal, devotion, and genius in teaching the idiotic eye to see and an idiotic\nhand to do — that man who more clearly than any other has set forth the\nneed and the value of physiological education, Dr. Edward Seguin.\nBecause most so-called defectives are to a large extent normal, and\nmost normal children approach in some degree or particular some type\nof the unusual child, we find great value in the study of defectives. But\nwe are to keep in mind today particularly the three great classes of unusual children — the deaf, the blind, and the feeble-minded.\nWe have dropped the old idea of a child-mind as a weaker mind than\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nOF THE\n\nUNUSUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n993\n\nthat of the adult, but altogether like it. We have learned that it is an\norganism passing rapidly thru stages of evolution — stages not as marked\nas those of the race in its progress by evolution, but distinct enough\nto serve as practical guides in many questions in education. For this\nreason, the causes which interfere with or modify the natural development of this organism are of great interest to us as showing more clearly\nthe nature and mode of development of the perfectly healthy organism.\nNow, what do we find peculiar in the manifestations and development\nof character and mind in an organism which has no contact with the\nexternal world thru sound ? Many writers on the deaf claim that they\nare more apt than hearing jchildren to be selfish, suspicious, 'clannish,\nuntruthful, less emotional, less sympathetic; in short, less susceptible to\nsocial and altruistic ideals. They live by themselves and for themselves.\nEarly writers, like De I'Ep^e and Sicard, placed the uneducated deaf\nintellectually in the class of idiots. Today many teachers of the deaf\nclaim that the deaf are not a distinct class, asserting that they present the\nsame individual variations as the normal.\nI fear it would be presumptuous in me to attempt to decide between\nthese conflicting statements. Yet I can but believe that the deaf do, as a\nclass, present some differences from the normal, or at least tendencies to\nclass peculiarities. To be sure, just to the extent that the education\nof the deaf is perfected and they are enabled to mingle in the world\nwith other people, just to that extent the deaf will approach the normal. Granted that the soul-germ of the deaf child comes as fresh\nand pure from the hand of God as that of the hearing child, yet it is a\nvery different world he lives in. Character and mind axe the resultant of\ntwo forces — heredity and environment. Heredity may be the same, but\nthe environment is very different, and the resultants cannot be the same.\nI believe that the thunderings and whisperings of nature, that voice and\nspeech, that the music of nature and the symphonies of the masters, have\nexerted great influence in the development of the human race and of the\nindividual. There is no other means of expression of the emotions of\nlove and sympathy to compare with the human voice. It is not strange\nthat the man who never heard the song of a bird, who never fell\nasleep at the lullaby .of a mother, who never heard the story of another's\nlove, or listened to a sob of a bleeding heart, should lack fullness of\nsympathy anci devotion. I shall claim, then, that the great fundamental\nemotions of the soul — love and sympathy — which lead to our modern\nideals of altruism and the brotherhood of man, are less easily developed\nin the deaf than in the hearing. This is a second important influence\nlesson which the study of the unusual child has for the teacher of the\nusual. The ear is of mighty import^ce in the development of the sensibilities. And the development and training of the sensibilities in its\nbearing upon character is one of the most important, but neglected, offices\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nof our public schools. The teacher of normal children too often neglects\nthe opportunities of the voice and the ear.\nLack of contact with the external world thru the ear seems also to\nhave a characteristic intellectual effect. But the records of biography\nseem to show a decided intellectual superiority of the blind over the deaf.\nSince the eye is the most important sense-organ, being the medium of\nthe great majority of all our sense-impressions, and the organ most relied\nupon in the education of normal children, this fact seems rather startling.\nDoubtless whatever intellectual inferiority the deaf may have is due\nlargely to deficiency in language power. Observe that language is the\n\"vehicle of thought\" and is essential to the development of a high\ndegree of intelligence. Language is at once the means and the stimulus\nto accurate thinking. The deaf receive more sense-impressions than the\nblind, but make less of them. They have not, particularly during the\nearly years, a convenient medium for thought and reflection. The blind\nhave fewer sense-impressions, but make more of them. They are thrown\nback upon reflection.\nThese facts emphasize, in the teaching of normal children, the value\nof language in school work — not formal language study, but language as\nthe means for thought and its expression. And the vast superiority of\nthe young blind but hearing child over the deaf child in language\npower — having, it is even asserted, at the age of eight a greater command of language than the congenitally deaf child ever can have —\nproves that the ear is the natural organ for the acquisition of language.\nIn our public schools language study has very generally miscarried. In\nthe case of young children, it has had too much to do with formal language study, instead of the development of power and delight in thought\nand expression of thought. There should be more oral language work\nand less written language work with little children.\nThis importance of the ear in acquiring language is evidence enough\nthat normal children should begin foreign languages thru the ear rather\nthan thru the eye. On the other hand, it is a pointed question whether\nthe study of the dead languages — which in most cases is not the acquisition of language, in the real sense, at all, but the study of the grammar\nof language — should not come later rather than earlier in the school\ncourse, and during the reflective period rather than the sensory.\nMr. William B. Wait has made a most interesting and suggestive study\nin \"comparative education\" at the New York Institution for the Blind.\nFor a period of nine years the results of the Regents' examinations,\naccording to a wholly impartial rating, have shown a superiority in\ngeneral scholarship of the blind pupils over the normal pupils of other\nschools. How shall we account for this? Certainly we do not think it\nis an intellectual advantage to lose one's sight, as did the ancient philosopher Democritus, who inflicted blindness upon himself that he might the\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNUSUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n995\n\nmore perfectly give himself up to reflection. No doubt it is partly due to\nsuperior teaching. The teachers of defectives are our best teachers,\nunquestionably. But there is more yet to be explained. Mr. Hall has\njust told us that the blind child digests his mental pabulum more perfectly than the seeing child. No doubt we have often, in our public\nschools, sacrificed depth to breadth. But I believe there is one element\nmore to be taken into account in this matter, and Mr. Wait points it out.\nIn our teaching of the young normal child we are relying too much upon\nthe eye. And we are doing this at the very age when the ear should be\npredominant in instruction. In primary school work, the office of the\neye, as compared to the ear, is accessory; of the ear, fundamental.\nThe foregoing facts seem to point clearly to the value of the ear in the\ntraining of the sensibilities, to the fact that the ear is the natural organ\nfor the acquisition of language, and to the need of a convenient medium\nof expression and reflection in the development of a high degree of intelligence. Agrave doubt arises as to whether there is not an excessive use\nof the eye in the training of normal children ; whether we have not\nswung too far away from the use of the ear for the good of the child's\nintellect and the child's soul. And the question also arises as to whether\nthe young deaf child should not be given every encouragement and aid\nin acquiring ability to express thought in whatsoever way. Since language\nis so important in the development of the intellect, it seems a great mistake to shut the flood gates of expression of the little deaf child in whatsoever direction nature may dictate them to open.\nIn the preparation of this paper I sent out questionnaires to teachers\nof the deaf and the blind. The returns were insufficient to warrant generalization, but they seemed to be mostly corroborative of what I have\nclaimed here. A few other points brought out may be of interest and\nworth inserting without discussion. The claim of evolutionists that\ncertain definite periods are most favorable for the development of certain\npowers seemed in general corroborated. The difficulties of education not\nonly steadily increased with advancing age, but the difficulties in certain\ndirections seemed to be conspicuous after certain ages. The molding of\nbodily habits and the correction of mannerisms are very difficult after the\nage of eight or nine. Dullness of touch is confirmed after fifteen or\nsixteen. The vocal organs of the deaf become stiffened before the end of\nthe early teens. Imitation and perception in the deaf are less active after\nthe age of eight. Interest in elementary work, so easy to arouse in the\nyoung deaf child, cannot be awakened after the age of ten or eleven, and\napathy of mind sets in by the age of fifteen or sixteen. The general testimony was that the deaf learn to read with much more difficulty than the\nnormal, but the blind learn as rapidly; that the deaf are better spellers\nthan the blind or the normal; that the blind are more accurate in arithtiietic, the deaf less so ; that the blind remember better than the normal,\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthe deaf not so well ; that the blind reason as well as, if not better than,\nthe normal, the deaf do not ; that the blind are more emotional, and the\ndeaf less emotional, than the normal.\nThe study of feeble-minded children presents entirely new conditions.\nThe difficulty here is one of centralization rather than one of avenues of\napproach. The whole organism of the feeble-minded is involved in the\ndifficulty ; not any particular part, as in the case of the deaf or the blind.\nHence the teaching of the feeble-minded has necessarily been reduced to\nlowest terms. The teacher of the feeble-minded has to do with the very\nbeginnings of mind. All of the avenues of approach are more or less\nclosed. All must be opened. The very senses have to be taught before\nthe child can be taught. The physiological method becomes, not merely\nan essential, but a necessity. All that is done must be done in accord\nwith established facts of evolution and in harmony with the laws of physiology. Herein is the great influence that the study of the feeble-minded\nis exerting upon the teaching of the usual child.\nOne could not begin to give here even an outline of the lessons a\nteacher of normal children might gather from the physiological method —\nthe object-lessons, use of play, training of the senses, attention to\nhygiene, and the study of the ind.ividual, displayed in the education of\nthe feeble-minded. These things have been carried to a greater degree\nof perfection in schools for unusual children than elsewhere. It would be\nimpossible to state how much the schools for defectives have advanced\nthe cause of the kindergarten in this country. In these schools we find a\nhigher and truer development, I believe, of kindergarten principles than\nelsewhere. Light is coming to the teachers of all children from the\nschools of these unfortunate, yet fortunate, children.\nThe study of the unusual child, then, has put the individual child in\nour midst; has made for sympathy; has disclosed the seat of the difficulty, showing that supposed stupidity was often the result of defect of\neye or ear ; has emphasized the value of play arid spontaneity in education ;has helped to fix the relative importance of the several senses in\neducation ; has emphasized the importance of sense-training ; has practically created the physiological method ; has made clearer the application\nof evolution to education ; has kept in the foreground the social object of\neducation, rendering the helpless helpful members of society. The\nschools for unusual children present the best object-lessons available to\nthe teacher of normal children.\nDISCUSSION\nDr. Francis Burke Bra^^dt, professor of pedagogy, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa.— Speaking from the point of view of the training of the normal child, I\nbelieve that the study of the unusual child has already produced an influence upon the\nteaching of the usual child that is illuminating, instructive, and inspiring.\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNUSUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n997\n\nIn the first place, such study has demonstrated the almost infinite possibilities of education. Sometimes in our public schools we are in danger of turning away from children\nbecause they are dull or stupid or incapable of being taught. But one Laura Bridgman\nand one Helen Keller have taught us, more than all our child-study investigations put\ntogether, that there is an avenue to every soul. Such cases have taught, too, the larger\nlessons that the twentieth century must regret the nineteenth-century dictum of the survival of the fit, to put in its place the higher principles of fitting to survive.\nIn the second place, such study has demonstrated the supertor effectiveness of special\nmethods and special teachers to accomplish ends which meet the individual needs of the\nchild. In connection with this subject such studies as Superintendent Hall's point out the\nrelative value of these senses, as well as the importance of ultimate emancipation from\nthe senses, together with the necessity of training for some form of social service, that\nall this can be of incalculable worth in revising our methods in handling the normal child.\nAgain, such study has been highly illuminating as to the importance of right conditions in training a child. The favorable conditions which prevail in many institutions for\nthe special training of special children, in the form of the fewness of pupils assigned to\nteachers, the assignment of special subjects to teachers, the adequacy and adaptability of\nequipment, and the respect, sympathy, and resources of trustees, have important lessons\nfor those in authority who administer the training of the normal child.\nSummed up, the study and training of the usual child have rendered the greatest\nservice to the elevation of the individual and the progress of humanity, to the extent that\nit shows that there is no depth scarcely of physical, intellectual, and moral defect on the\npart of the individual which the impulse of Christian motive, the intelligence of modern\nscience, and the energy of civilized society combined cannot reach.\nCharles F. F. Campbell, former inspector of the Royal Normal College and\nAcademy of Music for the Blind, London, England. — The unusual child in this discussion\nis the blind child. With the blind it is necessary to begin at once to prepare for remunerative occupation. The normal child needs a similar system and has greater opportunity,\nhaving a larger field open to him. That he needs immediate training for all possible ends,\nnot for higher education only, as at present given, is shown by the figures in the state\nschool reports. Only an extreme minority continue higher education after the high\nschool; indeed, a large percentage of grammar-school pupils do not enter the high\nschool.\nExample of a pupil at the Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the Blind,\nLondon, England : With a blind child there, it is recognized at once that there is to be a\nstruggle for a livelihood. The child starts his training with the assumption that he may\nultimately go to Oxford or Cambridge, to be possibly a lawyer or a minister. Before ten\nyears of age, however, he is started in music, for that profession offers the greatest opportunities for the blind. Thus the possibility of failure in one direction is provided for in\nanother. Before the child is fourteen years of age it is generally clear whether a legal,\nministerial, or musical profession is advisable ; but all this time he has had the best of\nmanual training, so that, if these more advanced mental professions do not promise, his\nattention is concentrated upon a calling requiring manual dexterity. Thus every contingency has been provided for and in ample season.\nApplication of this to the seeing child : The large majority, owing to family circumstances, must go to work in some factory or store by fourteen years of age. Since many\nmust work thus early, the public schools should provide preparation for this, as well as for\nhigher education. Clear thinking is needed in the best work, even of manual labor; for\nit is not human machines that are required, but artisans. If public schools offered such\ncommercial and technical training, parents wc%ld strive to maintain their children longer\nin school, to avail themselves of an education having so practical a value.\nThe ideal should be held out to the pupils that because they cannot go to college a\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "998\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ngreat and useful career is not closed to them, but rather, by careful application to some\ncongenial art or craft, they may become designers and creators. The supreme end of\neducation will thus be to make them better citizens and, as President Eliot has said, more\nable to enjoy life.\n\nSHOULD THE SCOPE OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM\nBE BROADENED SO AS TO TAKE IN ALL CHILDREN\nCAPABLE OF EDUCATION? IF SO, HOW SHOULD THIS\nBE DONE?\nMARY\n\nC. GREENE, EX-SUPERINTENDENT OF SPECIAL CLASSES FOR\nIN THE BOARD\nSCHOOLS, LONDON, ENGLAND\n\nTHE\n\nBLIND\n\nI will answer the question in the topic of this paper by saying : Yes\nwith qualifications which may or may not be applicable under existing\nconditions.\nI assume that the public-school system implies residence at home, or\nunder home conditions, with day attendance at a school. It does now\nprovide for all children excepting cripples, epileptics, the mentally deficient, deaf-mutes, and the blind. Can all these unfortunate classes, or\ncan any among them, obtain suitable education and training under the\npublic-school system ? Is it to the advantage (a) of the normal children,\n(f) of the defectives, that this should be undertaken ? The number of\ndefective children whose parents can provide satisfactory training in their\nown homes is so small that these need not come into the discussion —\naltho,with every advantage that money can secure, something is probably\nlost under wholly private instruction.\nNo argument is required to show that the children embraced in these\nfive groups cannot be required to attend the ordinary schools, in continuous association with normal children, except to the disadvantage of all\nconcerned. The cripple would suffer in body ; the epileptic and the weakminded would be unable to keep pace with their school-fellows, or would\nbe a drag upon their progress ; the deaf would profit hardly at all ; the\nblind only by the spoken word. Since, then, they cannot be taught as\nunits of the ordinary school, the customary, almost universal, practice is to\nprovide for them in large boarding homes, equipped with everything\nneeded for general care, and also for such elementary, higher, and technical training as may be adapted to the special needs of the several groups\nunder consideration. The defective child is placed in such a boarding\nhome for a term of years, usually including the entire period of childhood and youth, and extending into early manhood and womanhood, at\nthe end of which period he is returned to his home and friends. In the\nbest examples of such institutions, health, manners, morals, training of\nhand and brain, are all wisely and carefully looked after ; and, in contrast\nwith the life of a defective child in many families, the sympathetic visitor,\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHO ULD SCOPE\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBE BROADENED\n\n?\n\n999\n\nnoting the well-clothed, well-cared-for little ones, can but regard institution life as the ideal for all such unfortunates.\nSuch conclusions may, however, be qualified by two considerations,\ndeduced from long experience. First, the practical training of home\nlife, which defective children in common with normal children need, is\nmissed in an institution. It is true that valuable lessons in order and\nregularity are learned, and the motto \"together,\" so well worth impressing, is deeply impressed upon them. Some such experience is useful to\nall. But these children are taken from home at a very early age. From\nthat moment every need is supplied. Food and clothing, schooling, and\ncare come to them as freely, as naturally, as the air they breathe. There is\nno question of cost — of sparing or saving. No committee of ways and\nmeans deliberates in their presence, as members of a family talk together\nof what can, or cannot, be afforded. At home there may be anxiety,\nstruggle, hard work, privation. Of all this the little exile knows nothing.\nSo pass the years till the youth leaves school. The institution, the artificial home, is left behind, and the youth comes forth to make use, or no\nuse, of what he has learned in school and shop, with such help as friends\nor strangers can give. He must face life — and of life in the world he is\nprofoundly ignorant. Already handicapped by his infirmity, the lack of\nall practical experience puts him still further at disadvantage, and it is\nhard, if not impossible, for him to get his bearings and adjust himself to\nhis surroundings. Without knowing it, he may be selfish and exacting.\nThis is my first qualifying consideration.\nThe second tendency to be deprecated is the inevitable result of\nexclusively institutional training in weakening home ties thru too protracted separation in early life. In the course of years, childish interests\nhave been exchanged for those of maturer life, and the home-coming\nyouth finds himself much of a stranger, having little in common with\nothers of his family. The earlier habits of consideration, of tender pity,\nhave lapsed thru disuse. Moreover, the limitations of his infirmity keep\nhim more or less to one side, and he may be overlooked or forgotten,\nwhen he would gladly share the common interests and the common\npleasures. If intelligent and sensitive, he may grow morbid in the feeling that he has come to be only a care and a burden.\nNow, is it practicable so to enlarge the scope of the public-school system\nas to include any portion of the whole number grouped as defectives, and\nthus to secure a more practical training, while keeping them in closer touch\nwith friends on whom they may, to a degree, be dependent in future years?\nWithout discriminating between that form of institution where all\ninmates are gathered into one great family and the institution organized\non the cottage system, I concede its necessity in some form, except in\nlarge centers of population. In great cities the public-school system can\nbe utilized to the advantage of many defective children.\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "looo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nInstead of leaving this statement as an unsupported assertion, it will\nbe more definite to indicate what is actually done for defectives in one\nmetropolitan area — that of London — in connection with its work of\npopular education.\nFrom the problem are eliminated nearly all epileptics, and the lower\ngrades of the mentally deficient, who, for such training as their condition\nallows, are better under the constant watchfulness of a permanent boarding home.\nThe census of the school population of London — that is, of all children between the ages of five and fourteen — is annually taken in houseto-house visitation by the school board visitors, each in his own area.\nWhen the excuse for non-attendance places the child in any one of the\ndefective groups, it is so recorded, with age, address, and character of\ndisability; and the respective lists, when complete, are sent to the three\nsuperintendents in charge of defectives, cripples and epileptics being\nassigned to the superintendent of the mentally deficient as a cnatter of\nconvenience.\nNot only at the annual scheduling, but thruout the year, it is the\nduty of the visitor to report at once to the superintendent each new case\nthat comes to his notice. The age of compulsion for deaf-mutes is from\nseven to sixteen ; for the blind, from five to sixteen. The superintendent,\nhaving received the data from the visitor, proceeds to amplify; and this\ncan be done in no way so well as by friendly personal calls, wherein\ndetails of the cause and degree of disability, and the condition and history of the family so far as it has affected the chTld, are obtained. These\nare useful in establishing cordial relations as well as for information.\nThree of the groups — viz., the blind, the deaf, and the mentally\ndeficient — are gathered in centers under teachers specially trained to\nthe work for each. Cripples, not requiring specially trained teachers,\nmake a fourth group.\nI wish to say just here that, next to thoro training in the special work\nwhich is undertaken, there must be, even more than in ordinary teaching,\na real love for, and interest in, that special disability, and a rooted conviction that to a large degree it may be surmounted.\nNot more than twenty feeble-minded, eight deaf, or sixteen blind are\nallotted to one teacher, tho, if numbers warrant, there may be two or more\nclasses at one center.\nThis permits satisfactory grading.\nIf possible, each center occupies a building of two or more rooms,\ndetached from the main building if on the school premises, and having\nindependent entrance from street and playground. When desirable to\nestablish centers for two or more groups in the same or adjoining premises, it is important to provide for entire separation, both in and out of\nschool hours. If cripples are of the number, their center is on the ground\nfloor.\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBE BROADENED?\n\nlOOI\n\nIn considering how the children shall reach the center, one rule does\nnot apply to the several disabilities. Usually speaking, no deaf or feebleminded child is required to travel more than a mile to the center. For\ngreater distance, or for weakly children, arrangements are made with\npublic conveyances. The feeble-minded and the deaf are so nearly on the\nlevel of ordinary children in respect to attendance that the matter of\ntheir coming is commonly left to the parents. For cripples, a vehicle\nadapted to their needs collects and returns to their homes those who\notherwise could not attend school with safety. In the case of the blind\nthe problem is simplified if another child in the family capable of acting\nas guide can attend the school with which the center is associated. If\nthere be none such, a trustworthy child is selected in the school, who for\na small weekly payment will accompany the blind one.\nThe limit of distance mentioned in connection with the deaf and the\nfeeble-minded may be considerably extended for both the cripples and\nthe blind. For cripples, the time of man and horse is the only consideration, and, in practice, a blind child with guide, when once in a public\nconveyance, can travel three miles as easily as one.\nWhen difficulties arising out of distance are too great, or where home\nconditions are morally or physically bad, the boarding-out system is\nadopted. Satisfactory families are sought near the center where the\nfather and mother are willing to act the part of foster-parents to one or\ntwo of these little ones. It is preferred that these families be in somewhat similar position in life to the real parents; it is imperative that they\nbe clean and honest, and able to supply proper food and lodging to their\nlittle boarders. To insure the faithful observance of all regulations, there\nis frequent careful inspection. If the parents of a boarding-out child fail,\nthru poverty or neglect, to provide needful and tidy clothing, an outfit is\nprocured, and, in case of neglect, the cost is charged to the father.\nIn the bringing up of each group of defective children the necessity\nof rendering them, as far as possible, self-supporting is kept steadily in\nview. From kindergarten to manual training no effort is spared. From\nthe several centers of each group the children, on appointed half-days, go\nfor practical lessons to the cooking, laundry, or manual-training class\nmost accessible. The selection of the children for the coveted privilege\nis made on the same lines adopted for normal children. It is needful for\nthe deaf to be accompanied to such classes by one of their own teachers,\nto interpret in case of necessity. Manual training for the blind, including\nthe use of tools in single cabinet-work and carpentry, is limited less by\nwant of sight than would be supposed. They can, and do, learn to use\nreadily all ordinary tools with benefit. Whatever is done for cripples in\nrespect to manual training, is done at th^ir own centers.\nTo the statement previously made, that defectives cannot be closely\nassociated in the schoolroom with ordinary children, the blind are a partial\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "1002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nexception. After acquiring at the center facility in the use of their special\napparatus for writing and arithmetic, it is found possible for them to do\nthe work and profit by the instruction of the ordinary school for some\npart of each day, devoting the remainder of the day, under the guidance\nof their special teachers, to subjects and methods in which they, because\nof their lack of sight, require individual attention. A second divergence\nin the case of the blind from other defectives in their relations to the\npublic-school system is this : Individuals of other groups may continue\nin the public school till they have exhausted its advantages; it is not so\nwith the blind, except in a few cases where expense of later professional\ntraining is no consideration. They are restricted in the choice of callings\nfor a livelihood, and must pass earlier from the public school to an institution adapted to prepare them for their life-work, as musicians, teachers,\nor workers at a handicraft. If the pupil has musical ability, that can be\ndeveloped only by some years of residence in an institution provided with\nall that is necessary to thoro professional training. So, too, if talents and\ncharacter point to success in any other profession, including that of\nteaching, the preparation for the normal school, or for the university,\nmust be made under the conditions prevailing in an institution. The\nRoyal Normal College for the Blind, near London, besides its elementary,\nhigher, and technical departments, is accredited by the government as\none of the authorized training colleges for teachers. Similarly with handicrafts available for the blind, including the art of tuning, in which they\ncan compete on equal terms with the sighted, special teachers, longer time,\nand the aid of many devices, unknown in ordinary workshops, are required,\nand are only obtainable in a residential institution.\nIt is thus evident that the connection of the blind with the public\nschool differs from that of the other groups of defectives. There is no\nvital relation between the ordinary school and the centers for cripples,\nfor the deaf, or the feeble-minded; tho among the feeble-minded there\nare always individuals so classed who from adverse circumstances are simply backward, and who after a time of quiet progress can be transferred\nto the ordinary school. The centers for these three groups are selected\nwithout reference to the^proximity of a public school; but because of the\ndivision of their time between the special class and the ordinary school,\nit is desirable that the centers for the blind should be in close connection\nwith the public school and occupy room within its grounds.\nI have now covered what appears to be the chief points of my subject,\nand will summarize as follows: {a) In large cities, cripples, deaf-mutes, and\nthe mentally deficient, excluding the lower grades, may receive their whole\neducation under the public-school system, each group by itself, in centers\nwhich may be quite apart from the ordinary public school, and, in the\ncase of the deaf and the mentally deficient, under specially trained teachers, {b)The blind may be taught by a specially trained teacher, at a\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHO ULD SCOPE\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBE BROADENED\n\n?\n\n1003\n\ncenter closely connected with a public school, in the instruction of which\nthey can participate for a part of each day ; but they must be transferred\nfrom the public school to an institution for the blind, at the age of twelve\nor thirteen years, to complete their training.\nDISCUSSION\nThomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical education, Columbia University, New\nYork city. — The idea of education has been enlarged until today we consider it rightly\nas the pro€ess by which the individual is prepared for life, for human society, for citizenship. It is the duty of the state as the agent of society to make sure that the individual\nis qualified as perfectly as may be for complete citizenship. In our country, this\nmeans that the state shall demand a certain minimum of intelligence and training\nof all, and beyond this provide generous opportunities for the young to improve themselves, in order to add to power and capacity in every possible way, without pauperizing anyone or decreasing individual responsibility and self-reliance. In our democracy,\nwith the present standard of education among intelligent people, the well-to-do classes\nmay be trusted to give their children, whether normal or defective, at least an equivalent\nof the benefits of free public schooling. Leaving out of account, then, those who prefer\nto educate their children at private expense, the public-school system is, or should be, better qualified than any other agency to set the standards of education for all children\ncapable of education. This will be done most naturally and economically, where it is\npracticable at all, by the attendance of the deficient child, while living at home, upon\nthe public school adapted to the needs of exceptional children.\nThe home is still the most fundamental and vital of human institutions. It is of great\nimportance that the home do all that it can and will for the child, whether normal or\ndeficient ; important, again, that education stimulate the home in every way to a higher\ndevelopment and a more effective service in the care of the children. In many cases, of\ncourse, the state can provide better care and training for the child than he can get at\nhome, and often the education of deficient children can be accomplished only in special\ninstitutions. But it is really important that, where feasible at all, the young child should\nremain at home, and that provision for instruction should exist within convenient distance\nfor attendance upon school. This is not feasible, of course, for most defectives except\nin large communities.\nThe scope of public education, then, should be enlarged to include all children capable of education, capable of becoming self-supporting members of society ; and facilities\nfor the training of deficient children should be developed as rapidly as possible, and\nin close relation to the home.\nThe training of dull, backward, and moderately deficient children may best be\naccomplished by the ungraded room of the ordinary school under specially qualified\nteachers.\nThose more deficient mentally, and often morally, who are yet capable of education, and many of whom may become independent members of society, even if of a\nlow grade, should be kept away from the normal children in special schools, like the\nHilfsschulen in some European cities. Here they may have the best available opportunities, and a further differentiation may be made between those educable and capable\nof life at home and in society, and those who should go permanently to institutions for\ndefectives.\nThe deformed and crippled children should have their own more favorable conditions, with the instruction and training best adapted to their limitations and needs.\nThe schools for crippled children in New York — some supported by philanthropy,\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "I004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nsome by public funds — show strikingly how much can be done for these handicapped\nchildren.\nThe deaf and the blind should be trained in special schools or under special teachers.\nThey should live at home when possible, at least up to the age of adolescence. The more\nadvanced training of the blind and deaf may very reasonably be completed away from\nhome in special institutions maintained by the state as part of the public-school system.\nThe instruction of all unfortunate and deficient children, whether carried on at public\nor private expense, should be under public supervision, or at least subject to inspection of\nofficers of public institutions.\nEllen Le Garde, director of physical training, including that of backward children,\npublic schools. Providence, R. I. ^Feeble-mindedness — a state of arrested psychical\ndevelopment — will always be an interesting study to the physical director, who realizes\nthat a mentally weak child is almost always defective physically, and that its physical\neducation should precede its mental, and always progress with it. Feeble-minded children\nmay be found in every school building, and should be trained by themselves.\nIn the proper education of this class of children, Germany, in 1863, was the pioneer.\nThere such children have been gathered either in special ungraded schools or separate\nclasses, which arrangement enables the classes of the normally endowed to progress at a\nmore rapid rate in their studies. The German plan, making these schools a part of the\nschool system, is that followed in Providence. Providence, in 1894, was the first city in\nthe United States to support public day schools for mentally backward boys and girls. In\n1899, similiar schools were opened in Boston, Chicago, and Philadelphia.\nThe methods of developing the arrested or weak mental and muscular powers are\nmost interesting. Seldom do these children walk correctly; they have little sense of\nrhythm ; hands and feet cannot move in unison. Exercises requiring at first little or no\neffort, but always training in time, in co-ordination, in balance, in grasp, in powers of\nconcentration, in strength and memory, are all used, and gradually increased in power\nand velocity.\nLacking, as many of this class are, in powers of articulation, the ward, or marked system of reading, is used in the morning, and unmarked reading in the afternoon. Seat\nwork for reading is taught by letter builders, one and a half inches long. Number is\ntaught at first by large primary colored blocks eight inches long ; later by various objects;\nall, however, larger than those in use in the ordinary primary school. The color sense in\nthese children is often so deficient that this instruction is a part of every day's lesson.\nGeography and language are taught in games and talks, and the children are encouraged\nto express themselves freely and correctly. Singing it is possible to gain by number\nfirst, as in the regular grades, and by songs. Drawing, is done upon the blackboard to\nillustrate all the reading lessons. Sewing, weaving, and basketry are employed for\nhand- and eye-training. I place great faith in the Swedish exercises in gymnastics for\nco-ordination, and in musical drills with wands and dumb-bells for rhythm and for gaining\ninterest and attention. Many of these children tire of games, and lose patience and get\nexcited, but are always devoted and constant to piano and dumb-bells. The drum and\ntriangle are great aids. Lately we have tried dancing steps. The teachers consider the\nphysical training the greatest aid to the greatest need of the children.\nIn what would appear apparently as a hopeless task, the teachers in these three\nschools for a-typical children are devotion itself. All have been graduates from our city\nschools and from our excellent city training schools. Each understands kindergarten\nmethods and has served an apprenticeship as assistant in a disciplinary school.\nEncouragement and praise are freely given ; happiness of a right sort is ever present; and the animal affection, often a part of the character, is trained in habits of helpfulness for the teacher, for the schoolroom pet, in cat or dog, or for a weaker child needing\nconstant aid.\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD\n\nSCOPE\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBE BROADENED?\n\ni oo 5\n\nIt is safe to say that 80 per cent, of the children are cured. By \"cured\" one does\nnot mean made into Edisons, Marconis, or Roosevelts, but lifted up to better things.\nMany are holding good positions. The future holds many plans for the betterment of\nthese schools. They are under the care of a special supervisor, who visits them once in\ntwo weeks. It is hoped to concentrate them in one building in the center of the city, to\npay transportation, and to provide lunch; for these children lack in nutrition, and any\npublic-school system starting such schools should provide at once, with books and slates,\neither a lunch or mid-day meal. The superintendent desires medical inspection for them,\nin order to allay any objection on the part of the parent, when told his child should be\nplaced in a school for pupils of arrested development. More attention can be given to\nphysical exercises and manual training when we have a central school with proper workrooms, gymnasium, etc. Philadelphia is in advance of Providence in its medical inspection\nof defectives and in their manual training, but Providence points with pride to the fact\nthat the school funds pay for the cost, and that seven years of growth is one of progress\nand actual accomplishment in making a class of children of value to the community and\nto themselves, who might have been a drawback and a disgrace.\nJohn. T. Prince, agent of the Massachusetts Board of Education, Boston, Mass. —\nPublic-school education is constructive in helping to create high ideals and intelligence,\nand preventive in helping to hinder pauperism and crime. It is a wise provision of\nstatute law for the upbuilding of society, and for the happiness and usefulness of individuals, that every normal child shall be assured of a common-school education. It is no\nless the state's duty for its own protection to make obligatory the training of educable\ndefectives and the care of those who are not capable of improvement. This training and\ncare should be carried on either in institutions under the direction of the state, or directly\nin connection with the local public schools.\nThose children only who do not need institutional treatment should be trained at\nhome in separate groups. For the cities and large towns this will not be a difficult matter, as has been shown by experience. For country districts, provision may be made for\ncarrying children to a central school, or for establishing small home schools in convenient\nlocalities. These schools should be under the charge and superintendence of the local\npublic school authorities. In states like- Massachusetts, where district supervision prevails, the schools may be under the direction of the superintendent and district committee,\nthe expense of the schools being borne by the towns from which the pupils come. In\ncountry districts whose unit of government is the county, the schools may be organized\nand controlled by the county board and county superintendent, and the expense of carrying them on will- be borne by the county.\nIt is therefore right and feasible for all educable children to be included in the scope\nof the public-school system, and to share in its benefits and obligations. It is also right\nand feasible for the state to place all educable children of a certain age under the statutory requirement of compulsory school attendance, to the end of giving all its citizens the\nbenefits of intelligence and self-support, and of guarding itself and society against the\ndangers of ignorance and crime.\nWalter E. Fernald, M.D., superintendent of Massachusetts School for FeebleMinded, Waverly, Mass. — Until within a comparatively few years it was believed that\nfeeble-minded children could be successfully educated only in special boarding schools or\ninstitutions. All such schools were recognized as strictly educational institutions. Dr.\nHowe said of his school: \"It is a link in the chain of common schools, the last indeed,\nbut still a necessary link in order to embrace all the children in the state.\"\nThe methods of training found necessary with the feeble-minded were radically\ndifferent from those then used with normal children. Object-teaching, nature study,\ngymnastics, special sense-training, manual and industrial training, music, directed\ngames, training in habits and morals, etc., were the sheet anchors of this work, years\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": "10o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nbefore the era of the kindergarten and the dawn of the new education. Outside of these\nspecial schools suitably equipped teachers were not to be found.\nSpecial public school day classes for the feeble-minded have been in operation in\nvarious continental countries for more than twenty years. There are many reasons why\nsuch classes should be established as a part of the public-school system in large centers\nof population in this country.\nEvery American child has the right to be educated according to his need and\ncapacity. It is a great hardship for the parents to send a child of tender years away\nfrom home to be educated. Parents with a comfortable home would naturally prefer a\npublic-school class to an institute. Many defective children who now receive no training would be placed in these special classes. The special training would be begun much\nearlier than is now possible.\nThese special classes can be quickly and easily organized and increased in number,\nmaking a very flexible system of providing and extending facilities for training defectives. They do not involve the expenditure of large sums of money for construction of\nlarge institution plants. The actual expense of such training is largely assessed upon\nthe local community receiving the benefit. The admirable special classes in London\nmay well serve as models for classes in this country.\nIn organizing these special classes, the pupils should be selected under expert medical\nadvice, and should be the merely \"backward \" or slightly feeble-minded, and not imbecile\nor idiotic, for the merely backward should not be classed with the actually feeble-minded.\nThe training and instruction of these children may begin rfn a much lower plane\nthan with the lowest grades in the public school. It must begin with what the child\nalready knows, and the successive steps should be made very gradual and progressive.\nThe physiological education of the special senses and the training of the muscles to\naccurate response to directions must precede and prepare the way for so-called intellectual\ntraining.\nHand-work and manual training in great variety is of great importance. Objectlessons and familiar nature study should be emphasized. The beginnings of ordinary\nprimary work should be based upon the best modern methods. The progress will be\nslower, and the pupil cannot be carried so far.\nThe study of the life-history of these persons has evolved some generalizations which\nmust not be ignored in considering this subject. All degrees of congenital mental defect,\nfrom the merely feeble-minded child to the profound idiot, are the result of certain definite structural defects or inferiority of the brain, or the result of brain disease or injury.\nThese brain abnormalities are permanent conditions. No really feeble-minded person\never was, or can be, entirely ''cured.\" It is a question of how much improvement is possible in each individual case.\nThe hope of the pioneer teachers in this work that many of the slightly feeble-minded\ncould be educated and developed to the point of supporting themselves, and of becoming\ndesirable members of the community, has not been realized. A certain very small proportion do actually leave the schools and lead useful, harmless lives, supporting themselves in a precarious way by their own efforts. Of the great majority of these trained\npupils it has been well said that they may become \" self-supporting, but not self-controlling.\" Byfar the greater number need oversight and supervision as long as they live.\nA very large proportion of the feeble minded persons, even the well-trained highergrade cases, eventually become public charges in one way or another. No one familiar\nwith the mental and physical limitations of this class believes that any plan of education\ncan ever materially modify this fact. The brighter class of the feeble-minded, with their\nweak will-power and defective judgment, are easily influenced for evil, and are very likely\nto become prostitutes, vagrants, or petty criminals. They are powerless to resist the\nphysical temptations of adult life, and should be protected from their own weakness and\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTERM ''CHARITABLE''\n\nAS APPLIED\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n1007\n\nthe cupidity of others.\nEspecially should they be prevented from marriage and the\nreproduction of their kind.\nFeeble-minded children may be tolerated in the community, but it is a great responsibility to inaugurate any plan on a large scale which does not provide for withdrawing\ndefective adults from the community.\n\nHOW\nEDWARD\n\nCAN\nALLEN\n\nTHE\nTERM ''CHARITABLE''\nBE JUSTLY APPLIED TO THE EDUCATION OF ANY CHILDREN?\nFAY,\nINGTON, D. C;\n\nVICE-PRESIDENT\nEDITOR\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\n\"AMERICAN\n\nGALLAUDET\nANNALS\n\nCOLLEGE,\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWASH-\n\nDEAF \"\n\nAt the time, now nearly a hundred years ago, when the first schools\nfor the education of special classes were established in America, such\nschools already existed in Great Britain. The British schools were generally called \"institutions;\" the largest and most important of them was\nstyled an \"asylum\" — a title which it still retains; another bore and bears\nthe name of \"hospital.\"\nThese British schools werejounded and maintained entirely by private\ncharity, and were therefore classed as charitable institutions, tho their\neducational purpose was recognized. The same is true not only of special\nschools, but of all the English free schools of that time; they were known\nas \"charity schools.\" In America, on the contrary, our free schools have\nalways been supported by public taxation, and education in them has\nnever been regarded as charitable, but as the birthright of every child.\nThe early founders of American schools for special classes in their\npreliminary steps followed English precedent. They contributed money,\ninterested their friends, sought subscriptions, secured acts of incorporation from the state legislatures, and (most unfortunately) called their\nschools \" asylums\" or \"institutions.\"\nLong before that time, however, the duty of the state to provide for\nthe education of all its children had been recognized in this country, and\nas soon as the special schools were established they applied to the legislatures for support on the ground that their pupils had the same right as\nother children to education at the public expense. The justice of this\nclaim was generally recognized, and appropriations were made by the\nlegislatures for that purpose. In a few of the older states this arrangement continues; the schools are under corporate management and have\nendowment funds resulting from former gifts and bequests, which the state\nsupplements by paying d, per capita rate for the pupils in attendance.\nSo far as the education of these pupils is paid for by the state, it cannot be called charitable, for the state aannot dispense charity. The state\neducates these children, as it does all its children, in its own interest;\nfor educated they become self-supporting citizens, while left uneducated\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": null, "text": "ioo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthey are liable to become criminals and paupers. The schools are sometimes spoken of as \"institutions aided by the state;\" it would be more\ncorrect to say that the state is aided by the institutions, for with the help\nof their endowment funds it is enabled to educate its children at less than\ncost.\nIf, however, we consider these early schools from the point of view of\ntheir origin, their corporate character, and their endowment, they may be\nclassed, legally at least, as charitable institutions. The same is true of\nour incorporated colleges and universities; in the eye of the law they are\ncharitable institutions. In the famous Dartmouth College case Chief\nJustice Marshall held that a college was an eleemosynary corporation ;\nand the same opinion has been reaffirmed in a score of judicial decisions.\nThe principle is well established that \"a charity, in a legal sense, includes\nnot only gifts for the benefit of the poor, but endowments for the advancement of learning, or institutions for the encouragement of science and\nart, without any particular reference to the poor;\" and that \"schools\nestablished by private donations and carried on for the benefit of the\npublic, not with a view to profit, are institutions of charity.\"\nIn a legal sense, then, our endowed special schools must submit to be\nclassed with all endowed schools, colleges, and universities as charitable\ninstitutions. But the legal sense is not the common sense; in the popular conception the idea of charity is not associated with ordinary schools,\ncolleges, and universities ; they are considered, not from the legal point\nof view of their endowment, but from the common-sense point of view of\ntheir purpose. Their purpose is educational ; they are therefore universally regarded as educational institutions. The purpose of schools for\nspecial classes is also educational ; should they not be regarded as educational institutions ? There is not a student in Harvard or Yale the\nexpenses of whose education are not paid in large part from endowment\nfunds, irrespective of tuition fees ; but no one ever thinks of applying the\nterm \"charitable\" to the education of students at Harvard or Yale; why\nshould it be applied to the education of pupils in the Perkins Institution\nor the Clarke School ? This question was put to the Massachusetts legislature in 1875, ^i^d the result was that these schools were removed from\nthe supervision of the state board of charities and placed, where they\nproperly belong, under the supervision of the state board of education.\nBut not all states are as enlightened as Massachusetts.\nWhat has been said of the charitable character, from a legal point of\nview, of certain endowed and incorporated special schools applies only to\na few schools in a few of our oldest states (Connecticut, District of Columbia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania). The great\nmajority of our American schools for special classes are public schools;\nthey have been established by the state legislatures, in some cases they\nhave been provided for in the state constitutions ; they are maintained\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTERM\n\n''CHARITABLE''\n\nAS APPLIED\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n1009\n\nwholly by public taxation. There is no reason whatever for regarding\nthem as charitable.\nIn some of the states the purely educational character of these schools,\ntheir entire dissociation from the idea of charity, is recognized ; in others\nit is not. In ten states (Alabama, California, District of Columbia, Florida, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, New Jersey, North Dakota, and\nVirginia) it has been clearly defined by legislative or constitutional\naction.' In two (Florida and New Jersey) the schools are under the direct\ncontrol of the state board of education. In nine (Illinois, Kentucky,\nMaryland, Massachusetts; Mississippi, Montana, New York, Ohio, and\nTennessee) they make reports to the state board of education or the state\nsuperintendent of public instruction. In seven (Alabama, Florida, Minnesota, New Mexico, Oregon, South Carolina, and. Virginia) the superintendent of public instruction \\s ex officio a member of the board of trustees.\nIn two (Michigan and New York) the schools are subject to the supervision\nor visitation of the superintendent of public instruction. In five (California, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin) provision is made for\nday schools for the deaf in various localities in addition to the large state\nschool ; there are also day schools in three cities (Boston, Chicago, and\nSt. Louis) in other states. These day schools are all classed as part of\nthe common-school system.\nOn the other hand, the special schools in two states (Kansas and\nSouth Dakota) are under the direct control of the state board of charities.\nIn nine (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, arfd Tennessee) the board of charities has the\nright of inspection, recommendation, and suggestion. In one state\n(Kentucky) the committee of the legislature that has charge of the affairs\nof these schools is entitled \"committee on charitable institutions;\" in\nanother (Mississippi) \"committee on benevolent institutions;\" and in a\nthird (South Carolina), \"committee on penal and charitable institutions.\"\nProbably a similar erroneous nomenclature is used by the legislatures of\nseveral other states.\nOn the whole, taking all the circumstances into consideration, the\nspecial schools in nineteen states (Alabama, California, Colorado, District\nof Columbia, Florida, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,\nMinnesota, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Rhode\nIsland, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia) seem to be classed by the state\nauthorities as purely educational, and in twenty-two states (Arkansas,\nConnecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan,\nMississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,\nOregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas,\nJ Perhaps the most explicit legislative action is thpt of the Congress of the United States relating to the\nColumbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in the District of Columbia. After providing that the admission\nof pupils from the district shall be subject to the approval of the superintendent of public schools, the law adds :\n\"And said institution shall not be regarded nor classified as an institution of charity.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": null, "text": "loio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nWashington, and Wisconsin) as charitable, or partly charitable and partly\neducational.\nWhen we consider that within our own memory these schools were\nuniversally classed as charitable institutions, it is certainly a gratifying\nsign of progress that in nineteen states their true character is now officially recognized. Probably the popular conception, however, even in\nthose states lags somewhat behind the official recognition. While a little\nreflection will convince any reasonable man that the term \"charitable\"\ncannot justly be applied to the education of any children, the unthinking\npublic everywhere are slow to realize it.\nOne reason why people are slow to comprehend the true character of\nour special schools is doubtless the unfortunate names of \"asylum\" and\n\"institution\" — especially \"asylum\" — which were given these schools in\nformer years and which still cling to some of them. Another reason why\nsome people regard our special schools as charitable is that food and\nshelter as well as instruction during the school term are provided by the\nstate. They are willing to admit that free tuition and opportunity for\nself-development should not be called charitable, but they insist that free\nboard should. The state, however, does not provide board for her children as an act of charity ; she provides it as a necessary incident of their\neducation. For ordinary children schooling is brought to their doors;\nin some cases, where they live at an inconvenient distance, the pupils are\ntransported daily to school at public expense, because it costs less to\nbring the children to school than to bring the school to the children.\nOn the same principle, it is found to be more economical, as well as\nproductive of better results, to instruct the deaf and the blind in central schools, paying for their food and shelter during the term, than it\nwould be to bring the school to their doors or bring them daily to the\nschool.\nThe heads of schools generally insist that their work should be classed\nas educational and not charitable, but perhaps they themselves are sometimes responsible to some extent for the erroneous classification. It may\nhappen that they have at their service a state board of charities composed\nof intelligent, sympathetic men who take an active interest in the welfare\nof the school, make valuable suggestions, support them in their endeavors\nto obtain needed appropriations, and defend their good name against\nunwarranted attacks and unjust criticism. On the other hand, the state\nsuperintendent of public instruction may be a man who cares nothing for\nthe interests of the special classes, performs his duties in connection with\ntheir education in a perfunctory manner, or neglects them altogether.\nThere is a state in which that officer is required by law to visit the state\nschool for the deaf once a year, but, as a matter of fact, he has visited it\nonly twice in ten years. It is not strange under such circumstances that the\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTERM\n\n''CHARITABLE''\n\nAS APPLIED\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\nlOII\n\nauthorities of the school should prefer the friendly visits, timely suggestions, and cordial support of the board of charities to the indifference of\nthe department of education. As one head of a school writes : \" In theory\nour connection with the Board of Charities is all wrong; in practice it\ncould not be improved upon.\"\nAgain, the school authorities may lend countenance to the objectionable classification by resting their claims for the support of the school\nupon motives of charity rather than of justice. There is a strong temptation to do this, for an appeal to the feelings sometimes meets with a\nreadier response than an appeal to the reason. The simple claim that\nthe right of special classes to an education rests upon the same basis as\nthat of ordinary children in public schools makes but a slight impression\nupon some legislators; while a stirring appeal to their humanity and\ncompassion, presenting the education of the deaf or the blind as a\nwork of benevolence and mercy, is likely to result in a \"generous\"\nappropriation.\nIt may sometimes be desirable to have the co-operation and support\nof the state board of charities as well as the department of education in\nthe work of our special schools. There may be occasions when the simple\ndeclaration of the right of the children and the duty of the state does not\nsuffice, and it seems as if the very existence of a school would be endangered unless the chord of sympathy in the heart of the legislator is\ntouched ; but we should never lose sight of the injurious effect produced\nupon the general public, upon the parents and friends of the children to\nbe taught, and upon the children themselves, whenever their education is\nallowed to be classed as charitable. What is the effect upon the public ?\nAn erroneous impression of the character of the work and the nature of\nthe schools is created and diffused. What is the effect upon the parents ?\nIt arouses a prejudice against the school, and sometimes deters them from\nsending their children. What is the effect upon the pupils — the \"beneficiaries of the state,\" as they are sometimes called ? If they realize the\ninjustice and cruelty of the stigma thus placed upon them, it tends to\nhumiliate and embitter them; if they do not realize it, or realizing, complaisantly accept it, it harms them still more by tending to degrade and\ndemoralize them, discouraging self-activity, and leading to dependence\nand pauperism.\nThe latest state to place its schools for the deaf and the blind in the\npurely educational class is Virginia. This was done by the constitutional convention of 1902, after a full discussion of the merits of the case.\nThe superintendent, Mr. William A. Bowles, reports that the effect of the\nchange has been to increase the attendance, arouse the ambition of the\npupils, elevate the tone of the school, a©d produce better work both in the\nschoolroom and in the workshop.\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": null, "text": "10 1 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam B. Wait, principal of The New York Institution for the Blind, New York\ncity. — \"How can the term 'charitable' be properly applied to the education of any\nchildren ? \" This question presents three of the most important words in the English\nlanguage : children, \"for of such is the kingdom of heaven ; \" education, the salvation of\nchildren and the hope of mankind; charity, greater than hope and better than faith.\nThe basic idea presented is that of classification. Right classification is a condition\nnecessary to good results. Wrong classification gives imperfect results. Right classification isnecessarily scientific and helpful. Wrong classification is necessarily unscientific and harmful. Concretely, classification may be represented by the base of a\nright-angled triangle ; method, by the altitude ; and results by the hypothenuse. If\nclassification be correctly extended and methods be poor, the side showing results will\nbe .disproportionate and inadequate ; likewise, if we have wrong classification and our\nmethods be absolutely correct, still the side showing results will also be disproportionate\nand inadequate. Furthermore, error in classification will inevitably produce error in\nmethod.\nIt should be observed that the proposition before us refers to no special class of\nchildren, but to all children : to those of the rich and of the poor ; to the normal,\nabnormal, and subnormal ; to the vagrant child and the idiotic child. Can the term\n\"charitable\" be properly applied to the education of any of these children?\nIf a certain stone be improperly classified as good building material, and be used\nin the construction of a house, it will make no difference to the stone, but may be of\nvital importance to the occupants of the house. If a farmer classifies his cow as a\nbutter-maker, when its milk should go to the cheese factory, it is of no importance to\nthe cow, but is of importance to the farmer, and to the butter or cheese factory. When,\nhowever, children of any class or condition are improperly classified, the inevitable\nresulting loss must first fall upon them ; and, as both by nature and by law they are\nincapable of self-defense, it becomes the duty of parents, of teachers, and of the\nadministrative agencies of the state, not merely to shield them from physical harm,\nbut to protect them from self-negation, social disparagement, and degradation. It is\nunfortunate that any educational institution should ever have deemed it necessary to\naccept classification as charitable for the sake of money considerations. Educational\ninstitutions, if classed as charitable, may get more legacies than they otherwise would ;\nbut the cause of education cannot fail to be hindered and its standards lowered when\nmoney is received as charity. The education of all children is absolutely necessary to the\nwell-being of the state, and they should be granted and should receive all things, whether\ndirectly essential or merely incidental to their education, as a matter of right and of sound\npublic policy, and not as charity.\nIf a maximum of good results is dependent upon right classification and correct\nmethods, what must be the effect on a child if he be classed as a recipient of charity,\nwhen he should be encouraged to put forth every effort to be self-respecting and selfreliant ? If the word \"'charitable\" were to be placed over every kindergarten, public\nschool, and college in our land, the educational results would immediately be reduced to\na minimum, and no claim or pretense of charity could prevent it.\nWhy, then, should children bereft of one sense be classed in this way ? A gentleman\nonce said to me: \"Our charitable society is aiming to create the impression that we are\nusing the term in the higher sense of 'good-will to men.' \" The affections of love and\ngood will, however, are exercised between persons whether of the same or of widely\ndifferent situations in life, independent of those conditions of poverty and pecuniary need\nwhich are the sole basis for acts of charity. Moreover, a policy or system which incapacitates individuals for growth into true manhood is neither an expression of good-will nor\nof charity, and should have no recognition either in our statute or our common law.\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n1013\n\nIn 1875 Dr. Samuel G. Howe, while principal of the Perkins Institution for the\nBlind and a member of the Massachusetts state board of charities, with great foresight\nsecured the enactment by the Massachusetts Legislature of a statute recognizing the Perkins Institution for the Blind as a distinctly educational institution, and placing it entirely\nunder the jurisdiction of the educational authorities of the state. Surely no one will\nquestion the wisdom or the authority of Dr. Howe in a matter of this kind.\nIt can safely be said that the only assurance of the largest success of the w.ork of\nspecial schools, and the only4iope for children who have been deprived of some of their\nfaculties, rest upon the avoidance of this needless and false classification.\nAs has been so clearly pointed out in the admirable paper of Professor Fay, there can\nbe but one right answer, which is : the term \"charitable \" cannot justly be applied to the\neducation of children.\n\nWHAT\n\nTEACHERS NEED\nDEFECTS AND\n\nTO KNOW ABOUT\nIMPEDIMENTS\n\nSENSE\n\nI\nTHE\nCLARENCE\n\nIMPORTANCE\nJOHN\n\nOF HEARING\n\nTESTS\n\nIN PUBIIC\n\nBLAKE, M. D., PROFESSOR\nOF OTOLOGY,\nMENT, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE,\n\nSCHOOIS\n\nMEDICAL\nMASS.\n\nDEPART-\n\nAt the Medical Congress held in Philadelphia in 1876 there was made\nwhat was, so far as I am aware, the first public proposition in this country\nfor the organized medical inspection of public schools ; this proposition\nhaving in view, not merely protection from the contagious diseases incident to childhood, but also the determination of sense defects with reference to their amelioration or to the provision of compensatory education.\nThis form of supervision, since generally adopted, has opened up a\nmuch larger sociological service than was at first expected of it, for,\nwhere medical inspection has been fairly established, the examiners find\nthemselves confronted with questions of the proper seating of school\nchildren, of the provision of school lunches, of proper lighting, ventilation, and sanitary accommodations, and of the detection and setting aside\nfor compensatory educational advantages of children whose defective\nsight or hearing puts them below the average of their fellows : and I am\nglad to have the opportunity of urging before your representative body a\nstill more extended availment of the special knowledge of members of a\nprofession of which it may be safely said that it stands eagerly ready for\npublic service.\n• The distinction between lack of perceptive capacity and lack of\nsense-transmission is frequently represented only by a thin and shadowy\nline, and the partition classification of dependent and imperfect children\nis often one of the most exacting of the moral responsibilities of the\ndoctor. Children who are regardec^ as backward, or even idiotic, are\nsometimes found, on careful examination, to be merely creatures shut\nwithin themselves bv the closure of normal channels of communication.\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": null, "text": "I014\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nand the bringing of such children into touch with the human companionship which makes life worth living is worth far more than all it costs in\ntime or effort.\nAs an example of the value of co-operative work on the part of the\nmedical and the teaching professions may be cited the conjoint action\nof the American Otological Society and the National Association of\nTeachers of Speech to the Deaf in undertaking a systematic examination\nof all pupils in schools for the deaf thruout the United States. The purpose of this investigation is to provide, not for what might be called a\ncensus-taking, but for the establishment of continuous special medical\nexamination of the pupils, first for their immediate advantage, and,\nsecondly, to make records upon a uniform basis suitable for comparison\nand tabulation.\nThe work, already begun as a preliminary investigation in the Horace\nMann School, shows that out of one hundred and fifty children set apart\nby their infirmity and specially educated, fully 8 per cent, are capable of\nbeing restored to an amount of hearing which will enable them, in some\ninstances with the help of artificial aids to hearing, to take their places in\nthe society of people of normal average hearing; while still others, to the\nextent of an additional 5 per cent., can be so far improved as to be\nmaterially aided in their power to acquire well-modulated articulation.\nBetween 10 and 15 per cent, of these cases, in addition to those already\nmentioned, are found to illustrate the truth of the saying that disuse is\nabuse, for in them it is possible, by means of speaking-tubes and other\nappliances for the direct communication of sound to the perceptive\norgans, to awaken what may be called, for want of a better term, the\nlatent hearing, and make it, if not a means of communication or consecutive thought, at least useful for improvement of the articulation.\nWith the continued prosecution of this investigation there is opened\na large field for the study of the causes of high grades of deafness in\nyoung children, and one leading to better knowledge of possibilities\nof prevention. A pronounced need is more sure of being helpfully met\nthan one which requires investigation for its detection, and it is precisely\nin this respect that the subject of sense-perception should be more carefully studied in our public schools; the peripheral is far more common\nthan the central defect, and is, moreover, amenable to remedial measures.\nThe sense of hearing, in the normal individual, is so much a part of\nthe involuntary perception system of the animal economy, and so little\nthe subject of voluntary effort, except in the upper limit of overtone\naccommodation and in the determination of the direction of a sound\nsource, that a moderate degree of diminution is liable to pass unnoticed.\nThe bounty of nature provides us always with more than our actual need,\nand it is possible to lose nearly one-half of the normal hearing power,\nespecially if this loss is so gradual as to permit of the formation of com-\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\nlo^S\n\npensatory sense-habits, before the practical, basal, normal average is\nreached. This loss, however, implies something more than subtraction\nfrom the working power of a single sense. That impairment of the\nhearing power should be an inconvenience is readily understandable;\nthat it can make so large a demand upon the nervous energy as to be a\nsource of fatigue needs personal experience or observation for its full\nappreciation.\nBefore birth the cavity of the middle ear, containing the soundtransmitting mechanism, almost as fully developed as in adult life, is .\nfilled by a protective cushion of tissue, which usually disappears with the\nfirst cry ; and the human infant is apparently sensitive to sonorous vibrations within a few hours after its birth. The education of the brain thru\nthe, organ of hearing, therefore, begins at a very early period, and the\nhabitual classification of sounds in reference to their cause, their indicative importance to the individual, and the location of the sound source is\neasily assured.\nThe establishment of a perceptive habit implies provision for the\nexpenditure of nervous energy along a given line, deviation from which\nnecessitates a further expenditure of energy proportionate to the degree\nof deviation from what was formerly the line of least resistance. Changes\nin the tension of the sound-transmitting apparatus of the middle ear,\nand in its sound transmission incident to disease, may so alter or\ndecrease the sounds perceived as to make them unfamiliar and needing\nexplanation by a mental process ; and the total, or even partial, abolition of the hearing power of one ear, the other remaining intact, may\nso far interfere with the ability to appreciate the direction of a sound\nsource, which is one of the habits of normal binaural audition, as to be\nnot only a cause of embarrassment but a serious demand upon the\nnervous energy as well. To the individual possessed of a reasonably\nperfect machine, the working limitations incident to possible imperfections\nin that machine are with difficulty appreciable by any merely mental\nprocess, and it is therefore only by the sufferers themselves, or by those\nwhose business it is to study imperfections, effect repairs, and suggest\ncompensations, that the full cost in expenditure of nervous energy required\nto overcome an obstacle, either to perception or to expression, can be\nadequately understood. With the abolition or limitation of one or another\nof the channels of communication thru the human machine, a portion of\nthat nervous energy which is constantly seeking peripheral expression\nmust be expended in the adjustment to the new conditions, and to the\nutilization, in a compensatory way, of other channels of communication.\nGive, therefore, a limitation of sight, of hearing, or of tactile sense, an\nexpenditure of energy, in what way may be termed the conversion of force,\nis required, which evidences itself in the individual as that complex of\nsymptoms to which we give the name of fatigue.\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": null, "text": "loi6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nThat this fact should be better illustrated in children than in adults\nis readily understandable, and special examination of large numbers of\nchildren within the school age shows a greater percentage of cases of\nimpairment of hearing, accompanied by fatigue symptoms, than might be\nsupposed upon the basis of ordinary observation.\nOf a large number of cases of partial deafness, ocurriqg in children\nunder sixteen years of age, the causative diseases are amenable to treatment, with more or less improvement in hearing ; while an examination\ninto the etiology of partial deafness in children shows that the diseases of\nthe middle ear are its most frequent cause, and, furthermore, that many\ncases of partial deafness are due either to sub-acute or chronic catarrhal\ninflammation of the middle ear, or to the purulent inflammation, accompanied byperforation of the drum head, which follows the simple acute\ninflammation, or occurs- as one of the sequelae of the exanthematous\ndiseases of childhood.\nThis general rule is subject to certain differences, in differing classes of\nsociety. Among the wealthier classes, for instance, which perhaps merit\nour attention less in this connection, because their children are educated\nmore frequently in private than in public schools, the diseases of the ear\naccompanied by partial deafness and more or less amenable to treatment,\nin children under sixteen years of age, amount to but 7.8 per cent, of\nthe whole number of cases of ear disease in children and adults taken\ntogether. Of this number, making the 7.8 per cent, of the whole, 76 per\ncent, are traceable to the exanthematous diseases of childhood, especially\nscarlet fever, and in 56' per cent, there is found an existing purulent\ninflammation of the middle ear, requiring treatment, and causing a sufficient degree of deafness to interfere with the patient's participation\nin the ordinary school exercises, on equal terms with other children.\nAmong the middle and poorer classes the proportion of diseases of\nthe ear in children is largely increased, and it is these classes which we\nhave particularly to consider, since they more generally avail themselves\nof the advantages offered by public instruction. Out of a thousand cases\nof disease of the ear, examined in patients of this category, 24.95 per\ncent, ocurred in children under fourteen years of age. Of this number\n49.8 per cent, were examples of purulent inflammation of the middle\near; 10.5 per cent., of the cases of purulent inflammation being due to\nscarlet fever. As many as 23. 6 per cent, of the cases of disease of the ear\nin children were examples of either acute or chronic catarrhal inflammation of the middle ear.\nThis brief analysis is sufficient to show the much greater prevalence of\nsuch diseases of the ear as are liable to induce partial deafness in the\nchildren belonging to those classes in society which depend for their\ninstruction on the advantages offered by our public schools.\nA more minute analysis of the material offered affords interesting\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n1017\n\ninformation as to the general causes, and the average course and results,\nof diseases of the ear in children. It may be remarked, however, that in\nthe analysis given only those cases are included in wtiich the deafness was\nnot so decided as to interfere with the acquirement of articulation, or even\nwith the use of the ear as a medium for instruction. The number of cases\nof positive deaf-mutism, and of cases in which, while there was a certain\ndegree of hearing, it was so slight as to render instruction in articulation\nnecessary, was 4.9^er cent, of all the cases in children examined. The\naverage age of all the children examined was about nine years.\nIn addressing any audience, it is always noticeable that some individuals give evidence of imperfect hearing, either by turning one ear toward\nthe speaker, by supplementing the receptive capacity of the auricle by\nmeans of the hand, or by an effort at strained attention in watching the lips\nof the speaker. Such evidence in a roomful of children would permit the\nselection of these individuals for more careful tests as to their hearing\npower, and for their further examination by a medical expert selected for\nthat purpose and regularly appointed to the discharge of that duty. It\nshould be the further duty of this officer to keep a careful record, preferably an indexed card record, of his examinations, of the reference of cases\nto hospitals or infirmaries, and of the result of treatment; for, since the\npublic school is a secondary home, and in large community centers with\na foreign population especially so, there is afforded an opportunity, in\naddition to that of moral and intellectual training, for the betterment of\nthe machine in which the child lives and learns, and in which, as a citizen,\nit must wage its battle of life.\nWith the considerable and increasing demands made upon the teaching staff of our public schools, it is very plain that the burden of special\nexamination into physical defects — except selectively — should not be\nplaced upon the teacher. For selection purposes the tests may be of the\nsimplest, and applicable, with but little addition, to the routine of classroom work.\nAs an example may be taken the rules for hearing tests formulated for\nthe department of physical training of the Summer School of Harvard\nUniversity, and already published. These rules lay special stress upon the\nvalue of the voice as a hearing test, and, while not an instrument of precision, itis, in the case of a school-teacher, the sound to which the children\nare expected to listen and by which they are largely trained as well as\ntaught.\nHuman speech is made up of a series of vocal sounds, all within a\nshort compass, which are modified, obstructed, or terminated by changes\nof position in the articulating apparatus, to the effect of which we give\nthe name of consonant checks. A superficial study of these checks\nshows that some of them are formed in the front, some of them in the\nmiddle, and some in the back of the mouth*; that they are, with few and\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": null, "text": "I0l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nslight exceptions, accompanied by a greater or less degree of resonance\nin the nasal and pharyngeal cavity, and that they vary considerably in the\namount of muscular energy required for their production ; and, furthermore, that the principal distinction to the ear between such consonant\nsounds as are similar in character is due to the greater or less preponderance of a small number of qualitative overtones. Further than this, we\nare aware that the consonant sounds which nearly resemble each other, in\nboth force and musical value, are produced by the co-o«dinating operation\nof very nearly the same sets of muscles, and therefore are accompanied\nby very nearly the same facial expressions.\nGiven, therefore, an average case of marked impairment of hearing,\nthe result of a slowly progressive middle-ear disease, the patient will hear\nmost readily the consonant sounds which require most force in their production; these include four explodents — /, d^p, and b — which very nearly\nresemble each other in force and tone value; they are, however, formed\nin the front of the mouth, p and b being distinctly labial, and / and ^as\ndistinctly formed by the contact of the tip of the tongue with the upper\nincisors. From the position and formation of these consonants, and the\nnecessity for distinguishing between them, it usually ensues that their\ndifferentiation makes the first step in that instinctive study of lip-reading\nwhich to the appreciably deaf person becomes eventually more or less\nhabitual, and which offers another channel for the expenditure of nervous\nenergy in the effort to see, as well as to hear, the spoken word.\nThe other consonant sounds having the greatest logographic or force\nvalue, k and g for instance, are those formed in the back of the mouth,\nand are accompanied by a lesser degree of recognizable facial expression\nthan the front consonants; while the consonants having the least force\nvalue — /, /, «, m, for instance — very nearly resemble in the mechanism\nof their construction the harder consonant sounds of nearly the same\nmusical value.\nIt thus comes about that the deaf person will, when a soft consonant\noccurs in a sentence, substitute for it, mentally, the hard consonant sound\nmost nearly resembling it, which would have been heard had it been used.\nIn any given sentence, therefore, there are to the very deaf, tho seeing,\nperson certain consonant sounds which are distinctly heard, others which\nare imperfectly heard, others which are detected by sight, and still others\nwhich are merely inferred.\nBearing in mind rather the force value than the tone value of the\nconsonant sounds, it is easy to select a list of words, preferably monosyllables, which shall fairly cover the range of the consonant checks, and\nthis list may be varied, both in selection of words and in their order, to\navoid the possibility of memorizing on the part of the children.\nFor the purpose of teachers' tests the use of the voice may be supplemented bythat of the watch and the tuning-fork, it being understood\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS^\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF — SENSE ■ DEFECTS\n»\n\n1019 '\n\nthat the duty of the teacher, in this respect, is limited to the selection of\nthe cases to be subsequently submitted to expert examination. The test\nmethods here suggested demand but little time and are by no means a\nburdensome addition to the ordinary class-room work.\n1. Stand before the children in the schoolroom in the position which\nyou usually take jn addressing them, and, speaking in the tone of voice\nwhich you commonly use, asking them to make some unusual gesture —\nfor instance, raising the left hand with the fingers extended, or with the\nthumb pressed into the palm of the hand ; note the children who do not\nrespond, or who respond so slowly as to suggest imitation merely and\nbring them forward, repeating the above test, with variations in the wording, until a certain number of children with evidently imperfect hearing\nhave been selected for individual examination.\n2. In the individual test for the voice, test first binaurally: stand at\na definite distance, ten feet for instance, behind the child, and pronounce\nselected monosyllabic words in a moderate tone of voice, the words to be\nrepeated by the child as heard, and the result noted not only in the consonant sounds lost, but also in those substituted. Monaurally the word\ntest should be repeated with the ear opposite the one tested tightly stopped\nby finger pressure.\nThe watch, used in testing monaurally, should first be held with its\nface close to the ear, the other ear being stopped, and gradually withdrawn\nuntil no longer heard, then, gradually approximated to the ear until again\nheard, when the distance of the watch from the ear should be measured\nand noted.\nThe tuning-fork set in vibration by pressing the tines together at the\ntips, with the fingers, and then suddenly releasing them, or by striking\nthe fork upon the palm of the hand, should be held opposite, and close\nto, each ear in succession, the ear in which the sound of the fork is heard\nless, as determined by duration of hearing, being noted. In making this\ntest the tuning-fork should not be held continuously opposite the ear\nbecause of the liability to memorization of the tone.*\nA series of tests of this sort, adopted as a part of the ordinary school\nroutine, would do much toward simplifying one of the problems with\nwhich the teacher has to deal in the determination of individual educational fitness ; and I desire to bespeak your furtherance of the adoption\nof this, or of some similar method, as a part of your championship of\nthe furtherance of that which has already proved itself useful — the\nparticipation of the medical profession in the advisory inspection of public\nschools.\nI A convenient tuning-fork for this purpose is the clinical test-fork (physical C 512 v. s.), with slender\ntines and weighted tips, made by Queen, in Philadelphia, and^Ieyrowitz, in New York, and procurable thru\nsurgical and philosophical instrument makets.\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": null, "text": ". I020\n\nNATIONAL\n.\n•\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n.— —\n\n[Special\n__\n\nII\nFACTS\n\nAND\n\nFALLACIES\n\nIN THE\n\nCHILDREN'S\nMYLES\n\nSTANDISH,\n\nM.D., INSTRUCTOR\nMEDICAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nEXAMINATION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nEYES\nIN OPHTHALMOLOGY,\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nHARVARD\n\n•\n\nThe importance of the care of the eyes of all school children has long\nbeen recognized, and attempts have been made to exercise a certain\namount of supervision in many schools. Most of these attempts have\nbeen based on the examination of the children's vision by the use of test\ncards in the hands of the teachers themselves. The result has been that\nwhen a child's vision proved to be below the normal, he was referred to\nthe physician, or his parents notified that he should have a proper examination. But when the child's vision proved to be normal, it has too often\nbeen assumed by the teacher that the eyes were \"perfect,\" and that the\nteacher's duty with regard to the child's eyes ended there. To show that\nthis is not the case is the object of this paper.\nIn order to make myself plain, it is necessary to occupy a few moments\nin a very simple description of the anatomy and physiology of refraction.\nThe normal eye is so constructed that rays of light coming from the distance, entering the eye and passing thru the lens, are mechanically\nbrought to a focus upon the retina ; but when a near object is looked at\nfrom a distance of one, two, three feet, or more, the rays of light would\nnecessarily be divergent and, passing thru the same lens, would necessarily come to a focus behind the retina. Therefore we have the mechanism of accommodation. This, reduced to its simplest terms, is the\nmuscular arrangement within the eye whereby we are enabled, when looking at near objects, to increase the convexity of the lens to such an\namount as is necessary to bring the rays of light to a focus upon the\nretina. This mechanism, you will note, is muscular and is governed in\nits action by nerves. Therefore, every act of accommodation implies an\nexpenditure of nervous and muscular force. So much for the normal eye.\nMany eyes are, however, abnormal. Either the distance from the\nanterior surface of the eye to the retina is longer than it should be, so\nthat the rays of light come to a focus before they reach the retina, cross,\nand produce a blurred image ; or it is too short, so that rays of light passing thru the lens reach the retina before they come to a focus, and thus\nalso produce a blurred image. In the first instance, the so-called myopic\nor long eye, it is possible for the individual, when looking at near\nobjects, to put the book at such a distance from the eye that the rays of\nlight passing thru the lens will come to a focus mechanically upon the\nretina without the intervention of any muscular effort to render the lens\nmore convex. It is evident that such a person reading without muscular\naction is able to continue without fatigue for a considerable length of\ntime, and near-sighted people are wont to boast upon the \"strength\" of\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF\n\nSENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\nI02l\n\ntheir eyes on account of this fact. As our accommodative apparatus can\nmake the lens more convex, but it is absolutely unable to make it less\nconvex except by relaxation to its original convexity, it is evident that\nthe near-sighted person cannot by any voluntary action see distant objects.\nBy test-card examination, therefore, the near-sighted individual is always\ndetected ; but when the eye is hypermetropic, or too short, the child soon\ndiscovers that by making use of the accommodative apparatus he is able to\nmake his lens more convex, and by this means bring the picture to a focus\nupon the retina, altho the length of the eye from the anterior surface to\nthe retina is much too short.\nIn many people the shortness of the eye requires for its correction for\ndistant vision as much expenditure of nervous and muscular force as the\nnormal eye requires to be exerted for the act of reading. If anyone\nshould place an open book fifteen inches from your eyes when you awoke\nin the morning, and keep it there the livelong day, requiring you to keep\nthe letters sharply focused, and should repeat this experiment day after\nday and week after week, you can imagine what your mental and physical\ncondition would be at the end of a comparatively short interval of time;\nyet the child with hypermetropic eyes who is doing this thing every day\nof its life, and is by this act enabled to read the highest line test type at\na proper distance, is pronounced by the test-card examination normal.\n• Of course, when such a child undertakes to read, he must not only exert\nthe entire accommodative force required of him to see at a distance, but he\nmust add thereto as much more nervous and muscular force as is exercised by the individual with normal eyes in order to read.\nEvery person has a certain amount of nervous reserve, much greater\nin some individuals than in others, but this expenditure of nervous force\nto control and make perfect vision during every working moment of a\nperson's life soon exhausts the reservoir. The nervous mechanism loses\nits balance wheel, and various phenomena present themselves. In school\nchildren this nervous exhaustion generally expresses itself : (i) in headache coming on the latter part of the forenoon, or after any long-continued near work at any time of day ; (2) in lack of muscular control,\nexpressed in popular speech by the word \"nervousness ; \" this lack of control may go to excess and produce muscular twitchings of the face, head,\nto grasp an idea which is\nand legs; (3) in mental inability\narms,\nhands,\nL\npresented thru the eyes ; this in turn, from the mental fatigue, produces\ndisinclination either to use the eyes or to give attention.\nIn the above statement I have avoided the use of the term \" astigmatism,\" as all astigmatic conditions are either hypermetropic or myopic,\nand are included in the above general statements. But if a child has\nmore error of refraction in one eye than y;i the other, or if the curvature\nof the eye or lens is such that either or both eyes have a higher refractive\nerror in some meridians than in others, the burden of correction is greatly\nincreased, even when the errors are small.\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nAgain, we have two eyes, and for comfortable vision each eye must\nlook at the same object at the same instant with mathematical accuracy,\nin order not to have double vision. This brings into action the external\nmuscles of each eye, and these muscles may vary greatly in strength, so\nthat single binocular vision is obtainable only by the use of constant\nsemi-voluntary exertion, instead of being automatic, as is the case in\nnormal eyes. This, again, is another source of nervous fatigue and, when\ncombined with refractive errors, adds greatly to the burden. Such\nchildren in doing near work often bring to the aid of their ocular\nmuscles the muscles of the lid and brow — in other words, they scowl,\nproducing vertical furrows in the forehead above the nose.\nThe ultimate outcome of all this nervous strain is an apparent stupidity in undertaking the tasks imposed upon them, a disinclination to apply\nthemselves, and, finally, a nervous breakdown which so. impairs the general nutrition that the child has to be removed from school ; when he\npromptly recovers — this recovery being variously attributed to relief from\nover-study or from the bad air of the schoolroom, or to the good offices\nof the physician, according to the mental predisposition of the parents.\nAll of this uncomfortable history can be avoided if due attention is\npaid to the headache, to the nervousness, to the twitching, to the mental\nirritability of the child; for from this picture a much more accurate estimate of the condition of the child's eyes can be formed than is in any way\npossible when examining the accuracy of his vision on the test card. All\nof this requires no special skill. It only requires that an intelligent interest in the welfare of the pupil shall be taken by the instructor.\nBut children with perfectly normal vision form vicious ocular habits.\nThe young child is well aware that an object near by is more easily seen,\nand therefore more easily understood, than one that is a long distance\naway ; hence when he first begins to use books and is puzzled as to the\nmeaning of words or characters, he incorrectly applies the same reasoning,\nand instinctively feels that he can understand that which he is looking\nupon better if he approaches his eyes to the object. Young children have\na great amount of accommodative power, much more than adults; therefore the burden is not so difficult to bear, and, if the faulty position is not\ncorrected, may be maintained habitually. The ultimate result of this is\ndisastrous. The plastic, developing eye is unable to stand the strain, and\neventually the coats of the eye are stretched by this undue effort, and such\nan eye is converted from a normal eye rendered artificially myopic into\nan eye which is permanently myopic. From the point of vieV of an\noculist, the teacher who permits children to place their eyes too near their\nwork is guilty of a negligence which may cause permanent impairment of\nvision for distance thruout the rest of the pupil's life. Surely education\nshould be a means of fitting pupils for their after-career, not a means of\nsaddling them with a serious handicap.\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": null, "text": "1023\n\nDepartment]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\nLet us have the examinations by test cards continued. They are a\nuseful survey of the ground, and the child who does not come up to the\nnormal test in each eye should be referred to the medical inspector in\ncharge of the school, or his parents promptly notified that his eyes are\ndefective and should be examined. But I would most strenuously urge\nupon you that, having done this, your duties have but just begun. All\ndull and inattentive children should be carefully watched and questioned,\nand if a story can be elicited reciting headache, undue fatigue from the\nday's work, blurring of the letters when studying, and, especially, if the\nteacher has noticed muscular twitchings or scowling, or the child puts the\nhead too near the book, the child should then be promptly referred to the\nmedical inspector, or the parents notified as before. This can be done\nwith as much safety with regard to an opinion of ocular defectiveness as\nif the child could read but half-way down the test card.\nBut teachers are not the only sinners against children's eyes. Architects and superintendents of public buildings are often much to blame.\nEvery schoolroom should be so arranged that light shall fall on the pupil's\ndesk from the left. The object of this is to throw the shadows away from\nthe point of the pen, so that the child may clearly see that which he has\nwritten. And let it be incidentally remarked that light coming from the\nrear of the room does the children very little good and does the teacher's\neyes much harm ; and inasmuch as most of you have such windows in\nyour rooms, accept herewith advice, and, if the room is otherwise well\nlighted, keep the shades of the windows in the back of the room always\ndown. You will wrong no pupil, and you will benefit yourself. The walls\nof the room, if there is plenty of light, should be an exceedingly pale\ngreen or blue — never red, or brown, or chocolate color. If the building\nis in the city and the light is poor, buff or yellow is permissible. The desk\nshould be so arranged that the book can be inclined at an angle which will\nenable the child to see without bending his head and cramping the vessels\nand muscles and the neck ; it should also be so arranged that the child\ncannot lounge forward upon it and get his head too close to his work.\nAttention to the few recommendations made above will not only lighten\nyour tasks as teachers, but will save misery both in childhood and manhood to many of your pupils.\nIll\nSOME\n\nEYE\nALLEN\n\nDEFECTS\n\nOF FEEBLE-MINDED\n\nGREENWOOD,\n\nM.D., OPHTHALMIC\nHOSPITAL, BOSTON,\n\nAND\n\nBACKWARD\n\nSURGEON,\nMASS.\n\nBOSTON\n\nCHILDREN\nCITY\n\nThe fact that congenitally feeble- and \\wak-minded children are prone\nto marked congenital malformations of the eyes is recognized by many\nobservers.\nMarie and Bonnet, of Paris, together examined a large num-\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": null, "text": "I0 24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nber of idiots and imbeciles, finding many with marked eye defects. The\ndefects most frequently met were hypermetropia, astigmatism, and strabismus or squint. Many were found with amblyopia, which means partial\nblindness of one eye without apparent anatomical cause, with strabismus\nand nystagmus. Deficient power of accommodation was frequent. Anomalies of formation of the iris were found, inclftding complete absence.\nThe pupils were often oval, and they considered this and congenital cataract to be among the stigmata of degeneracy. The optic nerves were\noften found oval in shape, or showing atrophy with defects in the choroid.\nEvidences of faulty development of the posterior occipital lobes of\nthe brain, where the higher centers for sight-perception are located, were\nusually associated with an asymmetry of the skull, especially a flattening\nof the back. These posterior cerebral lobes are often much flattened,\nespecially in the congenitally blind idiots, as shown by Monakow, Reinhard, and Benedikt. KoUiker has shown a correspondence between\natrophy of the cerebral lobes and arrest of development of the optic vesicles. Measurements of the skulls of idiots with marked eye defects have\nshown the brachycephalic type tt) predominate. Sixty per cent, of the\ncases showing small or flattened skulls showed eye defects.\nMarie and Bonnet found cases where there was defective colorperception. Red was shown to be the preferred color of idiots, and this\nis explained by Helmholtz by the fact that the red rays have the longest\nwave and the slowest vibration. The primitive eye has perception of color\nand light, but acquires vision from early perceptions. The education of\nthe eye of the imbecile is compared to that of children. The acquisition of ideas of form and distance implies the use of the powers of\naccommodation and convergence, and mental operations.\nIdiots and imbeciles who are content with what they see and with what\nthe eye furnishes them do not realize relative size and distance. These\nare rather cerebral defects than ocular. Idiots form only incomplete and\ndefective judgments of their visual perceptions. With them the image\ndoes not suggest an idea. They lack voluntary attention, and the more\nthey can be brought to pay attention, the more will they improve. Sight\nis by far the most important sense in its relation to the development of the\nintellect^ and of all idiots those with congenital blindness are the least\nsusceptible to moral and intellectual improvement.\nMany of these defects do not interest us at this time, because not\nremediable. The most frequent malformations, as shown above, are those\nof shape, which, causing more or less remediable errors of refraction,\ninterest us particularly. Of these by far the most common are the short,\nor hypermetropic, eye, and the eye where one meridian of the corneal\ncurvature has a much longer radius than the one at right angles to it, or\nthe astigmatic eye.\nThe v/ord \" astigmatism \" is one\n\nof mystery to\n\nmost\n\nlaymen, so I\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": null, "text": "1025\n\nDepartment]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\nwill tell you how you can easily illustrate to anyone what the term means.\nIf you take a hen's egg and hold it so as to show the large round end, you\nwill find that lines drawn thru the center of this end will create curves\nhaving practically the same radius of curvature in all meridians. This\nwould represent the normally curved cornea. If, now, the egg be placed\nupright, it is easy to demonstrate that a line drawn horizontally around\nthe tgg creates a curve with a radius\nmuch shorter than the radius of the\ncurved line perpendicular to it. This\nwould represent the astigmatic cornea much exaggerated. The long or\nmyopic eye is usually an acquired\ndefect, tho I have seen several Mongolian idiots with high-grade congenital myopia. Let us now see how\nthese errors, when considerable in\namount, affect the use of the eye.\n\nDiagram showing the hypermetropic\neye. Broken line shows back of normal\neye where parallel rays of light are focused with lens of eye at rest. Dotted\nline shows lens of eye increased in power\nby accommodative effort to focus the\nparallel rays on the retina of the short eye.\n\nThe short or far-sighted eye is the\nmost frequently observed in these\ncases. In this eye at rest an object\nat a distance has its image formed behind the retina, and for the eye to\nsee clearly, it has to bring into action its power of accommodation often\nmuch in excess of the amount necessary for a normal eye to accommodate for an object at fifteen inches. Now, when such an eye tries to see\nclearly at the ordinary reading distance, there is the usual accommodative\neffort necessary, added to the excessive amount already in use for distance. This combined excessive effort is much too great, and the eye\ncannot keep it up ; so the accommodation soon relaxes, the type becomes\nblurred, and the book or paper is dropped. A child with such eyes finds\nit increasingly difficult to keep book type clear, no matter how large, and\nwill early cease making any prolonged effort. If such a child is naturally\ndull, the inability to study makes the dullness very much more marked.\nThis error, besides being the most frequent, is the least easily detected,\nfor the child, unless the hypermetropia is of an unusually high grade,\ncan often read as small test letters at twenty feet as the child with normal\neyes, and for a time can often read the finest type at ten inches.\nIn the astigmatic eye a partly blurred image is always formed ; for if\nrays of light coming from an object, and after passing thru a certain meridian of the cornea, are focused on the retina, the rays passing thru the\nmeridian at right angles to the first will be focused in front of the retina if\nthis meridian have a longer radius of curvature, and behind the retina if\nit have a shorter. In either case a blurred image results, so that a clear\ndistant vision, as well as near, is rendered difficult or impossible. The\nchild with moderately astigmatic eyes may also, by an effort of accommo-\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ndation, by partly closing the eyelids, or by educating the brain to interpret partly blurred images, be able to pass the school test, as a child with\nnormal distant and near vision ; but the great effort to maintain this\nsoon produces symptoms of strain and disinclination to study.\nI am prompted by the fact that children with even considerable\ndegrees of hypermetropia and astigmatism often pass for normal sighted,\nto suggest that every apparently dull and backward child in our public schools\nshould have a thoro examination of the eyes, even tho the ordinary school\ntests show nothing abnormal as to acuity of vision or appearance of the eyes.\nYou notice that I use the word \"apparently\" in speaking of dull and\nbackward children, and I do so advisedly, for I find that such children\nwith defective eyes must be divided into two classes; namely: those who\nare really mentally deficient, and whose defective eyes simply make their\ncondition more pronounced; and those whose minds are normal, but\nwho appear dull because they cannot keep up with their schoolmates on\naccount of their inability to overcome their eye defects without a great,\nor often impossible, expenditure of nerve force.\nThe unusually high grades of hypermetropia are more easily detected,\nas such eyes cannot accommodate enough even to get clear distant\nvision, and the schoolbook is held within a few inches of the eyes to get\nas large an image as possible, even tho it be blurred. These are the\ncases that are sent to the oculist as. being very near-sighted — an excusable error. The very high grades of astigmatism would be classed with\nhigh grades of hypermetropia, with which they are often combined.\nThe backward children with moderate or high grades of myopia need\nthe greatest care. They cannot see the blackboards clearly, even tho\nseated near them, and what they do see is only with a strain. They cannot see to play the games of their schoolmates; but they can usually see\nto read by holding the book close enough ; and herein lies their danger.\nThey spend their time looking at things or books close to their eyes, and\nwithout enough outdoor life become pale and sickly. The eyes at their\nbest are more or less diseased, consequently become more and more\nnear-sighted, until all vision is greatly reduced. In all these children,\nwith eyes defective by reason of refractive anomalies, the nearer we can\nbring the refraction to the normal by the aid of glasses, the more we\nshall help their eyes and brains.\nI have not tabulated enough cases myself to deduce statistics of\nvalue. It has been my privilege, however, thru the kindness of Dr. W.-E.\nFernald to examine the eyes of a considerable number of the children\nfrom the Massachusetts School for Feeble- Minded, and I have also seen\nmany backward public-school children who have been sent to me by\nteachers, doctors, and parents, so that I have become convinced that\nmarked errors of refraction are unusually frequent in children of feebleminded schools, and extreme errors common ; while I am equally sure\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF\n\nSENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n1027\n\nthat the same holds true, but in a lesser degree, for the backward children\nof our public schools. The benefit that the children in institutions for\nthe feeble-minded may derive from a correction, by glasses, of their refractive defects is not great, depending largely, as previously shown, on the\ndegree of mental defect. The very low grades of idiots will not take care\nof glasses, or even wear them, or, if they did, their minds are too defective to appreciate any difference or really be benefited. In the higher\ngrades of imbeciles, those with marked errors will be benefited by glasses,\nif they can be made to wear them ; and they should always be tried.\nSuch children will certainly be able to do the things they can be taught\nto do better and with less fatigue, and it is conceivable that in doing so\ntheir minds will improve more readily than before, particularly if they\nthus pay better attention. It is, however, in the backward children of\nour public schools, whether they are separated and under the care of\nspecial teachers or not, that the greatest benefit is to be derived from\nimproved eye conditions; and to bring this to your attention is the principal object of my paper. I have personally seen many apparently dull\nand backward children transformed into bright, energetic pupils by the\nremoval of the depressing burden of an uncorrected hypermetropia; and\nI have seen a number of mentally defective and feeble-minded children\ntake unusual strides in their mental development, after a proper correction of their eye defects.\nHere in Boston there are five special classes in the public schools for\nthe instruction of backward children, and I hope such classes will ultimately be established in all large communities. These classes are not\nsupposed to take the true imbeciles, who should be kept in institutions\ndevoted to the instruction and care of such cases. ' Before placing a\npublic-school child in one of the special classes, it should be the duty of\nthe person who authorizes the change to ascertain if the case is one of\npure mental deficiency, or whether the mental defect is caused or aggravated by remediable or partly remediable defects of the higher senseorgans, particularly the eyes. In all large cities where there is a regular\nmedical inspection of the schools, one of the inspectors should be competent to detect any eye defects, and to him such cases can be referred,\nand the necessity of correcting any defects found can then be urged on\nthe child's parents or guardians. Most parents are deeply interested in\nthe welfare and progress of their children, and, with the many free eye\nclini'cs and charitable organizations, no child, even of the very poor, need\nbe kept back on account of an easily corrected defect.\nFrom my studies of this subject and my own personal experience, I\nfeel that I am justified in the following conclusions:\n1. That anomalies of the eyes, particularly refractive errors, are unusually frequent\namong feeble-minded and backward children.\n*\n2. That proper correction of all correctable errors will allow a greater and more\nrapid improvement of the mental powers in many caicf.\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": null, "text": "Io 28\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\n[ Special\n\n3. That many normal children are kept back in their studies by some eye defects,\nthe correction of which will allow the apparently backward children to keep up with\ntheir mates.\n4. That all children with real or apparent mental deficiency, in our public schools,\nshould have a thoro examination of their eyes, and this should be urged upon parents\nand guardians by physicians and teachers.\n\nIn closing, allow me to urge all teachers, special or otherwise, who\nhave such children placed under their care, to make sure, if they can,\nthat the possibility that eye defects are_ aggravating or causing the difficulty is eliminated.\nIV\nSOME\n\nDISEASES\n\nOF THE\n\nE.\n\nCROCKETT,\n\nM.D.,\n\nA.\n\nNOSE AND THROAT\nTEACHERS\n\nASSISTANT\nIN OTOLOGY,\nSCHOOL,\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nOF INTEREST\nHARVARD\n\nTO\n\nMEDICAL\n\nIn the consideration of this subject I shall pay very little attention to\nthe diseases of nose and throat which interfere with the child's mental\nor physical development, but more particularly to two diseases which\ninterfere so considerably with the formation of the throat as markedly to\nretard the development of the child's voice. These two diseases are cleft\npalate and adenoid vegetations in the nasal pharynx.\nThe first of these two is one of the oldest recognized diseases in medicine ;yet I have been frequently surprised, both in private and hospital\npractice, to see the* number of people who have been allowed to reach\nadult life without any attempt having been made properly to close the\ncleft in the roof of the mouth either by a plate or by operation. In those\ncases where a cleft of the palate is associated with a harelip, an early\noperation is much more likely to have been performed. Certainly the\nharelip will have been closed in infancy, because it interferes with the\nnursing of the infant, and because the deformity is more evident to the\nparent. A cleft of the palate is more easily closed by an operation in the\nyoung child than in the adult ; the result of the operation is not very\nsatisfactory in many cases, and is less so as the patient grows older.\nA cleft of the palate can be readily recognized by inspection. There\nis a V-shaped opening in either the hard or the soft palate, or both ; the\nthe point of the V in extreme cases being just back of the front incisor\nteeth. Small clefts may include the soft palate only, or we may have\nmerely a bifurcated uvula. . Naturally the larger the cleft, the more\nmarked the defect in the development of the voice. Where the cleft\nincludes any considerable portion of the soft palate, there is a marked\ninterference of all the consonant sounds; only the vowels are rendered\nperfectly, and those with a peculiar intonation ; so that where the patient\nis able to form the word, the peculiar pitch of the voice renders recogni-\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n1029\n\ntion of the sound difficult to the uninitiated ear. The peculiar nasal\npitch of the voice is easily recognized by anyone used to the disease.\nOf course, a cleft is not going to increase in size, as it is entirely a\ncongenital lesion. In my opinion, there is very little use in paying\nattention to special instruction of the voice, until some method of closing\nthe cleft has been tried. As I have said before, an operation is always\nthe best method, when feasible, and should be tried in all young cases\nbefore trying any other method. In all cases where an operation is\nunsuccessful, and in all adult cases, a better result will be obtained by the\nuse of a plate filling in the cleft. Such plates are rather difficult to make,\nbut are apparently easily worn by the patient. The resulting effect upon\nthe voice is not nearly as good as where the palate is closed from an operation ;phonation is always more or less imperfect, particularly in the use\nof the palatal consonants. In all operative cases where the cleft is closed\nas the result of an operation, the effect upon the voice is phonetically\nvery good ; at times the child may need some special instruction in order\nto obtain a perfect palatal sound.\nWhile a cleft of the palate is, as I have said, one of the oldest diseases\nknown in medicine, and one of the earliest recognized, adenoid growth\nin the nasal pharynx, which is of much more frequent occurrence the\nworld over, was not recognized until 1868. We know from old paintings\nand statues, as well as from old editions of medical text-books, that the\ndisease must have existed since the civilized era, and as it is distinctly easy\nof recognition when one's attention is called to it, it is the more astonishing that its recognition was so long delayed. The growth is exceedingly\ncommon in children; it is hereditary in its nature, and probably in\nthis latitude occurs in at least 5 or 6 per cent, of all school children. It\nis often associated with an enlargement of the lower or faucial tonsils,\nand to this enlargement was attributed, in former days, all the symptoms\nwhich we now know come from the post-nasal obstruction.\nThe facial expression of the child is almost diagnostic, and in large\ngrowths the speech is perfectly characteristic; the upper lip is short, and\nshows from two to four front teeth in the upper jaw; the upper jaw is\nnarrow ; the nose is narrow, and the face full under the eyes. On looking\nin the mouth, the hard palate is markedly arched, especially in older\nchildren where the growth has not been removed, and where the palate\nhas been allowed to become deformed with the growth of the child ; the\nline of the teeth is often irregular and there is occasionally a more or less\nperfect double row of teeth. The child is a persistent mouth-breather,\nand is apt to snore, or breathe hard, in sleeping.\nOf course, enlargement of the lower tonsils is easily seen by anyone,\non inspection ; the child is apt to have repeated colds in the head ; always\nhas a thick nasal voice, and the consonants «, m, and g are particularly\ndifficult to pronounce; in many cases there is either deafness or a history\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": null, "text": "1030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nof repeated attacks of earache. There is apt to be a marked retardation\nof the child's development, both mental and physical, so that the child is\nunder size and at least two classes in school behind its associates of the\nsame age. To a certain extent its deficiency in mental acuteness is attributable to the deafness, but in other cases it is certainly associated with the\nadenoid growth directly. In my opinion, enlargement of the tonsils, even\nto a very considerable size, has apparently little effect upon the development of the voice. It is not uncommon for any specialist to see welltrained singers with enlarged tonsils, who have no difficulty in acquiring\nand maintaining a perfectly clear and well-opened tone of the voice.\nPatients, however, with very large tonsils are apt to have fatigue of the\nvoice upon unusual exertion, as, for instance, in speaking for a long time,\nor speaking to a large audience.\nA peculiar thick, muffled tone of the voice, which adenoid patients\nnearly all have, is quite characteristic. The interference in most cases is\nprincipally with palatal sounds, particularly with m^ «, g^ and^^. This\ndifficulty in speech is partially from the interference with the vibration of\nthe soft palate from the pressure of the adenoid growth, and partly from\nthe obstructed nasal chamber, the narrowing of the nose, and the arching\nof the roof of the mouth. Such defect in the speech as results from the\nformer of these causes, namely, from the interference with the vibration\nof the soft palate, will, of course, be removed by removal of the growth at\nany age, and removal of a growth of any size will also give an increased\nresonance of the voice at any age ; but it should always be remembered\nthat such obstruction of the speech, as comes from the narrowing of the\nnasal chambers will be remedied only by removal of the growth in early\nchildhood, before the bony framework of the nose, nasal pharynx, and\nmouth has assumed its permanent shape ; that is, before the child is ten\nor twelve years old. In fact, the ideal age to get the best results from\nadenoid operation is certainly between the ages of three and five or six,\nas the child's throat, nose, mouth, and teeth are then assured a perfect\ndevelopment. Certainly, in my own practice the results of operation in\ncases over eighteen or twenty years old have been quite unsatisfactory, as\nfar as the effect upon the voice is concerned. This is not only from the\ninterference with the nasal pharyngeal resonance, but also from the fact\nthat the persistent mouth-breathing, particularly at night, keeps up the\nconstant irritation of the pharynx and vocal cord, and destroys the fineness of the tone. In such patients, the production of a clear and distinct\ntone is almost impossible. We see, therefore, that both the affections\nwhich I have so briefly considered should be recognized at an early age in\norder to obtain a good result by treatment. In both, the treatment is\nsurgical, and, unless the case has been allowed to go too long, it is productive of almost perfect result. Certainly in 99 per cent, of adenoid\ngrowths the result of the operation will convert the most skeptical parent.\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n1 03 1\n\nCuriously enough, the parent is the one in the majority of instances who\nis less observant about her own child, and it is therefore to the teacher of\nthe child that we must look for an early recognition of its deficiencies, and\nfor advice as to their repair. The responsibility of the teacher in this\ndirection is most clear and Cannot be evaded, although it may be relegated\nto such schools as have an enlightened and thoro medical inspection.\n\nV\nWHAT\nMRS.\n\nTEACHERS\nE.\n\nJ.\n\nELLERY\n\nNEED\n\nTO KNOW\n\nTHORPE,\nNEWTON\n\nABOUT\n\nSPECIALIST\nCENTRE,\n\nSPEECH\n\nON\nSPEECH\nMASS.\n\nIMPEDIMENTS\nIMPEDIMENTS,\n\nOne great drawback in presenting this subject is the lack of any definite authority in regard to cause and mode of treatment. It is noticeable\nthat, whether brain lesion, nervous affections, mental weakness, spasm of\nthe glottis, diseased tonsils, or any other disease or weakness is the supposed cause, breathing exercises, articulative drill, shouting, separate or\nin combination, form the usual means for its correction. The logical\nconclusion is that, if a person cannot speak a word, he must learn to\nform the sounds composing it, and practice them until he can. If he\nexpels the breath and exhausts the lungs, or inhales with a gasp, as many\ndo in commencing to speak, it seems evident that he must learn how to\nbreathe.\nUpon this basis, with no knowledge of facts, my investigations commenced. Having taken lessons for years from the best teachers of the\nspeaking and singing voice, I felt fully equipped for the work. My first\ncase was drilled upon each consonant, and was made to speak the word\nwith confidence. Words were woven into sentences, and soon the boy\ncould speak and recite very well. Other cases were treated in the same\nway; but, while they could talk, read, and recite when with me, the power\nwas gone as soon as they were exposed to outside influences. A case\ncame who was made worse by the training. This was varied in every way,\nbut it became apparent that if the work were continued the boy would\nbecome speechless. With this case the plain path disappeared. The\nquestion arose whether breathing exercises and articulative drill would\ncorrect or remove brain lesion, nervous affections, or any other assumed\ncause of this difficulty. It was noticed that the breathing of all these\npupils when quiet, with mouth closed, was perfectly natural. Did, then,\nthe breathing affect the speech, or the speech the breathing? It was a\nmystery why one could repeat consonants and words for hours, and, after\na short interim, be wholly unable to speak them. It became evident that\nthe repetitions gave rise, after the int^vals of rest, to an increasing fear\nof those sounds.\nThe theory had been that muscular weakness of lips.\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": null, "text": "I ©3 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ntongue, and throat had much to do with the inability to speak, but, in\ntruth, an increase of strength in those muscles increased the difficulty.\nThis questioning led to reading all the literature to be found upon\nthe subject, and to visiting institutions in this and other countries. To\nmy surprise, the method of training was practically the same everywhere,\nwith similar results. In London and in Berlin such cases are trained with\ndeaf-mutes.\nThe story of the influence that led to the truth has been repeated\nmany times, but must not be omitted here. The Centennial Exposition\ntook me to Philadelphia, and a call was made upon Madame Seiler. We\ndiscussed the subject freely. Her plan of work differed in no respect\nfrom that of others, in the training of persons having speech impediments, but the voice in singing and speaking was her specialty. She\ninvited me to be present while she gave a lesson in vocal music. The\npoint emphasized was : \" Make a tunnel of your body. There must be\nno stop along the way.\" This was new to me. When Dr. Grant, a clergyman friend, lost his voice thru severe throat trouble, clearly resulting\nfrom a wrong use of the voice, he was induced to take treatment of\nMadame Seiler. \"There's a divinity that shapes our ends.\" As he\nexplained to me what he had learned, and showed by every word spoken\nthe great gain that had been made, it occurred to me to compare his\nvoice, as it had been, with those of some having speech impediment. A\ntrial of her process was made with entire success. He had no impediment, and it took me some time to see'that his case differed in having the\ncontraction above the vocal cords ; in theirs the glottis was closed and the\npassage of breath stopped. If the contraction centered at any place\nwhere the breath could be stopped, an impediment would result; if a\nlittle above or below that point, what is called clergyman's or teacher's\nsore throat would follow.\nOften the two were combined in one case.\nDr. Grant's case gave a deeper insight into the whole subject. What\nhe learned was a free use of the vowel ; that is, to drop the action from\nthe throat to the breathing muscles, instead of lifting it to the throat and\nface. From that time work lipon the vowel sounds grew in importance,\nand drill upon consonants was omitted, until they were never so much as\nmentioned.\nThe investigations outlined have led to the following conclusions.\nIn the first cry of life there are three conditions : the inspiration which\nfills the lungs, the contraction of the breathing muscles which holds the\nbreath under control, and the relaxation of that muscular grasp which\nsends the breath against the vocal cords, producing the cry called \" the\ncry of life;\" this varies from the full, strong, controlled tone to the\nmerest aspirate, the tone indicating by the varying degrees of strength the\namount of power used or unused by the breathing muscles. If all the\nforce which nature provides for the production of tone is concentrated in\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF SENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n1033\n\nthe breathing muscles, every repetition of the cry sends life and strength\nthruout the system. If the contraction in the breathing muscles is weak,\nthe energy lacking there becomes focused in some other place, which will\nsuffer from the misplaced contraction. The entire system will then be in\na state of inco-ordination. When the misplaced contraction is focused in\nthe muscles of the throat, lips, tongue, and jaw, the energy which is\nintended to produce speech becomes an impediment, and the greater the\npower in the wrong place, the greater the impediment.\nThe only primary cause of speech impediment is weakness in the\nbreathing muscles, and a consequent misplaced strength in the muscles\nthat can impede the breath in its outward passage. Therefore, the first\nthing to be done is to train strength into the breathing muscles, by correct drill. Often the muscles are so weak that at first a few minutes' work\nwill make the pupil faint, and as the drill goes on the muscles will be sore\nand lame. Great care must be used not to overdo the exercise. The\nsecond point to be gained is entire relaxation of the muscles about the\nthroat and face.\nSome children are deficient in imitative power, and the misplaced contraction iscomplicated with undeveloped articulation. Often the j or r\nis omitted, and th or w substituted ; and the omission and substitution\nmay extend to so many sounds that they make for themselves a new language. These need to learn the formation of articulative sounds.\nSecondary causes are many. Prominent among them are imitation,\nfright, shock of any kind, or a disease that affects the throat. Twin\nbrothers, eight years old, were afraid of their teacher, who, tho meaning\nwell, had a sharp, quick way of speaking to pupils. One day when she\nspoke to one of the boys, he could not answer. She thought him obstinate ;his parents thought the same, because he could not speak when he\nreached home. When he tried to speak, the impediment was evident.\nThe brother in a few days went thru the same experience, and neither of\nthem ever recovered. Whooping cough, the cough resulting from an\nordinary cold, or any influence causing an unusual action of the throat\nmuscles may result in speech impediment, when the child is so pivoted\nthat but a slight influence is required to focus the contraction. On the\nother hand, speech impediment is often complicated with bronchitis,\nswollen tonsils, and serious throat affections, as a result of throat contraction. The most prolific of all causes is imitation. We guard our children\ncarefully against every other form of contagion, but to this the doors are\nopen wide, notwithstanding the fact that a child by one exposure may be\nwrecked for life. In some children the desire to imitate is instinctive\nand involuntary ; in others it is a deliberate desire to torture those suffering from any disability. As children will imitate, the barriers should be\nstrong against this danger.\nCases range from mild to severe.\nMany outgrow an impediment.\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": null, "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nbecause the breathing muscles need only a little more strength, which\ncomes by speaking out with confidence, as most children do. Sometimes\na little tact on the part of a teacher will carry the child thru. By saying\nthe difficult word for him she may enable him to go on, and so gain confidence and strength. A change of subject will often give relief, always\nremembering that speaking the difficult word is of no consequence.\nClosely allied to such cases is another class who have been brought out of\nthe difficulty by winking, snapping the fingers, tapping with the foot upon\nthe floor, or any slight movement which distracts the attention from the\nspeech and gives to it a rhythmic motion. Relief may sometimes follow\nlessons in singing.\nThe severity of the case depends upon the intensity and extent of the\ncontraction. If it is mildly focused at one or two points, a great amount\nof repetition may give the appearance of great severity. These are the cases\nthat cure themselves. On the other hand, the contraction may be so\ngreat at the articulative points that speech is stopped altogether. Such\npersons speak only when they know they can utter the word, and intimate\nfriends may be unaware of their disability. Because so many outgrow\nand are able to gain control over the difficulty, the general sentiment is\nan entire lack of sympathy for all who fail to do this. The common\nadvice to parents is : \" Let him be; he will outgrow it.\" Ask someone\nto give financial aid to one suffering from this disease, and the ordinary\nreply will be: \"I know several who cured themselves; he could if he\npossessed the same amount of character.\"\nThe fearful strain of going thru years, hearing others talk, and knowing all that is said, but void of the power of expression, can be understood only by experience. The time will come — we hope it is near —\nwhen to allow a child to grow up in that way will be considered nothing\nshort of a crime ; but without knowledge there can be no responsibility.\nWhat can we do to obliterate this fearful evil ? First, the great law of\nprevention, which applies everywhere else, is equally applicable here. The\nfact that life begins with a cry should suggest to us the importance of a\nvoice, and we should know at the beginning of a life what the character\nof the voice is. At first the cry is a reflex, and so continues until the desire\ncomes to communicate or respond, when it is controlled by the will. The\nfirst sound made with a purpose, which is the beginning of speech, is\nshort «, or ugh, and whoever has the care of a child should know how that\nsound is made. The difference between ugh made with the breathing\nmuscles and ugh made with the throat muscles is the difference between\nright and wrong. Probably nine-tenths of the world are wrong to a\nvariable extent, and many just escape. They may not, however, escape\nnervous prostration.\nAt the beginning of the imitative age the child should be made to\nfollow the right, in learning every vowel sound, until a firm foundation is\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nKNOWLEDGE\n\nOF\n\nSENSE\n\nDEFECTS\n\n1 03 5\n\nlaid. The vowel is practically the word, and if the speech is to be smooth\nand clear the vowels must follow each other continuously, which cannot\nbe done if strength is put into the consonant articulations. At first the\nchild makes the vowel sound, gesticulating with the hands. Soon he uses\narticulations, which are really gestures. If all the energy in the formation\nof the articulations is placed in the muscles that move the jaw and\ntongue, they will never interfere with the continuity of the breath, or\nvowel sound. If the vowel stops in the throat, it loses character and\nbecomes an articulation.\nOften a child who begins well loses balance and learns to talk in the\nthroat by imitating the person who has the care of him. If the age for\nlearning to talk is passed, the next opportunity is in the school ; and\nhere we must question : Are the voices of the teachers models for those\nof the children ? In the teaching of reading, is strength trained into the\nbreathing muscles, or into the throat, lips, and tongue? If the child is\nwrong, is the teacher able to correct him ?\n,\nMy experience leads me to believe that, if a voice properly placed\nwere one of the requirements in our normal schools, if drill upon vowels\nmade by the breathing muscles were substituted for that upon articulations, and if the voice of every teacher could be a model for the pupils,\nwe should soon begin to see an improvement.\nIt is a common plan to make a list of refractory sounds and words, and\nto require the child to work diligently upon them. No better way than\nthat can be found for extending the list, or even for producing a temporary paralysis. The words are easy in themselves ; it is the struggle in\nspeaking that must be overcome. The word is only the victim of circumstances. Overcome the struggle due to misplaced contraction, and\nthe word is free.\nThis principle is of special importance with reference to the system\nof phonic drill so extensively practiced^ in our public schools. I have\nknown children who had no trouble in speaking until they received\nphonic drill. Several teachers who tried the process in their classes\nupon pupils suffering from speech impediment were glad to stop when\nthey saw the children apparently in convulsions as a result of the experiment. Such was my own experience in the beginning of my work, and\nit took me some time to perceive that the child did not need to learn\nthe formation of the troublesome sound or to have any drill upon the\nsound, since, from the contraction acting at that point, he was receiving\ntoo much already.\nIn 1893 there were five hundred in the schools of Boston who spoke\nwith difficulty, and the number was increasing. From Germany we have\nsimilar accounts. Dr. Lenox Brown, basing his estimate upon the\nreports of Robert M. Zug, who spent some years in this work, states that\nthe number, in the United States alone, who suffer from speech difficulties\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": null, "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Special\n\nis nearly three times that of the deaf-mute, blind, and insane added\ntogether. To three of these classes every advantage is given that money\nand science can provide; to the fourth, having an equal claim, no relief\nis offered.\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STATISTICS OF DEFECTIVE\nSIGHT AND HEARING OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL CHILDREN\nBoston, Mass., July 10, 1903.\nTo the President of the Department of Special Education of the National Educational\nAssociation.\nDear Sir : Your committee has experienced considerable difficulty in collecting\nstatistics concerning the number and percentage of pupils in public schools having\ndefective sight and hearing, retarding their progress in school.\nThru the courtesy of Hon. William T. Harris, a special circular of inquiry was sent\nout thru the United States Bureau of Education to the superintendents of schools in cities\nhaving more than 25,000 inhabitants. The circular was sent to 160 city superintendents,\nseventy-eight answers were received, and only in nineteen cases were any statistics\nreported. In but few of these cases were the statistics so arranged as to be capable of\ncombination together.\nIgnoring minor defects of vision and hearing, and including only cases of marked\ndefect, your committee has been able to compile the following statistics : Out of a total\nof 34,426 pupils whose sight had been examined, 4,603, or 13.4 per cent., were marked\ndefective in vision. Out of 57,072 pupils whose hearing power had been tested, 2,067, or\n3.6 per cent., were found to be extremely defective in hearing.\n'9*\n8\nTABLE I\n\nCrrv\n\nBayonne, N.J\nJersey City, N.J\nPawtucket, R. I\nUtica, N. Y. (1897)\nUtica, N.Y. (1898)\nWorcester, Mass\n\nPupils Having Marked\nDefective\nVision\n197\n\nNo. OF\nPupils\nExamined\n\n6^7\nNumber\n\nPer17.9\nCent.\n\n353\n\n7-7\nII. I\n13-4\n\n6,113\n1,100\n4,663\n\".953\n4,610\n5,987\n2,281\n\n19. 1\n\n4,603\n\nTABLE\n\n34,426\n\nCity\n\nBayonne, N. J.\nChicago, 111\nCleveland 0.\nPawtucket, R, I\nUtica, N. Y. (1897)\nUtica, N. Y. (1898J\nWorcester, Mass\n\nNo. OF\nPupils\nExamined\n6,729\n\nII\n\n6.5\n\n588\n\"5\nPupils Having Marked\nDefective Hiaring\n\nPer Cent.\n\nNumber\n254\n437\n\n17,017\n6,113\n1^.953\n4,610\n4,663\n\n500\n\n5,987\n\n2,067\n313\n\n2 0\n\ntl\n2,6\n\n57,073\n406\n\n342\n\n4.2\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nOF DEFECTIVE\n\nSIGHT\n\nAND\n\nHEARING\n\n1037\n\nThese facts indicate that a considerable proportion of our school children are handicapped in their progress in school by defective vision or defective hearing, and suggest\nthe importance of urging upon all superintendents of schools the advisability of testing the\npowers of sight and hearing possessed by their pupils, and publishing the results.\nYour committee suggests that the Department of Special Education should appoint a\ncommittee to examine and report upon the various means employed to test sight and\nhearing in the public schools, and to collect statistics concerning the results.\nYour committee desires to express its great indebtedness to the United States Bureau\nof Education for so readily co-operating with it in its labors, and would suggest the propriety of asking the Bureau of Education to continue the collection of statistics of this\ncharacter.\nRespectfully submitted,\nF. W. Booth, Committer.\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF INDIAN EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Monday, July 6, 1903\n\nA preliminary meeting of the Department of Indian Education was held at Huntington Hall, in the Rogers Building of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at 9 : 30 a. M.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. Dr. Edward Everett Hale, of Boston.\nThe welcome of Massachusetts to the Indian educators was tendered by Dr. Hale,\nHon. Curtis Guild, Jr., lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts ; Dr. A. E. Winship, editor\nof the Journal of Education; Miss Gertrude Edmund, principal of the Training School\nfor Teachers, Lowell, Mass.; and Dr. John T. Prince, agent of the state board of education, Massachusetts.\nResponses were made by Dr. H. B. Frissell, principal of the Hampton Normal and\nAgricultural Institute, Hampton, Va.; John D. Benedict, superintendent of Indian Territory schools, Muskogee, I. T.; Miss Mary C. Collins, missionary. Little Eagle, S. D.;\nJ. J. Duncan, day school inspector. Pine Ridge, S. D.; and Miss Estelle Reel, superintendent of Indian schools, Washington, D, C.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, July 7\n\nPrayer was offered by Rev. Father Osborne, of the Church of St. John the Evangelist,\nBoston.\nPresident H. B. Peairs, superintendent of Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kan., delivered the annual address on the subject, \"Our Work : Its Progress and Needs.\"\nThe remaining addresses were as follows :\nTopic: \"Citizenship.\"\n1. \" The Essential Qualifications of Good Citizenship,\" Dr. James H. Canfield, librarian of Columbia\nUniversity, New York city.\n2. \"To What Degree Has the Present System of Indian Schools Been Successful in Qualifying for\nCitizenship?\" Dr. H. B. Frissell, principal of Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton,\nVirginia.\n3. \"Alaska's Start toward Citizenship,\" Dr. Sheldon Jackson, general agent of education in Alaska,\nWashington, D. C.\n4. \" Some of the Conditions Which Prevent a Greater Degree of Success in Qualifying for Citizenship,\"\nWilliam M. Peterson, assistant superintendent of Chilocco Agricultural School, Chilocco, Okla.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, July 8\n\nPresident Peairs called the meeting to order at 9 130 o'clock A. M.\nThe following was the program of the session :\nTopic: \"Character Building.\"\n'\n1. \" The White Man's Burden versus Indigenous Development for the Lower Races,\" Dr. G, Stanley\nHall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\n2. \" Heart Culture,\" Dr. Charles F. Meserve, president of Shaw University, Raleigh, N. C.\n3. \" Tenure in the Civil Service,\" James T. Doyle, secretary of United States Civil Service Commission,\nWashington. D. C.\n4. \" The Distribution of Good Literature among1039\nIndian Students,\" Miss Frances C. Sparhawk, Newton Centre, Mass.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": null, "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\nFOURTH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, July 9\n\nThe Department of Indian Education met in joint session with the Manual Training\nand Elementary Departments at 9 : 30 o'clock, in New Old South Church, Copley square.\nFor the program of this session see Department of Manual Training.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July id\n\nThe Department of Indian Education met with the Physical Training Department at\nthe Young Men's Christian Association Hall, on Boylston street.\nSIXTH\n\nSESSION.— Saturday, July ii\n\nA short business meeting was held at 9 : 30 A. m., at which the following resolutions\nwere adopted :\nResolved, That we are cordially in sympathy with the recommendations made by President Roosevelt in\nhis message to Congress in December last.\nResolved, That our thanks are due to the secretary of the interior for the deep personal interest which he\nhas manifested in all measures for the betterment of the condition of the Indian.\nResolved, That we commend\n\nthe able and statesmanlike administration of the commissioner of Indian\n\naffairs, and that we are grateful to him for the warm support and hearty co-operation he has accorded to the\nIndian workers; that we commend the superintendent of Indian schools, Miss Estelle Reel, for the untiring\nenergy with which she has performed her duties and the valuable services she has rendered in our educational\nwork, and that we specially commend the efforts she has put forth toward perfecting the methods of instruction\nalong industrial lines. We also tender our thanks to the president of the department, Mr. H. B. Peairs, for\nhis faithful and effective services, and for all that he has done toward making our meetings a success.\nResolved, That we offer our sincere thanks to the people of the city of Boston, and to the city and state\nofficials, for their cordial welcome and generous hospitality, and the numerous courtesies of all kinds extended\nto us ; and to the local press for the liberal manner in which it has reported our proceedings. _\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\n\nEstelle Reel, Secretary.\n\nAND\n\nADDRESSES\nDR.\n\nEDWARD\n\nEVERETT\n\nDISCUSSIONS'\nOF WELCOME\nHALE,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nI am glad to greet our friends who have come from all parts of the\ncountry and who are especially interested in this work among the Indians.\nI am not going to attempt to teach you anything; I sit at the feet of\nthose who have worked in the service and who know what they know and\njust what they do not know.\nFour or five different systems have been adopted in succession in connection with this work by different administrations. These have all been\nadopted with good motives. The trouble is you have had to change\nplans because you have had to change managers. At the present time the\ngovernment seems to me to be distinguishing itself by the intelligence of\nits work among the Indians. Since General Grant took the matter in\nhis masterly hands, up to this moment, we have seen much improvement\nin the work of the management of these affairs.\n''It is a rhatter of regret that only abstracts of most of the following addresses were\nfurnished for publication by the secretary of the department.\n[Editor.]\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nHON.\n\nCURTIS\n\nGUILD,\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\nJR., LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR\n\nOF\n\n1 04 1\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\n[an abstract]\n\nGovernor Guild tendered to the teachers of Indian schools the greetings and welcome of the commonwealth of Massachusetts, and paid a\ntribute to John Eliot, the Indian apostle, and to the teachers of the red\nman today.\nThe Indian problem was once peculiarly Massachusetts' own. Most\nof us have forgotten that the charter granted to the colony of Massachusetts Bay in 1628 expressly stated that to \"wynn and incite the natives\nof the country to the knowledge and obedience of the only true God and\nSaviour of mankind and the Christian faythe\" was in the \"royaK mtention\nand the adventurer's free profession the principall ende of this plantation,\"\nthis being a quotation from Small's introduction to Dr. Eliot's Indian\nPrimer. After the Pequot war most of our New England forebears\nforgot that New England was established for any purpose connected with\nthe improvement of those from whom they took the soil, as the Indians\nwhom they found there had taken it from the Skraelings, or whatever\nother name we may give to the races that owned the soil before Mohican\nand Pequot and Narragansett.\nThere was one, however, who did not forget; one who, tho recognizing\nthe fact that it is well for the world that savagery should be supplanted\nby civilization, recognized also the duty that the conqueror owes to the\nconquered. John Eliot is usually described as a missionary. Our fresco\nrepresents him as preaching to the Indians on the banks of the Charles.\nHe taught, however, more than theology. He taught the red men how to\nfence their fields and to drain their swamps. He taught the Indian\nwomen the use of the spinning-wheel. The praying Indians' settlement\nat Natick was laid out in an orderly fashion, with a piece of ground for\neach family.\nIt is interesting to remember that a hundred years before any printer\nin America had printed a Bible in the English language, Eliot's Indian\nBible had been printed (1663) by Samuel Green and Marmeduke Johnson\nat Cambridge. As the first distinctly American flag, the first emblem of\nAmerican prowess in war, was raised in Massachusetts, so the first American triumph of peace, the first Bible, was not merely printed from a\nMassachusetts press, but in the now extinct Massachusetts (Mohican)\nlanguage.\nThe spirit of Emerson and Channing was early abroad in Massachusetts, for it is recorded that one of Eliot's Indian congregation interrupted\nhim with the question : \"Why does God punish in hell forever? Man\ndoeth not so, but after a time lets him out of prison again, and if they\nrepent in hell, why will not God let th^m out again ?\"\nThe work of John Eliot and his fellow-workers may seem as words\nwritten in water.\nNonantum and Natick stand for Massachusetts industry\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": null, "text": "1042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[India.\n\nrather than for Mohican literature. There are, I believe, but three copies\nof the first edition now in existence of the \"Up-Biblum God\" of Eliot.\nThe race for which that monumental work was written has vanished.\nTheir very language has ceased to have a meaning. Yet the spirit of our\nfirst great teacher of the Indians has not passed. It lived in Henry\nDawes of Massachusetts. It kindled the great heart of Harvard's president when our Massachusetts university first held out the lamp of education to the people of Cuba. It lives in the devoted men and women who\nin Porto Rico, in Cuba, in the Philippines, in China, as well as among the\nmen of our own western plains, have transformed the victories of war into\nthe greater victories of peace. The negro may not be a citizen in South\nCarolina, but the Indian is a citizen in South Dakota.\nTo you whose lives are spent as Eliot's was spent, in the noble work\nof preparing the American savage for American citizenship, Massachusetts\nhas a double welcome. The field of your work is no longer within our\nborders. To the student of primary, of technical, of classical education\nour scholars may yet hav^ something to teach. To you, the teachers of\nthe Indian, we come to learn. To you, struggling with a task of which\nwe in the East of today know nothing, we offer the wreaths of bays that\nso become the brows of faithful service.\n\nA. E. WINSHIP,\n\nEDITOR\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\n\"JOURNAL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\"\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nWe welcome you, teachers of Indian schools, on the strength of what\nNew England and Boston have done for the Indians ever since the white\nman trod these shores. We appeal to the past in the welcome we offer\ntoday. It is a fact that this city, this state, and New England have stood\nby the Indian and have stood for the education of the Indian when it\ntook some courage to do so. It is for such reasons as these that we\nextend to you our welcome. And in doing so we rejoice in the fact that\nwe are in the twentieth century and have left behind the seventeenth, the\neighteenth, and the ninteenth centuries with their mistakes. We welcome\nyou to the standard of educational work which asks that we shall uplift\nhumanity.\nMISS\n\nGERTRUDE\n\nEDMUND,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nteachers,\n\nOF\n\nlowell,\n\nTHE\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nmass.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nI am principally interested in this Department of Indian Education\nI myself once taught in a\nbecause I know what it is to teach Indians.\ncountry school about three hundred miles from a post-ofhce among the\nsagebrush — one of the regular country schools where we had three or\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n1043\n\nfour white children and from twelve to twenty-five Indian children. I\nwant to bear witness to the fact that the work of those Indian children\ncompared very favorably with the work of the white children.\nThe speaker emphasized the debt which the teachers owed to such\nworkers as Mary Lyon, who founded the Mount Holyoke school. She\nreminded her hearers that so late as 1864, outside of the dajpe schools,\nwomen were employed as teachers only in country schools. Today, in\nthe equal- suffrage states, they elect women\nintendents ofschools.\nJOHN\nT. PRINCE,\n1\n\nAGENT\n\ntown, county, and state super-\n\nOF THE\nSTATE\nBOARD\nMASSACHUSETTS\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\n[an abstract]\n\nWe all regret the enforced absence of Secretary Hill of the state board\nof education. He would have told you of the great interest Massachusetts has always taken in the-education of the Indian. Massachusetts has\nsent many of her most gifted sons into this service, and she is glad and\nproud of the high record which they have always maintained. Many of\nyou in coming to Massachusetts ought to feel that you are coming home,\nand all of you ought to share that feeling who realize that there is a kinship of sympathy closer than the kinship of blood.\nWe welcome you not only to Massachusetts, but to our schools. They\nare closed now, but we have a few vacation schools open. If you visit\nthem, you must not tell who you are, for if the t'eachers know you are\nfrom the Indian country, they will say you have anticipated many of the\nbest things we have done, especially along industrial lines.\n\nRESPONSE\nH. B. FRISSELJ., PRINCIPAL OF THE\nINSTITUTE,\n\nHAMPTON\nNORMAL\nHAMPTON, VA.\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n[an abstract]\n\nI have not words in which to express our deep appreciation of the\nkind and cordial welcome which has been accorded to us, not only by the\ndistinguished men who have addressed us, but by the good people of\nBoston. We who are engaged in this work of Indian education are\ngreatly indebted to Massachussetts and to Boston for many of the practical methods which prevail today in the Indian schools.\nWe all rejoice that we are welcomed here by Dr. Edward Everett\nHale, who has always stood for lending a hand.\nDr. Frissell paid a high tribute to tlffe late Senator Dawes of Massachusetts, and added : The Dawes bill, which gave to the Indian the\nright of citizenship and brought with it the allotment of land, which has\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": null, "text": "I044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nmeant so much in all this process of Indian education, came very largely\nas the result of the efforts of that honorable man, who devoted the best\nyears of his life — long years of service — to the Indian.\nWe have come here because we want to know the way to the truth —\nwe want to know the way to peace, which Boston has been teaching all\nthese years. •\n\nOUR\nH. B. PEAIRS,\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\nWORK:\nITS PROGRESS AND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nHASKELL\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nNEEDS\nLAWRENCE,\n\nKAN.\n\nEducation has long been recognized as the chief factor in the development of humanity. Especially has this been true of American civilization. From the very beginning of colonization, all attempts at reclaiming\nmankind from savage life and manners have been thru education. Thus\nit was in our earliest relations with the Indians. As early as 1646, Rev.\nJohn Eliot, a great-hearted. Christian man, began educational work among\nthe Indians of New England. I quote from Dr. W. N. Hailmann on the\neducation of the Indian :\nA remarkable pioneer work, of a typical character, was done by Rev. John Eliot in\nMassachusetts. Mr. Eliot was actuated by motives of broadest Christianity and purest\nphilanthropy. His simple measures were chosen wiih consummate wisdom. In the first\nplace, he familiarized himself with the language, disposition, and character of his Indians.\nThen he secured their confidence and respect by according them the same, and stimulated in their hearts reverence and a sincere desire for the industry and thrift, the godliness and purity of life, of which New England communities afforded the example.\nThose who would follow him he gathered into towns, where he taught them the liberties\nand responsibilities of township government and the devices and institutions of civilized\nlife, among which the school and the church naturally occupied places of honor. A\nnumber of \"choice Indian youths \" he induced to attend English schools, that they might\nprepare themselves for missionary work as teachers and catechists among their own\npeople.\nHe was warmly supported in his work by \" the corporation for the propagation of\nthe gospel in foreign parts,\" by the general court of Massachusetts, and particularly by\nMr. Daniel Gookins, the official superintendent of the Indians in Massachusetts. In 1674\nthere were fourteen towns of \"praying Indians,\" whose schools and churches, in the\nmajority of instances, were administered by educated natives. At the same time an\nIndian college had been founded at Cambridge.\n\nSimilar work was done under the direction of Rev. John Cotton and\nRichard Bourne, in Plymouth Colony.\nThis work was very successful, and could it have been continued without interruption, certainly the National Educational Association would be\nwithout a department of Indian Education, as it meets here in Boston in\n1903. The Indian problem would have long since merged into the\nHowever, such a result was destined to\ngeneral problem of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUR\n\nWORK:\n\nITS\n\nPROGRESS\n\nAND\n\nNEEDS\n\n1045\n\nbe greatly delayed. Misunderstandings, disregard for the rights of the\nIndian, a determination on the part of early settlers to acquire territory\nat any cost, brought on war ; and war smothered, for a time, all attempts\nat education.\nAltho feeble attempts were made from time to time by missionaries\ntoward the Christianization of certain tribes of the Indians, there was a\nlong period of inactivity. Meantime the Indians were gradually driven\nback, back — westward, westward — by the advance guard of civilization.\nThe final result is well known. The tribes, so unjustly treated, became\nvery revengeful. Their huiiting territory having been encroached upon,\ntheir means of support was gore. Under the circumstances, the only\nthing to do at that time seemed to be to place the tribes on reservations\nunder military supervision. A natural outgrowth of the reservation\nsystem was the annuity and ration systems — a very sure, altho slow,\nprocess of extermination.\nThus the Indian became the \"white man's burden.\" At this stage of\nthe play the selfish, non-Christian element would have said : \"Exterminate the Indian and be done with him;\" but Christian civilization took\nup the burden, accepted the duty, and said: \"We must, in all fairness,\nin the sight of God and man, give the Indian a chance again, by offering\nto him educational advantages equal to the best.\" Systematic educational work was then begun.\n\" Missionaries took up the work with renewed zeal. Congress responded in 1819\nwith an appropriation of ;^ 1 0,000, in addition to certain treaty obligations. In 1820 the\nPresident was authorized to apply this sum annually in aid of societies and individuals\nengaged in Indian education. In 1823 the sum of ;?8o,ooo was expended in twenty-one\nschools maintained by missionary bodies; ^12,000 of this amount was contributed by the\ngovernment.\"\n\nThe number of schools increased gradually, largely under missionary\ncontrol, until 1877. At this time the government began the work of\nIndian education in earnest, by the establishment of day, reservation\nboarding, and industrial training schools. The annual appropriations\nhave increased from ^20,000 in 1877 to $3,251,254 in 1902. The capacity of all Indian schools, including mission schools, was, in 1902, 28,024.\nThe capacity has been increased somewhat since the close of the fiscal\nyear 1902. From a mere beginning in 1877, such progress has been\nmade that at present excellent educational accommodations are provided\nfor almost the entire number of Indians of school age. In fact, I believe\nthere are sufficient accommodations for every Indian child who really\nneeds the help of the government to get an education. While appropriations for the maintenance of the school plants will need to be made\nannually, it is certainly cause for congratulation ^hat such progress in\nestablishing new institutions has been made that that part of the work i§\npractically done.\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": null, "text": "1046\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n'\n\n[Indian\n\nNot only has great progress been made in building schoolhouses, but\nat the same time the character of the buildings has been greatly improved.\nThe improvement in the manner of building has also resulted in the building of better homes by returned students. The opportunity which students\nhave had to see good homes, either at school or in the vicinity, has\nresulted, in many instances, in their applying the knowledge thus gained\nin building homes of their own.\nWhile the construction of school plants is only incidental to the real\nwork of educating and training Indian youth, it has been a necessity;\nand it has been accomplished wisely, and in a great degree economically.\nAs shown by the statistics given, only 3,598 children were in school\nin 1877. It was difficult to get even that number, as the sentiment\namong the Indian tribes was very strongly opposed to any educational\nmovement. The most difficult feature of the work in the early days was\nto secure children for the schools ; in fact, they knew nothing but the\nfree, indolent, tribal life, and therefore were satisfied to remain in such a\nlife. The children were blameless, for they knew no better. The parents\nwere practically in the same condition. Gradually, however, the influence\nof the returning pupils has become stronger; and now the prejudice of\nthe parents is almost entirely overcome in many reservations. Altho\nsome parents still object to placing their children in school, yet, considering the entire Indian population, the sentiment is now strongly in\nfavor of schools and education. This is certainly a great step forward.\nA volunteer enrollment of practically thirty thousand children, or sixsevenths of the children of school age, shows beyond question, the change\nof sentiment. Public sentiment once being right, almost any result may\nbe attained.\nNot only has right sentiment been created, but at the same time very\nmarked results of a more tangible character may be noticed. Statistics\nconcerning Indian education are not always reliable, and yet they give a\ngeneral idea of its progress ; therefore I shall give a few from the annual\nreport for 1902.\nThe population, exclusive of Indians in Alaska, is 270,236. Of these,\n84,500 belong to the Five Civilized Tribes and provide their own\nschools. One of the marks of progress is the greatly increased number\nwho read and speak English. The commissioner's annual report for 1902\ngives as the number of Indians who read and speak English enough for\nordinary purposes, 62,616, or more than one-third of the entire population with which the government is now doing educational work. This\nestimate is undoubtedly too low, but, accepting it as correct, is it not sufficient progress to be worthy of commendation rather than condemnation ? Another mark of progress is the number who have adopted\ncitizens' dress, wholly or in part; the total being 143,974, or more than\nseven-eighths of the population.\nOriginally, these people were without\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUR\n\nWORK:\n\nITS\n\nPROGRESS\n\nAND\n\nNEEDS\n\n1047\n\nhomes. There were, in 1902, 26,629 dwelling-houses occupied by\nIndians. Counting the average family to be five in number, this would\nmake a total of 133,145, or approximately two-thirds of the population,\nliving in houses.\nThese statistics show remarkable progress, most of which can be\ntraced directly or indirectly to the work of the schools. Many other\nmarks of progress might be mentioned, but I am also to consider briefly\nsome of the needs of our work, therefore must hasten.\nA careful study of present conditions convinces one that, altho much\nprogress has been made in some lines of the work, in others there has\nbeen but little advance.\nThe trained young Indian men and women from the schools will forge\nto the front in all lines of industrial work. They know how to use their\nheads and their hands ; and if brought face to face with necessity, or, I\nbelieve, if given opportunity among their own people, they will intelligently, willingly, and cheerfully work.\nGiven the opportunity and incentive of necessity, the Indian boy or\ngirl will work as faithfully as anyone. It is but natural, however, for any\nson or daughter to drift toward home and kindred ; and, while it may be\nargued that white boys and girls do not tie themselves to their mother's\napron strings, it is true that they do tie themselves to some person's apron\nstrings. At least the boys do; and girls generally tie some boy to their\nheart strings. It is just as natural for Indian boys and girls to seek\namong their own kindred and race for life partners.\nThis, then, brings us face to face with what seems to me to be of vital\nimportance in our work. We cannot, if we would, keep the Indian children from returning home from school. Conditions at their homes must\ntherefore be changed. To change and improve the homes materially\nwill require vigorous, persistent effort. Encourage the building of railroads, the development of mining interests, and of all other natural\nresources of the reservations. In other words, break down the barriers\nand permit civilization to thrust its helpful influences upon the needy; to\ncarry light into the homes of those who have been living in darkness.\nThere has been much discussion about the comparative value of reservation and non-reservation schools. Permit me to suggest the way to a\nsatisfactory solution of this much-discussed question. Blot out of existence every reservation, and every reservation school will become a non- .\nreservation school. The principal reason for the establishment of Carlisle,\nof Haskell, of Chilocco, of Phoenix, of Genoa, of Chemawa, and other nonreservation schools, was that reservation conditions at that time rendered\nthe best educational work in reservation schools impossible. Therefore,\nthe earlier these conditions are changed b}* the introduction of civilization,\nthe earlier will it be advisable to leave the work of Indian education to\nschools located in the vicinity of the homes of the Indians.\n\nEducation\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": null, "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfindtafl\n\nhas been at work all these years, and now I believe it is time for methods\nto be changed. Educational work should not, I believe, be curtailed in\nthe least. In fact, it is very essential that it be conducted very vigorously while the barriers are being removed from the reservations. Let\nthoroly trained, courageous. Christian men and women be employed in\nthe schools, to guide the Indian people and to protect their rights during\nthis time when greater responsibilities are being thrust upon them.\nI should like to suggest just at this time that, altho the extension of civil\nservice rules to positions in the Indian service has been one of the progressive steps in Indian education, and has greatly improved the character\nof the work, a more practical civil service is needed, as far as the manner\nof selecting employees is concerned. It should be possible for superintendents to secure the services of persons having special qualifications for\ncertain lines of technical work. For instance : I want a man who has had\ntechnical college training and also practical experience in farming, to put\nin charge of the agricultural work of an institution. Under present\nmethods there is only one chance in ten of securing a satisfactory\nemployee. The same is true of a number of other positions, such as\nphysical director or disciplinarian, domestic-science teacher, domesticart teacher, and manual-training teacher. While heartily endorsing the\nspirit of the civil service, I as earnestly advocate some reform in this\nparticular.\nPut all children of school age in school. Educational work should be\ncontinued along lines already well established. Further, the importance\nof domestic training for girls should be emphasized, especially cooking\nand sewing, and instruction ought to be given the boys in agriculture,\nstock-raising, and builders' trades.\nI should like to suggest one other course of treatment that is essential, without which I would not be willing to guarantee a permanent cure.\nBoys and girls should both be given regularly, while in school, during\nthat period of life when their habits are becoming fixed and character is\nbeing developed, systematic, thoro Christian training. Bible study should\nhave an important place in the daily program. God made man in his\nown image. Later it became necessary to make laws for the guidance of\nman to enable him to avoid sin and wrong-doing, to live righteously.\nBoys and girls must have a knowledge of such laws, if they would stand\nerect in the sight of God and man. A really civilized people cannot be\nfound in the world except where the Bible has been sent and the gospel\ntaught ; hence we believe that the Indians must have, as an essential part\nof their education. Christian training. This can best be given thru the\nschools. I wish to make a special plea for more intelligent, more earnest, religious work in Indian schools.\nIn closing I wish to summarize as follows :\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQUALIFYING\n\nINDIANS\n\nFOR\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nPROGRESS\n\nMADE\n\nIO49\n\nSchool accommodations for practically all Indian children are now provided;\nthese schools are generally well equipped.\nPublic sentiment among the Indians has gradually come to favor education for their\nchildren.\nNearly 30,000, or six-sevenths of all Indian children, are in school.\nMore than one-third of the Indian population are now English-speaking people ;\nseven-eighths of the Indians wear citizens' clothing, wholly or in part ; and probably twothirds live in dwelling houses.\nTHINGS\n\nWE\n\nNEED\n\nTO\n\nDO\n\nUse the intelligence and judgment of a good guardian and see to it that the child's\neducational opportunities are not interfered with.\nEmphasize domestic training for the girls, especially cooking, sewing, and homemaking ; and agriculture, stock-raising, and the builders' trades for the boys.\nEndeavor to secure competent industrial instructors.\nEmphasize, for both boys and girls, religious training.\nPush the educated young people out to work for themselves as rapidly as they are\nprepared to do so. Give them encouragement and sympathy while they are gettmg\nstarted in the battle of life, but do not give them anything more.\n\nWe must not become impatient, for the work cannot all be accomplished in a generation. Yet the present generation of young people\nshould in some way be made to realize that they must soon, very soon,\ndepend upon their own efforts for whatever they get out of life.\nA careful investigation of work done reveals good results attained as\nwell as present conditions that require earnest, vigorous work within the\nnext few years. We should not allow ourselves to be led into impracticable channels of work by the suggestions of impractical onlookers, but\nshould conscientiously and vigorously prosecute our work, ever keeping\nin line with the best that American civilization offers, until the Indian\neducational problem may be merged into the greater problem of general\neducation.\nTO WHAT DEGREE HAS THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF INDIAN\nSCHOOLS BEEN SUCCESSFUL IN QUALIFYING FOR\nCITIZENSHIP?\nH. B. FRISSELL, PRINCIPAL\nOF HAMPTON\nNORMAL\nINSTITUTE, HAMPTON, VA.\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\n[an abstract]\n\nProminent among early Indian teachers was Rev. John Eliot, of\nMassachusetts, whose practical plans of education have had an important\ninfluence upon all training of Indians in this country. Eliot received their\nconfidence and respect, and at the same time inspired in them a sincere\ndesire for the industry and thrift, the gcWliness and purity of life, which\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\ncharacterized the white settlers of New England. He made a careful study\nof the Indian language, disposition, and character. Instead of endeavoring to kill out their race characteristics, he recognized the good that there\nwas in them, and endeavored to perpetuate it.\nThe Indian day schools are among the most interesting and valuable\nbecause of the instruction they give to parents as well as to children, in\ncivilized ways. A teacher and his wife are provided, not only with a\nschoolroom, but with a house and a piece of land. During a part of each\nschool day the boys work with the teacher on the farm, while the girls help\nthe wife in the cooking and housekeeping. At noon all sit down together\nto a meal which the girls have cooked. The work of the schoolroom is\nclosely correlated with that of the farm and kitchen. The house and\nfarm become an object-lesson to the Indians in the vicinity. The teacher\ngives instruction to the farmers of the neighborhood, and his wife shows\nthe Indian woman proper methods of keeping their homes.. How much\nmore such a school means to a child-race than does the ordinary public\nschool it is not difficult to understand. Instead of centering the educational work upon book-learning it is made to center upon real life. The\nschoolroom is used to explain the farm and home, just as John Eliot,\nwhen he would help his Indians understand the ways of civilized life, took\nthem to the towns and explained to them the store, the church, and the\nschoolhouse.\nIn the reservation boarding school the Indian is introduced to a small\nindustrial and agricultural village. In addition to the usual teachers,\nthere are a cook, seamstress, and laundress, whose office is not only to\nsupervise their respective departments, but to instruct the girls in these\narts. Similarly for the instruction of the boys there are a farmer, an\nindustrial teacher, and at the larger schools, a tailor, a shoe-and-harnessmaker, a carpenter, and a blacksmith. In these, as in the day schools,\nthe emphasis is placed upon the home, the workshop, and the farm, where\nthe study of history, geography, etc., helps the Indians to understand the\nplace which the small industrial village of which they are a part holds in\nthe history and geography of today. The stories told them by their\nfathers of the past of their own tribe are supplemented by the stories of\nother great men who have excelled in quite different spheres.\nThe non-reservation boarding schools have carried on the same methods, devoting half the day to work and half to study. The plan of these\nschools originally was that each should devote itself to some special\noccupation.\nAs, in the schools of France, certain institutions are devoted to the\nstudy and cultivation of grapes, certain others to the fishing industry, still\nothers to dairying ; so it was felt that the Indian youth of certain tribes\nmight with advantage be taught dairying or herding, for instance, and the\nwhole work of the school be made the center of that industry.\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQUALIFYING\n\nINDIANS\n\nFOR\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n1 05 1\n\nIn all these schools undenominational religious work is carried on,\nand opportunity is given to both Protestants and Catholics to influence\nthe life of the young people. In some of the schools there is cordial\nco-operation between Catholic priests and Protestant clergymen, and it\nis to be hoped that this will soon be true of all.\nHaving considered the systems of schools under which our Indian\nyouths are being educated, let us inquire how far this system has qualified\nthem for citizenship. When one goes to the agencies where returned\nstudents live in the greatest numbers, he finds that most of the important\npositions at the agency — those of interpreter, clerk, farmer, and policeman— are filled by returned students, and that nearly every place in the\ntrade shops, except that of foreman, is filled by boys who have learned\nmore or less of a trade at school. In the boarding schools one or more\nwill usually be found in the class-rooms as teachers, and several in industrial positions. Among the camp schools — little oases in the desert of\nignorance — very often an educated Indian and his wife are in charge,\ndoing their best teaching by providing a living object-lesson to both\nchildren and parents. At several agencies societies have sprung up among\nthe returned students, which hold the leaders together, sustain the weak,\nand have proved of political as well as ethical value, supplying the places\nmade vacant in civil affairs by the deposition of the chiefs and the absence\nof any other guiding power.\nWhile the progress of the Indians in adopting the white man's dress\nand habits, in agriculture and mechanical arts, and in willingness to have\ntheir children educated, is not altogether the result of Indian schools,\nthere is no doubt that these have had much to do with it. Statistics\ngiven in the commissioner's report as to the advancement made along\nthese lines will be interesting. In the year 1890 the Indians had under\ncultivation 288,618 acres of land ; in 1901, 355,261. The number of acres\nfenced increased during these eleven years from 608,987 to 1,289,689.\nThe number of families actually living on\" farms and cultivating their\nlands in severalty rose from 5,554 to 10,279. The number of horses and\nmules decreased from 443,244 to 343,300, while their head of cattle have\nincreased from 170,419 to 253,397, showing that they are getting rid of\nworthless ponies and investing in cattle.\nWhile the allotment of land to the Indian has had much to do with\nthese improved conditions, it is doubtful if the allotment itself would have\nbeen possible except for the schools. The number of Indians adopting\ncitizen's dress has increased between 1890 and 1901 from 70,095 to 98,197.\nThe number of Indians that can read English has increased from 23,207\nto 32,846, and the number of dwelling-houses from 19,104 to 26,574. It\nis not too much to say that the abolition of the ration system and the\nadoption of the work system, which Commissioner Jones has so effectively\nbrought about have been made possible thru the government schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": null, "text": "I052\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nThe last twenty years have seen a progress far in excess of anything\nthat preceded it. The system of Indian schools which is in existence\ntoday is worthy of study, and its results, as shown in qualifying men and\nwomen for citizenship, have already, proved its value.\n\nALASKA'S\nSHELDON\n\nSTART\n\nTOWARD\n\nJACKSON, GENERAL\nAGENT\nWASHINGTON,\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nOF EDUCATION\nD. C.\n\nIN\n\nALASKA,\n\n[an abstract]\n\nAlaska has five families of aboriginal peoples — the Eskimos, the Arthabaskans, the Thlingets, the Hydahs, and the Aleuts and Creoles. They\nare industrious. The necessities of their hard life compel the Alaskan\nman, woman, and child to work from earliest childhood to secure sufficient\nfood to support life. They are also of a mechanical turn of mind. With\na few pieces of drift wood and a walrus hide they can construct a canoe\nwhich will weather heavier seas than the best boats of the same size created\nby our highest skill. A band of Eskimo boys, with the same knowledge\nof the English language, placed in an industrial school with an equal\nnumber of American boys, will excel the latter. With healthy bodies and\na mechanical turn of mind, they are good raw material from which to\nmake good American citizens.\nThe start toward citizenship was made August lo, 1877, when I located\na Presbyterian mission and School at Fort Wrangell, in southeastern Alaska. On March 2, 1884, the secretary of the interior assigned the work of\nmaking provision for the education of children in Alaska to the Bureau of\nEducation, and I was appointed to establish and carry forward the public\nschools in Alaska. Since then, between forty and fifty public schools have\nbeen org'anized, and four to five thousand of the native children have been\nbrought for a time under their influence.\nIn southern Alaska many of the pupils have been taught industrial pursuits in connection with the schools. In at least one of the schools the\npupils are required to give at least three hours each school day to books,\nand at least three hours to manual labor. In arctic and sub-arctic Alaska,\nto the extent of the funds provided by the government for the purpose,\nEskimo young men have been given a five-year course of training in the\ncare and management of domestic reindeer. These schools and their\nindustrial training are also centers for the start toward citizenship. The\nlarger number, after leaving school, take their places among their own\npeople, and by an example of better living help lift up the native community.\nMany of the recent pupils of the Sitka Training School have engaged\ny\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nWHITE\n\nMAN'S\n\nBURDEN\n\n1053\n\nin commercial pursuits, and in most cases have been successful. Two\nbrothers, for instance, formed a partnership and started a store. Making\na few thousand dollars at storekeeping, and encouraged by the success of\ntheir comrades at saw-milling, they removed from the village and established asaw-mill which, when I visited there, was running night and day,\nunable to fill all its orders. Another of the native pupils, who left the\nschool in the nineties, went to the Klondike, where he has made a moderate fortune in gold-mining.\nThe instances of success achieved by the native students after leaving\nschool will be increased hundreds of times when the educational advantages and opportunities of the Alaska aboriginal races are similarly\nincreased.\n\nTHE\nG.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nWHITE MAN'S BURDEN VERSUS INDIGENOUS\nDEVELOPMENT FOR THE LOWER RACES\nHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nMan is today, and from the dawn of history has been, the greatest of\nall exterminators. The great auk, the cave bear, the woolly rhinoceros,\nand scores of smaller species owe their extinction to him, and several score\nof other species are in a slow process of extermination. The missing link\nthat connects him in evolutionary series with the humbler forms from\nwhich he sprung he himself has destroyed. The same process is now\nrapidly going on with the lower races. Primitive tribes fade away at his\ntouch. Where civilized man wishes to preserve savages he cannot do so.\nMany diseases, slight for him, like measles and whooping cough, are deadly\nto lower races. Other worse infections find the nidus of a more vigorous\nand deadly development in the bodies of barbarians than they have in our\nenfeebled systems. Often our worst is in contact with their best. The\nworld knows the sad story of the extinction of the Tasmanians, the Boethuk Indians of Newfoundland ; has read the story of the Last of the Mohicans; of poor Calle Shasta, the sole survivor of the Modocs ; of the natives\nof Hawaii, who dwindled from a hundred thousand to thirty thousand ; of\nthe fading tribes of the Samoieds of Siberia ; of the Todas of India ; of the\nnatives of New Zealand and Madagascar. A few of their younger men and\nwomen have taken on a little of our superficial culture, and even become\nlimp prodigies, later to go back, ostracised, to the bush and wish they had\nnever left it. A great ethnologist estimates that twenty million slaves,\nmostly adolescent, have been sold or died in slave ships within the Christian centuries, and declares that Africa would today be better off had it\nnever been discovered by the whites. Discovery is doom for low races,\nif they have committed the unpardonat)le crime of settling on land the\nmineral or vegetable product of which makes it valuable to whites.\nOne-\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": null, "text": "I054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nthird of the land of the world and two-fifths of its population are todaycomprised in the various dependencies, colonies, or spheres of influence\nwhich, since the great international scramble which began about 1897 or\n1898, has absorbed all of the inhabitable globe.\nCivilization is man's attempt to domesticate himself, and the most\ncivilized among us have not yet attained the true test of domestication,\nnamely, breathing or self-reproduction in the captivity we have made for\nourselves. We have developed the city, which is a biological furnace\nthat intensifies individuation and reduces genesis. Culture at its best is a\ndim candle illuminating only a few rooms in the great city of man's soul,\nand leaving the rest in twilight or pitchy dark. Huxley said in substance\nthat slum life in London was lower than among any savage race, and\nRancke urged that civilization was in no whit an advance over barbarism,\nbecause its lowest dragged down its highest half to a lower average ; and\nyet, with a fanaticism worthy of the Mahdi himself, we force our culture\nupon unwilling necks as the most holy thing on earth.\nWhat is the most precious of all things in the world? It is the native\nindigenous stocks or strips of men and women who are natural, vigorous, pure, abounding in health, and that have potency for posterity,\nwhich is the very best test of a race and of civilization. It carries in its\nbosom the great promise to Abraham, that if he kept covenant with the\nDivine his seed should be as the stars of heaven for multitudes. Ounces\nof heredity are proverbially worth pounds of education and civilization.\nThis is the most ancient wealth and worth. It conserves thru generations\nthe most precious things.\nNow, my simple proposition today is that the lower races should first\nbe understood, their customs studied, their language made familiar, their\nfeelings, views of the world and life, their traditions, myths, institutions,\nsympathetically appreciated; and that all attempted reconstruction of\ntheir lives, thoughts, and emotions should be guided by this knowledge.\nThe tribal system of our Indians is not unlike that on the basis of\nwhich, as Morgan has shown, Greece, Rome, or earlier civilizations were\ndeveloped. The policy is to break it up, instead of studying it, grafting\nall possible good into its vigorous stock, utilizing everything that is excellent in it, and developing it up to the point when a better culture and\nsystem shall come as naturally as a growth. Low races abhor our methods\nof industry, regulated by the clock that makes alike all the days for\nthem. Longer periods of great effort alternate with those of relaxation.\nBetween matrix and all literary culture is myth, and every well-developed\nmyth system has in it the promise and potency of more or less highly\ndeveloped art, philosophy, literature, and perhaps religion. Instead of\nreviving these, we ignore, or perhaps wage a war of extermination against,\nthem. Instead of trying to make a good Indian, we try to make a\nwretched third-class white man.\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nWHITE\n\nMAN'S\n\nBURDEN\n\n1055\n\nPritchard described traders who batten on the failings which they\nfound, and the greater ones they made, among the Tehuelches in Patagonia. Humboldt tells of the great gift of music, the wealth and depth of\nreligious thought and feeling, among the Huichols in Mexico, all of whom\nare descended from a god. Bolt in Nicaragua finds abundant traces of an\nearly civilization which he deems higher than that of Cortez, who exterminated itand, according to Bastian, killed one hundred and fifty thousand\nnatives, introduced small-pox that slew eighty thousand the first year and\ntwo million in a generation, and destroyed a magnificent system of irrigation, and so left the land a waste ever since. Le Plongeon thought the\nnatives of Yucatan great builders, like the Pelasgi, and that they were\ndirect descendants from the old Egyptians.\nMiss Fletcher and Gushing have taught us that to know the real Indian\nis to love him, and suggest th^t we should teach that our religion is only\nanother form of theirs; tell us that their dances are sacred passion plays,\nand that even the ghost dance is only a pathetic appeal for help and comfort to the denizens of their unseen world, who seem to have forsaken\nthem. Duncan has developed a new pedagogy and transformation among\nthe Metacathlahs. Is it extravagant to say that Anilco, Spotted Tail,\nSamoset, Massasoit, Pontiac, Black Hawk, King Philip, and many more\nrepresent a patriotism comparable to that of Winkelried ? General Crook,\nwho spent much of his life among these men of the Stone Age, tells us\nthat many of them have an eloquence that would not disgrace the halls of\nCongress. We are long past the stage of hunting them with dogs, as Rev.\nSamuel Hopkins urged Popham's men to do in Maine in 1703, and of\nbeing proud of Indian slayers in our ancestry who kept tallies on their\ngun stock of the heads of Indians they had killed.\nCanada has no Indian problem, because it adopted the French policy,\nwhich affiliates, and sometimes even promotes intermarriage.\nThanks to the present administration of Indian education, efforts are\nnow made to preserve, or rather revive, their wondrous art of making\nbaskets, into which they sometimes weave in symbols the whole story of\ntheir lives. This renaissance not only gives them support — such is the\ndemand for basketry — but teaches them self-respect. Why cannot the\nsame thing be done with their pottery, skin-dressing, bead-work, canoemaking, taught, where possible, by natives before they become lost arts ?\nWhy cannot all their myths and ceremonies be studied and developed ?\nWhy should we force them, in the beginning of a new century of dishonor, in the words of a young brave, \"to clean the spittoons of the white\nman's civilization ? \" Why, instead of making them poor, and perhaps\nbad, white men and women, breaking down their health, industries and\nsocial organizations, morals and spirit, shafl we not try to make them good\nIndians ?\nCushing,\n\nMiss\n\nFletcher,\n\nFewkes,\n\nCatchet,\n\nHough,\n\nMiller,\n\nCyrus\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": null, "text": "1056\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Indian\n\nThomas, and many other ethnologists have studied and know them sympathetically. Why should not our bureau and schools avail themselves to\nthe fullest extent of this knowledge, and be guided by the very practical\nsuggestions from such sources ? Now, on the reservations, in which they\nare impounded very like the victims of Weyler in concentrado camps, they\ncannot paint, and cannot even celebrate their dances, which are holy\npassion-plays, sacred worship, all their religion to them. The agent\nshould be simply a kind and fatherly adviser to these men and women still\nin the adolescent stage of their development. Why should not the missionary graft, instead of eradicate ? Why should he not study their totemism, worship, myths, and make religion a natural growth rather than a\nsudden alien conquest ?\nAbove all, the Indian is perhaps the most religious race on earth.\nAmong many tribes, nothing is begun without asking help from on high.\nChildren of the gods themselves, their lives center in worship. What\nmost struck the Zunis whom Gushing brought to Boston was, as one chief\nsaid, that \" they saw many men hurrying about and doing many things,\nbut no one praying.\"\nOur country now needs to take a new and larger view of the problems\nof lower races, and base its treatment upon their nature, as we now study\nchildren in order to mold schools and methods to fit them. I have been\ntold by government teachers among the Filipinos that they had no legends\nor customs. This, ethnological literature abundantly disproves. In fine,\nwe ought now to consider education, religion, statesmanship, history, from\na larger standpoint, because the best things have not happened yet. Often\nvictims have been in the end the real conquerors. We may sometime\nneed primitive stock, that our blood or institutions will dominate the far\nfuture. In later ages other stocks now obscure, and perhaps other\ntongues now unstudied, will occupy the center of the historic stage, appropriating the best we achieve, as we learn from Semites, Greeks, and\nRomans. If this be true, every vigorous race, however rude and undeveloped, is,like childhood, worthy of the maximum of reverence and care\nand study, and may become the chosen of a new dispensation of culture\nand civilization. Some of them now obscure may be the heirs of all we\npossess, and wield the ever-increasing resources of the world for good or\nevil, somewhat perhaps according as we now influence their early plastic\nstages.\nHEART\nCHARLES\n\nF.\n\nMESERVE,\n\nCULTURE\nPRESIDENT\n\nIN INDIAN\nOF\n\nSHAW\n\nEDUCATION\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nRALEIGH,\n\nN.\n\nC.\n\n[an abstract]\n\nWithin the last quarter of a century the United States has established\nindustrial, boarding, and day schools, allotted land in severalty, extended\ncivil service to school positions, broken up the autonomy of the five civil-\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTENURE\n\nIN\n\nC/V7L\n\nSERVICE\n\n1057\n\nized tribes, stopped making appropriations to denominational schools,\nwithdrawn or reduced rations, and has begun to put Indian agencies\nunder the control of school superintendents. The annual appropriation\nfor schools has grown from $20,000 to $3,522,950.\nMany Indians are working their own land, and all ought soon to be\nthrown upon their own resources. The civil service has improved the\nschools, and great progress has been made in the Indian Territory by the\nbreaking up of the tribal relations. Congress withdrew the appropriation\nfrom denominational schools, but religious liberty is safer, and all denominations are free to give religious instruction in the government schools\nto the children of their faith. When rations were reduced or cut off, the\ngovernm'ent was considered cruel, but the Indians are beginning to work,\nand some say they like work and wages better than idleness and Uncle\nSam's free-lunch counter.\nAgency affairs are being taken out of politics by putting agency business in the hands of school superintendents. In a decade or two the\nIndian agent, the reservation, and the rations system are destined to be as\nextinct as the dodo.\nWhen President Harrison, forced to action by the intolerable persistence of the spoilsmen, placed in the classified civil service list the positions\nof superintendent, physician, matron, and teacher, a great step in advance\nwas taken. At that time the only road from the spoils system to better\nthings led to the doors of the civil-service commission ; but a decade or\nmore has wrought a great change, and the schools now have superintendents of high character and more trustworthiness, who have no political pull and are not affected by political pressure, as was the case when\nPresident Harrison issued his executive order.\nSome of these schools, like Haskell, Carlisle, Chilocco, Phoenix, Harrison, Genoa, and others, are as large as, or larger than, some of the wellknown colleges of national reputation, and require men of good education,\nwide experience, and a high order of executive ability to preside over and\nmanage them successfully.\n\nTENURE\nJOHN\n\nT. DOYLE,\n\nSECRETARY\n\nIN THE\n\nCIVIL SERVICE\n\nOF THE\nUNITED\nCOMMISSION\n\nSTATES\n\nCIVIL\n\nSERVICE\n\nThe law relating to the exercise of the appointing power in the civil\nservice is rapidly assuming great importance, with the development of\nadministrative science, and the literature relating to it, tho still partial and\nfragmentary, has become voluminous. A distinct body of law has arisen\nfrom the decisions of the courts and the practice under various statutes\nand regulations. This body of law and practice is important in securing\nhonest and efficient administration of the government, as upon that\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": null, "text": "1058\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nhonesty and efficiency depend the integrity and maintenance of republican institutions.\nMore than two hundred thousand persons are employed in the federal\ncivil service, and perhaps as many more in the state and city governments. The conditions of appointment and removal, as related to this\ngreat body of employees, are vitally important, not merely to the personal\nwelfare of the individuals concerned, but to the nation. If the principles\nof appointment and tenure are vicious or unsound, abuses will necessarily\narise in the administration of government; the civil service will become\nextravagant and corrupt, threatening the whole fabric of government.\nIt is essential, therefore, that there should be sound teaching on this\nsubject.\nThe power to make a removal is allied to the power to appoint. In\nour early history, few restrictions were placed either upon the power of\nappointment or the power of removal, and these restrictions were not at\nall uniform. When the civil service of the country was small there was\nlittle need of regulations to govern appointments and removals; and\nadministrative reform, along with many other great reforms, only began\nin the latter half of the past century. The use of the patronage system\nin Great Britain to influence legislation, the giving of colonial positions\nas sinecures to the privileged classes and to personal favorites, was one of\nthe causes which brought about the American Revolution. The debates\non the Constitution show that our earliest statesmen had a clear appreciation of the evils of the patronage system, and sought to avoid them in\nfounding the new government. It was their intention that the administrative officers should hold office during good behavior and efficiency.\nDuring the first forty years of the Constitution this principle was given\nthoro and practical effect. Madison, the expounder of the Constitution,\nsaid that the wanton removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable\noffense. It was not until nine years after the passage of the four-yeartenure-of-office act, in 1820, that any material departure arose from this\ntraditional policy of the government. This act was passed at the instance\nof an appointing officer, for the purpose of using its power to secure his\nnomination as a presidential candidate. The abuse of the power of\nremoval which then had its inception, like that of the power of appointment, has been one of the most potent agencies by which the public\nservice has been demoralized and degraded and the spoils system\nestablished.\nThe theory regarding removals, before the' spoils system arose, was\nlaid down by Madison.\nIt was this :\nWhatever may be said of a technical legal power, no officer can have a right to\nremove a worthy public servant except for adequate public reasons, nor any right to forbear to remove an unworthy one, unless the removal would, for peculiar reasons, be at\nthe moment a public detriment.\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTENURE\n\nIN\n\nCIVIL\n\nSERVICE\n\nIO59\n\nThe courts have said that where there is a tenure of good behavior it\nis plain there must be good cause, arising from the bad conduct of the\nofficial, to justify removal. Removal in such a case must be preceded by\nsuch action as is equivalent to a conviction of misbehavior; and upon\nthat charge there should be a trial and an opportunity for defense. It is\nclear that the exercise of the power of removal should be governed by the\nsame normal obligation which would forbid the use of public money for\nprivate or party purposes. Whether or not there is abuse of public office\nin this respect largely depends upon the state of public opinion ; and it\nis of the highest importance, for the purification of politics and the elevation of official life, that public opinion should be informed on this\nsubject.\nThe subject of the term and tenure of the president, members of Congress, and the federal judiciary was discussed in the early debates on the\nConstitution, but nothing was said about the term and tenure of subordinate office-holders.\nCertain of the federal judges have a tenure of good behavior, and\nthere is a statute forbidding the head of a department from removing\ncertain officers, except for cause stated in writing, which shall be submitted to Congress at the session following such removal. But these are\ntrifling exceptions to the great body of officials. There is also the\ngreatest divergence in the terms and tenures of judges in the federal and\nstate services, school officers, commissioners, mayors, state senators, and\ngovernors. This divergence exists not merely in practice, but also in the\nviews of public men. On the one hand, permanency in office is insisted\nupon by some as essential to efficiency, and, on the other, denounced as\nan aristocratic monopoly. Some regard a fixed term of years as a corrective of party despotism and corruption, while others regard such a term\nas increasing both those evils. Rotation in office is demanded to guard\nagainst bureaucracy, and Congress has been urged to fix a short term of\noffice for all subordinate officials.\nThere is a wide divergence of opinion as to how long a term of office\nthe law should provide, or whether removal should be made only for\ncause, trusting to sound principles and good administration. In European governments, down to within a century, offices were. given as a\nmatter of favor, and often sold outright or leased. This has been\nchanged in all civilized states and the patronage lessened, so that offices\nare given only to those who are found to have the requisite education\nand experience. Short and precarious terms and tenure have given\nway to comparative stability of tenure. In our army and navy, offices are\nheld during the pleasure of the president.\nNow, what are the reasons which reqi4ire a stable and independent\ntenure rather than a short, fixed term ? The reasons in the case of the\ngreat body of mere administrative positions which are filled by appoint-\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nment, and not by election, are : first, that the duties are in objects and\nmethods the same, to be performed in the same spirit and manner at all\ntimes and under all circumstances ; and, second, that officers of this class\nare not representative of either interests, opinions, times, classes, or sections. These reasons apply equally to the tenure of judges and to officials, who, unlike cabinet officers, heads of departments, and ambassadors,\nare not appointed to carry out a political policy.\nThe reasons for a stable tenure do not apply to elective officers.\nSuch officers represent interests, opinions, and policies which are constantly changing. Representative government requires short terms for\nlegislators in order that the changing phases of public opinion should be\nadequately represented in debate and in framing legislation. By frequent\nelections the people can instruct their officials and call them to account,\nand thus change the methods of government. The citizen is the judge\nof the fitness of the candidate for whom he votes. It is necessary that\nthe terms of officials or towns and villages should be short, to make rotation in office for the diffusion of information concerning public affairs.\nAs we get away from these merely local offices which are filled by\nelection by the people, we find that the terms of office become longer.\nThis is because the officers do not represent public opinion to the same\nextent, and that experience acquired in the service is more important\nthan ideal representation. So manifest is the value of experience to members of Congress that they continue to be re-elected, notwithstanding\ngreat changes in party measures and opinions.\nWe come now to the great body of subordinate officials, who have\nnothing to do with the policies or principles of administration, whose\nduties are to be performed in the same way, no matter which party is in\npower, and whose political opinions have no relation to their duties.\nThere is very great harm when they become active partisans and use their\noffices to control political movements. This means, as President Roosevelt has said, that in consideration of fixity of tenure and of appointment\nin no way due to political considerations, the man in the classified service, while retaining his right to vote as he pleases and to express privately his opinions on all political subjects, should not take any active\npart in political management or in political campaigns, for precisely the\nsame reasons that a judge, an army officer, a regular soldier, or a policeman is debarred from taking such active part.\nThe civil-service act of 1883 was intended to cure in part the evils\nwhich grew out of that relic of feudalism, the four-year-tenure-of-office\nact. Our administrative system presents the contradiction of filling the\ngreat body of the civil service upon competitive tests of merit, free from\nremovals for political reasons, and at the same time of subjecting the positions of postmasters, other than of the fourth class, and collectors of customs and internal revenue to a term of four years. It is a marked advance\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nTENURE\n\nIN\n\nCIVIL\n\nSERVICE\n\n1 06 1\n\nthat fourth-class postmasters are now no longer changed every four years,\nbut only for reasons other than political. The positions subjected to this\nperiodical change require the largest capacity and longest experience\nfor their successful conduct. As it is, they are attained by partisan zeal\nand party service for a term of four years. Calhoun, Webster, Clay,\nBenton, arid many other able and patriotic statesmen have declaimed\nagainst the evils of the four-year- tenure law and advocated its repeal. It\nis becoming a physical impossibility for the president and cabinet officers\nto examine the papers and to hear the arguments and complaints relating\nto nearly ten thousand officers to be commissioned, and the repeal of the\nfour-year tenure law would afford needed relief to permit more time to be\ngiven to the consideration of public business.\nBriefly stated, the existing law respecting removals is that the power\nof appointment implies an absolute and unrestricted power of removal,\nexcept in so far as there are express restrictions imposed by statutes consistent with the Constitution. In the federal service the tenure of office\nis at the will and discretion of the head of the department, who has the\nconstitutional power of appointment, provided he does not violate the\ncivil-service act, which is the only provision of Congress that curtails or\nabridges the right of removal. Legally speaking, the appointing power may\nmake removals without any accountability, except that he is liable to impeachment or to removal by the president. The civil-service act provides\nfor procuring a body of employees whose appointment is made to depend\nupon fitness, and not upon political favor. Altho the act does not limit\nthe power of removal, the filling of a vacancy must not be controlled by\npolitical CQnsiderations, and the appointment must be made from among\nthose who pass highest in the examinations. The temptation to make a\nremoval for other than just cause is usually to make room for a favorite.\nBy removing this temptation and relieving the appointing officers from\nthe pressure to make appointments for political or personal reasons,\nremovals are kept within proper limits, and there is less need for statutory restrictipns.\nWith a view of preventing removals upon secret charges and to\ndiminish political intrigues for removals, the civil-service rules require\nthat within the classified service no one shall be removed from a competitive position except for such cause as will promote the efficiency of the\npublic service, and for reasons given in writing ; and the person whose\nremoval is sought shall have notice and be furnished with a copy thereof,\nand be allowed a reasonable time for answering the same in writing. This\nrule does not create any legal interest and cannot be invoked before the\ncourts, but merely has force as an administrative order of the executive.\nIt is further provided that no exaniinatioii of witnesses or any trial or\nhearing shall be required, except in the discretion of the officer making\nthe removal.\nThis rule is an authoritative expression by the executive of\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Indian\n\nhis desire, and command to his subordinates, with respect to removals\nfrom office of those coming within the scope of the civil-service act. The\nexecutive has the constitutional authority to regulate for himself the manner of appointment and removal. He may direct his subordinates who\nexercise under him, in certain cases, the power of appointment and\nremoval, and may regulate the manner in which they may act for him ;\nbut this is an administrative order, not done in compliance with any law,\nbut simply an instruction to those who hold positions by virtue of his\nappointment as to the manner in which they shall discharge their duties\nin respect to the removal of their subordinates. The only authority or\nduty the Civil Service Commission has in a removal is to see that the procedure required by the rules is carried out. The appointing officer is the\nfinal judge of the qualifications of his subordinates, and the question\nwhether such cause exists as requires a removal for the efficiency of the\nservice is for him to determine. The commission has no power to review\nhis finding in this respect.\nThe civil-service act did not, of course, intend that there should be a\nlife-tenure, or that persons who became inefficient should be retained.\nThe authority of removal and its exercise for proper reasons are necessary\nfor the discipline and efficiency of the service.\nOf the entire number of classified competitive employees only about\n2 per cent, are removed each year for cause, less than i per cent, of such\nemployees of the departments at Washington being removed, and only a\nlittle more than one-half of i per cent, of the employees of the railway\nmail service. The largest number of removals is from the services in\nin which many positions are of a mechanical or trades character, as in the\nassistant custodian and janitor service, where the removals amount to\nabout lo per cent,, and the quartermaster's department at large, where\nthey amount to a little more than 4 per cent.\nThe amendment of the rules in 1897, requiring charges and a hearing\nbefore a removal, supplemented by the amendment of 1899, requiring\nthat the reasons for any change in rank or compensation shall be made a\npart of the records of the proper department or office, has given stability\nand permanence to the service, and based the tenure of employees upon\nefficiency and good behavior. The training received by employees in the\ngovernment service is of peculiar value, because of the radical differences\nbetween the methods of public and private business; and, as a rule,\nemployees are far more efficient and useful after several years' experience\nthan when they first enter the service. It is not good policy to exchange\nmen trained in technical public work for untrained and inexperienced persons. Such changes often involve large losses to the government, cause\ndelays in doing the work, and require the employment of a larger force\nthan would otherwise be necessary.\nThe regulations requiring the keep-\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTENURE\n\nIN\n\nCIVIL\n\nSERVICE\n\nI063\n\ning of records of efficiency, and promotion examinations, also afford protection indirectly against improper removals.\nThe act and rules require that entrance to the service shall be upon\nthe basis of ascertained merit, and consistency, as well as the efficiency of\nthe service, requires this.\nThe recent amendments to the rules, so far from impairing the exercise of the power of discipline in making removals, aid its exercise. It is\nthe duty of appointing officers to remove from the service those who fail\nto show adequate qualifications, and to retain those who do possess them.\nNo restriction has been or should be placed upon the exercise of that\npower, which would tend to keep the inefficient in the service.\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": null, "text": "'.1\nCLASSIFIED\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nBY STATES\n•a\n\nIN THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIQO3 — (BOSTON\n\n2\n\nMEETING)\n\n•\n\nActive Membership\n\nII\n\n14\n\nState or Territory\n\n0.\n\n13\n4)\n\n)\n\nTotal\n\n13\n\n30,69s\n\n12c\n\nNorth Atlantic Division.. .\nSouth Atlantic Division\nSouth Central Division\nNorth Central Division\nWestern Division\nColonies\nForeign (including Corresponding, 28) ....\n\n19\n\n25\n\n5\n\n192\n\n'\nc \\\n)\n\nii37i\n713\n286\n\n3°\n\n144\n\nII3\nI\n\n3\n\nNorth Atlantic DivisionMaine\nNew Hampshire\n\n31I\n\n.\n\n1^^\n\n4\n\nPennsylvania\n\nI\n2\n\nIS\n\n1\n\n29\n\n6\n\n107\n246\n\n15\n\n....\n\n18\n17\n\n]\n\n8\n\n18\n\n]\n\n43\n180\n9 52\n\n533\nir\nII\n\nI\n\n....\n\n14\n\n48\n\n8\n\n5\n105\n376\n3\n\n49\n28\n\n22\n\n34\n\nGeorgia\nFlorida\n\n6\n\n1\n\nTennessee\n\n22\n\nI\n\nMississippi\n\n..\n\n..\n\n4\n\n'\"'\n\nSouth Central Division..\n\n26\n16\nII\n18\n\n...\n\n:\n\nNorth Central Division...\n\n.\n\nI\n\nIllinois\n\nI\n2\n\n•\n\n222\n\n68\n\n(\n\n,\n\n17\nV,\n\n]\n5t\n\n82\n\n2\n\nIowa\n....\n\nJ'■>\n\n363\n139\n95\n13\n\n2\n\nMissouri\n\nc\n\n124\n\n20\n\n15\n\n2\n\n36\n\nt\n\n7\n48\n\nMexico. .\n12\n\nI\nI\n\nColoniesAlaska\n\n7\n\n. .\n\nPhilippine Islands\n\n■■\n\n.... 1064\n\nr\n\n192\n\n39\n14\n\n103\n\n4\n\n42\n9\n\n210\n\n99\n38\n\n55\n\n5\n\n303\n1224\n1\n161\n514\n132\n\n24\n\n4\n224 1\n1.073\n3.499\n15\n\n%\n\n1,383\n521\n4.013\n402\n1,086\n1,078\n\n1,222\n\n36 1,176\n\n120\n\n1,111\n161\n\nI\n\n1,361\n\nI\n\n5\n4\n4\n48\n\n10\n2\n2\n10\n\n■382\n\n707\n271\n26\n\nV,\n10\n6I'6\n21\n\n11\n120\n\n41\n\n103\n\n76\n\n1,471\n\nno\n\n3\n\n46 31\n\n^^l\n\n363\n\n62\n508\n231\n47\n2,653\n\n946\n\n3\n6\n\nIdaho\nWashington\n\n369\n48s\n\n5\n3\nI\n2\n\nUtah\n\n114\n31\n\n26\n\n?\nI<\n\nWyoming\n\n313\n145\n229\n131\n\n44\n\n160\n\n8\nI\n\n319\n43\n\n239\n\n109\n\nWestern Division-\n\n■3\n\n33\n\n10\n\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\n\nHawaii\nPorto Rico\n\nI\n\n382 23\n15 3\n7,061\n1\n401\n47\n186\n459\n270\n\n112\n199\n\n25\n\n3\n\n8\n1393\n\n%\n137\n2,025\n■30\n7,4C9\n936\n441\n315\n\n158\n\n139\n9\nID\n19\n\n247\n\n19\n\n:^;\n^\n\n32\n\n139 |6\n\nTexas\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory\n\n586\n\n22\n37\n\n2\n\n....\n\n1^\n\n45\n^^\n\n1,637\n160\n\n1\n\n20\n\n120\n\n25\n\n632 24\n\n18\n\nDelaware\n\nNorth Carolina.\n\n^n\n\n59\n\n10\n\nSouth Atlantic Division-\n\nOhio.\n\n4\n\n10\n\n2\n\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\n\n15,619\n1,746\n297\n1,582\n13,8007\n\n4,288\n\n10 17\n\n]\n\n677\n1,954\ni4<i63\n34,983\n\n12,592\n\nI.571\n1,819\n\n60\n359\n55\n249\n\n16\n33\n\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York .\n\nNew\n\n1,845\n\n1,365\n\n2.772\n\n82\n26\n305\n\n951\n574\n10\n18\n34\n12\n\n7\n\n130\n\n508\n26\n108\n250\n\n5\n\nI\n12\n\n438\n\n55\n\nI\n\n7\n6\n4\n59\n\n8\n\n2\n\n70\n\n31\n\n4\n\n42\n42\n\n2\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": null, "text": "RECORD\n\nOF MEMBERSHIP\n\nBY STATES\n\nIN THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nFOR\n\nEACH\n\nYEAR\n\nFROM\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1884-I903,\n\nINCLUSIVE\n\nExcepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held.\nHeavier numbers show membership\nfrom the state in which the meeting for the year was held.\n\nState\nOR\n\nTerr.\n\n1\n\n13\n625\n\nN. Atl.Div\nS. Atl. Div\n77\nS.Cen.Div 792\nIII\nN.Cen.Div 1,712\n26\nWest'nDiv ....\nColonies..\n11\nForeign...\n64\nN. Atl. Div\nMaine..\n\n21\n\nVt\nMass...\n\n43\n•io\n\nConn. ..\n\n143\n310\n\nN.H...\n\nR.I....\n\nN. Y...\nN.J....\nPenn...\n\nS. Atl.Div\nDel ... .\nMd\nD.C. ..\nVa\nW.Va..\nN.C....\nS.C....\nGa\nFla\nS.Cen.Div\n\nlb\n406\n176\n\n47\n386\n\n7\n\n159\n\n28\n40\n\n27\n\n10\n\nI\n\n6.S\n\n4\n3\n\n3\n\nqi\n\n7\n3\n3\n\n4\n\nII\n\nI\n2\n\nI\n\nKy\nTenn...\nAla....\nMiss....\nLa....\nTexas . .\n.Ark ....\nOkla...\nInd. T..\n\n33\n\n2\n\n158\n\n6\n\n5\n\nI\n\nI\n2\n\nOhio . . .\nInd\n\n121\n\nN.Cen.Div\n\nIll\nMich...\nWis....\nIowa. ..\nMinn...\nMo\nN. Dak.\nS. Dak.\nNeb....\nKan....\nWest'nDiv\nMont...\nWyo....\n\nColo....\nN. Mex.\nAriz....\nUtah...\nNev....\nIdaho . .\nWash..\nOre....\nCalif...\n\nColonies\n\n9\n7\n3\n\n12\n\n3\n\nI\n\n546\n304\n1^2\n\n3Q\n16\n3\nI\n12\n\n8\n\nI\n\n43\n33\n12\n\n18\n18\nQ\nII\n\n5\n\n46II\n\n\\.\n\n836\n\n8\n\n16\n\n2\n\n....\n\nID\n\n29\n\n6722\n\n151\n62\n16\n\n45\n\n7\n\n8 67\nII\n55\n8\n\n7\n\n22\n\n54\n354\n77\n\nI\n\nI\n\n.....\n..15.\n\n18\n\n122\n\n164\n\n7\n\n10\n\n8\n\nI\n\n12\n\n87273\n\n22=;\n\n1,7,50\n18\n649\n581\n418\n2762s\n1,146\n149\nII\n46\n73\n634\n486\n5\n\nS7\n133\n\n6\n\n12\n12 41\n\n43\n114\n22\n19\n123\n16\n\n89\n\n607\n89\n\n67\n2046\n\n8\n\nI\n2\n\n96\nloq\n58\n\n9\nq6o8\n\n4\n127i\n26\n134\n\n2\nII\n\n2\n\n3\n\n4\n6\n\n45\n40\n\nI\nI\n\nI\nI\n\nI\n\nI\nI\n\n3\n\nII\n\nAlaska..\n\n18\n155\n\n3«18 27\n\n7\n\n0\n\n4\n12\n\n17\n\n13\n\n31\n81372\n\n2\n\n30\n326\n\n37\n\n259\n53\n\n354I\n334 3 155\n28s\n143\n\n206\n\n355\n\n42\n178\n\n278\n28^\n118\n\n222\n\n220\n\n114\n\nPhil. I'd\n\nII\n\nI\n\n....\n\n47\n\nII\n\n1\n\ni8q\n\nno\n127\n\n62\n294\n176\n\n138\n2\nI\n\n37\n5\n\n193\n1,495\n\n164\n258\n871\n41\n4127\n990\n86\n\n9\n435\n\n126\n\nIII\n\n188\n\n1,113\n1,086\n\n28\n592\n321\n14\n\nI\nI\nI\n\nI\n\n8\n\n4,278\n\n6\n7\n568\n\n7\n\n9\n4\n59\n5\n\n10\n\n8\n\n3\n2\n\n2\n\n2\n\n.... ....\n18\n\nI\nI\n\n5\n5\n\n10\n\n26\n\n2\n7,78\n1,136\n\n32\n\n4\n\n303\n\n45\n\n655\n\n205\n\n100\n146\n\n36\n\n83\n\n177\n\n379\n103\n\n[o6s\n\n145\n\n53\n58\n\n591\n\n361\n\n'••■• 208\n196\n\n6\n\n6\n\n21\n\n22\n\n6\n\nI\n\n53\n\n9\n.16\n10\n\n58\n\n7\n\n4\n\n512\n\n.77\n\n6836\n\n287\n\n196\n1,216\n\n26\n\n3\n6\n\n8\n7\n\n11\n\n2\n\n3\n\n20\n\n187\n24\n\n30\n\n145\n229\n\n141\n\n- 98\n\n50 73\n\n231\nS08\n\n8379\n677\n\n46\n217\n88 96\n325\n\n27\n80T\n\n2,498\n\n363\n\nII\n20\n\n38\n\nI\n\n9\n78 2\n\n5\n4\n\n4\n5\n6\n\n707\n26\n82\n36\n\n10\n105\n22\n\n390\n\n305\n267\n251\n108\n55\nS08\n\n1\n\nI\n\n5\n5\n6 30\n\n898\n4\n\n71\n\n39\n\n71\n1,471\nI,\nIII\n161\n271\n\n60\n\n81\n\n34I\n\n1,383\n521\n5169\n402\n1,086\n1,078\n2\n0\n74,013\n1,176\n\n6\n\n74\n\n1.56\nI\n\n41\n\n24\n47\n\n19b\n\n82\n3308\n7\n\n348\n\n55\n\n210\n\n4\n372\n\n6\n\n45\n\n2.653\n\n486\n157 96\n\n118\n188\n\n3\n\n39\n\n408\n114\n131\n\n43\n35\n\n12\n\n'■^6\n\n13\n\n465\n\n331\n\n62\n28\n\n25 92\n1,142\n\n7\n\n49\niM\n158\n106\n\n433\n313\nt86\n\n1161\n55\n15\n38\n1489350\n26\n65\n1,247\n28\n21\n74\n286\n27\n261\n357\n76 753\n109\n\n42\n453\n1 41\n4580\n86\n\n12\n382\n\n10\n1\n\n39\n108\n293\nIS\n35\n\n82\n19\n593 « 557\n87\n9 no13 2,193\n4^5\n121\n86\n444\n16\n\n13\n\n12\n\n70\n90\n\n36\n\nJ\n\n62\n31\n\n173\n\n354\n\n385\n97\n33\n\n691\n18\n\n47\n\n315\n335\n7,459\n441\n01\n347\n\n116\n\n22\n\n673\nII\n\n137\n2,323\n2,025\n\n323\n\n57\n\n1\n3267\n60\n\n26\n28\n15\n281\n\n595\n68\n\n27\n81\n145\n\"3\n\n136\n46\n\n937\n\n481\n\n327\n\n16\n536\n\n29\n\n, 21\n23\n768 69\n\n166\n\n795\n\n21\n10\n\n3\n\n33\n\n45\n383\n26\n\n8 41\n\n16\n\nI\n321\n\n43\n\n1,340\n\n187\n785\n327\n\n251\n\n18\n\n93\n12\n\n221\n\n132\n60\n4087\n1,313\n52\n164\n31\n\n285\n357\n\n363\n34\n43\n32.';\n578\n406\n7\n\n4\nI\n\n756\n22\n\n54\n\n9\n413 1,870\n333\n543\n\n5\n37\n\n5\n\n1\n\n742\nII2\n\n257\n261\n\n558\n\nII\n2\n\n589\n\n9\n\n137\n19b\n\n99\n\n10\n\n250\n\n36 51\n\n65\n\n22\n\n57\n59\n\n52\n\n25\n\n229\n63382\n\n248\n\n1,174\n\n361\n16\n\n5\n8\n\n87\n7\n\n411\n\n23 4\n167\n\n.565\n\n20\n54\n16\n\n320\n\n57\n\n9\n\n77\n99\n\n1.57\n\n25\n9\n25 80\n\n8\n\n204\n\n1,171\n\n257\n\n172\n19\n\n21\n\n82\n\n625\n137I\n\n147\n443\n275\n\n325\n\n108\n\n2149\n\n. 34\n\n249\n64 .361\n\nno\n\n66\n49\n\n12\n\n3\n\n13\n2,132\n\n5168\nS3\n\n39\n\nII\n25\n\n15,619\n\n3G3\n\n7,535\n16 29\n686\n173\n39\n6,981\n27\n\nII\n129\n412\n509\n\n677\n\n34,984\n189\n\n1,548\n\n6\n\n154\n\n5,882\n942 6\n\n437\n\n20\n\n21\n\n149\n\n6\n\n366\n19\n\nI\n\n2\n\n57\n\n20\n\n1877\n\n1,954\n\n14,^63\n1902\n\n354\n\n10\n63\n\n43\n35\n\n14\n84\n49\n525 52 43\n\n124\n\n3 76\n\n79\n\n29\n\n12\n\n10,350\n13\n\n1,309\n1901\n10,182\n\n783\n1,903\n139\n818 4,641\n414\n294\n5.074 1,181\n5,487\n\n17\n\n26\n191\n55\n\n521\n\n42\n\n128 65\n\n4429\n\n\\ 99\n\n8\n\n14\n\n8\n\n1900\n\n1,58823\n\n12\n\n35\n\n574\n\n97\n39\n35\n\n68 93:i\n771\n572\nhoq\n\n' 45 24 7\n179\n\n64\n\n20\n\n25\n4 124\n29 18\n\n7\n\n33\n\n7,211\n\n323\n969\n\nP. Riro.\n\nForeign...\n\n419\n377\n197 7,111\n5,315\n159\n\n20\n212\n\n8\n10\n49\n\n666\n13\n24\n\n204\n\nI\n\n4\n\n2\n\n28\n\n10\n40\n\n190\n\n6.\n\n178\n2\n5 332 6\n49\n40 163\n\n32\n\n16\n\n124\n\n5\n\n10\n\n16\n\n21\n312\n\n222\n\n20\n\n1\n\n3\nS\n\nI\n\n30\n438\n\n5.083\n\n16\n\n1460\n3 735\n247\n154\n\n23\n611\n14\n\n99\n12\n\n60\n\nI\n2\n\n13\n\n228\n\n3\n\n2\n\nI\nI\n\n4 290\n43t\n\n242\n1341\n\n8\n\n1179\n\n172\n304\n\n9,072\n\n1,462\n1.403\n\n1,492\n1,146\n159\n\n1,845\n\n105\n24\n\n23\n\n13 2,940\n\n43\n\n114\n\n4\n\n28\n\n210\n\n36\n\n2\n\n30S\n\n22\n\n211\n\n13\n23\n\n4\n206\n17\n\n108\n\n121\n\nI\n\n29\n\n196\n426\n\nJi\n\n13,656\n\n1,456\n\n45\n\n122\n4,156\n\n23II\n\n3\n\n35\n\n13\n271\n261 2,933\n795\n417\n309\n23 1,711\n3,360\n95\n63 3,357\n\n642\n\n29\n\n10\n\n4\n\nI\n\n15\n40\n\n23\n\n14\n\n24\n\n5,915\n\n4,778\n655\n151\n\n216\n1,074\n25\n\n4,974\n\n102\n7,671\n\n136\n145\n\n18\n\n155\n44\n\n31\n370\n70885\n23\n277\n135\n\nI\n\n8\n\n773 7,216\n\n104\n1,187\n\n\"♦73\n\n1,877\n\n27\nIS\n\n1\n\n1\n\n1\n\n0\n\n14\n\n28Q\n24\n\n5,474\n\n13\n\n<\n\nio,S33\n1898\n\n11,297\n\n253\n1892\n\n899\n\nlOI\n1,074\n12b\n\n1c\n\n1\n\n0\nA\n3\n237\n\nn\n\n1,984\n\n113\n\n25 9.\"5\n\n2\n\n81\n\n803\n\n1895\nV\n\n1896\n\n1891\n\n1890\n\n1888\n\n1897\n\n1894\n\n1889\n\n1886\n1,197\n\niq\n\n2,729\n\n4J\n\n1887\n\n1885\n\n1884\n\nTotal\n\n2\nc\n\ns\n\n1\n1 <\n\n11\n\na\n\n1903\n\nc 1\n3\n\n1899\n\n441\n\n76 1\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": null, "text": "INVENTORY AND PRICE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN THE DEPOSITORY AT WINONA,\nMINN., JULY I, 1903\nPROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION\n[IN PAPER COVERS]\n\nNumber\nPrices\nin ume,\nsfng\"\n^or.\ncopies of sets,\ncarriage\ncarriage\nin stock\n\n1857\n1858\n1859\ni860\nI86I\n1862\n1863\n1864\n1865\n1866\n1867\n1868\n1869\n1870\n\nPhiladelphia (organized)\nCincinnati\nWashington\n\n1872\n1874\n1875\n1876\n1877\n1878\n1879\n1880\n1881\n1882\n1883\n1884\n1885\n1886\n1887\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n1892\n1893\n1894\n1895\n1896\n1897\n1898\n1899\n1900\n1901\n1902\n1903\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n*\n*\n\n-\n\n_--_--\n\n*\n\nBuffalo\n--.---_-•*\n(No meeting)\n--__-(No meeting)\n------Chicago\n------Ogdensburg\n------Harrisburg\n-----Indianapolis\n-__--_(No meeting)\n_-__-Nashville\n---___Trenton\n------Cleveland\n--\n\nBOUND\n1873\n1871\n\n-----\n\nVOLUMES\n\nSt. Louis\nElmiraJ\nBoston\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n--__--_*\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n219\n244\n157\n250\n149\n\nPhiladelphia\nChautauqua\nAtlanta Saratoga Springs\n\n262\n__-_-206\n--464\n-----*\n_---_-*\nSaratoga Springs\nMadison\n------529\n_--_--*\nSaratoga Springs\nTopeka\n---____\n297\nChicago -------loi\nSan Francisco\n___-_219\nNashville\nSt. Paul\nToronto -------Saratoga Springs\n-----Chicago (International Congress of Education)\nAsbury Park\n---__Denver\n-__-__\nBuffalo\n------Milwaukee\nWashington, D. C.\nLos Angeles\nCharleston\nDetroit\n------Minneapolis\n_\n_\nBoston\n____-Subject Index (from 1857-1897, inclusive)\n\n-\"\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n_\n*\n«\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\nprepaid\n\n1.25\n\n(CIATION\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\ni.So\n1.50\n$1.50\n\nI-2S\n1.25\n1.25\n\n1.50\nI.SO\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n_\n_\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\nEDUCATIONAL1-25ASSC\n\n-__-__-_--_-_*\n\nDetroit\nMinneapolis\n• Baltimore\n------Louisville\n------(No meeting)\n\nnot prepaid\n\n396\n-^416\n672\n660\n422\n099\n273\nigj\n179\n15\n-250\n118\njg\n_\n375\nin p,ess\n500\n\n1.25\n$1.25\n1.25\n\n*\n\n1.75\n1.50\n1-75\n1-75\n1.50\n1.50\nI.7S\n\n*\n*\n\n*\n«\n\n1.50\n\n1.75\n\n1-75\n1-75\n1.50\n1.50\n\n*\n\n*\n\n1-75\n1.50\nI1.75\n1.50\n1-75\n1-75\n\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\n1.75\n1-75\n1-75\n1-75\n1-75\n1-75\n1.75\n\n2.00\n2.00\n\n.\n\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\n*\n\n2.00\n2.00\n\n*\n2.00\n2 00\n\nfree\n1. 00\n\nA complete Subject Index of all published proceedings to 1897 has been issued in a\nseparate volume, bound in cloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings.\nThe index\nwill be sent free of charge to those who purchase five or more volumes; to others it will\nbe sent postpaid for ^i.oo.\nThe index volume will be supplied to active members for 25\ncents for postage, wrapping, etc.\n* Stock exhausted,\n1066\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPRINTS FROM THE ANNUAL VOLUMES OF PROCEEDINGS\nfPrice per\nsingle copy\n\n[bound in paper covers]\nHistorical Sketch of the National Educational Association, 1857-91\n\nJ PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT\n\n-\n\n_\n\n_\n\n_\n\n$0.25\nby mail\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\n1891\n1892\n1893\n\nPhiladelphia, 147 pages\n----____\nBrooklyn,\n237 \"\n_\nBoston,\n-_-____\n\n1894\n1895\n1896\n1897\n\nRichmond,\nCleveland\nJacksonville,\nIndianapolis,\n\n1898\n1899\n\nChattanooga, 194\nColumbus,\n\n1900\n1901\n1902\n.1903\n\nChicago,\nChicago,\nChicago,\nCincinnati,\n\n1885\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n1894\n1895\n1896\n1898\n1900\n1901\n1903\n\nSaratoga,\n120 pages\n_\n_\n_\n_\n.\n_\n_\n$0.15\nSan Francisco, 75\n'*--------.15\nNashville,\n98\n\"-------_\n_\n.,5\nSt. Paul,\n80\n•'--------.15\nToronto,\n114\n'*-------__\n,15\nAsbury Park,\n86\n'*\n,15\nDenver,\n81\n--------.15\nBuffalo,\n78\n\"\n.15\nWashington,\n102\n\"----_____\n^j^\nCharleston,\n67--------.15\nDetroit,\n150\n'*\n(Henry Barnard Number)\n_\n_\n_\n.15\nBoston,\n76\n---------,15\n\n184\n\n\"\n\n_\n\n--_..,_\n------__.\n-----_-___\n\n-\n\n'•-----____\n-----_-__\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nREPORTS\n\n-\n\n.25\n.25\n,25\n,25\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nOF SPECIAL COMMITTEES\n\n§Report of Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools,\n249 pages\n§Reportof Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Schools,\n235\n\"\nRepor^of Committee on Rural Schools,\n228\n\"\nReport of Committee on College -Entrance Requirements,\n188\n\"\nReport of Committee on Normal Schools,\n64\n** Report of Committee on Public Libraries and Public Schools,\n80\n\"\n-\n\nSEPARATES\n\n^aj\n*\n*\n*\n,35\n*\n\n120 \"\n. 118 \"-------__\n165 \"-----._--_\n166 \"----____\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\n\"^.25\n,35\n*\n\nOF DEPARTMENTS\n\n_\n\n_\n_\n\n-\n\n_\n_\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$0.30\n,30\n.25\n.25\n.15\n.15\n\n(Boston Meeting)\n\nThe General Sessions\n_-_--_-___\nThe National Council\n__________\nThe Department of Kindergarten Education\n_______\nof Elementary Education (not including joint sessions)\n- '\nof Secondary Education _______\nof Higher Education ________\nof Normal Schools ________\nof Manual Training (including joint sessions of Elementary, Art, and Indian\n\n$0.15\n^jq\n.10\n\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\n\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\n\n.05\n,^o\n^jq\n,10\n\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\n\nDepartments) -.to\nDepartment of Art Education (not including joint sessions) _\n_\n_\n_\n.05\nDepartment of Child Study _-______\n^^q\nDepartment of Physical Training\n_-__---.i©\nDepartment of Science Instruction --__----.\n10\nLibrary Department\n____.-___\n.10\nDepartment of Special Education -.10\n\n* Stock exhausted.\n■j\"All orders for reprints should be accompanied by remittance; a discount of 20 per\ncent, will be allowed on orders for ten or more copies to one address, by prepaid express.\nJ Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence previous to 1 891 were printed\nby the Bureau of Education at Washington, L). C.\n§The Reports of the Committee of Ten and of the Committee of Fifteen are printed\nand sold by the American Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid.\nAll reprints noted above are included in the bound volumes of Proceedings except\nthe Report of the Committee of Ten on SecoflHary Schools.\nAll publications listed above can be obtained of the undersigned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary N. E. A.\njQ5y\n\nWinona, Minn,\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nINDEX\n\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.\n\nAber, William — Discussion, 536.\nAcademic Side of Normal-School Work,\nThe — Henry Johnson, 577.\nAct of Incorporation, 4.\nAdams, George E. — Report on Examination of Securities of the Permanent\nFund, 20.\nAddresses of Welcome — Hon. John L.\nBates, 41; Hon. Patrick A. Collins, 41 ;\nMiss Gertrude Edmund, 1042; Curtis\nGuild, Jr., 1041; Edward Everett Hale,\n1040; John T. Prince, 1043; Henry S.\nPritchett, 42; A. E. Winship, 1042.\nAdmission to Normal Schools, Conditions\nof, 566, 569.\nAdolescence, Psychic Arrest in, 81 1.\nAhern, Mary Eileen — Library Instruction in the Normal School, 976; Secretary's Minutes, Library Department, 937.\nAlaska's Start toward Citizenship — Sheldon\nJackson, 1052.\nAlderman, Edwin A. — Memorial Address on J. L. M. Curry, 365.\nAllen, Edward E. — President's Address,\n986.\nAmendment\nto By-Laws, as Passed, 28;\nas Proposed, 24.\nAmerican Education, The Part of the\nManual Training High School in, 71.\nAnagnos, Michael — Discussion, 383.\nAnderson, William G, — Physical Training for the Mass of Students, 837.\nAnnual Business Meeting, Minutes of, 23.\nArgumentative Discourse in High Schools,\n460, 466.\nArt Education, Department of, 665.\nArt Instruction as Related to Manual Work\n— Alfred Vance Churchill, 635; Discussion, 641.\nArt Schools, Resolution of Committee on\nCourse of Study in, 666.\nArt, The Teaching of, 666.\nAttendance of Boys at the High School,\nHow to Increase the, 801.\nAttitude of Trade Unions toward Trade\nSchools — William H. Sayward, 620; Discussion, 626.\nAudit, Certificate of, 18.\nBaccalaureate Course, Length of the, 489.\nBailey, L. H.— The Nature-Study Movement, 109.\nBaker, George P. — The Teaching of Argumentative Discourse in High Schools,\n460. James H. — Discussion, 515, 536.\nBaker,\n\nA f indicates a memorial sketch.]\n\nBaldwin, Ralph L. — School Music; Has\nIt Made Music Readers? 705.\nBalliet, Thomas M. — Manual, Trade,\nand Technical Education, 65; The Organization ofTrade Schools : From the\nPoint of View of a School Superintendent, 609; The Saving of Time in Elementary and Secondary Education, 317;\nDiscussion, 329, 800.\nBarnes, Earl — The Child's Favorite\nStudy in the Elementary Curriculum,\n420; A Study Based on the Children of\na State, 754; Discussion, 760.\nBartholomew,\nW. H. — Remarks on Dr. E.\nE. White, 373.\nBasketry,\nism, 644.Indian — Its Poetry and SymbolBates, John L. — Address of Welcome,\nBaxter, C. J. — Discussion, 219.\nBayliss, Alfred — Industrial Training in\nRural Schools, 185; Some Co-operative\nSuggestions, 938.\n41.\nBeardshear,\nWilliam Miller,\"]\" — Homer H.\nSeerley, 368; Resolution on, 142.\nBeckwith, Walter P. — Conditions of\nAdmission to Normal Schools, 566.\nBeginning and Aims of the General Education Board, The — Wallace Buttrick,\n116.\n\nBell, Sanford — Influence of Men and\nWomen Teachers, 809.\nBender, Ida C. — Discussion, 768.\nBender, Wilbur H.— The Organization\nand Function of the Training School in\nthe State Normal School, 219.\nBennett, Charles A. — Discussion, 617.\nBibliography\nSchools, 924.on Consolidation of Rural\nBiology in High Schools, The Teaching\nof, 858.\nBishop, J. Remsen — Discussion, 454.\nBivins, J. A. — Discussion, 456.\nBlack, William H. — Discussion, 446.\nBlake, Clarence John — The Importance\n1013.\nof\nHearing Tests in the Public Schools,\nBlodgett, a. B. — The Most Effective Use\nof a Superintendent's Time, 224.\nBoard of Directors, Minutes of Meeting of,\nfor 1902-3, 32; for 1903-4, 35Bookkeeping as a Study, Disciplinary\nValue of, 741.\n[069\nB?^0NE, Richard G. — The Lock-Step in\nthe Public Schools, 408; Discussion, 260.\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": null, "text": "loyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nBooth, F. W. — Report of Committee on\nStatistics of Defective Sight and Hearing of Public-School Children, 1036.\nBoy and his Handicraft at Home, The —\nGeorge H. Bryant, 651; Discussion, 652.\nBoys and Girls, Physics for the, 880.\nBoys Who Leave the High School, The\nPercentage of, 792.\nBrain-Building,\nPhysical Education and,\n818.\nBrandt, Francis Burke — The City Normal School of the Future, 540; Discussion, 445, 996.\nBrett, William H. — Library Instruction\nin the Normal School, 971.\nBrigtht, Orville T. — School Gardens,\nCity School Yards, and the Surroundings\nof Rural Schools, 77.\nBrooks, John Lee — Discussion, 537.\nBrown, Elmer Ellsworth — The Length\nof the Baccalaureate Course and Preparation for the Professional Schools, 489.\nBrown, H. B. — Discussion, 732.\nBrown, Z. H. — Discussion, 227.\nBruce, William George — Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Administration, 898.\nBryan, William J. S. — The Formation of\na Federation of Secondary-School Associations, 476; Discussion, 485.\nBryant, George H.— The Boy and His\nHandicraft at Home, 651.\nBuchanan, John T. -Discussion, 479.\nBurlingame, L. D. — Discussion, 607.\nBusiness Education, Department of, 719.\nBusiness Meeting, Annual, Minutes of, 23.\nButler, Nicholas Murray — The Length\nof the Baccalaureate Course and Preparation for the Professional Schools, 500;\nReport of Committee on Resolutions, 29.\nBuTTRiCK, Wallace — The Beginning and\nAims of the General Education Board,\nIi6.\nBy-Laws of the General Association, 4,\nCalendar of Meetings, 6.\nCallahan, Henry White — Leader of Classical Conference, 470.\nCampbell, Charles F. F. — Discussion, 997.\nCampbell, William T. — Discussion, 483.\nCarpenter, Frank O. — Commercial Geography: The New Science, 732; Discussion, 725.\nCarr, John W. — Discussion, 159, 263, 340,\n360, 798.\nCarrol, Clarence, F. — What Should Be\nthe Features of a Modern Elementary\nSchool Building? 235; Discussion, 262,\n545. Charles M. — Discussion, 676.\nCarter,\nCertificate of Audit, 18.\nCertificate of Examiner of Securities, 20.\nCertificate of Incorporation, 5.\nChalmers, W. W. — Discussion, 162, 234.\nChamberlain, Arthur P. — The Demand\nfor Trade Schools : From the Educator's\nPoint of View, 602.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\"Charitable\" — Can the Term Justly Be\nto the Education of Any ChilAppliedren? 1007.\nChase, George C. — Discussion, 536.\nChase, SusanpartmentF.\n— Secretary's\nMinutes, Deof Child\nStudy, 754.\nChemistry, College, 872; High-School, 873;\nFrom the City Superintendents Point of\nView, 878; in its Relation to a College\nCourse, 880.\nChemistry from the College Standpoint —\nHenry P. Talbot, 877.\nChemistry\nThe Normal-School\nView of, Teaching,\n879.\nCheney, Francis J.— Discussion, 564.\nChild-Life, School Hygiene in its Bearing\non, 778.\nChild Study, Department of, 753.\nChild\nStudy Investigation,\nResolution on\nCommittee\nfor, 754.\nChild Study, The Teacher's Practical Application of the Results of, 761.\nChildren of a State, A Study Based on the,\nChild's Favorite Study in the Elementary\nCurriculum\nsion, 425. — Earl Barnes, 420; Discus754.\nChurch, Separated from the School, Supported by Public Taxes, 351.\nChurchill, Arthur Vance — Art Instruction as Related to Manual Work,\n635.\n.\nCitizenship, Alaska's Start toward, 1052.\nCitizenship in the Public Schools, 98.\nCity Normal School of the Future — Francis\nBurke Brandt, 510; Discussion, 545.\nCivics and Good Citizenship in the Public\nSchools— R. VV. G. Welling, 98.\nCivil Service, Tenure in the, 1057.\nClapp,\n85. Henry Lincoln — School Gardens,\nClassical\nConference\n— Leader, Henry White\nCallahan,\n470.\nClass Library, The Mission of the, 953.\nCoE, George A. — Contributions of Modem\nEducation to Religion, 341.\nCoeducation at the University of Chicago\n—Albion W. Small, 288.\nCoeducation\nin High Schools — Aaron\nGove, 297; Discussion, 299.\nCoeducation in the High School — G. Stanley Hall, 446; Discussion, 451.\nCole, Charles H. — Discussion, 218.\nCole, Samuel W. — The Real Purpose of\nTeaching Music in the Public Schools,\n695College Chemistry,\nand its Relation to\nWork Preparatory to It — Ira Remsen,\n872; Discussion, 877.\nCollege Course, High-School Chemistry in\nits Relation to Work of a, 880.\nCollins, come, Patrick\nA. — Address of Wel41.\nCommercial Geography: The New Science\n— Frank O. Carpenter, 732; Discussion,\n\n737-\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nCommercial High School, History in the\nCurriculum of the, 720.\nCommercial Work, Mathematics in, 726 ;\nScience in, 738.\nCommittee for Scientific Child-Study Investigation, Resolution on, 754.\nCommittee of Ten, Manual Training, Resolution of,596.\nCommittee on Bureau of Education, 309.\nCommittee on Conference with Society for\nPromotion\" of Engineering Education,\nReport of, 488.\nCommittee on Contemporary Educational\nDoctrine, Resolution on, 140.\nCommittee on Course of Study in Art\nSchools, Resolution on, 666.\nCommittee on Defectives in Public Schools,\n985.\nCommittee on Entrance Requirements in\nMathematics, 481.\nCommittee on Industrial Education in\nRural Schools, 309.\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations, Report of, 36, 37, 306, 308.\nCommittee on Length of Baccalaureate\nCourses, 308.\nCommittee on Nominations, 22; Report of,\n23Committee on Resolutions, 21; Report of,\n29.\nCommittee on Salaries, Tenure, etc., 308.\nCommittee on Simplified Spelling, 140.\nCommittees, Special, Appointed by The\nNational Council, 308.\nCommittees, Standing, of the National\nCouncil, 303-4.\nComstock, Clarence E. — Discussion, 480.\nConditions of Admission to NormalSchools\n—I, Walter P. Beckwith, 566; II, R. H.\nHalsey, 569; Discussion, 575.\nConduct, The Influence of Religious Education on the Motives of, 346.\nConference, History, 484; Mathematical,\n480.\nConsiderations\nfor a Practical Study of\nDrawing in Public Schools— Bonnie E.\nSnow, 670; Discussion, 676.\nConsolidation of Rural Schools — I, William K. Fowler, 919; II, John T. Prince,\n929.\nConsolidation of Rural Schools, Bibliography on, 924.\nConstitution of General Association, i.\nConstitution of the National Council, 301.\nContributions of Modern Education to Religion—George A.CoE, 341.\n•Cook, John W.— Discussion, 339, 560,\n565.\nCooley, Edwin G. — Discussion, 183.\nCooLEY, Mrs. Alice W. — Literature in\nthe Grades and How to Use It, 198.\nCouncil, The National, 301; Officers, 303;\nCommittees, 303; Members, 304; Honorary Members, 305.\nCourse in Physics for Technical High\nSchools— Charles F. Warner, 890.\n\nCourse of Physics in Technical Schools,\n893.\nCourse of Study for Ward-School\n247.\n\nPupils,\n\nCoy, E. W. — A Readjustment of the HighSchool Curriculum, 177; Memorial Address on Emerson Elbridge White, 369;\nDiscussion, 263,\nCraftsrhanship in Education — Leslie W.\nMiller, 627; Discussion, 633.\nCrane, Julia E. — The Training in SightSinging and Song Interpretation which\nNormal-School Students Should Receive,\n690.\nCrissy, I. O. — Discussion, 725.\nCrockett, E. A. — Some Diseases of the\nNose and Throat of Interest to Teachers,\n1028.\nCultivated Man, The\nthe, 46.\n\nNew\n\nDefinition of\n\nCurry,\nM.,t, Memorial\nEdwin J.A.L. Alderman,\n365. Address on —\nGushing, Grafton D— School Boards:\nNumber of Members, Terms of Service,\nand Mode of Selection, 905.\nDamrosch,\nLife, 713.\n\nFrank — Music as a Part of\n\nDaniels, Fred H. — Discussion, 641.\nDavis, Solon P., Discussion, 678.\nDawson, George E. — Discussion, 815.\nDearmont, W. S. — Discussion, 592.\nDeclaration of Committee on Resolutions,\n29.\nDefective Sight and Hearing of PublicSchool Children, Statistics of, 1036.\nDefectives in Public Schools, 985.\nDe Garmo, Charles. — The Voluntary\nElement in Education, 311 ; Discussion,\n184, 589.\nDemand for Trade Schools: From the Educator's Point of View — Arthur Henry\nChamberlain, 602; Discussion, 607.\nDepartments, List of, i.\nDepartment of Art Education, 665; of Business Education, 719; of Child Study,\n753; of Council of Education, 301 ; of\nElementary Education, 407; of Higher\nEducation, 487; of Indian Education,\n1039; of Kindergarten Education, 377;\nof Library, 937; of Manual Training,\n595; of Music Education, 683; of Normal\nSchools, 539; of Physical Education,\n817; of School Administration, 897; of\nScience Instruction, 847; of Secondary\nEducation, 429; of Special Education,\n985; of Superintendence, 139.\nDepartment Officers, List of, for 1902-3, 10;\nfor 1903-4. 14.\nDewey, Melvil — Discussion, 982.\nDirectors, Board of. How Elected, 2; DuDirectors, Life, List of, 12.\n12.\ndirectors.\nList of, for 1902-3, 8; for 1903-4,\nties, 3.*\nDirectors, Minutes of Meeting of Board of,\nfor 1902-3, 32; for 1903-4, 35-\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": null, "text": "1072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDisciplinary Value of Bookkeeping as a\nStudy — Enos Spencer, 741; Discussion,\n746.\nDisciplinary\nValue of Stenography and\nTypewriting as Studies — W. H. Wagner,\nDiseases\n746. of the Nose and Throat of Interest\nto Teachers, 1928.\nDoes the Teacher's Knowledge of a Subject Differ from the Scholar's Knowledge ?— I,W. W. Parsons, 547; II, David\nEugene Smith, 554; Discussion, 560.\nDoREN, Electra Collins — Public-Library Work for Public Schools, 943.\nDoyle, John T. — Tenure in the Civil Service, 1057.\nDrawing in Public Schools, Consideration\nfor a Practical Study of, 670.\nEdmund, Gertrude — Address of Welcome, 1042.\nEducation, Craftsmanship in, 627; Saving\nof Time in Elementary and Secondary,\n3x7, 322; The Voluntary Element in, 311.\nEducation for the Trades: From the Standpoint of the Manufacturer — Milton P.\nHiggins, 597; Discussion, 607.\nEducational Needs of the Southern Negro,\nThe— Charles T. Walker, 123.\nEducational Progress of the Year, The —\nWilliam De Witt Hyde, 330; Discussion,\n339.\nEdwards,\nCalvin W. — School Boards:\nNumber of Members, Terms of Service,\nand Mode of Selection, 898.\nElementary and Secondary Education,\nSaving of Time in, 317, 322.\nElementary Curriculum, The Child's Favorite Study in the, 420.\nElementary Education, Department of, 407.\nElementary-School Building? What Should\nbe the Features of an, 235.\nElementary School, Manual Training in\nthe, 645.\nEliot, Charles W.— The Full Utilization\nof a Public-School Plant, 241; The\nLength of Baccalaureate Course and\nPreparation for the Professional Schools,\n496; The New Definition of the Cultivated Man, 46; Discussion, 383, 516.\nEllabarger, D. R. — Discussion, 479.\nEllis, A. Caswell — The Percentage of\nBoys who Leave the High School and\nReasons Therefor, 792,\nEllis, C. B.— Discussion, 725, 746.\nEntrance Requirements in Mathematics,\nReport of Committee on, 481.\nEvans, O. C. — Discussion, 725.\nExaminer of Securities, Certificate of, 20.\nExecutive Committee, Members of, for\n1892-3, 8; for 1903-4, 12; Who Shall\nConstitute, 2; Duties of, 2.\nEye Defects of Feeble-Minded and Backward Children, 1023.\nFacts and Fallacies in the Examination of\nSchool\nChildren's Eyes — Myles Standish,\n1020.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFall, Delos — Discussion, 218.\nFarrand, Wilson — Discussion, 442.\nFaunce, W. H. P. — Discussion, 516.\nFay, Edward Allen— How Can the\nTerm \"Charitable\" be Justly Applied to\nthe Education of any Children? 1007.\nFeatures of a Modern Elementary-School\nBuilding cussion,\n— Clarence\nF. Carroll, 235; Dis239.\nFederation\ntions, 476.of Secondary-School AssociaFernald, Walter E. — Discussion, 1005.\nFitz, George Wells — Discussion, 775.\nFoos, Charles S. — Discussion, 227.\nFosdick, Frank — Discussion, 451.\nFoster, Frank Keyes — Discussion, 626.\nProwler,\nWilliam\nRural Schools,\n919. K. — Consolidation of\nFreedom of the Teacher, The — Charles B.\nGilbert, 164; Discussion, 174.\nFrench, J, S. — Discussion, 480.\nFrissell, H. B. — Response to Address of\nWelcome, 1043; To What Degree Has\nthe Present System of Indian Schools\nbeen Successful\nzenship ?1049. in Qualifying for CitiFuller, Sarah\n— Secretary's\nMinutes,\nment of Special\nEducation,\n985. DepartFullerton, C. A. — The Training in SightSinging\nand Song Interpretation Which\n685.\nNormal-School Students Should Receive,\nFunctions of School Boards, 910.\nGailor, Thomas F. — Shall the University\nConcern Itself More Directly with the\nMorals and Manners of its Students ? 531.\nGarbutt, I. R. — Discussion, 726.\nGastman, E. A.— Discussion, 300.\nGeneral Education Board, The Beginning\nand Aims of the, 116.\nGeneral Sessions, 41.\nGeography, Commercial, 732 ; the Human\nSide of, 143; Out-of-Door Class Work\nin, 856.\nGeological Teaching in the High School\nand Academy, The Proper Scope of, 853.\nGeology, Practical Methods of Teaching,\n848. Mr. —Discussion, 732.\nGibson,\nGilbert, Charles B.— The Freedom of\nthe Teacher, 164; The Public Library\nand the Public School, 948.\nGilder, Richard Watson — The Kindergarten :An Uplifting Social Influence in\nthe Home and the District, 388.\nGiLLEY, Frank M. — Science in Commercial Work : Its Practical Value, Character, and Place in High-School Work,\n738;\nMinutes,\nScienceSecretary's\nInstruction,\n847. Department of\nGood Schools, Public Opinion and, 228.\nGoodnough, Walter S. — Discussion, 633.\nGordy, Wilbur Fisk — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Secondary Education, 430.\nGove,\nSchools,Aaron\n297. — Coeducation in High\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nGreen, James M. — To What Extent and\nin What Manner Can the Normal School\nIncrease Its Scholarship? 582; Discussion, 328, 981.\nGreen, R. T.,Jr. — Discussion, 738.\nGreene, Mary C. — Should the Scope of\nthe Public-School System Be Broadened\nso as to Take in All Children Capable of\nEducation?\nIf so, How Should This Be\n^ Done ? 998.\nGreenough, James J.— Discussion, 385.\nGreenwood, Allen — Some Eye Defects\nof Feeble-Minded and Backward Children, 1023.\nGreenwood, James M. — Chairman of\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations, 308 ; Remarks on Dr. E. E.\nWhite, 373; Seven-Year Course of Study\nfor Ward-School Pupils, 247 ; Discussion, 362.\nGriffith, George — Discussion, 239.\nGuild, Curtis — Address of Welcome,\n1041.\n\nGulliver, F. P.— Out-of-Door Class Work\nin Geography, 856.\nGunnison, Walter B. — Discussion, 472.\nGymnastics, How to Improve PublicSchool, 828.\nGymnastics, Tests of the Effiiciency of a\nNormal School of, 829.\nHadow, W. H —Discussion, 515.\nHale, Edward EvEREXX-^Address of\nWelcome, 1040.\nHall, E. H.— Discussion, 889.\nHall, Frank H.— Influence of the Study\nof the Unusual Child upon the Teaching\nof the Usual, 987.\nHall, G. Stanley — Coeducation in the\nHigh School, 446; Psychic Arr^^st in\nAdolescence, 81 ; The White Man's Burden versus Indigenous Development for\nthe Lower Races, 1053; Discussion, 460,\n469, 515, 537Halleck, Reuben Post — Tendencies as\nto the Enlargement of the Secondary\nField, 432.\nHalsey, R. H. — Conditions of Admission\nto Normal Schools, 569.\nHamerschlag, Arthur A. — Discussion, 619.\nHandicraft at Home, The Boy and His, 651.\nHand-Work for High-School Girls — Abby\nL. Marlatt, 655; Discussion, 657.\nHaney, James Parton — Manual Training\nversus the Manual Arts, 658.\nHarper, William R. — The Length of the\nBaccalaureate Course and Preparation\nfor the Professional Schools, 504.\nHarris, Ada Van Stone — Discussion, 427.\nHarris, George — Shall the University\nConcern Itself More Directly with the\nMorals and Manners of Its Students? 517,\nHarris, W. T. — Oxford University and\nthe Rhodes Scholarships, 263; Response\nto Address of Welcome, 44 ; The Separation of the Church from the School Supported by Public Taxes, 351.\n\nHarrison, Elizabeth— The Scope and\nResults of Mothers' Classes, 400.\nHart, Caroline M. C. — The Power of\nthe Kindergarten Training School in the\nEducation of Young Women, 395.\nHart, Maynard ^L — Discussion, 473.\nHartwell, Charles S.— The Teaching\nof Argumentative\nDiscourse in High\nSchools, 466.\nHarvey, L. D. — Report of Committee\non\nNominations, 23; Discussion, 193.\nHaskins, Charles H. — Discussion, 484,\nHastings,\nWilliam\nW.— Health\nand\nGrowth of School Children, 769.\n485.\nHatch, William H. — Discussion, 153.\nHealth and Growth of School Children —\nWilliam G. Hastings, 769; Discussion,\nHearing Tests in the Public Schools, The\nImportance of, 1 01 3.\n775- Culture\nHeart\nin Indian\nEducation —\nCharles F. Meserve, 1056.\nHeermans,\nMrs. Josephine — Discussion,\n206,\nHendricks, E. L. — Discussion, 575.\nHering, Daniel W. — Discussion, 514.\nHerrick, Cheesman a. — History in the\nCurriculum\nof the Commercial\nHigh\nSchool, 720; Discussion, 737.\nHewett,\nEdgarof L.\n— Secretary's\nDepartment\nNormal\nSchools, Mi'nutes,\n539.\nHiggins, Milton P.— Education for the\nTrades:\nFrom 597.\nthe Standpoint of the\nManufacturer,\nHigh-Sphool\nChemistry:\nFrom the City\nSuperintendent's\nPoint of View — W. F.\nKunze, 878.\nHigh-School Chemistry in Its Relation to\nthe Work of a College Course — Albert\nS. Perkins, 880.\nHigh-School Chemistry in Its Relation to\nthe Work of a College Course — Rufus\nPhillips Williams, 873 ; Discussion, 877.\nHigh School, Coeducation in the, 446.\nHigh-School\nof the, 177. Curriculum, A Readjustment\nHigh-School Girls, Hand-Work for, 655.\nHigh School, How to Increase the Attendance of Boys at the, 801.\nHigh-School Phase of Physics Teaching :\n885.\nAims and Methods — George R. Twiss,\nHigh-School\nPhysiology, Laboratory Work\nin, 867.\nHigh\nSchool,\nThe Percentage of Boys Who\nLeave\nthe, 792.\nHigh\nSchools,890.A Course in -Physics for\nTechnical,\nHigh Schools, Coeducation in, 297.\nHigh Schools, The Teaching of Argumentative Discourse in, 460, 466.\nHigh Schools, The Teaching of Biology in,\n858. Conference — Leader, James SulliHistory\nvan, 484.\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": null, "text": "I074\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nHistory in the Curriculum of the Commercial High School — Cheesman A. Herrick,\n720; Discussion, 725.\nHoDGE,C.F.-Nature Study True to Life,4 12.\nHodges, N. D. C. — Is the Public Library\na Promptuary for the Public School? 957.\nHolbrook, Florence — Discussion, 211.\nHoLDEN, Charles — New Departures in\nSchool Administration, 914.\nHolland, E. O. — The Library as an Adjunct to the Secondary School, 961.\nHopkins, James P\\ — Discussion, 642.\nHotchkiss, PL V. — Discussion, 234.\nHow Can the Term \"Charitable\" Be Justly\nApplied to the Education of Any Children?—\nAllen P'ay, IG07; Discussion, Edward\n1012,\nHow to Improve Public-School Gymnastics\n—Thomas D. Wood, 828.\nHow to Increase the Attendance of Boys\nat the High School— J. K. Stableton, 80 1;\nDiscussion, 808.\nHubbard, Samuel F. — Discussion, 627.\nHuling, Ray Greene — Discussion, 485.\nHuman Side of Geography — Lloyd E.\nWolfe, 143; Discussion, 153.\nHuNSiCKER, B. F. — School Boards— Their\nFunctions : Legislative, Executive, and\nJudicial, 910.\nHusband, R. W. — Discussion, 470.\nHustleby, H. C. — Discussion, 738.\nHyde, William DeWitt — The Educational Progress of the Year, 330; Discussion, 516.\nImportance of Hearing Tests in the Public\nSchools — Clarence John Blake, 1013.\nIndian Basketry — Its Poetry and Symbolism— George Wharton James, 644.\nIndian Education, Heart Culture, 1056.\nIndian Schools, Have They Been Successful in Qualifying for Citizenship? 1049.\nIndustrial Training in Rural SchoolsAlfred Bayliss, 185; Discussion, 193.\nInfluence of Men and Women Teachers —\nSanford Bell, 809.\nInfluence of Religious Education on the\nMotives of Conduct, The — Edward A.\nPace, 346; Discussion, 360.\nInfluence of the Study of the Unusual Child\nupon the Teaching of the Usual — I,\nFrank H. Hall, 987; II, George E. Johnson, 992; Discussion, 996.\nInternational Kindergarten Union — Stella\nL. Wood, 406.\nInventory and Price List of Publications,\n1066.\nInvestigations and Appropriations, Reports\nof Committee on, 36, 37.\nInvestments, Statement of, 20.\nIs the Public Library a Promptuary for the\nPublic Schools?— N. D. C. Hodges, 957.\nJackman, Wilbur S. — Discussion, 417.\nJackson, Sheldon — Alaska's Start toward\nCitizenship, 1052,\nJames, George Wharton — Indian Basketry— Its Poetry and Symbolism, 644.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJohnson, George E.— Influence of the\nStudy of the Unusual Child on the Teaching of the Usual, 992; Discussion, 766.\nJohnson, Henry— The Academic Side of\nNormal-School Work, 577; Discussion,\nJones, Lewis H. — The Best Methods of\n564.\nElecting\nSchool Boards, 158.\nJournal of Proceedings, 21.\nKarr, Grant — Discussion, 564.\nKeating, J. F. — Discussion, 228, 300.\nKindergarten: An Uplifting Social Influence in the Home and the District —\nRichard Watson Gilder, 388.\nKindergarten Education, Department of,\nKindergarten Principles in Social Work —\nJoseph Lee, 378; Discussion, 383.\n377.\nKindergarten\nUnion, The International,\nKing, Harriet G. — Discussion, 485.\nKing, G. M. P. — Discussion, 536.\n406. John R. — Discussion, 590.\nKirk,\nKirschner,\nCharles\nL. — Secretary's\nDepartment\nof Manual\nTraining, Minutes,\n597.\nKnight, Thomas H. H. — Discussion, 725.\nKratzer, G. A. — Discussion, 515.\nKriedel, O. S. — Discussion, 479.\nKrohn, William O. — Physical Education\nand Brain-Building, 818.\nKunze, W. F. — High-School Chemistry:\nFrom\nthe City \"Superintendent's Point of\nView, 878.\nLaboratory the Place\nmental\nPrinciples,\nSmith, 878.\n\nto Teach P'undaThe — Lyman\nG.\n\nLaboratory Work\nin High-School Physiology— James E. Peabody, 867.\nLane,\nAlbert 44.G. — Response to Address\nof Welcome,\nLangley,\nElizabeth\nManual 645.\nTraining\nin\nSchool,\n\nEuphrosyne —\nthe Elementary\n\nLangzettel, Mrs. Marion B. B. — Discussion,\nLarsson, Gustaf. — Discussion, 285.\n405. Miss Abby — Discussion, 473.\nLeach,\nLeavitt, Frank M. — Discussion, 652.\nLee, Joseph — Kindergarten Principles in\nSocial Work, 378.\nLeGarde, Ellen — Discussion, 1004.\nLeland,\nG. — The Mission of the Class\nLibrary,C.953.\nLength of the Baccalaureate Course and\nPreparation for the Professional Schools\n— I, Elmer Ellsworth Brown, 489; II,\nCharles W. Eliot, 496; III, Nicholas\nMurray Butler, 500; IV, William R.\nHarper, 504;514.V, Andrew F. West, 509;\nDiscussion,\nLiberal Education, The\n\nPresent Peril to,\n\nLibrary as an Adjunct to the Secondary\nSchool, The— E. O. Holland, 961.\nutes, 937,\nLibrary Department, 937; Secretary's Min54-\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": null, "text": "7S\n\nINDEX\nLibrary Experiments in Nebraska, 966.\nLibrary Instruction in the Normal School —\nI, William H. Brett, 97 1; II, Mary Eileen\nAhem, 976; Discussion, 981.\nLibrary, Mission of the Class, 953.\nLibrary Post Bill, Resolution on, 938.\nLibrary Work for Public Schools, 943.\nLiterature in the Grades and How to Use\nIt — Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, 198; Discussion, 206.\nLyte, E. Oram — Discussion, 592, 981.\nLyttle, E. W. — Place of Physical Education in the Curriculum — Should It Be\nFundamental or Incidental ? 823 ; Discussion, 479, 486.\nLock-Step in the Public Schools — Richard\nG. Boone, 408.\nLothman, Daniel W. — Discussion, 475.\nLower Races, the White Man's Burden\nversus Indigenous Development for, 1053.\nMacCracken, John H, — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Higher Education,\n487.\nMacskimmon, Mary — The Real Purpose\nof Teaching Music in the Public Schools,\n699.\nMann, C. R. — Discussion, 890.\nManual Arts versus Manual Training, 657.\nManual, Trade, and Technical Education\n—Thomas M. Balliet, 65.\nManual Training, Department of, 595.\nManual Training High School in American\nEducation — Henry S. Pritchett, 71.\nManual Training Idea in Public-School\nWork — W. O. Thompson, 214; Discussion, 217.\nManual Training in Schools, Resolution on,\n898.\nManual Training in the Elementary School\n— Elizabeth Euphrosyne Langley, 645.\nManual Training, Some Practical Problems\nin, 278.\nManual Training versus the- Manual Arts —\nJames Parton Haney, 658.\nManual Work, Art Instruction as Related\nto, 635.\nMarlatt, Abby L. — Pland-Work for\nHigh-School Girls, 655.\nMarshall, Carl C. — Discussion, 731.\nMartin, Laurin H. — Discussion, 633.\nMartin, George H. — Discussion, 218.\nMason, Clara B. — Some Library Experiments in Nebraska, 966.\nMason, William A. — Discussion, 679.\nMathematical Conference — Leader, David\nEugene Smith, 480.\nMathematics, Committee on Entrance Requirements in,481,\nMathematics in Commercial Work — Ernest\nLawton Thurston, 726; Discussion. 731.\nMatthews, Nathan, Jr. — Justification of\nCity Expenditure on Parks and Parkways—Material for Public Education, 102.\nMcMurry, Frank M. — Discussion, 262, 563.\nMembership, Classes of — Statistical Tables\nof, 1064.\n\nMembership in The National Council, 301.\nMembers of School Boards, Number, Term\nof Service, and Mode of Selection, 898,\nMemorial\nAddresses, 365.\n905.\nMeserve, Charles F. — Heart Culture in\nIndian Education, 1056.\nMethods of Electing School Boards, The\nBest — Lewis H. Jones, 158; Discussion,\n159Method of Teaching Physiology, A New,\n862.\nMethods of Teaching Geology, 848.\nMejer, Adolph — Discussion, 813.\nMiller, Leslie\nW.— Craftsmanship\nEducation, 627.\n\nin\n\n' Minutes of Annual Business Meeting, 23.\nMinutes of the Meeting of Board of Directors for 1902-3, 32; for 1903-4, 35.\nLeland,of 953.\nMission\nthe Class Library, The — C. G.\nModern Education, Contributions of, to\nReligion, 341.\nMorals and Manners of Students, 517.\nMost\n227. Effective Use of a Superintendent's\nTime— A. B. Blodgett, 224 ; Discussion,\nMothers' Classes, The Scope and Results\nof, 400.\nMotives of Conduct, The Influence of Religious Education on the, 346.\nMurphy, Edgar Gardner — The Schools\nof the People, 129.\nMusic as a Subject to Be Counted for Admission to College — Eugene D. Russell,\nMusic as Part of Life — FrankDamrosch,7i3.\nMusic Education, Department, of 683.\nNational\nCouncil, The, 301.\n708.\nNature-Study Movement, The — L. H. Bailey, 109.\nNature Study True to Life— C. F. Hodge,\n412; Discussion, 417.\nNebraska, Some Library Experiments in,\nNegro, The Educational Needs of the\nSouthern, 123.\nNew966.Definition of the Cultivated Man, The\n—Charles W. Eliot, 46.\nNew Departures in School Administration\n— Charles Holden, 914.\nNew Method of Teaching Physiology, A —\nWilliam Townsend Porter, 862.\nNewell, Lyman C. — The Normal-School\nView of Chemistry Teaching, 879.\nNichols, Edgar H. — Discussion, 481.\nNominations, Committee on, 22; Report of\nCommittee on, 23.\nNormal School, Library Instruction in the,\nNormal\nSchool of Gymnastics, Tests of the\n971, 976.\nEfficiency of a, 829.\nN(*mal School of the Future, The City. 540.\nNormal School, To What Extent and in\nWhat Manner Can It Increase Its Scholarship? 582.\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": null, "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNormal-School View of Chemistry Teaching, The — Lyman C. Newell, 879.\nNormal-School Work, The Academic Side\nof, 577Normal Schools, Conditions of Admission\nto, 566, 569; Department of, 539.\nOfficers of the General Association for\n1902-3, 8; for 1903-4, 12.\nOfficers of the General Association, Who\nShall Be, 2; How Elected, 2.\nOfficers of the National Council, 303.\nOgg, R. A. — Discussion, 233.\nOlmstead, Emma G. — Discussion, 418.\nOpportunity and Function of the Secondary\nSchool, The — Calvin M. Woodward, 60.\nOrganization and Function of the Training\nSchool in the State Normal School —\nWilbur H. Bender, 219.\nOrganization of Trade Schools: From the\nPoint of View of a School Superintendent\n— Thomas M. Balliet, 609; Discussion,\n617.\nOrganization of Trade Schools: From the\nPoint of View of a Trade-School Director\n— Arthur L. Williston, 612; Discussion,\n617.\nOsborne, A. Stanley — The Training in\nSight-Singing and Song Interpretation\nWhich Normal School Students Should\nReceive, 693.\nOsgood, Professor — Discussion, 484.\nOur Work: Its Progress and Needs — H. B.\nPeairs, 1044.\nOutline of Course in Physics in Technical\nSchools, 893.\nOut-of-Door Class Work in Geography —\nF. P. Gulliver, 856.\nOxford University and the Rhodes Scholarships— W. T. Harris, 263.\nPace, Edward A. — The Influence of Religious Education on the Motives of Conduct, 346; Discussion, 363.\nPackard, John C. — Physics for the Boys\nand Girls: an Introductory Course, 880.\nPalmer , Irving O. — Physics in the Secondary School, 883.\nParks and Parkways — Material for Public\nEducation — Nathan Matthews, Jr., 102.\nParsons, W. W. — Does the Teacher's\nKnowledge of a Subject Differ from the\nScholar's Knowledge?\n547.\nPeabody, James E. — Laboratory Work in\nHigh-School Physiology, 867.\nPeairs, H. B. — President's Address — Our\nWork: Its Progress and Needs, 1044.\nPearse, a. S. — The Teaching of Biology\nin High Schools, 858.\nPearse, C. G. — Discussion, 162, 363, 654.\nPenny Savings Bank System, Resolution\non, 897.\nPeople, Schools of the, 129.\nPercentage of Boys Who Leave the High\nSchool and the Reasons Therefor — A.\nCaswell Ellis, 792; Discussion, 798.\nPeril to Liberal Education, The Present —\nAndrew F. West, 54.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPerkins, Albert S.— High-School Chemistry in its Relation to the Work of a\nCollege Course, 880.\nPermanent Fund, Statement of, 18,\nPettee, George D. — Discussion, 438.\nPhysical Education and Brain-Building —\nWilliam O. Krohn, 818.\nPhysical Education in the Curriculum,\nPlace of, 823.\nPhysical Education, Department of, 817.\nPhysical Training for the Mass of Students\n—I, William G. Anderson, 837; II, F.\nN. Whittier, 843.\nPhysics for Technical High Schools, A\nCourse in, 890.\nPhysics for the Boys and Girls: An Introductory Course — John C. Packard, 880.\nPhysics\nin the883.Secondary School —Irving\nO. Palmer,\nPhysics\nof, 885.Teaching, The High-School Phase\nPhysiology, A New Method of Teaching,\n862.\nPhysiology,\nSchool, 867.Laboratory Work in HighPillsbury, J. H. — Discussion, 445.\nPlace of Physical Education in the Curriculum— Should it be Fundamental or Incidental?—E.W. Lyttle, 823.\nPorter, William Townsend — A New\nMethod of Teaching Physiology, 862.\nPosse, Baroness Rose — Tests of the Effi829. ciency ofa Normal School of Gymnastics,\nPower of the Kindergarten Training School\nin the Education of Young Women —\nCaroline M. C. Hart, 395.\nPractical Methods of Teaching Geology —\nN. S. Shaler, 848.\nPresident's Address, Department of Indian\nEducation — H. B. Peairs, 1044; Department of Special Education — Edward E.\nAllen, 986.\nPrice List and Inventory of Publications,\n1066.\nPrince, John T. — Consolidation of Rural\nSchools, 929; Address of Welcome, 1043;\nDiscussion, 300, 1005.\nPrincipals' Conference — The Formation of\nSecondary-School Associations — William\nJ. S. Bryan, 476.\nPritchett, Henry S. — Address of Welcome, 42; The Part of the Manual-Training High School in American Education,\nProceedings, Journal of, 21.\nProgress of the Year, The Educational, 330.\nProper Scope of Geological Teaching in\nthe\nSchool\nNorthHigh\nRice,\n853. and Academy — William\n71.\nPsychic Arrest in Adolescence — G. Stanley\nHall, 811; Discussion, 813.\nPublic Education, Parks and Parkways,\nMaterial for, 102,\nPublic\nLibrary\nSchools,\n957. a Promptuary for the Public\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": null, "text": "1077\n\nINDEX\nPublic Library and the Public School —\nCharles B. Gilbert, 948.\nPublic-Library Work for Public Schools —\nElectra Collins Doren, 943.\nPublic Opinion and Good Schools — J. K.\nStableton, 228; Discussion, 233.\nPublic-School Gymnastics, How to Improve, 828.\nPublic-School Plant, The Full Utilization\nof a, 241.\nPublic School, Public Library and the, 948.\nPublic-School System, Should Its Scope Be\nBroadened?\n998.\nPublic-School Work, Manual Training Idea\nin, 214.\nPublic Schools, Considerations for a Practical Study of Drawing in, 670.\nPublic Schools? Is the Public Library a\nPromptuary for the, 957.\nPublic Schools, Public- Library Workfor,943.\nPublic Schools, The Lock-Step in the, 408.\nPublic Schools, The Real Purpose of Teaching Music in the, 695.\nP.ublications, Inventory and Price List of,\n1066.\nPutnam, Helen C. — Discussion, 776.\nRamsey, Charles C. — Discussion, 537.\nReadjustment of the High-School Curriculum—E. W. Coy, 177; Discussion, 183.\nReal Purpose of Teachmg Music in the\nPublic Schools, The— I, Samuel W. Cole,\n695; II, Mary Macskimmon, 699.\nRedway, Jacques W. — Discussion, 155.\nReel, Estelle— Secretary's Minutes, Department of Indian Education, 1040.\nReigart, J. F. — Memorial Address on\nEdward R Shaw, 374.\nReligion, Contributions of Modern Education to, 341.\nReligious Education, The Influence of, on\nthe Motives of Conduct, 346.\nRemsen, Ira — College Chemistry, and Its\nRelation to Work' Preparatory to It, 872.\nReport of Board of Trustees, 18.\nReport of Committee on Conference with\nSociety for Promotion of Engineering\nEducation, 488.\nReport of Committee on Entrance Requirements in Mathematics — H. W. Tyler,\nChairman, 481.\nReport of Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations, 306, 308.\nReport of Committee on Statistics of Defective Sight and Hearing of PublicSchool Children — F. W. Booth, 1036.\nReport of Committee on Nominations, 23.\nReport of the Committee on Resolutions, 29.\nReport of Round Table Conference, Department ofBusiness Education, 750.\nReport of Treasurer, 16.\nReports of Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations, 36, 37.\nResolution on Committee for Scientific\nChild-Study Investigation, 754.\nResolution on Committee of Ten, Department of Manual Training, 596.\n\nResolution on Committee on Contemporary\nEducational Doctrine, 140.\nResolution on Committee on Course of\nStudy in Art Schools, 666.\nResolution on Library Post Bill, 938.\nResolution on Manual-Training in Schools,\n898.\nResolution on Penny Savings Bank System,\n897.\nResolution on President Beardshear, 142.\nResolution on School-Board Organization,\n898.\nResolutions,\nCommittee on, 21; Report of\nCommittee on, 29.\nResolutions of National Council on Appropriations, 37.\nResolutions,\nReport of the Committee on,\n29.\nResolutions with Reference to the Formation of a Federation of Secondary\nSchools, 478.\nResponses to Addresses of Welcome —\nAlbert G. Lane, 44; W. T, Harris, 44;\nH. B. Frissell, 1043.\nRhodes Scholarships, Oxford University\nand the, 263.\nRice, William North — The Proper Scope\nof Geological Teaching in the High\nSchool and Academy, 853.\nRichards, Charles R.— Some Practical\nProblems in Manual Training, 278.\nRicheson, John — Discussion, 176.\nRobinson, E. V. — Discussion, 445.\nRollins, George W\\ — Discussion, 446.\nRoss, Denman Waldo — The Teaching of\nArt, 666.\nRound Table Conferences, Department of\nSecondary Education, 470.\nRound Table Conference, Department of\nBusiness Education, 750.\nRound Table of City Superintendents, 224.\nRound Tabletendents,of214. State and County SuperinRound Table of State Normal Schools and\nCity Training Schools, 219,\nRowe, W. S. — Discussion, 233.\nRural Schools, Consolidation of, 919, 929.\nRural Schools, Industrial Training in, 185.\nRural Schools, Surroundings of, 89.\nRussell, Eugene D. — Music as a Subject\nto be Counted for Admission to College,\nSachs, Julius — Discussion, 445.\nSalisbury, Albert — Discussion, 576.\n708.\nSaving of Time in Elementary and Secondary Education — Thomas M. Balliet,\n317; Ella Flagg Young, 322; Discussion,\nSayward, William H. — The Attitude^of\nTrade\nUnions Toward Trade Schools,\n327.\n620.\nSchaeffer, Nathan C. — Discussion, 360.\nScffdol Administration, Department of, 897;\nNew Departure in, 914.\nSchool-Board Organization, Resolution oft,\n898.\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": null, "text": "1078\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSchool Boards: Number of Members,\nTerms of Service, and Mode of Selection\n—I, Calvin W. Edwards, 898; II,\nGrafton D. Gushing, 905.\nSchool Boards: The Best Methods of Electing, 158.\nSchool Boards — Their Functions: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial — B. F.\nHunsicker, 910.\nSchool Children, Health and Growth of,\n769.\nSchool Children's Eyes, Facts and Fallacies\nin the Examination of, 1020.\nSchool Gardens — Henry Lincoln Clapp, 85.\nSchool Gardens, City School Yards, and\nthe Surroundings of Rural Schools —\nOrville T. Bright, 77.\nSchool Hygiene in Its Bearing on ChildLife — Thomas D. Wood, 778; Discussion, 784.\nSchool Music — Has It Made Music Readers?— I, George W. Wilmot, 701; II,\nRalph L. Baldwin, 705.\nSchool Supported by Public Taxes, Separated from the Church, 351.\nSchool Surroundings — W. W. Stetson, 96.\nSchools of the People, The — Edgar Gardner\nMurphy, 129.\nSchuyler, William — Discussion, 445.\nScience in Commercial Work: Its Practical\nValue, Character, and Place in HighSchool Work— Frank M. Gilley, 738.\nScience Instruction, Department of, 847.\nScope and Results of Mothers' Classes —\nElizabeth Harrison, 400; Discussion, 405.'\nScott, Colin A. — Self-Direction as a\nMotive for Increasing Attendance, 808.\nSeaver, Edwin P. — Discussion, 299.\nSecondary Education, Department of, 429.\nSecondary Education, Sex Differentiation\nin Relation to, 785.\nSecondary Field, Tendencies as to the Enlargement ofthe, 432.\nSecondary-School Associations, The Formation of a Federation of, 476.\nSecondary School, Physics in the, 883.\nSecondary School, The Library as an\nAdjunct to the, 961.\nSecondary School, The Opportunity and\nFunction of the, 60.\nSecretary, Permanent, How Elected, 3;\nDuties, 2.\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of Art\nEducation, 665; of Business Education,\n719; of Child Study, 753; of Council of\nEducation, 306; of Elementary Education, 407; of Higher Education, 487; of\nIndian Education, 1040; of Kindergarten\nEducation, 377; of Library, 937; of\nManual Training, 595; of Music Education, 683; of Normal Schools, 539; of\nPhysical Education, 817; of School Administration, 897; of Science Instruction,\n847; of Secondary Education, 429; of\nSpecial Education, 985; of Superintendence, 139.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSecurities, List of, 20.\nSeerley, Homer H. — Memorial Address\non William Miller Beardshear, 368.\nSelf-Direction as a Motive for Increasing\nAttendance — Colin A. Scott, 808.\nSeparation of the Church from the School\nSupported by Public Taxes — W. T.\nHarris, 351; Discussion, 360.\nSeven-Year Course of Study for WardSchool Pupils — James M. Greenwood,\n247 ; Discussion, 260.\nSex Differentiation in Relation to Secondary Education\ncussion, 790. — A. H. Yoder, 785; DisShaler, N. S. — Practical Methods of\nTeaching Geology, 848.\nShall the University Concern Itself More\nDirectly with the Morals and Manners of\nIts Students? — George Harris, 517; William J.Tucker, 521; W. F. Slocum, 526;\nThomas F. Gailor, 531; Discussion, 536.\nShaw, Edward R., |— J. F. Reigart, 374.\nShepard, Irwin — Journal of Proceedings,\nShould the Scope of the Public School System Be Broadened so as to take in All\nChildren Capable of Education? If so,\nHow Should This Be Done?— Mary C.\n34.\nGreene, 998; Discussion, 1003.\nSight-Singing and Song Interpretation,\nTraining in, 685.\nSimplified Spelling, Committee on, 140.\nSkinner, Charles R. — Surroundings of\nRural Schools, 89.\nSlocum, W. F. — Shall the University Concern Itself More Directly with the Morals\nand Manners of Its Students? 526.\nSmall, Albion W. — Coeducation at the\nUniversity of Chicago, 288.\nSmith, David Eugene — Does the Teacher's Knowledge of a Subject Differ from\nthe Scholar's Knowledge? 554; Leader,\nsion, 554.\nMathematical\nconference, 480; DiscusSmith, Lillie Collamore — Discussion, 657.\nSmith, Lyman G. — The Laboratory the\nPlace to Teach Fundamental Principles,\nSnow,\n878. Bonnie E. — Considerations for a\nPractical Study of Drawing in Public\nSchools, 670.\nSnyder, Z. X. — Discussion, 792.\nSocial Influence of the Kindergarten, 388.\nSocial Work, Kindergarten Principles in,\nSold an, F. Louis — Discussion, 163, 184, 560.\nSome\nCo-operative\nSuggestions — Alfred\nBayliss,\n938.\n378. Diseases of the Nose and Throat of\nSome\nInterest to Teachers — E. A. Crockett,\n1028.\n\nSome Eye Defects of Feeble-Minded and\n1023.\nBackward\nChildren — Allen Greenwood,\nSome\nExperiments\nin Nebraska —\nClaraLibrary\nB. Mason,\n966.\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nSome Practical Problems in Manual Training— Charles R. Richards, 278; Discussion. 285.\nSpaulding, F. E. — The Teacher's Practical Application of the Results of Child\nStudy, 761.\nSpecial Committees Appointed by the\nCouncil, 308.\nSpecial Education, Department of, 985.\nSpeech Impediments, What Teachers Need\nto Know About, 1031.\nSpencer, Enos — Disciplinary \\alue of\nBookkeeping as a Study, 741.\nSpencer, Mrs. Sara — Discussion, 725.\nStableton, J. K. — Public Opinion and\nGood Schools, 228; How to Increase the\nAttendance of Boys at the High School,\n801.\nStandish, Myles — Facts and Fallacies in\nthe Examination of School Children's\nEyes, 1020.\nStarbuck, Edwin D. — Discussion, 790.\nState Normal School, Training School of\nthe, 219.\nStatistical Tables of Membership, 1064.\nStatistics of Defective Sight and Hearing\nof Public-School Children, Report of\nCommittee, 1036.\nStenography and Typewriting as Studies,\nThe Disciplinary Value of, 746.\nStetson, W. W. — School Surroundings,\n96.\nStevens,\nC. E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business Education, 719.\nStevenson, W. C. — Discussion, 726, 731.\nStickney, Lucia — Discussion, 361.\nStudents, Physical Training for the Mass\nof, 837.\nStudy Based on the Children of a State. A\n— Earl Barnes, 754.\nSullivan, James — Leader, History Conference, 484.\nSuperintendence, Department of, 139.\nSuperintendents, Round Table of State and\nCounty, 214.\nSurroundings of Rural Schools — Charles R.\nSkinner, 89.\nSwain, Joseph — Remarks on Dr. E. E.\nWhite, 373; Discussion, 340, 536.\nTalbot, Henry P. — Chemistry from the\nCollege Standpoint, 877.\nTeacher, The Freedom of the, 164.\nTeachers, Influence of Men and Women,\n809.\nTeacher's Knowledge versus Scholar's\nKnowledge, 547, 554.\nTeacher's Practical Application of the\nResults of Child Study, The — F. E.\nSpaulding, 761 ; Discussion, 766.\nTeaching of Argumentative Discourse in\nHigh Schools — I, George P. Baker, 460;\nII, Charles S. Hartwell, 466.\nTeaching of Art, The — Denman Waldo\nRoss, 666.\nTeaching of Biology in High Schools, The\n—A. S. Pearse, 858.\n\nTendencies as to the Enlargement of the\nSecondary Field — Reuben Post Halleck,\n432; Discussion. 438.\nTenure in the Civil Service — John T.\nDoyle, 1057.\nTests of the Efficiency'of Normal School of\nGymnastics — Baroness Rose Posse, 829.\nThomas, Isaac — Discussion, 444.\nThompson, W. O.— To What Extent and\nin What Form Should the Manual-Training Idea214.\nBe Embodied in Public-School\nWork?\nThorpe, Mrs. E. J. Ellery — What\nTeachers Need to Know about Speech\nImpediments; 1031.\nThurston, Ernest Lawton — Mathematics in Commerciai Work, 726.\nTibbitts, F. A. — Discussion, 738.\nTo What Degree Has the Present System\nof Indian Schools Been Successful in\nsell,\n1049. for Citizenship? — H. B. FrisQualifying\nTo What Extent and What Manner Can\nthe Normal School Increase Its Scholarship?— James M. Green, 582; Discussion, 586.\nTrade Schools, The Attitude of Trade\nUnions toward, 620.\nTrade Schools, The Demand for: From the\nEducator's Point of View, 602.\nTrade Schools, The Organization of: From\nthe Pointtendent,of609. View of a School SuperinTrade Schools, The Organization of: From\nthe Pomt of View of a Trade-School\nDirector, 612.\nTrade Unions, The Attitude of, toward\nTrade Schools, 620.\nTrades, Education for the : From the Standpoint of the Manufacturer, 597.\nTraining in Sight-Singing and Song Interpretation Which Normal-School Students\nShould Receive — I, C. A. Fullerton, 685;\nII,\nJulia E.\nOsborne,\n693.Crane, 690; HI, A. Stanley\n219.\nTraining\nSchool in the State Normal School,\nTrask, Helen W. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, 683.\nTreasurer, Annual Report of, 16.\nTrustees, Annual Report of, 18.\nTrustees, Board of, How Elected, 2; Duties,\ns\nes,\nber\nrd f, or 902-3,\nste\no f 1\nTru\nof Boa\nMem\n8; for 1903-4, 12.\nTucker, William J.— Shall the University\nConcern\nItself More Directly with the\nMorals and Manners of Its Students ?\nTurner, Luther Weston, 642.\nTwiss, George R. — The High-School\n521. of Physics Teaching : Aims and\nPhase\nMethtids, 885.\n3Tyler, H. W. — Chairman, Committee on\nEntrance Requirements in Mathematics,\n\n481.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nTypewriting and Stenography, The Disciplinary Value of, 746.\nUniversity of Chicago, Coeducation at the,\n288.\nUniversity, Shall It Concern Itself More\nDirectly with the Morals and Manners\nof Its Students? 517.\nUnusual Child, The Influence of the Study\nof the, 987, 992.\nUtilization of a Public-School Plant —\nCharles W. Eliot, 241.\nVan Sickle, James H. — Discussion, 174,\n425Vogei, William H. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Art Education, 666.\nVoluntary Element in Education, The,\nCharles De Garmo, 311.\nWagner, W. H. — The Disciplinary Value\nof Stenography and Typewriting as\nStudies, 746.\nWait, William B. — Discussion, 1012.\nWalker, Charles T. — The Educational\nNeeds of the Southern Negro, 123.\nWard-School Pupils, Seven-Year Course of\nStudy for, 247.\nWarren, Charles F. — A Course in Physics for Technical High Schools, 890.\nWaterman, Richard. — Discussion, 738.\nWelling, R. W. G. — The Teachmg of\nCivics and Good Citizenship in the Public Schools, 98.\nWertz, Adda P. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\nWest, Andrew F. — [The Present Peril to\n407.Liberal\nEducation, 54; The Length of\nthe Baccalaureate Course and Preparation for the Professional Schools, 509.\nWestcott, Oliver S. — Discussion, 446.\nWetzel, W. A. — Discussion, 479.\nWhat Teachers Need to Know about Sense\nDefects and Impediments, I, 1013; II,\n1020; III, 1023; IV, 1028.\nWhat Teachers Need to Know about\nSpeech Impediments — Mrs. E. J. Ellery\nThrope, 1031.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWheeler, Clara — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofKindergarten Education, 378.\nWheelock,\nF. — Opening Remarks, 430, Chales\n479.\nWhite, Emerson Elbridge, |, — E. W. Coy,\nWhite Man's Burden versus Indigenous De369velopment for the Lower Races — G.\nStanley Hall, 1053.\nWhittier, F. N. — Ph3'sical Training for\nthe Mass of Students, 843.\nWiggins, Alta — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Physical Education, 818.\nWilkinson, E. W. — Discussion, 217.\nWilkinson, J. N. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Superintendence, 143;\nDiscussion, 982.\nWilliams, Henry G. — Discussion, 586.\nWilliams, Lillie A, — Discussion, 759.\nWilliams, Rufus Phillips — HighSchool Chemistry in Its Relation to the\nWork of a College Course, 873.\nWiLLisTON, Arthur L. — The Organization of Trade Schools : From the Point\nof View of a Trade-School Director, 612.\nWiLMOT, George W. — School Music —\nHas It Made Music Readers ? 701.\nWinship, a. E. — Address of Welcome,1042.\nWolfe, Lloyd E. — The Human Side of\nGeography, 143; Discussion, 300.\nWood, Stella L. — The International\nKindergarten Union, 406.\nWood, Thomas D. — How to Improve\nPublic-School Gymnastics, 828 ; School\nHygiene in Its Bearing on Child-Life,\n778; Discussion, 1003;\nWoodward, Calvin M. — The Opportunity 60\nand P'unction\nof 327,\nthe 340.\nSecondary\nSchool,\n; Discussion,\nYoder, a. H. — Sex Differentiation in Relation to Secondary Education, 785.\nYoung, Ella Flagg — The Saving of\nTime in Elementary and Secondary Education, 322 ; Discussion, 328.\nZirkle, Homer W. — Discussion, 784.\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": null, "text": "'^:mi\\\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": null, "text": "( ''X^r^.<^±L^kl\\L>\n\n13\nL\nN3A13\n1903\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO\nCARDS\n\nNOT\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
