IPresentcO to ^be Xibrar? of tbe \Ilniver6it? of ^Toronto The Buffalo Public Library / ^c ^\ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL) ASSOCIATION of-f^^. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES OF THE FORTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA JULY 7-1 1, 1902 A^ I k .1^ s kT 1902 Publlebcd bg tbe Bssociatfon L dOSL GiiH o^ Mi'^s EWoC.^Uer ^ BUFFALO Pi'.p^:JC LIBRARY t, 4 »//o« ' ' ' 7°^ The Child-Study Department of the Chicago Public Schools - Loesch ' " - 710 CONTENTS vii What our Schools Owe to Child Study — Noss 716 Discussion — Dewey • - - - - - - - - -719 The Physiology of Childhood as Applied to Education — Beard - - - 720 Discussion — Kirkpatrick, Beard ....... ^27 How far does the Modern High School fit the Nature and Needs of Adoles- cents ? — Halleck 730 Discussion — Lancaster • • -- - - - - . 7^8 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes - y^g President's Address : " Educative " Physical Education — Krohn - - . j^q Requirements for Physical Education in our Public Schools — Hartung - . 74^ Discussion — Lyttle, Gowdy ----.-... ^^4 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes - • - . . 7^^ President's Address : The Teaching of Science — Norton - - - . 750 The Educational Value of Museums — Farrington ---... 75^ The Projection Microscope — Its Possibilities and Value in Teaching Biology — Cole - - - ' - "Til High-School Instruction in Physics — Gilley 778 Physiography in the Secondary Schools — Merrill 784 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Secretary's Minutes 7^0 President's Address — Peres 70 j Progress in Consolidation of Rural Schools — Olsen 703 LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes 708 The Library as an Educator — Millis ------.. 700 Libraries and Schools — A Two-Faced Question — Fordyce - - . 805 Greeting from the American Library Association — Hopkim - - . . 807 Discussion — Halleck et al. - - - - - . . - 811 What the School May Properly Demand of the Library — Greenwood - - 811 Discussion — Emberson, Prentice ---.... 818 School Libraries in the Rural Districts — Robertson 818 DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes - - - 825 President's Address — Bell 828 Responses to Address of Welcome — Harris, Kelley 830 Lessons to be Learned by the General Teacher from Teaching Language to the Deaf — Booth - - - - - - - - . . . - S'ii What is Minnesota Doing for her Deaf Children ? — Tate ----- 836 What Minnesota is Doing for her Blind Children — Chappie - - - . 840 What Minnesota is Doing for her Feeble Minded and Epileptics — Rogers - 845 Victorious America ! — Ferreri ---.-..... 8^5 The Organization of Associations of Parents of Deaf Children as an Aid to Schools — Hefferan ----.. 848 Discussion — Bell, Parker, Stout, McCowan --.... 850 Necessary Evils — Dow - - - . - 851 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION DEPARTMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes .-----. g^g President's Address — McCowan - - 86 1 Abstracts cf Addresses: Teaching of Agriculture — Compton, 862; Hin- drances to Citizenship — Wilson, 862; Training Home-makers — Shutt, 863 ; Outing System for Girls —Jackson, 864 ; Need of Home Societies — Hart, 865; Tuberculosis — Perkins, Bullock, 865; Judicious Direction — Crouse, 867 ; Class-Room Work — Hart, 868 ; Education Adapted to Needs — Robertson, 868; Value of Agricultural School — McCowan, %t(); Correlation of School and Farm Work — Nardin, 870 ; What is our Aim ? — Allen, 870; Schools of Moderate Size — Noble, 871 ; Needed Changes — Wright, 872 ; Rules and Regulations — Potter, 873 ; Value of Day School — Duncan, 874 ; Books for Indian Children, Covey, 874 ; News- papers in Indian Schools, Harris, 875 ; General Addresses, Butler, Sadler, Winship, Ireland, Bayliss, Snyder, Downing, 877. ROUND-TABLE CONFERENCES A. Superintendent's Conference 881 B. Teacher's Conference -----.-.... ggc C. Matron's Conference --------... ggo MISCELLANEOUS Report on Necrology - - gg^ List of Corresponding Members - - go I List of Active Members - ^ . . . Q04 Index to Active Membership List - - - - ' - - - . . 593 Inventory and Price List of Publications 1007 Statistical Table of Membership for 1902 1008 Statistical Table of Membership since 1884 1009 General Index - jon CONSTITUTION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION PREAMBLE I To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I — NAME This association shall be styled the National Educational Association. ARTICLE II — DEPARTMENTS Section i. It shall consist of eighteen departments: first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Educa- tion ; fifth, of Manual Training ; sixth, of Art Education ; seventh, of Kindergarten Education ; eighth, of Music Education ; ninth, of Secondary Education ; tenth, of Busi- ness Education ; eleventh, of Child Study ; twelfth, of Physical Education ; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction ; fourteenth, of School Administration ; fifteenth, the Library Department ; sixteenth, of Special Education ; seventeenth, of Indian Education ; and eighteenth, the National Council of Education. Sec 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this con- stitution. ARTICLE III— MEMBERSHIP Section i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and corresponding. Sec 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of educational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members. All others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate mem- bers. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty. Sec 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. Active members only have the right to vote and to hold office in the general Associa- tion or in the several departments. All active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without " coupon " or other conditions. The annual membership NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, or by remittance to the Secre- tary before September l of each year. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice to the Secretary before September i, and may restore the same only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance with the usual "coupon" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate. ^Corresponding members will be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without the payment of fees or other conditions. Sec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in the volume of Proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, the list to be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association. ARTICLE IV — OFFICERS Section i. The officers of this Association shall consist of a President, twelve Vice- Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an Executive Committee, as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the Association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors elected previous to July 10, 1895. All past presidents of the Association now living (July 10, 1895), and all future presidents at the close of their respective terms of office, and the United States Com- missioner of Education, shall be life directors of the Association. The President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Treas- urer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, which member shall hold oifice for one year, shall constitute the Executive Committee. Sec. 3. The elective officers of the Association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Sec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, sec- retary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no person shall be elected to any office of the Association, or of any department, who is not, at the time of the election, an active member of the Association. Sec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the first vice-president in order, who is present, shall preside ; and in the absence of all vice-presidents, a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question. Sec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The Secretary of each departlnent shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department. CONSTITUTION Sec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board oi Trustees hold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the Association ; shall expend the same only upon the order of said board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the ist day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association next succeeding that for which he is elected. Sec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body ; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meet- ings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon the written application of twenty active members of the Association for permission to establish a new department, it may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for the insertion of its name in Art. II, and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations. Sec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the trustees in 1886, one trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one for four years ; and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the Association, one trustee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resig- nation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body corporate of the Association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the pro- visions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber No. 4, " Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia." Sec. id. It shall be the duty of .the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping and investment of all funds which the Association may receive from donations ; and the income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secre- tary of the Association acting under the autiiority of the Board of Directors ; and, when practicable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year. Sec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of office for a period not to exceed four years. ARTICLE V — MEETINGS Section i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and not less than two hours before the assembling of the Association. Sec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or the President shall determine. Sec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first meeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the Presi- dent and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one member from each department. ARTICLE VI — BY-LAWS By-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Association. ARTICLE VII— AMENDMENTS This constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous vote of the members present ; or by a two-thirds vote of the menibers present, provided that the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous meeting. BY-LAWS I. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be appointed by the President a committee on resolutions ; and at the thfrd session of such meeting here shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member from each state and territory represented, the same to be appointed by the President on the nomination of a majority of the active members in attendance from such state or territory ; provided, however, that such appointment shall be made by the President with- out such nomination, when less than three active members from a state or territory are in attendance, and also when a majority of the active members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination. The meetings of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held at 5 : 30 p. m. on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such place as shall be announced in the general program. 2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. 3. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its Pro- ceedings. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon approval of the Executive Committee. 5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said fund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees. ACT OF INCORPORATION At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following resolution was passed : Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation for the National Educational Association, under United States or state laws, as speedily as may be. ACT OF INCORPORATION N. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts ; and Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee. Under the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman obtained a CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION We, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citi- zens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby associate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorpora- tion, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of the " National Educational Association," for the full period of tw^enty years, the purpose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes- sion of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. .... To secure the full benefit of said act we do here execute this our certificate of incorporation as said act provides. In witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C. Norman A. Calkins, [l. s.] John Eaton. [l. s.] Zalmon Richards. [l. s,] Duly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, Notary Public in and for the District of Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION 1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized.) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. i8s8.-CINCINNATI, O. Z. Richards, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. A. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer. 1859.— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. RiCKOFF, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i860.— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Bulklev, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862. — No session. 1863.-CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864.-OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865.— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon. Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer, t866.— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867. — No session. 1868.— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869.— TRENTON, N, J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. t87o.— CLEVELAND, O. Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NAME CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1871.-ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W, E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872.-BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873.-ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874.— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876.— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878. — No session. 1879.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880.— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS 1881.— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Ore, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. 1883.-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884.-MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E, Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886.— TOPEKA, KAN. N. A. Calkins, President. ■ W, E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887 —CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. }88g.-NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1 890.- ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893.— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894.— ASBURY PARK. N. J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1895.— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1896.— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1897.— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1898.-WASHINGTON, D. C. J. M. Greenwood, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899.— LOS ANGELES, CAL. E. Oram Lyte, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1900.— CHARLESTON, S. C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901 .-DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. 1902.— MINNEAPOLIS. MINN, William M. Beardshear, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OFFICERS FOR 1901-1902 GENERAL ASSOCIATION W. M. BEARDSHEAR President -. Ames, la. IRWIN SHEPARD Secretary Winona, Minn, CHARLES H. KEYES Treasurer Hartford, Conn. VICE-PRESIDENTS James M. Green, Trenton, N. J. McHenry Rhoads, Owensboro, Ky. W. C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich. Edmund Stanley, Wichita, Kan. R. S. Bingham, Tacoma, Wash. H. S, Tarbell, Providence, R. I. W. W. Chalmers, Toledo, O. S. D. Largent, Great Falls, Mont. A. W. Norton, Sioux Falls, S. D. W. M. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga. J. L. Hollow AY, Fort Smith, Ark. C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. BOARD OF TRUSTEES (See Art. IV, sec. q, of the constitution.') Nicholas Murray BiTTLER New York, N. Y Term expires July, 1902 Albert G. Lane, Chairman Chicago, 111 Term expires July, 1903 Newton C. Dougherty Peoria, 111 Term expires July, 1904 F. Louis Soldan St. Louis, Mo Term expires July, 1905 W. M. Beardshear Ames, la Ex officio , EXECUTIVE- COMMITTEE (See A rt. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.) W. M. Beardshear President Ames, la. James M. Green First Vice-President Trenton, N. J. Charles H. Keyes Treasurer Hartford, Conn. Albert G. Lane Chairman Board of Trustees Chicago, 111. W. T. Harris Member by election Washington, D. C. Irwin Shbfard Secretary Winona, Minn. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex officio (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) W. M. Beardshear, Ames, la. Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn. James M. Green, Trenton, N. J. Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. Life Directors (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) BiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I. Dougherty, Newton C, Peoria, HI, Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Garrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Canfield, James H., New York, N. Y. Graham, H. A., Mt, Pleasant, Mich. Cook, E. H., Boulder, Colo. Green, J. M., Trenton, N. J. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus O. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. DIRECTORS Life 1&.&Ta\iex^— continued Harris, W. T., Washington, D. C. Hunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan. Lane, Albert G., Chicago, 111. Lyte, E. Oram, Millersville, Pa. Marble, Albert P., New York, N. Y. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111. Phelps, W. F., Duluth, Minn. PiCKARD, JosiAH L,, BruHswick, Me. Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111. Skinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y. SoLDAN, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo. Stratton, C. C, University Park, Ore. Taylor, A. R., Decatur, 111. Teachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. White, E. E., Columbus, O. Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C. Directors by Election North Atlantic Division Maine John S. Locke Saco New Hampshire J. E . Klock Plymouth Vermont John L. Alger Johnson Massachusetts Frank A. Fitzpatrick Boston Rhode Island « Walter B allou Jacobs Providence Connecticut Wilbur F. Gordy Hartford New York Augustus S. Downing New York New Jersey H. Brewster Willis New Brunswick Pennsylvania George H. Stoitt Philadelphia South Atlantic Division Delaware George VV. Twitmyer Wilmington Maryland M. Bates Stephens Baltimore District of Columbia Hosmer M. Johnson Anacostia Virginia George J. Ramsey Richmond West Virginia W. H. Anderson Wheeling North Carolina Charles D. McIver Greensboro South Carolina D. B. Johnson Rock Hill Florida W. N. Sheats Tallahassee South Central Division Kentucky W. H. Bartholomew Louisville Tennessee W. T. White Knoxville Georgia M. L. Brittain Atlanta Alabama John W. Abercrombie Montgomery Mississippi J. R. Preston Natchez Louisiana Warren Easton New Orleans Texas J. M. Fendley Galveston Oklahoma David R. Boyd Norman Arkansas George B . Cook Hot Springs North Central Division Ohio J. M. H. Frederick Lakewood Indiana T. A. Mott Richmond Illinois Alfred Bayliss Springfield Michigan D. W. Springer Ann Arbor Wisconsin L. D. Harvey Madison Iowa H. E. Kratz Sioux City Minnesota Charles M. Jordan Minneapolis Missouri W. T. Carrington Jefferson City North Dakota W. E. Hoover Park River South Dakota E. E. Collins Vermilion Nebraska C. G. Pearse Omaha Kansas Frank R.Dyer Wichita Western Division Montana W. W. Welch Helena Wyoming Miss Estelle Reel Washington, D. C. Colorado H. S. Philips Denver NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Directors by Election— c^w/'/wz/^d? New Mexico Hiram Hadley Las Cruces Arizona F. Yale Adams Tucson Utah W. J. Kerr Logan Nevada J. E. Stubbs Reno Idaho Miss Permeal French Boise Washington Charles M. Sherman Snohomish Oregon E. D. Ressler Eugene California James A. Foshay Los Angeles DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council J. H. PHILLIPS President Birmingham, Ala. Miss MARY E. NICHOLSON Vice-President Indianapolis, Ind. JESSE F. MILLSPAUGH Secretary Winona, Minn. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER Executive Committee New York, N. Y. JOSEPH SWAIN Executive Committee Bloomington, Ind. RICHARD G. BOONE Executive Committee Cincinrfati, O. Kindergarten Miss C. GERALDINE O'GRAD Y .... President New York, N. Y. Miss CLARA W. MINGINS Vice-President Detroit, Mich. Miss MARY C. MAY Secretary Salt Lake City, Utah Elementary R. A. OGG President Kokomo, Ind. J. J. DOYNE Vice-President Little Rock, Ark. Miss ADDA P. WERTZ Secretary Carbondale, 111. Secondary J. REMSEN BISHOP President Cincinnati, O. W. F. WEBSTER Vice-President Minneapolis, Minn. CHARLES ALDEN SMITH Secretary Duluth, Minn. Higher W. H. P. FAUNCE President Providence, R. I. . C. W. DABNEY Vice-President Knoxville, Tenn. JOHN W. PERRIN Secretary Cleveland, O. Normal JESSE F. MILLSPAUGH President Winona Minn MYRON TRACY SCUDDER Vice-President New Paltz N Y JOHN R. KIRK Secretary Kirksville.Mo. ' Superintendence G. R. GLENN President Atlanta, Ga. H. P. EMERSON First Vice-President Buffalo, N. Y. F. W. COOLEY Second Vice-President Calume't, Mich. JOHN W. DIETRICH Secretary.... Colorado Sp'gs. Colo. Manual CHARLES R. RICHARDS President Xew York N Y CHARLES F. WARNER.... Vice-President c • « i^W ' J- «• ™vBOM ;:.;: s^rr;'':."::::;:::;:::::;::;::.;:: D^ZtMic^'- Art Miss MYRA JONES President Detroit Mich Miss ROD A SELLECK Vice-President . Indianapolis Ind Miss EMILY H. MILES Secretary :-•; Detve Co b DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 0 y ^ (\1 0 (^ Music A. J. GANTVOORT President Cincinnati, O. STERRIE A. WEAVER Vice-President Westfield, Mass. Mrs. GASTON BOYD Secretary Newton, Kan. Business I. O. CRISSY President Albany, N. Y. J. H. FRANCIS Vice-President Los Angeles, Cal. TEMPLETON P. TWIGGS Secretary Detroit, Mich. Child Study H, E. KRATZ President Sioux, City, la. Miss JENNIE WARREN PRENTISS Vice-President Cleveland, O. Miss KATE A. HOPPER Secretary Detroit, Mich. Physical Training W. O. KROHN President Chicago, 111. THEODORE TOEPEL First Vice-President Atlanta, Ga. Miss M. AUGUSTA REQUA Second Vice-President New York, N. Y. Miss MABEL L. PRAY Secretary Toledo, O. Science W. H. NORTON President Mt. Vernon, la. Vacant Vice-President EDWARD M. LEHNERTS Secretary Winona, Minn. \^ School Administration ISRAEL H. PERES President Memphis, Tenn. Mrs. JOSEPHINE A. GOSS First Vice-President Grand Rapids, Mich. |\J L. D. BONEBRAKE Second Vice-President Columbus, O. * GEORGE FENTON Third Vice-President Broadalbin, N. Y. WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE Secretary Milwaukee, Wis. Library JAMES H. CANFIELD President New York, N. Y. REUBEN POST HALLECK Vice-President Louisville, Ky. Miss MARY EILEEN AHERN Secretary Chicago, 111. Deaf, Blind, etc. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL President Washington, D. C. EDWARD E, ALLEN Vice-President Overbrook, Pa. ELBERT A. GRUVER Secretary New York, N. Y. I 0 Indian Education SAMUEL M. McCOWAN President Phoenix, Ariz, Q H. B. FRISSELL Vice-President Hampton, Va. Miss ESTELLE REEL Secretary Washington, D. C. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OFFICERS FOR 1902-1903 GENERAL ASSOCIATION CHARLES W, ELIOT President Cambridge, Mass. IRWIN SHEPARD Secretary Winona, Minn. W. M. DAVIDSON Treasurer Topeka, Kan. VICE-PRESIDENTS *W. M. Beardshear, Ames, la. Miss Marion Brown, New Orleans, La. Orville T. Bright, Chicago, 111. James B. Pearcy, Anderson, Ind. Charles F. Reeves, Latona, Wash. Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell, Denver, Colo. Joseph Kennedy, Grand Forks, N. D. Henry R. Sanford, Penn Van, N. Y. Charles F. Thwing, ClcTcland, O. J. H. Francis, Los Angeles, Cal. W. N. Sheats, Tallahassee, Fla. Wallace G. Nye, Minneapolis, Minn. BOARD OF TRUSTEES (See Art. IV, sec. 9, of the constitution.) Albert G. Lane, Chairman Chicago, 111 Term expires July, 1903 Newton C. Dougherty Peoria, 111 Term expires July, 1904 F. Louis Soldan St. Louis, Mo Term expires July, 1905 Nicholas Murray Butler New York, N. Y Term expires July, 1906 Charles W. Eliot Cambridge, Mass Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (See ^r^. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.) Charles W. Eliot President Cambridge, Mass. Orville T. Bright First Vice-President Chicago, 111. W. M. Davidson Treasurer Topeka, Kan. Albert G. Lane Chairman Board of Trustees Chicago, 111. W. T. Harris Member by election Washington, D. C. Irwin Shepard Secretary Winona, Minn. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex ofllcio (See yir^ IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass. Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn. Orville T. Bright, Chicago, 111. Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. Life Directors (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) *Beardshear, W. M., Ames, la. Dougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111. Bicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I. Garrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn. Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y. Graham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Canfield, James H., New York, N. Y. Green, J. M., Trenton, N. J. Cook, E. H., Boulder, Colo. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus, O. Harris, W. T., Washington, D. C. * Deceased, OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION Life DirectoTa—conitnued Hunt, Mrs. Mary H., Boston, Mass. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kan. Lane, Albert G., Chicago, 111. Lyte, Eliphalet Oram, Miliersville, Pa. Marble, Albert P., New York, N. Y. Marshall, T. Makcellus, Glenville, W. Va. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111. Phelps, W. F., Duluth, Minn. PiCKARD, Josiah L., New Brunswick, Me. Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111. .Skinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y. SoLDAN, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo. Stratton, C. C, University Park, Ore. Tavlor, a. R., Decatur, 111. Teachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. White, E. E., Columbus, O. Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C. Directors by Election North Atlantic Division Maine John S. Locke Saco New Hampshire Henry C. Morrison Portsmouth Vermont Walter E. Ranger Montpelier Massachusetts George H. Martin Lynn Rhode Island H. S. Tarbell Providence Connecticut Charles H. Keyes Hartford New York Augustus S. Downing New York New Jersey H, Brewster Willis New Brunswick Pennsylvania J. W. Lansinger Miliersville South Atlantic Division Delaware George W. Twitmyer Wilmington Maryland M. Bates Stephens Baltimore District of Columbia Alexander T. Stuart Washington Virginia H. B. Frissell Hampton West Virginia M.M.Ross ' Fairmont North Carolina G. H. Crowell High Point South Carolina J.J. McMahan Columbia Florida W. N. Sheats Tallahassee South Central Division Kentucky S. L. Frogge Frankfort Tennessee J. L. Wright Nashville Georgia W. F. Slaton Atlanta Alabama J. W. Abercrombie Montgomery Mississippi E. E. Bass Greenville Louisiana Warren Easton New Orleans Texas Alexander Hogg Fort Worth Oklahoma David R, Boyd Norman Arkansas George B. Cook Hot Springs Indian Territory John D. Benedict Muskogee North Central Division Ohio J. K. Baxter Mt. Vernon Indiana T. A. Mott Richmond Illinois Miss Catharine Goggin Chicago Michigan D. W. Springer Ann Arbor Wisconsin L. D. Harvey Madison Iowa A. V. Storm Cherokee Minnesota Charles M. Jordan Minneapolis Missouri W, T. Carrington Jefferson City North Dakota W. E. Hoover Park River South Dakota CM. Young Vermilion Nebraska .• Edwin J. Bodwell Omaha Kansas J. W. Spindler Winfield Western Division Montana J. M. Lewis Helena Wyoming Miss Estelle Reel Washington, D. C. Colorado H. S. Philips Denver 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Directors by 'EiQcMiovr-continued New Mexico Edgar L. Hewett Las Vegas Arizona F. Yale Adams Tucson Utah W. J. Kerr Logan Nevada J- E. Stubbs Reno Idaho Walter R. SiDEKS Pocatello Washington .".'.'.' F. B. Cooper Seattle Oregon E. D. Ressler Eugene California James A. Foshay Los Angeles DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council WILLIAM R.HARPER President Chicago, 111. W. H. BARTHOLOMEW Vice-President Louisville, Ky. JESSE F. MILLSPAUGH Secretary Winona, Minn. JOSEPH S WAI N Executive Committee Swarthmore, Pa. RICHARD G. BOONE Executive Committee Cincinnati, O. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER .... Executive Committee New York, N. Y. Kindergarten Miss ANNA WILLIAMS President Philadelphia, Pa. Miss STELLA L. WOOD Vice-President Minneapolis Minn. Miss CLARA WHEELER Secretary Grand Rapids, Mich, Elementary Miss M. ADELAIDE HOLTON President .' Minneapolis, Minn. FREDERICK TREUDLEY Vice-President Athens. O. Miss ADDA P. WERTZ Secretary Carbondale, 111. Secondary CHARLES F. WHEELOCK President Albany, N. Y. REUBEN POST HALLECK Vice-President Louisville, Ky. WILBUR F. GORDY Secretary Hartford, Conn. Higher BENJAMIN 'iDE WHEELER '. . President Berkeley, Cal. WILLIAM H. SMILEY Vice-President Denver, Colo. JOHN H. MacCRACKEN Secretary Fulton, Mo. Normal LIVINGSTON C. LORD President Charleston, 111. ALBERT SALISBURY Vice-President Whitewater, Wis. EDGAR L. HEWETT Secretary Las Vegas, N. M. Superintendence CHARLES M.JORDAN President Minneapoli.s, Minn. CLARENCE F. C ARROLI First Vice-President Worcester, Mass. WARREN EASTON Second Vice-President New Orleans, La. J. N. WILKINSON Secretary Emporia, Kan. Manual CHARLES F.WARNER President Springfield, Mass. J. E. PAINTER.., Vice-President Minneapolis, Minn. ARTHUR W. RICHARDS Secretary New York, N. Y. Art Miss CLARA A. WILSON President Davenport, la. Miss CHARLOTTE W. STODDARD Vice-President Rochester, N. Y. WILLIAM H. VOGEL. Secretary Cincinnati, O. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS Music STERRIE A. WEAVER President Westfield, Mass. W. A. WETZELL Vice-President Salt Lake City, Utah Miss HELEN W. TRASK Secretary Minneapolis, Minn. Business J. H. FRANCIS President Los Angeles, Cal. TEMPLETON P. TWIGGS Vice-President Detroit, Mich. C. E. STEVENS Secretary Cleveland, O. Child Study G. W. A. LUCKEY President Lincoln, Neb. STUART H. ROWE Vice-President New Haven, Conn. Miss SUSAN F. CHASE Secretary Buffalo, N. Y. Physical Training W. O. KROHN President Chicago, 111. Baroness ROSE POSSE First Vice-President Boston, Mass. Miss MABEL L. PRAY Second Vice-President Toledo, O. Miss ALTA WIGGINS Secretary Buffalo, N. Y. Science C, W. HALL President Minneapolis, Minn. WILBUR A. FISKE Vice-President Richmond, Ind. FRANK M. GILLEY Secretary Chelsea, Mass. School Administration HARLAN P.FRENCH President Albany, N. Y. ISRAEL H. PERES Chairman Executive Committee . . .... Memphis, Tenn. WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE Secretary Milwaukee, Wis. Library JAMES H. CANFIELD President New York, N. Y. REUBEN POST HALLECK Vice-President Louisville, Ky. Miss MARY EILEEN AHERN Secretary Chicago, 111. Special Education EDWARD E. ALLEN President Overbrook, Pa. Miss MARY McCQWEN Vice-President Chicago, 111, Miss SARAH FULLER Secretary Boston, Mass. Indian Education H. B. PEAIRS President Lawrence, Kan. S. M. McCOWAN Vice-President Chilocco, Okla. Miss ESTELLE REEL Secretary Washington, D. C. TREASURER'S REPORT TO THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION July i, 1901, to July i, 1902 FOR MEETING AT DETROIT, MICH., AND ENSUING YEAR Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer, in Acct. with the National Educational Association BALANCE ON HAND Cash received from Treasurer Greenlee, as per last annual report $4,113.04 RECEIPTS From transportation lines: Account of Los Angeles meeting. Southern Pacific Railroad Company $ lo.oo Account of Charleston meeting : Seaboard Air Line $ 6.00 Atlantic Coast Railway 22.00 Southern Railway 85.00 Plant System 102.00 215.00 Account of Detroit meeting : Steamer Kirby $ 8.00 White Star Line 8.00 Detroit Southern Railway 10.00 Central Vermont Railway 24.00 Cleveland & Buffalo Transit Company 66.00 Toledo, St. Louis & Western Railroad 66.00 Canadian Pacific Railway 78.00 Fere Marquette Railroad 791.00 Detroit & Cleveland Navigation Company 529.00 Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway 527.00 Grand Trunk Railway 960.00 Wabash Railroad Company 3,372.00 Michigan Central Railroad 6,008.00 ^2,447.00 Total from transportation lines 12,672.00 From Board of Trustees : Interest on permanent fund $4,841.22 Taxes refunded on collateral property 558.84 5,400.06 From Department of Superintendence 698.10 From annual meeting : Receipts from Registration Bureau, Detroit meeting : Advance associate memberships (Detroit teachers) $1,752.00 Advance active memberships (Detroit teachers) 16.00 $1,768.00 Advance associate memberships (Michigan teachers) $ 604.00 Advance active memberships (Michigan teachers) 12.00 T^ . . 616.00 t rom registration treasurer : Associate memberships 956.00 Dues of former active members 408.00 New active memberships 746.00 4,494.00 i rom royalties on, reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen 52.90 From interest, Union National Bank, Denver, Colo 50.45 16 From Secretary's office during the year : Memberships, enrollments, etc $3,620.49 Sale of back volumes Q^S-^S Sale of committee reports 202.29 Total receipts for the year . $ 4.785.93 $32,266.48 DISBURSEMENTS Board of Trustees : For taxes advanced to protect loan . For miscellaneous expenses $ 558.84 16.55 $ 575-39 Executive Committee : James M. Green, President, (1900-1) : Traveling $ 18.40 Stenographer for year 90.00 Stationery, postage, telegrams 30.00 W. M. Beardshear, President (1901-2) : Traveling, telegrams, etc 95-86 Oscar T. Corson, Vice-President, (1900-1) : Traveling $ 4-6o James M. Green, Vice-President (1901-2) : Traveling 108.24 L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer, (1900-1) : Traveling $ Stationery, postage, etc Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer (1901-2) : Traveling Stationery, clerical assistance, postage, etc A. G. Lane, chairman of Trustees : Traveling and postage VV. T. Harris, member by election : Traveling General Secretary's office : Salary of Secretary Postage Telegrams Freight and express Clerical services Exchange Stationery and office supplies Traveling Miscellaneous 58.05 10.85 122.65 96.07 $ 234.26 112.84 287.62 10.59 88.05 $4,000.00 764.80 71.63 20.09 689.25 38.50 114.15 148.40 11.25 Printing: Volume of Proceedings Reprints from volume Special reports Executive Committee bulletins. Miscellaneous Express and Freight : Distribution of volumes of Proceedings . Miscellaneous Special Appropriations: Department of Superintendence Committee on National University. Annual Convention. Department Expenses : School Administration . Science Instruction Elementary Secondary $4 ,707.99 520.63 55-33 656.20 _ 461.27 $1 ,681.06 150.90 $ 792.67 90.17 % 25.00 Art $ 25.00 11.00 Music 20.00 20.00 Physical 25.00 25.00 Normal 5.00 733.36 5,858.07 6,391-43 ,831.96 882.84 1 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Annual Convention, Department Expenses — continued: Council $ T2.00 Child Study $ 20.15 Business 22.90 Library 8.50 Manual Training 25.00 Kindergarten 21,40 Higher 25.00 $291.00 State Directors and Managers : Connecticut $ 19.50 North Dakota $ 14.10 Washington 15.00 Kentucky 18.50 Arkansas 18.85 New Jersey 20.00 Ohio 20.00 Massachusetts 15.25 Maryland 20.00 Nebraska 20.00 Texas 10.00 Arizona 3.50 Tennessee 18.00 Missouri 20.00 Michigan 20.00 Alabama 18.00 Idaho 5.10 Florida iQ-Ss Wyoming 20.00 Indiana 20.00 District of Columbia 15.00 Pennsylvania 20.00 Iowa 9.75 Georgia 20.00 Minnesota 20.00 Wisconsin 19.70 West Virginia 10.50 Illinois 20.00 New Mexico 10.00 Maine 5.75 Oklahoma 10.80 New York 16,50 Vermont 6,00 California '. 11.30 South Dakota 17.70 Utah 7.85 Kansas 20.00 Rhode Island. 1.25 Colorado 17.00 Clerical Setvices : Registration $ 603.05 Stenographers and typewriting 70.00 Badges Printing : Programs $ j^^.oo Miscellaneous 56.93 673-05 437-90 233-93 4-25 Express and Freight Stationery ^^ 5^ Speakers and expenses 615.19 Telegrams 11.26 Expenses of Depository : Rent Salary of custodian . Miscellaneous $ 100.00 50.00 3.05 Unclassified Expenses : Volumes Proceedings Washington meeting $ Refunds on memberships Typewriter and desk for Secretary's office Plate for honorary members' certificates Premium on Treasurer's bond Expenses of official examiner of securities Printing certificates for honorary members Card indexes, guides and boxes (Secretary's office) Amberg letter filing indexes (Secretary's office) 12.70 Filing case for chairman of trustees Miscellaneous 75-00 154-00 120.00 142-50 40.00 21.05 21.25 2.79 27.00 31.98 $2,894.98 658.27 Total expenses for the year 3 19,979.34 Transferred to Permanent Fund for investment 10,000.00 Total disbursements * „„ „„„ ^ , „, , , $29,979.34 rsalance on hand, tiansferred to 1902-3 2 287 14 $ 32,266.48 REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES Net receipts for the year $28,153.44 Expenses for the year 19.979-34 Excess of net receipts over disbursements $ 8,174.10 Minneapolis, Minn., July 7, 1902. The undersigned trustees of the National Educational Association have this day examined and approved the foregoing accounts of Mr. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer, with all statements of receipts and vouchers for disbursements. CAlbert C. Lane, (Signed) \ Nicholas Murray Butler, Newton C. Dougherty. SIXTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES To the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association: The Board of Trustees presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association, and its income, for the year ending June 30, igo2: Permanent Fund, July i, 1902 : Mortgages on real estate $37>5oO'Oo Kansas school and municipal bonds 15,100.00 Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds 31,500.00 Cash on hand for investment ' 3,900.00 Total $88,000.00 Received from Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer, from proceeds of Detroit meeting and income from Permanent Fund 10,000.00 Total ' $98,000,00 Permanent Fund, July I, 1902: In the following items : Mortgages on real estate $44,600,00 Kansas school and municipal bonds 12,200.00 Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds 28,000.00 Total $84,800.00 Cash on hand for investment 13,200.00 Total 98,000.00 INVESTMENTS Investments, July 1, iqoi 84,100.00 Paid during the year : First mortgage, 4802 Lake avenue, Chicago $ 1,400.00 Lemont, 111., Bond 8 500.00 Reno county, Kan., S. D, 51 500.00 Reno county, Kan., S. D. 129 300.00 Eudora City, Kan., Bond No. 10 100.00 DeKalb, 111., Bond No. 3 1,000.00 Montgomery county, Caney township, Kan 1,000.00 Kansas City, Mo 2,000.00 Marion City, Kan 1,000.00 7,800.00 Balance of Investments $76,300.00 Investments during the year : First mortgage, 1199 Irving Park boulevard, Chicago $ 3,500.00 First mortgage, 512 N. LaSalle street, Chicago '. 5,000.00 8,500.00 Total investments, July i, 1902 $84,800,00 INCOME STATEMENT Receipts from interest : Ness county, Kan., S. D. 41 $ 12.00 Ness county, Kan., S. D. 70 30.00 Norton county, Kan., S. D. 95 12.00 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Income ^X2A&mt.m— continued Reno county, Kan., S. D. 51 $ 45-oo Reno county, Kan., S. D. 129 18.00 City of Eudora, Kan 66.00 Hodgeman county, Kan 60,00 McPhefson county, Kan., Sharp's Creek township 60.00 Montgomery county, Kan., Caney township 50.00 Kansas City, Mo 50.00 Noblesville, Ind •. 250,00 DeKalb, 111 50.00 Morgan Park, 111 220.32 Lemont. Ill 125.00 First mortgage, Providence, R. 1 270.00 First mortgage, 1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago 328.35 First mortgage, 5136 Hibbard avenue, Chicago 250.00 First mortgage, 5603 Madison avenue, Chicago 250,00 First mortgage, First Unlversalist Church, Englewood 500.00 First mortgage, 4762 Lake avenue, Chicago 125,00 First mortgage, 4802 Lake avenue, Chicago 225,00 Chicago improvement bonds 1,260.80 Marion City, Kan., past due interest 371.25 First mortgage, 512 N. LaSalle street, Chicago 125.00 First mortgage, 1199 Irving Park boulevard, Chicago 87.50 Total interest transferred to Charles H, Keyes, Treasurer $ 4,841.22 Taxes refunded, 1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago 558.84 Total Receipts $ 5,400.06 Memorandum of disbursements (See Treasurer's Report) : Paid exchange for coupon collection $ 2.25 Paid express charges on bonds , 4.30 Paid rent of box. Merchants' Safe Deposit Co., Chicago 10.00 Paid taxes on 1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago 558.84 Total $ 575.39 STATEMENT OF SECURITIES AND BONDS BELONGING TO THE PERMANENT FUND OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, JULY i, 1902 KANSAS SCHOOL BONDS County Number school district Amount Rate of interest per cent. Interest payable Bond due Garfield* 24 41 70 95 51 $ 800 200 500 200 SOD 6 6 6 6 6 Jan. and July Jan., 1910 July, 190S July, 1903 July, 1902 July, 1902 Ness ..: Ness Reno $2,200 KANSAS COUNTY AND MUNICIPAL BONDS County Kind of bond Bond Nos. Amount Interest per cent. Interest payable Bond due Eudora City County County County Sharp's Creek Tp. City South Hutchinson With Bentley & Hat- field, Wichita, Kan. 11 to 20 47,48 I II to 13 I I, 2 $1,000 2,000 1,000 3,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 6 6 6 6 6 7 March Jan. and July Jan. and July Jan. and July Jan. and July Feb. and Aug. Judgm't obtain'd One due each year March i February, 1920 July I, 1918 July I, 1918 Sept. I, 1916 April, 1908 Grant* Hodgeman Lane* McPherson Reno* Seward* $10,000 ♦Interest or principal in default. REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES ILLINOIS, INDIANA, AND MISSOURI SCHOOL BONDS I i County Amount Rate of interest Interest payable Bond due Noblesville, Ind Cook, village of Morgan Park, 111 Lemont, 111,, School Nos, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30, 32 $ 5,000 3,500 4,500 15,000 5 5 5 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Jan, and July Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. December May and Nov. i May and Nov. i Jan. and July Oct. and April Mar. and Sept, Mar. and Sept. April and Oct, Jan. and July July I, 1912 Sept., 190S $1,000 yearly Dec. i Dec, 1902-3 and 4 REAL ESTATE Providence real estate, first mortgage First mortgage, 1919 Wabash ave., Chicago. First mortgage, 5136 Hibbard ave., Chicago First mortgage, 5603 Madison ave., Chicago First mortgage, First Universalist Church, Englewood, 111 $28,000 $ 3,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 10,000 5,000 3,100 5,000 3,500 $44,600 May I, 1903 Nov. I, 1903 July I, 1905 Oct,, 1905 Mar., 1905 Mar., 1905 Oct., 1906 July 1906 First mortgage, 4762 Lake ave., Chicago . . . First mortgage, 4802 Lake ave,, Chicago . .. First mortgage, 512 LaSalle St., Chicago .. . First mortgage, 1199 Irving Park boul Respectfully submitted, Albert G. Lane, Chairman, Nicholas Murray Butler, Netvton C. Dougherty, William M. Beardshear, Board of Trustees. The foregoing securities were examined at the Merchants' Safety Deposit Vaults,Chicago, September 22, 1902, and I certify that it is a correct statement of the investments belonging to the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association in the custody of A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees, (Signed) Edward C, Delano, Examiner. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FORTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., July 8-ii, 1902 FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS OPENING SESSION.— Tuesday, July 8, 2 : 30 p. m. The convention met in the auditorium, of the Exposition Building at 2 : 30 P. M., and was called to order by Wallace G. Nye, chairman Convention Committee, Commercial Club of Minneapolis. After music by the Masonic Quartette of Minneapolis, prayer was offered by Rev. M. D. Shutter, Church of the Redeemer, of Minneapolis. Adresses of welcome were delivered by Hon. S. R. Van Sant, governor of Minne- sota; Hon. J. W. Olsen, state superintendent of public instruction; Hon. David P. Jones, president of the Common Council of Minneapolis, in the absence of the mayor; Charles M. Jordan, superintendent of city schools, Minneapolis ; Cyrus Northrop, president of the University of Minnesota. Music — vocal solo, "Three Singers," Berthold Tours; Mr. Addison Madeira. The conduct of the meeting was then transferred to Second Vice-President W. C. Martindale, of Detroit, Mich., who explained the absence of President W. M. Beard- shear on account of serious illness which confined him to his room at the West Hotel in the city; and of the first vice-president, James M. Green, of Trenton, N. J., on account of having been recalled, while en route to Minneapolis, by the death of his mother. The statement was made that the illness of President Beardshear, while serious, was regarded as temporary, and it was hoped that he would be able to preside at later sessions. Responses to the addresses of welcome were delivered by James A. Foshay, superin- tendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.; Dr. Theodore B. Noss, principal of State Normal School, California, Pa.; Dr. Joseph Swain, president of Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. The Committee on Resolutions was announced as follows : E. H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville. Ky.. Chairman. Alfred Bayliss, state superintendent of public instruc- N. C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public tion, Springfield, 111. instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Charles R. Skinner, state superintendent of public H. O. R. Slefert, superintendent of schools. Mil- instruction, Albany, N. Y. waukee, Wis. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Charles D, Mclver, president State Normal and In- Mo. dustrial College, Greensboro, N. C. R. C. Barrett, state superintendent of public instruc- Insley L. Dayhoff, county superintendent of schools, tion, Des Moines, la. Hutchinson, Kan. After announcement by the Secretary of the places of meeting of the active mem- bers of the respective states to select members of the general nominating committee, the meeting adjourned until 8 o'clock p. m. 22 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 23 SECOND SESSION.— Tuesday, July 8, 8 :oo p. m. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President Martindale. Music — vocal solo, "Aria" from Ernani, Verdi; Miss Amalie Rippe ; accompanist, Miss Grace Tilton. The President's address was omitted from the program on account of the continued illness of President Beardshear, but by authority of the Executive Committee it appears among the printed papers of the session. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, delivered an address on "Some Pressing Problems," and was followed by President Edwin A. Alderman, of Tulane University, New Orleans, La., on "The Work of the Southern Education Board." Music — "In Absence," Dudley Buck; The Minnesota Quartette. Adjournment was taken until Wednesday evening at 8 o'clock p. M. I SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS THIRD SESSION.— Wednesday, July 9, 8 :oo p. m. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President Martindale. Music — "Pilgrims' Chorus" (Tannhauser), Wagner; The North High School Chorus. The Committee on Nominations was announced by the Secretary as authorized by President Beardshear, whose continued illness prevented his being present at the meeting. COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS H. Brewster Willis, of New Jersey, Chairman C. W. Daugette Alabama S. M. Woodward Arizona George B, Cook Arkansas J. H, Francis California L. C. Greenlee Colorado Wilbur F. Gordy Connecticut George W. Twitmyer Delaware Alexander Graham Bell District of Columbia W. N. Sheats Florida W, F. Slaton Georgia James A. McLean Idaho Mrs. Mary D. Olsen Illinois H. B. Brown , Indiana John D. Benedict Indian Territory Samuel H. Sheakley Iowa Frank Nelson Kansas W. H. Bartholomew Kentucky Miss Marion Brown Louisiana John S. Locke Maine James H. Van Sickle Maryland A. E. Winship Massachusetts W. C. Martindale Michigan A. N. Farmer Minnesota E. E. Bass Mississippi Ben. T. Blewett Missouri S. D. Largent Montana James W. Searson Nebraska James C. Doughty Nevada Henry C. Morrison : New Hampshire H. Brewster Willis New Jersey Edgar L. Hewett New Mexico Nicholas Murray Butler New York Charles D. Mclver North Carolina W. L. Stockwell , . . . North Dakota J. M. H. Frederick Ohio L. W.Cole Oklahoma E. D. Ressler Oregon E. O. Lyte Pennsylvania W. H. P. Faunce Rhode Island John J. McMahan South Carolina George M. Smith South Dakota Miss M. V. Glase Tennessee Charles T. Alexander Texas J. H. Paul Utah Walter E. Ranger Vermont H. B. Frissell Virginia Charles S. Tilton Washington M. M. Ross West Virginia R. H. Halsey Wisconsin Miss Estelle Reel Wyoming Hon. Michael Ernest Sadler, director of Inquiries and Reports, Education office, London, England, delivered an address on " A Statement of the English Ideal of Educa- tion and of England's Debt to America." " Devotion to Truth : the Chief Virtue of the Teacher," was the subject of an address by Rt. Rev. John Ireland, archbishop of St. Paul, St. Paul, Minn. Adjournment was taken to Thursday, A. M., at 9 : 30 o'clock. 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FOURTH SESSION.— Thursday, July io, 9:30 a. m. The convention met at 9 : 30 o'clock, and was called to order by Vice-President Martin dale. Music— vocal solo, "Elsa's Dream" (Lohengrin), Wagner; Miss Ednah F. Hall. Prayer was offered by Rev. James S. Montgomery of the Wesley M. E. Church. Hon. James Wilson, U. S. Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, presented an address on the " Education of the American Farmer." " Higher Education and the Home " was the subject of an address by Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, of New York city. The closing address of the morning was by President Jacob Gould Schurman of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., on " Education in the Philippines." After adjournment at ii : 30 o'clock the annual meeting of active members for the election of officers and the transaction of other business was called to order by Vice- President Martindale. MINUTES OF ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The annual business meeting of active members was called to order in the audito- rium of the Exposition Building, Minneapolis, Minn., at 11:30 A. M., July 10, 1902, Vice- President W. C. Martindale, of Detroit, Mich., presiding. The annual report of the Treasurer was presented by Treasurer Charles H. Keyes, of Hartford, Conn., and copies of the same distributed to the members present. On motion of I. C. McNeill, of West Superior, Wis., the reading of the report was dispensed with, the statement being made that the report had already been adopted by the Board of Directors of the Association. The report was then, on motion, accepted and ordered printed in the annual volume of Proceedings. The report of the Board of Trustees was presented by Chairman A. G. Lane, of Chicago. Copies of the report were distributed to the members present. On motion, the reading of the report was dispensed with, and the same approved and ordered printed in the annual volume of Proceedings. The following report of the Committee on Nominations was presented by Chairman H. Brewster Willis, of New Jersey : REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS Minneapolis, July 10, 1902. The Committee on Nominations begs leave to make the following report : For — President Charles W. Eliot Massachusetts Treasurer W. M. Davidson Kansas First Vice-President W. M. Beardshear Iowa Second Vice-President Orvxlle T. Bright Illinois Third Vice-President Charles F. Reeves Washington Fourth Vice-President Joseph Kennedy North Dakota Fifth Vice-President Charles F. Thwing Ohio Sixth Vice-President W. N. Sheats Florida Seventh Vice-President Miss Marion Brown Louisiana Eighth Vice-President J. B. Pearcv Indiana Ninth Vice-President Mrs, Helen L. Grenfell Colorado Tenth Vice-President Henry R. Sanford New York Eleventh Vice-President J. H. Francis California Twelfth Vice-President Wallace G. Nye Minnesota JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 25 BOARD OF DIRECTORS Alabama J. W. Abercrombie Montana J. M. Lewis Arizona F, Yale Adams Nebraska Edwin J. Bodwell Arkansas George B. Cook Nevada J. E. Stubbs California George F. James New Hampshire Henry C. Morrison Colorado H. S. Philips New Jersey H. Brewster Willis Connecticut Charles H. Keyes New Mexico Edgar L. Hewett Delaware George W. Twitmyer New York Augustus S. Downing District of Columbia Alexander T. Stuart North Carolina G. H. Crowell Florida W. N. Sheats North Dakota W. E. Hoover Georgia W. F. Slaton Ohio J. K. Baxter Idaho Walter R. Siders Oklahoma David R. Boyd Illinois Miss Catharine Goggin Oregon E. D. Ressler Indiana T. A. Mott Pennsylvania J. W. Lansinger Indian Territory Rhode Island H. S. Tarbell Iowa A. V. Storm South Carolina J. J. McMahan Kansas J . W. Spindler South Dakota CM. Young Kentucky S. L. Frogge Tennessee J. L. Wright Louisiana Warren Easton Texas Alexander Hogg Maine John S. Locke Utah W. J. Kerr Maryland M. Bates Stephens Vermont W. E. Ranger Massachusetts , George H. Martin Virginia H. B. Frissell Michigan W. C. Martindale Washington F. B. Cooper Minnesota Charles M. Jordan West Virginia M. M. Ross Mississippi H. L. Whitfield Wisconsin L. D. Harvey Missouri W. T. Carrington Wyoming Miss Estelle Reel H, Brewster Willis, Chairman. A. E. WiNSHiP, Secretary. Mr. Joseph Carter, of Illinois, moved that the report be amended, by the appointment of a director for Indian Territory. On motion of A. G. Lane, of Chicago, John D. Benedict was nominated as such director. Mr. W. C. Martindale, of Michigan, asked the privilege of withdrawing his own name as nominee for director for Michigan, and of substituting that of D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, Mich. On motion, the request of Mr. Martindale was granted. The Secretary of the Association was, on motion, authorized to cast the ballot of the members for the report of the nominating committee as amended. The ballot being so cast. Chairman Martindale declared the nominees elected as officers for the ensuing year. There being no further business, the meeting adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FIFTH SESSION.— Friday, July ii, 9:30 a.m. The Association was called to order by Vice-President H. S. Tarbell, of Providence, R.I. Music — cornet solo, Mr. Byron Morgan. Prayer — Rev. James M. Nichol, Andrew Presbyterian Church. The following constituted the program of addresses for the session : "How the School Strengthens the Individuality of the Pupil," Hon. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the United States, Washington, D. C. " The Simplification of English Spelling a Present Duty," Charles Payson Gurley Scott, etymological editor of the Century Dictionary, Radnor, Pa. "The Educational Value of Training in Spoken English," Thomas Clarkson True- blood, professor of elocution and oratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Discussion was led by Carroll Gardner Pearse, superintendent of city schools, Omaha, Neb. Adjourned to 8 o'clock p. M. 26 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION SIXTH SESSION.— Friday, July ii, 8. p. m. The closing session of the forty-first convention was called to order in the Exposi- tion auditorium at 8 o'clock P. M., by Vice-President Martindale. Vocal Solo — "My Heart is Weary," Goring Thomas; Mrs. E. W. French. Dr. C. M. Lacey Sites, secretary of the Educational Association of China and special delegate to the forty-first annual convention of the National Educational Association, presented greetings from the Educational Association of China, and delivered a brief address on " Educational Conditions and Progress in China." An address was then given by Dr. John Huston Finley, formerly president of Knox College, now professor of politics, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. The Committee on Resolutions presented the following report : REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES The teachers and friends of education, at this, the forty-first annual meeting of the National Educational Association, make the following statement of principles : 1. On account of the increased responsibilities placed on the United States Bureau of Education in the organization and administration of public-school systems in the recently added territory of the United States, in successfully conducting an extensive system of Indian schools, and in aiding the various states and territories in securing good and efficient school systems, we urge upon Congress the necessity for organizing the bureau upon broader lines and clothing the Commissioner with higher and more definite powers. We believe that the time has come for the recognition of the great importance of the educational interests of the country in the conduct of state affairs by the organization of the Department of Education as an independent department, taking equal rank with other departments. 2. We reiterate the statement, which has so often been made in the declaration of principles of this Association, that the common schools of this country are for the educa- tion of all the children. They are the one great agency upon which the nation is to rely f6r a barrier against the setting up of " class distinctions which have no place on American soil." In them every child must be given an equal chance to acquire such education as will give it an individuality and make it a thoughtful factor in the develop- ment and management of social and state affairs. We believe that a conservative but efficient compulsory-education law, with the proper regulation of child labor, is neces- sary to the complete realization of a good common-school system. While we deplore the conditions which seem to make it necessary sometimes to employ children in factories and workshops, we condemn the practice of such employment and ask for the enactment of such laws by each state as will give to these children the chance of acquiring a common-school education, of which they are now deprived. 3. We heartily commend every step which may be taken for increasing the neces- sary qualifications of teachers, and hope soon to see as definite a standard for the train- ing of teachers as is now fixed by the best schools in the country for the training of physicians or lawyers. We believe that the fixing of such a standard and a strict adher- ence to it would elevate the work of the teacher to that of a profession. We further commend any movement that may be inaugurated for securing uniformity of require- ments in the training and the licensing of teachers in the various states and territories, and which would bring about a just recognition by these states and territories of the diplomas or certificates granted under this system. The crossing of the boundary line of any state should no longer be assumed to nullify the qualifications of the skilled teacher and the expert supervisor, or the scholastic fitness of men and women whose energies are devoted to the cause of education. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 4. Again we would plead for unity of effort for the complete education of the child, constantly keeping in mind that the present division of the work of instruction into elementary, secondary, and higher is for administrative purposes only. The character of the work is not to be influenced by any such division. The growth of the child thru education into full manhood or womanhood is to be a continuous process, marred by no imaginary lines of division. We are glad to note that many of the colleges and univer- sities of the country are obliterating one of these lines by the acceptance of good high- school work as a standard for entrance without examination, thereby admitting that the efficiency of a school system is to be judged by the character and the intellectual power of its pupils, and not by their ability to meet a series of technical tests which in many instances may show ability to memorize the printed page instead of power to think and act. 5. We believe that it is both just and possible to keep the country schools in the fore- front and, in all respects, up to the highest standard of excellence and efficiency. The movement to consolidate the weaker districts in the country, and to provide public and free transportation for the pupils to and from the schools, tends to that end. We, there- fore, congratulate those states which have been pioneers in demonstrating the possibilities of this mode of reorganization, and renew our indorsement and commendation of it as the best plan yet proposed in relief of the isolated one-room schools. We believe that justice and fair play require that high-school opportunities should be as ample and free to the country children as they are fast coming to be to the children of every progressive urban community. 6. We commend to all local authorities the necessity of greater care in the arrange- ment of courses of study, that they may be adapted to the pupils to be instructed, rather than that pupils should be adapted to a fixed course of study and an inflexible system of grading. We hold that the individuality of the pupil should be carefully considered, to the end that he may be instructed in the light of his limitations and capacity. We urge greater thoroness in instruction in the so-called elementary subjects, rather than enrich- ment of courses already overtaxed, at the expense of thoro and satisfactory work. 7. We regard true education as inseparable from morality, and believe that the public school is the recognized agency to make the relation binding. We urge public- school authorities of the country, teachers, and parents to give strict attention to moral instruction in our schools as the true foundation of character and citizenship. Every con- sideration of good public policy and healthful social conditions points to the necessity of such instruction ; the testimony of educational leaders justifies it, and an overwhelming public opinion demands it. We plead not for sectarian training of any kind, but for that moral instruction which must underlie true life and character. 8. It is apparent that familiarity with the English Bible as a masterpiece of litera- ture is rapidly decreasing among the pupils ia our schools. This is the direct result of a conception which regards the Bible as a theological book merely, and thereby leads to its exclusion from the schools of some states as a subject of reading and study. We hope for such a change of public sentiment in this regard as will permit and encourage the reading and study of the English Bible, as a literary work of the highest and purest type, side by side with the poetry and prose which it . has inspired and in large part formed. We do not urge this in the interest of sectarian instruction of any kind, but that this great book may ever be the teacher's aid in the interpretation of history and literature, law and life — an unrivaled agency in the development of true citizenship as well as in the formation of pure literary style. 9. We commend the examples of the boards of education whose settled policy is to employ teachers upon merit only, without reference to political or other considerations. We look with alarm upon any attempt to use the public schools as a means of gain by foisting on the patrons of these schools text-books selected by those wholly unfamiliar 2 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION with the needs and demands of the schools. We appeal to the public and the press to resist all such attacks, and we pledge our best efforts to secure absolutely non-political and non-sectarian conduct of the public schools. ID. While there has been great improvement in the construction of school buildings, and better lighting, heating, ventilation and seating have been provided, yet there is great room for further improvement, and many questions with reference to the most important problems of school architecture, hygiene, and sanitation are still unanswered. We believe there should be a commission created by this body whose duty it shall be to collect all the best information extant on the construction of school buildings and matters pertaining to school hygiene and sanitation, and publish it in a form which will be avail- able for use by school authorities. We believe the good of every community demands that there shall be a regular, skilled inspection of schools in order to protect both the pupils and the community from the spread of contagious diseases, as well as to detect and correct ailments in children which interfere with their mental progress. We further urge that teachers be given such instruction in school hygiene as will make them famil- iar with many of the physical defects of children and, if possible, with the means of cor- recting them. 11. Recognizing the necessity of making many changes from year to year in our educational system in order to meet the demands of our social and industrial conditions, and to keep pace with the improvements in both methods and administration, we believe that the committees known as " The Committee on Secondary Education," " The Com- mittee on Elementary Education," and " The Committee on Rural Schools " should be re-created as standing committees, to perform such duties as were prescribed for them under the resolutions creating them. Each committee to consist of twelve members, four to serve for one year, four for two years, and four for three years ; after the first appoint- ment, the vacancies to be filled by appointment for a term of three years. These committees should make report to the Association from time to time as the growth in education and the changes due to conditions may demand. 12. We believe that a proper conception of what educational work can do for the community and state can best be inculcated by a thoroly wide awake teaching profes- sion, therefore we cordially indorse the organization of summer schools thruout the country for the instruction and training of teachers by the leading educators. These schools should be centers from which should emanate higher standards of teaching and consequently a better system of schools, thereby securing a sound and intelligent public opinion for the support o? these schools and higher ideals for the life of those educated in them. E. H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky., Chairman; Alfred Bayliss, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.; Charles R. Skinner, state superintendent of public instruction, Albany, N. Y.; R. C. Barrett, state superintendent of public instruction, Des Moines, la.; H. O. R. Siefert, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; C. D. McIver, president of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N. C; Insley L. Dayhoff, county superintendent of schools, Hutchinson, Kan.; Committee on Resolutions. On motion of Chairman Mark the above Declaration of Principles was adopted by the Association without dissent. The following resolutions were offered by Chairman Mark on behalf of the Commit- tee on Resolutions, and were unanimously adopted : Resolved, That the National Educational Association recognizes and appreciates the rapidly growing tendency on the part of men and women of wealth to invest largely in educational work of all kinds. In addition to the regular donations from various sources to our great educational institutions, to which we have become accustomed during the past several years, and in addition to the great library investments, the past year has witnessed the inauguration of two most important and significant educational movements. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 29 The first is the donation of $10,000,000 to the United States for the establishment at Washington of a great institution for scientific research. The second is the organization of the Southern Education Board and the General Education Board for the purpose of aiding in the work of universal education in the United States, and at present operating in the southern states. In no portion of this country has more heroic work been done for public education than has been done in the southern states during the past two decades. In spite of poverty, sparseness of population, and the mainte- nance of a double school system for two races thousands of years apart in their development, these states have shown a remarkable and persistent determination to provide the best educational facilitirs for all their people. It is therefore not to be wondered at, tho it is none the less gratifying, that generous-heartedj men outside that section should have asked the privilege of aiding in the accomplishment of its stupendous task. The organization of these boards, composed of patriotic citizens of various sections of the country, and operating thro leading men now actively working in the southern field, is an omen of good to the people of the entire country, and this Association desires to indorse as strongly as possible the work undertaken and the spirit of all who have aided in its inauguration. Resolved, That the cause of education in every land is to be congratulated upon the fact that the Inter- national Exposition to be held in the city of St. Louis in 1904 is projected on purely educational lines, and with this avowed purpose has received the support of the states of the Union, of the national government, and of foreign nations ; and it is noted with particular satisfaction that the exposition authorities have, in their official classification, given to education, Group i, the post of honor, and in addition thereto have established its relative rank as an exposition topic by assigning to education, for the first time in the history of inter- national expositions, a separate and adequate building. This Association desires to express its appreciation of the liberal and scientific policy thus outlined by the exposition authorities, and to pledge to the full extent of its powers and purposes its hearty support. Resolved, That we tender to Michael Ernest Sadler, M.A., LL.D., Director of Inquiries and Reports in the Education Office, London, England, an expression of our high appreciation of his masterly address before our Association, as well as our cordial thanks for the inspiration of his presence thruout our meetings and his participation so freely and generously in them. The committee desires to offer the following resolution : Resolved, That the thanks of this Association are due, and are hereby most cordially tendered, to the members of the Commercial Club, especial y to Mr. Wallace G. Nye and his associates on the General Com- mittee, to Superintendent C. M. Jordan and his able corps of teachers, and to the faculties of the university for the admirable arrangements which have been made for the accommodation of the Association and its various departments, and for the entertainment of its members; to the newspapers for the full and accurate reports of the proceedings; to the railroads for their co-operation, which was so essential to the success of this meeting; to the Remington Typewriter Company and their skilled representative. Miss M. E. Orr, and her assistants, for the expert service which has been so freely given to the officers and members of the Asso- ciation ; and to all residents of this beautiful city and state who have in any way contributed to the success of this meeting, for their cordial assistance in the advancement of the cause of education. The Association desires to refer particularly to the services of the teachers, pupils, and their friends who have so self-sacrificingly given their services at the various headquarters and meeting places in looking after the comfort of the members. Resolved, That we convey to the retiring president. Dr. W. M. Beardshear, our deepest sympathy in his severe affliction brought on by his earnest efforts to provide for a successful meeting of this Association and we desire to assure him of the great confidence and esteem in which he is held by the Association, and of the heartfelt and sincere desire so frequently expressed for his speedy recovery. We wish to thank him for the excellent program which he prepared. Resolved, That we desire to convey to Vice-President W. C. Martindale, of Michigan, upon whom devolved the arduous duty of presiding over the meetings of the Association under most trying conditions, and to the retiring Treasurer, Superintendent Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, our cordial thanks for the ability and devotion with which they have served the Association. The following telegram from the President-elect was read : North East Harbor, Maine, July 10, 1902. Irwin Shepard, Secretary N. E. A., Minneapolis, Minn,: I accept the presidency of the National Educational Association for next year and thank the Association for the high honor conferred. (Signed) Charles W. Eliot. After brief closing remarks by Vice-President Martindale, and an announcement of the favorable progress of President Beardshear toward recovery from his painful illness, the forty-first convention was closed with a benediction. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS FOR 1901-1902 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., July 8, 1902 The annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order in the Minneapolis Whist Club Parlors, Andrus Building, at 11:30 A. M., Tuesday, July 9, by Vice-President W. C. Martindale. The following directors responded to roll-call. Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. ; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York; Oscar T. Corson, Ohio; Newton C. Doughterty, Illinois; Aaron Gove, Colorado; Albert G, Lane, Illinois ; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsyl- vania; W. F. Phelps, Minnesota; Charles R. Skinner, New York ; Wilbur F. Gordy, Connecticut ; Augustus S. Downing, New York; H. Brewster Willis, New Jersey; George H. Stout, Pennsylvania; H. M. Johnson, District of Columbia; W. H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; M. L. Brittain, Georgia; John W. Abercrombie, Alabama; Charles D. Mclver, North Carolina ; W. N. Sheats, Florida; David R. Boyd, Oklahoma; George B. Cook, Arkansas; J. M. H. Frederick, Ohio; T. A. Mott, Indiana; Alfred Bayliss, Illinois; D. W. Springer, Michigan; Charles M. Jordan, Minnesota; Frank R. Dyer, Kansas; H. S. Philips, Colorado; F. Yale Adams, Arizona; W. J. Kerr, Utah; James A. Foshay, California; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota. Thirty-two members present. N. C. Dougherty moved that the minutes of the last meeting held in Detroit, Mich., be approved as printed in the volume of Proceedings. Cai"ried. Director Butler offered the following resolution, which was unanimously adopted by a rising vote : Resolved, That the directors of the National Educational Association tender this expression of their affectionate sympathy with the President in his illness, and hope that his recovery may be so rapid that he may yet occupy the chair at the meeting which he has so successfully organized. Secretary Shepard read communications from absent members of the board as follows : Director Charles H. Sherman, of Washington, resigns and nominates Superintendent F. B. Cooper, of Seattle, Wash., for election to fill the vacancy; Director James E. Klock, of New Hampshire, resigns and nominates Professor C. L. Wallace, of Lisbon, N. H.; Director J. M. Fendley, of Texas, resigns and nominates Charles T. Alexander, of Waco, Tex.; Director W. T. Carrington, of Missouri, resigns and nominates Ben T. Blewett, of St. Louis, Mo.; Director Warren Easton, of Louisiana, resigns and nominates Nicholas L. A. Bauer, of New Orleans, La.; Director C. G. Pearse resigns and nominates E. J. Bodwell, of Omaha, Neb. Director Springer, of Michigan, moved that the resignation of the absent directors be accepted and that the respective nominees be elected to fill the vacancies. Director Corson, of Ohio, seconded Director Springer's motion. After discussion, in which attention was called to the constitutional provision for filling vacancies in the Board of Directors and to the desirability of filling the present vacancies in order that the meetings of active members might not be without presiding officers, the motion of Director Springer was adopted without dissent. Letters of resignation by other directors were read, but as no nominations of succes- sors were made no action was taken. The annual report of the Treasurer of the Association was presented by Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer, Hartford, Conn. After brief discussion and explanations by Treasurer Keyes, a motion was made and carried that the report be adopted and printed in the annual report. 30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS 3 1 The annual report of the Board of Trustees was made by Chairman A. G. Lane, of Chicago. After certain explanations by the chairman, the report was received and adopted, and ordered printed .in the annual volume of Proceedings. Under miscellaneous business, the application of the American Society of Religious Education for admission to affiliated relations with the National Educational Association, which was laid on the table for one year at the meeting of the Board of Directors held in July, 1901, was taken from the table for consideration. After brief discussion, on motion, the application was tabled without any time being designated for its further consideration. A communication from the Department of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded was read, asking for a change in the name of the department to that of the Department of Special Education. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, president of the department, being present, was invited to present the reasons for the desired change. After discussion, a motion prevailed changing the name of the department, in accord- ance with the application, to the Department of Special Education. A communication from the officers of the Association for securing the adoption by Congress of a bill for cheap library postal rates was referred to the Committee on Reso- lutions. A communication was read from the chairman of the Standing Committee on Entrance Requirements of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, reporting the action of the society at its recent meeting at Pittsburg, Pa., appointing a Committee of Conference with the National Educational Association on formulation of entrance requirements, and asking that a corresponding committee be appointed by that body. On motion of Director Butler, of New York, this application was referred to the Department of Higher Education for consideration, with the suggestion that such a com- mittee be appointed and that report of the action of the department be made to the new Board of Directors for concurrent approval. There being no further business, the board adjourned sine die. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS FOR 1902-1903 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.— July io, 1902 The meeting of the newly elected Board of Directors was held in the Minneapolis Whist Club Parlors, Andrus Building, at 4:30 P. M., with Second Vice-President O. T. Bright, of Illinois, in the chair. The following directors responded to the roll-call : Nicholas Murray Butler, New York; Oscar T. Corson, Ohio; Newton C. Dougherty, Illinois; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; W. T. Harris, District of Columbia; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; Joshua Pike, Illinois; Charles R. Skinner; New York ; E. E. White, Ohio; J. W. Aber- crombie, Alabama; F, Yale Adams, Arizona; George B. Cook, Arkansas; H. S. Philips, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, Delaware; W. N. Sheats, Florida; Miss Catharine Goggin, Illinois; T. A. Mott, Indiana; John D. Benedict, Indian Territory; A. V. Storm, Iowa; John S. Locke, Maine; M. Bates Stephens, Maryland; D. W. Springer, Michigan; Charles M. Jordan, Minnesota; Edwin J. Bodwell, Nebraska; H. Brewster Willis, New Jersey; Augustus S. Downing, New York; W. E. Hoover, North Dakota; J. K. Baxter, Ohio; J. W. Lansinger, Pennsylvania; H. S. Tarbell, Rhode Island; W. J. Kerr, Utah; F. B. Cooper, Washington; M. M, Ross, West Virginia; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota. Present, thirty -six members. The following committee on nomination of members of the Council was appointed by the chair : J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri. Charles R. Skinner, of New York. Oscar T. Corson, of Ohio. On motion, the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the members present for the election of Director Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, to succeed himself as member of the Board of Trustees for the term of four years. The ballot was so cast, and Director Butler was declared duly elected. Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, was duly elected to succeed himself as a member of the Executive Committee for the period of one year. Under a call of the roll of states Dr. A. E. Winship, of Boston, Mass., presented an invitation from the school and municipal authorities of Boston to hold the forty- second annual convention in that city in July, 1 903. This invitation was supported by letters read by the Secretary from President Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University and from Hon. Patrick A. Collins, mayor of Boston, on behalf of the common council of that city, giving assurances of a cordial welcome and of abundant facilities for the meetings of the general sessions and of the various departments of the Association. When under the call of states Washington was reached, Superintendent F. B. Cooper, of Seattle, director for Washington, extended in behalf of the states of Oregon and Washington an invitation to the Association to meet on the north Pacific coast in 1903 or in any subsequent year when the interests of the Association should so direct. Director Cooper disclaimed any intention of entering into competition with the city of Boston for the meeting of the Association for 1903. • He also desired to be understood as naming no particular city, but as representing all cities in the two states mentioned as joining in the invitation with a view of leaving the selection of location to the Executive Committee after an inspection of the facilities offered by each locality. No other invitations being presented, a motion was made by Director A. V. Storm, 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS 33 of Iowa, that the selection of the next place of meeting be left to the Executive Com- mittee with full power to act. Seconded. After discussion, in which the grounds of the policy of intrusting the Executive Committee with the selection of place of meeting were fully reviewed, the motion of Director Storm was carried. On motion of Director Gove, of Colorado, seconded by Director Springer, of Michi- gan, the members of the Board of Directors present unanimously expressed, by a rising vote, their preference to meet in the city of Boston, providing all conditions should be found satisfactory to the Executive Committee. The committee on nomination of members for the National Council reported as fol- lows : To the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association: Your Committee nominate the following as members of the National Council : Charles F, Thwing, of Ohio, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1908. Albert G. Lane, of Illinois, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1908. Edwin A. Alderman, of Louisana, to succeed himself ; term to expire in 1908. Charles M. Jordan, of Minnesota, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1908. Jesse F. Millspaugh, of Minnesota, to succeed himself; term to expire in 1908. Robert E. Denfeld, of Minnesota, to succeed Oscar H. Cooper; term to expire in 1906. On motion of Director Springer, of Michigan, the report of the Committee on Nomi- nations was accepted, and the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for the nominees. The ballot was so cast, and the nominees were declared duly elected. Miss M. E. Ahern, secretary of the Library Department, appeared by consent before the board to present a communication from that department, and spoke in substance as follows : '* The Library Department desires to call the attention of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to the rapid increase of rural school libraries, especially in the middle West. The states in other sections are following closely in this movement. The unfortunate feature of this promising movement is that the rural-school teachers are not prepared by training or experience to care for or to use these libraries to greatest advantage. The matter was discussed by the American Library Association at its recent meeting in June, and a proposition was made that the American Library Asso- ciation would secure the preparation of a working library manual for special use of rural-school teachers if the National Educational Association would co-operate to the extent of printing and distributing the same. " Mr. J. C. Dana, chairman of the Committee on the Relations of Libraries to Public Schools, whose report was made under the auspices of the National Educational Associa- tion at the Los Angeles meeting, is chairman of the committee of the American Library Association having this matter in charge. The Library Department of the National Edu- cational Association at its meeting this afternoon unanimously supported the proposition of the American Library Association, and authorized me, as its secretary, to appear before you and present the proposition in question. "I desire also to present a request from the Library Department for a larger appropria- tion for the annual expense of the department than the sum of ^25 now allowed. The peculiar nature of the work of this department demands of its officers special efforts and special expenditures in order to secure conditions for a successful meeting each year." After an informal discussion of Miss Ahern's request in behalf of the Library Depart- ment for an increased appropriation for annual expenses. Director A. G. Lane, of Illinois, offered the following motion : " That the Library Department be requested to present a written application to the Board of Directors for such increase in the annual appropria- tion as may be deemed necessary, and that the matter be referred to thejNational Council for consideration and recommendation." Seconded and carried. Regarding the proposition of the American Library Association for the preparation of a manual for rural-school teachers on condition that it be printed and distributed by the National Educational Association, Secretary Shepard called attention to the fact that 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION the Committee on the Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools, of which Mr. J. C. Dana was chairman, expended only a small proportion of the amount appropiated for the expenses of the committee — ^171. 50 of the ;^5oo appropriated — and that there remained an unexpended balance to the credit of the committee. On motion, the application for co-operation with the American Library Association in the preparation and distribution of a working library manual for rural-school teachers was approved and referred to the Executive Committee, with power to act within the lim- its of the unexpended balance of the Committee on the Relations of Public Libraries to Public Schools. Director James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, chairman of the Special Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council, reported that action had been taken by the Council creating a special committee of nine (afterward enlarged to twelve) on the subject of "Taxation as Related to Public Education," to report to the Council not later than 1904, unless otherwise directed by that body; and that the Council recom- mend that the sum of ;giooo, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated for the clerical and other expenses of the committee in the preparation of the proposed report. An informal discussion followed as to the desirability of such an investigation, and as to the ground to be covered by the proposed report. On motion, the recommendation of the Council was concurred in, and the sum of ;?i,ooo was appropriated for the expenses of the committee. On motion of Director T. A. Mott, of Indiana, the sum of $750, or so much as may be necessary, was appropriated for the meeting of the Dep-artment of Superintendence for 1903. On motion of Director A. V. Storm, of Iowa, seconded by Director D. W. Springer, of Michigan, the Executive Committee was requested to authorize the publication in the annual volume of Proceedings of the presidential address of President William M. Beardshear, which was not delivered on account of the illness of the President. There being no more business, the meeting adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES OF WELCOME HON. S. R. VAN SANT, GOVERNOR OF MINNESOTA [stenographic report] Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen : It is a pleasure to meet you, to greet you, and to welcome you to our state. Indeed, we honor ourselves in doing this. It is customary on occasions like this to speak of our educational institutions. I would first mention the fact that Minnesota has an institu- tion in her great university that we all are proud of ; and, while proud of that, we are still prouder of the splendid educator. President Cyrus Northrop, who is at the head of it, and who will later address you. If this institution does not at this time excel any other in the United States, remember that it is young ; not more than fifty years ago, where its magnificent buildings now stand was to be found the tepee of the Indian. Harvard and Yale were old when our university was established, but it now has 3,700 students. It is not only large in numbers, but it is most excellent in its scholarship. This great institution, with all its faculty and students, extends to you a most hearty welcome. We live in a progressive age, and our colleges should teach their students, not only to know something, but to be able to do something. So we have as a part of our great university an agricultural college which is doing most excellent work, and, in my judgment, has done as much to develop Minnesota as any other institution in the state. Our high schools are unexcelled, and our superintendent of public instruction is very properly giving careful attention to our rural schools, for it is in the latter that 80 per cent, of our children receive all the education they ever obtain to prepare them for citizenship. All these, with our eleven thou- sand or more teachers and our five hundred thousand pupils, bid you welcome. The fathers of Minnesota were wise in their day and generation. They commenced early to provide for the future, and as a result of their foresight we have a permanent school fund of $15,000,000. By a wise provision of the law only the interest is available for present needs. Last year some $500,000 was available, and was used for the education of the boys and girls of Minnesota. This is remarkable when you consider the 35 36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera youth of our state. When all the school lands are sold it is expected that we will have the vast sum of $30,000,000 as a permanent school fund. So you will pardon us if we have a just pride in our educational institu- tions and advantages. I welcome you also to this great city ; it is our metropolis. Here you will find the largest mills in the world, which grind the best wheat into the best flour ever made. If you are not properly entertained in this city you can go out to beautiful Minnetonka and on its sky-tinted waters and pebbly shores enjoy yourselves. If that is not sufficient we have more than seven thousand lakes. If you want a longer trip you can journey to the source of the Mississippi river, which is in our state, and go to the Gulf. And if you desire to travel farther north you can proceed to the Red River of the North and go to Hudson Bay. Should you wish to go east you can make a short journey to Duluth and then go by way of the great lakes. And if you tire of water routes and want to go west you have the choice of two great parallel roads that will carry you to the coast. With all these beautiful surroundings and opportunities for travel we bid you welcome. But Minneapolis, while it is our metropolis, is not our only great city. I read with pleasure of your meeting at Charleston ; they boasted of their beautiful city by the sea and of their commerce. Do you realize that we have a city by the sea? We have the imperial city of Duluth, situated at the most westerly point of the great lakes ; its commerce is immense, and for the purpose of boasting somewhat I desire to annex, temporarily, the port of Superior. From and to this harbor in Minnesota more tons of freight were shipped last year than from any other harbor in the United States, even exceeding that of New York, Boston, Balti- more, or San Francisco. This will give you some idea of our great state and its commerce. Speaking of our mills a moment ago, and the wheat we raise to feed the world : Our farmers, in their wisdom, and greatly aided by our agricultural college and our excellent dairy and food department, have diversified their farming, and Minnesota, while famous as a wheat-growing state, now gives great attention to the dairy industry. We excel in that direction, as is evidenced by the prizes we take for the best butter, made by our seven hundred or more creameries. In fact, we are doing so much along this line, making butter enough to spread all the bread, that we have changed our name from the meaningless "Gopher State " to the "Great Bread and Butter State." With all this bread and butter we welcome you. We have another city, and that is St. Paul, our capital. I reside there temporarily, and am willing to remain longer if the people so desire. It is a beautiful city, and when you are tired of staying here, come down and we will show you our new capitol, a veritable marble palace. We are Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 37 building this great capitol, to cost in the neighborhood of $4,000,000, without incurring one dollar of bonded indebtedness. You who come from Massachusetts may feel somewhat lonely; come over to our state treasurer and ask to see how our school fund is secured, and you will find more than $2,500,000 of Massachusetts bonds in our strong-box. Are you from the sunny South — you will find securities you will be familiar with, from the states of Delaware, Virginia, Louisiana, and other of your commonwealths. I am reminded of another city, peerless and most beautiful. If you are not satisfied here, come to that city which, to my mind, is the most beautiful of all — Winona, sometimes called the "Venice of America." There you will be greeted by one of our greatest men, your friend and my friend, the Secretary of this organization. Professor Shepard. I say one of the greatest, because he is one of the greatest educators in Minnesota. If I might give you any advice, I would especially urge the teaching of patriotism in our schools. In our country we owe much to the soldier and the teacher; one the patriot, the other the educator. They toiled together from early colonial days. The work of the soldier we know, but the significance of the scholar's mission, unheralded by the blaze and roar of cannon, is usually overlooked. Poor Richard's Almanac with its wise sayings was read by more people than Samuel Adams' plea for inde- pendence. Noah Webster and his spelling book are as much a part of our country's history as Patrick Henry and his fiery eloquence. Benjamin Franklin with his maxim of economy led the people to be honest and saving, energetic and practical, and laid the foundation in the American character for our great national wealth and prosperity. Contemporaneous with these were Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, and a host of other patriots preparing the people for loyal sacrifices in the cause of independence. Determined men " with empires in their brains," who battled with savages and wild beasts on a " bleak and inhospi- table coast " counted education as an essential factor in all their plans. They built forts and blockhouses and manned them; they also built Har- vard and Yale and endowed them. The teacher and the patriot, the schoolhouse and the flag, how naturally we link these together as we study our country's history! There is a question that is being much discussed: Does the consti- tution follow the fiag? Let the lawyers and the statesmen settle that, of one thing we are sure, the school-teacher does. We sent soldiers to the Philippines to call the inhabitants to order, then we sent a shipload of teachers whose work will make the presence of the soldier unnecessary. Our teachers are patriotic. I desire to testify to that fact. As I stand in your presence I recall the school-days prior to the war. I am free to say that no more patriotic body of men and women ever lived than 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General the school-teachers of the early 6o's; mine was not an exception; he did not try to restrain the fervor of his pupils. When the time came to go the boys packed up their algebras and Caesars and lost all interest, for the time being, in mathematical problems, and they were not caring into how many parts Gaul was divided, but they were determined that their own country should not be divided at all. " Peace hath her victories not less renowned than war," and patriot- ism of the highest type is absolutely essential to our national existence. Vital questions are to be met. They must.be settled properly. In order to do this we must not only educate our people, but teach them to be patriotic. Those who preceded us did their part well. Intelligent patriot- ism has borne fruit. The labors and examples of our teachers have not been in vain. When the shock of war came we met it like men. When calamities have thrown the nation into the greatest grief there resulted no panic. Lincoln, Garfield, McKinley are stricken down, but the nation still lives. Men rise and fall, but the government, supported by thought- ful and educated patriots, stands firm like a mountain upon its base. More and more we need to join together the cultivated mind and the loyal heart. I am glad, teachers, to meet you. I envy you your opportunities. Yours is an exalted calling. Into your hands is intrusted the making of the men who will be the voters and the voted-for. Your works follow you. The boys and girls you teach will soon pass out of your thoughts, but they will never forget you. Your influence over them will abide. You can afford to be patient, hopeful, earnest, for in the years to come, if you do well your part, men and women will rise up to bless your memory, and this great government will owe you a debt of gratitude; for as long as patriotism and education march side by side, so long will our country withstand the storms of war and the dangers that threaten in time of peace; for the work of the teacher not only benefits the individual, but the state as well. The hope and safety of the state are in the education of its people. So you should be welcomed and your work appreciated, not only by the governor of the commonwealth, but by everyone who desires its perpetuity. I therefore bid you welcome, and express the wish that your delibera- tions may result in great benefit to your splendid organization and that you will carry with you pleasant memories of this beautiful city and this great state. HON. JOHN W. OLSEN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ST. PAUL, MINN. In behalf of the twelve thousand teachers, twenty thousand school officers, and unnumbered parents and school patrons interested in the welfare of the rising generation, I extend to you a most sincere and Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 39 hearty welcome to this great commonwealth, so rich in forest, in agricul- tural, and mineral resources, and having the largest permanent school fund of any northern state — a state wherein every child, if properly prepared, may enter any public high school, free of tuition ; a state which, in addition to its regular distribution of public-school funds, gen- erously encourages efficiency thruout her public schools by paying annually ^i,ooo to every high school, $400 to every graded school, $200 to every village school of two departments or more, and $100 to every common country school reaching a prescribed standard of excellence. During the last twelve years, inspired by your presence here in 1890, our teachers have done a noble work. They have enrolled thousands of boys and girls as Scandinavians, Germans, Bohemians, and other for- eigners, but after contact with our public schools they became Americans saluting only one emblem, and that, in the language of a neighbor, "the most sacred the sun shines upon except the cross of Christ." I refer to the stars and stripes, representing the best in manhood, government, and education. Great and stupendous questions, social, economic, and international, are pressing upon this nation for solution ; the hand of the Almighty seems to have forced us to the very center of the world's stage. While we do not impress the best brain and brawn of our young manhood in this country into involuntary military servitude to maintain our present institutions or give trend to the future, while the only direct means of self-preservation employed by the state and nation is the public school, I am not apprehensive as to the future. When thousands of the most severely trained, most highly cultured, most conscientious, sympathetic, and altruistic men and women in our land give so freely of their time, money, and effort as to meet here from every state and territory in the union in behalf of to-morrow's manhood and womanhood, then, indeed, there can be but one answer to every question confronting us, and that ultimately the right answer. I do not presume to say what the final policy of this government shall be in relation to the Phillipine Islands, but this much I dare say, that the question will be solved rightly ; that by virtue of your teaching, regard- less of whether the Republican, the Democratic, or any other political party shall prevail, the patriotic heart of the American people will never again permit either Spain or any other effete monarchy to build about those islands of the sea an imperial breakwater against the American idea of civil and religious liberty. We bid you a most hearty welcome, for by seeing and hearing you, our distinguished leaders in education, and apprehending somewhat at least of your broad, deep, chastened, and mature thought, the purity of your motive, the vastness of your conception, the ideals and theories of your method, we expect to gain inspiration to climb to those higher 40 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera rounds of life's ladder to which you beckon us, where our intellectual horizons will be broadened, where we shall live above the fogs and mias- mas of selfishness, narrowness, and bigotry in life ; where we may see our duty in relation to humanity in more accurate perspective; where we in turn can beckon those under our charge to "come up " and do not have to command them to "go up." I trust that you may enjoy to the fullest extent the charms of nature surrounding our northwestern metropolis and the open hospitality of our homes, and that you may here have a convention, the far-reaching effects of which only infinity can measure in making for a most exalted man- hood and womanhood which, in the language of that foremost teacher, Horace Mann, "dare track the very Deity in His ways of wisdom." HON. D. p. JONES, PRESIDENT OF CITY COUNCIL, MINNEAPOLIS [stenographic report] It is a distinguished honor to stand in the presence of this vast audi- ence this afternoon and to represent the city of Minneapolis. It is more than a distinguished honor to address the National Educational Association of the United States. Let me remind you that it is also a very distinguished honor to stand upon this platform and to speak in this great audience room because not many years ago upon this plat- form stood that peerless statesman and man, William McKinley, presid- ing with his courteous dignity over the deliberations of the great national republican convention which presented to the people of this country, yes, to the world, the name of Benjamin Harrison as a candidate for the highest office in the gift of the American people. But let us see, as I am to speak for Minneapolis today and for her citizens who give you welcome, where Minneapolis has come from and what marvel it is that a half million people are located within a very short distance of the place where we now meet. Looking back just a moment at the history of this most important section of the West which we call the Northwest, let me remind you that only a few hundred years ago this great domain of the Mississippi valley was under the flag of Spain. Then, later, came from the St. Lawrence valley the French voyageur and discoverer. He laid claim also to this mighty territory and contended with Spain for the mastery. In the front rank of the intrepid band of explorers were the Jesuit fathers, bringing in the one hand the Bible and the crucifix, and in the other the sword, that they might force their way into this coveted terri- tory. France was victorious and planted her standards here, and we have inherited a rich nomenclature from this unique invasion in such names as Nicollet and Hennepin, Marquette, and, greatest of all, LaSalle, who presented this vast territory to France and named it Louisiana. We are on the ground of what was once known as Louisiana and from Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 41 which proud area have been carved great states and territories. But France was not to hold undisputed sway in this region, because the Anglo-Saxon came across the Atlantic and saw with covetous eye this vast empire; and it was reserved providentially for the Anglo-Saxon to occupy this land which we now inhabit. It is not more than two genera- tions since the Indian stood where we stand today and saw that realistic picture of beauty, the Falls of St. Anthony, and thought it was to be his home forever. But it was not so ordained, because the Anglo-Saxon had come ; the hardy pioneers from New England, from Maine, New Hamp- shire, Vermont, and Connecticut and from the intervening territory had come, and now, within the space of two generations, we find a city with a quarter of a million inhabitants. I think it is always permissible for a loyal Minneapolitan to say some things about his city and her citizens; and assuming that you will permit this, let me say that it is with great pleasure we welcome you to this city. We think it is beautiful; we love it because we live here, and we live for it. We have things to show you of which we are proud. We have our great industries, we have our homes, we have fine hospitals and homes for the needy and the orphan and the aged, we have our schools and our art schools, and we are proud of them; we have our beautiful park system with its boulevards and drives, and we want you to enjoy them, and we have the father of the park system, Hon. C. M. Loring, today with us upon this platform, and I would offer a word in his honor. It is a greater thing to be the father of the park system of a great city than it is to command millions or to hold the highest office in the gift of a city. We have a superb educational system, we have our public schools with their forty thousand school children. We contribute for education three-quarters of a million dollars by taxation annually. Our state edu- cational system is represented by our state university within our own borders, with its nearly four thousand students, and we have not only the state university, but we have President Northrop, and that is far bet- ter. And as an alumnus of the institution I wish to say that no man in the state of Minnesota more fully deserves the love and esteem of our people than does President Northrop. A word of welcome should be short. We want to present to you all these beauties, and we want you to enjoy them to the fullest extent. We want you to know us all, and the words of wisdom you shall utter in our hearing will remain with us as a precious heritage. Of all the great conventions (and we are called a convention city) that have assembled here, none has honored us more than this great educational Association. We thank you for coming; we have long waited for you. Our house is in order, it is garnished and swept, we extend to you hands of cordial welcome. Stay as long as you can, and, when you go, may you go in peace. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General DR. CHARLES M. JORDAN, SUPERINTENDENT CITY SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS Ladies and Gentlemen, Members of the National Educatio?ial Association : For three days I have been busy welcoming the members of this body, and now I am called upon to do it all over again. This, however, has its compensations. I feel like the man who said he liked the Episcopal church because it gave him a chance to talk back. From the variety of the welcome given you I take it that, like the poor, you will always be with us. You have been welcomed by the governor of the state on behalf of its "citizens, for the governor, however much he may disbelieve in railroad mergers, believes in all such mergers as this. You have been welcomed by the state superintendent of public instruction on behalf of all the teachers of the state, and one of those teachers I am. Then you have been welcomed by a representative of the city council, acting for our mayor, who has told you all about the beauties and glories of Minneapo- lis, and who intended to offer you its freedom ; but so many people have lately been taking advantage of its freedom that we have withdrawn the offer. And now it is my pleasure and privilege to welcome you on behalf of the nine hundred teachers of Minneapolis who never talk back to anybody except their superintendent. I welcome you here for a great many rea- sons. In the first place, we are glad you are here because we invited you to come, and Minneapolis, like other society ladies, resents the declination of an invitation. We are glad also to have you here because of what you are and what you represent. The citizens of this city have come from every quarter of the globe. There is not a country that has not its representation in the citizenship of Minneapolis, and yet there is one thing upon which they agree, and that is that no violent hand shall be laid upon the interests of the public- school system. We welcome you also because this Association represents the interests of the common-school system of this country. Composed as it is of dis- tinguished presidents of great universities, of professors of universities, of so many who are interested in higher education, yet it stands, and always has stood and always will stand, for the interests of the common - school system of this country. For we must remember this, that the fundamental principle upon which public education rests is the principle of a common-school education for every boy and girl in this country. Believe as much as we may, and as much as we do, in our universities and our high schools, yet nothing should stand in the way of giving to every boy and girl, no matter how poor or how humble, the very best oppor- tunities possible for an education. If the time ever comes that our public-school system drifts away from that purpose, if the time ever comes that the aristocracy of this country gets hold of the public-school system, then it will be swept out of existence by an enraged people. Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 43 I did intend to brag a little about Minneapolis, but after I heard these two politicians and this real-estate man speak of it I simply hung my head. There is not a school-teacher, not one, who can boom things as they can, and yet I must say that we are proud of Minneapolis even now. The great glory of a city, as cities go now, is to clear out rotten- ness wherever it is found. There are those here in this hall today who were in Minneapolis twenty-seven years ago when this Association held its meeting here. They know what Minneapolis was at that time, a little struggling hamlet. Now we have a splendid city, and yet the first little house that was built on this side of the river is standing now in one of our public parks as a memorial of our wonderful growth. But Minneapolis, you know, is not only a place, but Minneapolis, like Boston, is a state of mind. Minne- apolis is made up of men and women who earn their own living, own their own homes, take care of their children, and gladly and heaitily entertain their guests. It is a pleasure to me to welcome you herevvith us. When it was decided that this convention was to come here every teacher in the Minneapolis schools but fifteen indicated within one week a desire to become members of this body, and before the week was over the other fifteen had come forward and paid their dues. St. Paul gave us its hearty support, the cities and towns surrounding us were all loyal, and we secured 1:25 more memberships than were asked for by the committee which came here to select the place for holding the convention. And so you can see that while your entertainment may not be what you expected or wished, it is all we know how to give. If there are mistakes they have been mistakes of the head and not of the heart. Again I welcome you, and again I express the hope that, when you leave us, you will have the opinion which all Minneapolis people have, and which all sensible people in this part of the country have, that Min- neapolis is the best city on earth. DR. CYRUS NORTHROP, PRESIDENT UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS Ladies and Gentlemen : I was very much comforted by one of the petitions embraced in the prayer of my brother Hallock ; he prayed for those who were to speak this afternoon "from the governor down," and you will readily see where my interest in that prayer came in. If the man who rises on a hot after- noon to make the fifth speech of welcome is not "down," I don't know when he will be. I have always felt that this welcoming business was overdone, and I am quite as much impressed with this feeling this after- noon as ever before. I sweltered thru a hot afternoon in Detroit last year listening to addresses of welcome, and I proposed before another meeting to have a revision of the custom. Here it is again, and what is 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General worse in my part of it, I don't know, ladies and gentlemen, of anything to welcome you to in particular, because there is nothing left. Everybody has said all that human eloquence, human intellect, and human imagina- tion can suggest; but, as I am a man of veracity, I shall not try to imitate those who have preceded me. But I want to tell you in confidence — and I think I have secured your confidence now, so you will accept what I may say without a grain of allowance — we have here a most delightful climate ; the skies are never bluer anywhere within the limits of this great republic than they are in Minnesota — when you can see them. I do not know what the matter is with the earth in general at the present time, in this country in particular, but I suspect the trouble may all be laid to the act of Congress in providing for irrigation. There was a distinguished gentle- man who used to live in New York (he died a few weeks ago) who wielded a very sharp pen, and he had that most undesirable faculty, an ability to pile up a series of indictments against this country because things were as they are, and he would close his indictment by saying that these things were all due to the tariff ; and so I think this excessive amount of irriga- tion that is going on from east to west must be due to the act of the late Congress, for I have just come from New England, and it was worse there than here. They had not only the rain, but they had that peculiar New England temperature we never have ; our climate is so remarkably dry. As you go west the climate is a great deal drier \ the Minneapolis people have the loveliest climate, and the rich spend the summer at Lake Minne- tonka to avoid the heat of the city, and in the winter they go to California or Florida to avoid the cold, and those of us who remain here are the vigorous ones. A great climate Minnesota has! We should like to have this beautiful assembly stay with us always. I want to leave one idea with you before I close. We have a large country, this United States of America, and, as I mention it, I am sure there is not one in this great assembly who is not thrilled with a new sense of the glory of our country at the present moment. I think we have never been so proud of it as we are today. What we have done for Cuba stands before the world as the one great example of national altruistic self-abnegation and love of humanity. No act in all the history of the world stands beside it, and no act that any nation has ever performed is so well fitted to bring honor to the nation that did it as this act ; for he who takes to himself everything does it in selfishness, and the nation which takes everything to herself does it in selfishness. " He who loses his life shall save it," and the nation which gives up life and treasure for others is the nation that shall go down the ages marked in the brightest colors of history and an example to the whole world. Now such is our nation today, glorious, and yet here in this country are millions of people who have come to us in the maturity of their years, with their habits fixed, with their own associations and tastes; they are Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 45 scattered all over the country, they are here in hundreds and thousands, they are in every part of the country except the South — there they are not found to such a great degree, but the South has its own problem. The great problem for us everywhere is the assimilation of these people : not that we should be all alike, but that we should know one another, that we should understand each other's peculiarities, that we should be acquainted with each other's good qualities, that we should comprehend one another's ideas, and tho the nation be so large that a dozen or twenty countries might be carved out of it, and each one should have its own peculiar characteristics and customs, apart and in many respects distinct nations, yet we should all know each other; we should all understand each other; in the great central aspirations of the heart we should be one. Ladies and gentlemen, nothing tends to this so much as the annual meeting of this great Association, gathering together in one place the teachers of the children, the educators of the country, the leaders of thought in every part of our land, and causing them to become acquainted one with the other, and more than that, with the teaching and customs of the various parts of our country. Who is there that can go to the South, to that beautiful city of New Orleans, and see Tulane University and live there and stay with the people, and not feel a love for the South? Who is there that can go to the Pacific, to the University of California, and look out on the Pacific, and not feel that California is no longer what it was in 1849, ^ questionable factor, but is one of the great elements of this great republic. Who can go to New England and visit Harvard and Yale and not feel that the cradle of liberty of this great country is still being rocked and rocked successfully? Who can go to the great center of this country and see the vast indus- tries, producing millions upon millions of dollars, making this nation the base of supply for the whole world, without feeling that we are united — one and inseparable in our interests, purposes, and aspirations — and that there is in the future of this great republic something beyond all we have seen or imagined or conceived, the high position of leader in thought, leader in education, leader in production, leader in policy, leader in the dominion of the world, leader of nations. This is what I feel in an assembly like this. The value of the occa- sion is not in the words I can utter to you, it is not in the learned papers that will be read to you, it is not in the lessons in pedagogy that someone will teach to you, it is in the coming together of the North and the South, the East and the West, the clasping of hands, the feeling that we are one in this great republic. 46 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General RESPONSES JAMES A. FOSHAY, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen : To you, sirs, who have so eloquently given us cordial welcome to your state, your city, and your homes, it gives me great pleasure to express our thanks. I am proud to respond to these words of welcome in the name of the great western division of our National Educational Association. Of the divisions of this Association, ours covers by far the greatest area; but no one depends upon us to furnish educators in proportion to our area. Vou may be surprised, however, when I tell you that the western division now furnishes 23 per cent, of your members, exclusive of those in Alaska and the Philippines. As an index of the educational interest of California, one state of the western division, I would have you note that, while her population is less than the city of Chicago, yet, since the great meeting of this wonderful Association at Madison, in 1884, California has furnished more member- ships than any other state or territory, except the state of Illinois. Your beautiful city lies in the heart of the golden grain country. It delights our eyes to ride thru its opulent acres, and our ears to hear the tales you can tell us about it. It would not be well for me to quote the statistics that I am longing to fling forth. You know that in 1871 you received only two carloads of wheat here, and in 1901 you handled — but I dare not mention the number of millions of bushels. I am a Califor- nian ; I have had practice in believing things — we have statistics our- selves in California — but you know what these down-easters will say if I merely tell them the bald truth about your millions. And of what use is it to attempt to tell the truth — a truth that will not stand still long enough to be caught? You have contracted such a habit of racing away from figures, even while one tells them, with the unlimited resources of this rich country that lies all about you, that the unbelievable wealth will soon be trebled and quadrupled ; I will not commit myself to figures that you may already have discounted while they are forming on my lips. For your eastern visitors and your western alike, there is a pleasure and a brotherly pride in the contemplation of this golden flow of riches. Another source of your wealth, however, gives a Californian great anxiety. In our land, we worship trees. It used to be said of us that we bought water and a tree, and then had a few acres of land thrown in for good measure. You have cut into your forests with the lavish hand of one who rejoices in his abundance and need not be niggardly, and we look Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 47 with admiration on your plethoric resources ; and yet, with a fear engen- dered in the unbroken sunshine of our own landscapes, we hope that you will not fail to enforce adequate laws to keep your land of primeval for- ests forever from becoming a shadowless country. Your grain, your lumber, and your many factories would seem to make of you a wholly practical, money-making people ; but, on the other hand, your homes, your parks, and the beautiful lakes that grace your neighborhood, mark you as a home- loving, beauty-loving people. Over all is thrown the glamour of your Indian legends, which captivate the Californian's heart. To bind us to you irrevocably, we read in your history that you, too, are '49-ers. The same year sent your forefathers and ours pioneering into a new land. One half century has witnessed our growing up and yours, pace for pace. That you, and we, and all our common country, while we have been growing in wealth and material comforts and influence among the nations of the world, have also been ever watchful of another and most important phase of our growth, this assemblage is the proof. To the problems of education our whole country is anxious to give its best thoughts and efforts. What great promise of uplift for us all is in this spectacle — earnest men and women from all the states of the Union, representative of the best thought and ripest experience of every section, coming here to counsel together for a few fruitful days upon this vitally important theme. In the cities, towns, villages, in every condition of our country's varied life, these teachers have been doing noble work, day by day. Now, the year lying behind us, we have brought our experiences and the fruits of them together from all directions for our great annual conference. Here we are, to discuss the needs of the new century. How shall we make our youths ready to take up and carry on the work of solving the strange, new problems of science? How give them the taste for scholarly things? How interest them in the great economic questions that are being thrust upon us by the rapid growth of our own country and the struggle between labor and capital in the old country? How cause them to see that they should understand the underlying principles of political economy and sound finance without learning them thru the bitter school of experience? All of these things are important, and each has its time of seeming more important than all the others. But since our last meeting the vital importance of one subject has crowded out all the others, or is it that this old, but now startlingly new, subject is only the crystallized, embodied form of all the others? The terrible tragedy that took from us a beloved president has impressed upon us that we must try to make good citizens — that is, men and women who will know the laws of their country, and will have the courage to work against the passage of unjust laws, and the 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General ability and honesty to frame just ones. President Roosevelt last Friday emphasized this thought in the following: Oh, my fellow-countrymen, as we face these infinitely difficult problems, let us ever keep in mind that tho we need the highest qualities of intellect in order to work out practical schemes for their solution, yet we need a thousand times more what counts for many, many times as much as intellect — we need character. Character, that compound of honesty and courage and common sense, will avail us more in the long run than any brilliancy on the stump, or any adverse legislative means and methods. The brilliancy is good. We need the intellect ; we need the best intellect we can get ; we need the best intelligence ; we need more still — character. As someone has wisely said, we can execute the anarchist, but that does not affect anarchy. When the anarchist believes that he is bene- fiting the human race by his act, then his execution becomes to him and his fellows martyrdom, and their cause seems sanctified. It is our duty to strike at the spirit of the movement. Can we not, and must we not, inculcate reverence for the great laws which say: "Thou shalt not kill," and "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself"? And can we not bear in upon young minds that these rules have no exceptions? And now, fellow-teachers, out of your days for rest and recreation you have eagerly offered this week on the altar of your vocation. We shall enjoy the friendly greetings, the opportunities of renewing those dearest friendships that were formed in days of yore, and learn of the new ideas on education which are to be analyzed and tested. We know from the words of welcome we have heard that temptations of pleasure will assail us this week from all sides; and already, like Ulysses, we feel the need of being bound to our posts ; but still, thru all, we know we are here in the interests of a sacred and solemn calling, and I trust that the labors of this week may be as productive of good to the great cause of education as they must be replete with pleasure to those who participate in them. THEODORE B. NOSS, PRINCIPAL OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CALIFORNIA, PA. Mr. President^ Ladies and Gentlemen : The welcome extended by these distinguished gentlemen has been cordial, but not beyond our expectations. By us eastern folks everything is expected to be done in a large and generous way in the West. We are glad to meet again in your state. Minnesota is a state of magnificent opportunities. Her size is nearly double that of the so-called Empire State, and is equal to six of the average Atlantic states and to sixty of the smallest. Your state is central in the continent of North America, and the streams which flow from your ten thousand lakes reach the Atlantic ocean through Hudson's Bay on the north, the St. Lawrence on the east, and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. These geographical facts are but suggestive of your position and influence in those realms of Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 49 industry and thought which make a people truly great. In some lines of activity you have distanced all your competitors. Your vast agricultural developments and your mighty industries excite the admiration of the world, and your educational enterprise has kept pace with your material progress. Taken all in all, it seems to me that we find in Minnesota a true type of the best things in American life. It is well, therefore, that this great army of teachers should meet here. We shall find a tonic in your atmosphere, and shall catch something of your enthusiasm. There are many good things to be gained by hold- ing such a convention here. I will refer to but one, and that is the help that may and should come to the most conservative of all professions from contact with your progressive spirit. It was a fancy of my youth that for an eastern man to achieve great- ness a western experience is necessary. This has been illustrated in the lives of many, and of some here present. Only four days ago I witnessed a scene which I shall not soon forget. Sixty or seventy thousand people covered the hill-slope in Schenley Park, Pittsburg, to hear a man discuss questions of national and international importance. He used no notes, and spoke with great vigor, faultless diction, and with perfect candor and freedom. Who was this man? He is an eastern man with some western experience and a great deal of western progressiveness. He is the youngest man who has ever sat in the presidential chair, and a man whom the republican state convention of Minnesota a few days ago nominated for the presidential chair again in 1904 — Theodore Roosevelt. I am told that your state was settled, and her career determined, by New England Yankees, whose natural caution was out here transmuted into enterprise, whose sagacity became audacity, and who added to their reverence for the old an eager quest for the new. The world knows the result. The cause of education owes a debt to the bold pioneers of the West and Northwest. No class of workers, whether artists or artisans, have more need of being spurred forward than teachers. The gravities of our calling all tend toward the dead level of conservatism. Spain has been condemned for attempting to force an eighteenth-century civilization upon a twentieth- century people. I fear this mistake is being made continually in the name of education. Our faces are ever turned toward the past. We have memory, but no imagination. If the schoolmasters of the land were left to themselves, I fear they would degenerate. Mr. President, our emancipation from old methods and trivial aims must come from outside our own calling. Much of the matter that fills our text-books is obsolete in real life. When we convince the teacher that what he teaches, with almost religious zeal, is practically useless, he takes refuge in what he calls " discipline," and there he is impregnable. In any calling, except teaching, discipline consists in doing something 50 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General worth doing, and doing it well; but the schoolmaster holds fast the traditions of the elders and contends for the faith once delivered to the saints just as it was once delivered to the saints. Thus, the forces of education are well organized for defense, but not for attack or exploration. Of course, Mr. President, I speak of the tendencies or the gravities of our calling, and not of those educators who fight successfully against these tendencies, nor even of those who fail in the fight. As a class, our faces are set toward the past, and yet it is not the past but the future with which we shall have to deal. The old educational folly continues of putting new wine into old bottles and new cloth on to an old garment. We shackle the forces of education with the worn-out forms and theories of the Middle Ages. We belong to a profession that is more bent upon talking over the fruits of victory than upon risking life or limb to win new victories. It is not much to our taste to blaze a new road thru the forest; we would rather expose the defects of the road after it has been opened by other hands. In short, we don't '* cut much of a figure " as pioneers. In the main, we follow custom, and of all despotisms the most inexorable is custom. Were it not for modern British law in India, widows would still be burned by thousands upon the funeral pyres of their husbands. As it is, all girls are required to marry at from ten to twelve years of age, and tens of thousands of these, left widows, many of them less than twelve years of age, are doomed to a life of contempt and misery that is worse than death. When educated Hindus are asked why such practices are continued, their stereotyped reply is "It is our custom." Conservatism holds India and China in much the same condition century after century. National character depends less upon geographical posi- tion than upon an attitude of mind toward progress. Japan, in the East, advances; Spain, in the West, retrogrades. At the close of the Napoleonic wars the kingdom of Prussia was in the depths of weakness and humiliaton, but within the lifetime of one man, say von Moltke or Bismarck, Prussia traveled all the way from Jena to Sedan. Within sixty years, she rose thru common sense in common schools to be one of the first powers of Europe, and to make her soldiers feared and her scholars admired the world over. She abolished illiteracy within two generations. How was all this achieved? By a teachable spirit and a willingness to adopt new methods in elementary education. Much as Bismarck did for Prussia, Pestalozzi, tho not a German, did more. Now you, in these happy new states of the West, where the sway of custom is less felt, can more easily advance from one stage of progress to another, but with us in the East it is a more serious thing to do some- thing in education that our fathers did not do. We judge every educa- tional method by the standard of long usage. Whatever has been for a long time is right. I Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 5 1 But, Mr. President, altho progress may be slow, it is sure. The forces that make for improvement will prevail. Some of you will recall the excel- lent painting by William Morris Hunt in the Philadelphia Academy of Arts, '* The Flight of Night." As a female figure in a chariot bears the light of civilization into the realms of superstition and error, a man- slave, holding in his hand an inverted torch, vainly essays to check the speed of the plunging steeds. The educators who play the role of the man-slave in Hunt's picture are those who protest against innovations and fads. I have yet to know of any educator to whom we owe a lasting debt who, with tongue or pen, ridiculed fads. Opposition to the new is a mark of self-complacency and conceit. Where there is due knowledge of our present limitations and great deficiencies, there is always a hospitable feel- ing toward any sincere effort to improve. Concerning innovations the advice of Gamaliel is always timely: "Refrain from these men and let them alone, for if this counsel or this work be of men, it will come to naught, but if it be of God, ye cannot overthrow it." Education needs the forward look. The world's great benefactors are those who cherished and pursued their ideals thru the fad stage. It requires more courage to face the ridicule of opinionated conservatives with new truth than to follow a leader into battle. The heroism of Columbus is not shown so much in driving his ships into unknown seas and quelling a mutiny among his sailors as in maintaining before the philosophers of Salamanca that the earth is round. The truest and best things in education are the things once derounced as fads, even by good people. The best work of Pesta- lozzi, Froebel, Horace Mann, and Colonel Parker was called a fad. The new education, with all such features as the word-method in reading, manual training, laboratory methods in science and literature, child study, etc., was called a fad. When Paul the apostle once visited the church at Ephesus he brought to the church an entirely new idea. He said to the brethren, "Have ye received the Holy Ghost since ye believed?" Their honest and ingenuous reply was, "We have not so much as heard whether there be any Holy Ghost." If some of our present-day educators had been there, they would have replied : " We fear the Holy Ghost is a fad." In short, all that we now care for or cling to in education was once a fad. Even the three R's, which are now valued far above their deserts, were an innovation and a fad but a century or so ago. The fact is, a fad, like the tail of a tadpole, seems to be a necessary stage in all progress. Every reform that has blessed mankind has had to fight with fad-hunters for its existence. Within the memory of some here present the use of anaesthetics to relieve a patient of agony during a surgical operation was denounced as a sin. .;yVithin my own 'r:«ien>o^y the abolition of human slavery was denounced as fanaticism. The basintss of these fad-hunters, like Herod of old, is to siaug'^tci- Jnfantrreforms by the wholesale. Sad 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General will be the day when there are no fads. That day will mark the begin- ning of the end. If the thousands of teachers who assemble here catch something of the progressive spirit that has made the West and North- west what they are, our meeting will not have been in vain. In the Boston Public Library I have recently seen for the first time Sargent's great mural painting of "The Prophets." The hall, whose sides and ceiling are to be covered with this work, is perhaps one hundred feet long. The work already done, altho justly celebrated, is but a beginning. It covers merely the end and not more than ten feet of the sides and ceiling. Most of the prophets are dejected and in despair. Three of them, however, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, point hopefully to the wall yet to be painted, where, doubtless, will appear the triumphs of Chris- tianity. In education, as in this masterpiece of art, the best work is yet to be done. Education should be dominated by the future, not by the past. What prophets shall we follow — those who worship the past or those who hail the future? Gladly and expectantly do we come to Minneapolis for this conven- tion, believing that to breathe your air and see your progress will inspire courage and turn our eyes toward the future into which we must go and for which we should prepare. PRESIDENT JOSEPH SWAIN, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA. Out on Puget Sound, looking to the eastward, one sees a beautiful mountain in the form of a cone. Its base is covered with a dark pine forest and its top is wrapped in perennial snow. The people of Seattle call this mountain Mt. Ranier ; those of Tacoma, Mt. Tacoma. As one travels about the Sound region one can tell where the person with whom he is talking lives by the name he gives the mountain. By a similar course of reasoning I realize this meeting is held in Minneapolis, not in St. Paul. I am reminded of a story told of Simon Newcomb. He was attend- ing a wedding. The numerous guests were greeting the bride and groom. The great philosopher stood in a corner of the room, silent. He was asked why he did not greet the newly married pair. In a true scientific spirit he responded : " I have no new facts to communicate." At this stage of the program I am placed in the condition of Mr. New- comb. I have no new facts to communicate. Following the good example of our Methodist brethren, 1 vote to say "amen" to the responses which have been so heartily given to the cordial welcome which the National Educational Association has received today in Minneapolis. I am sure also that ail the teachers sympathize with the words of George Eliot, "I like to be Joyed, and I like to be ti>ld that I am loved." The teachers like to be wetcom-e.,: an*'i rheylike to be told that they are wel- Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 53 The Other day, in southern Indiana, I met a successful college gradu- ate, who said to me that he would rather his boy should have a good education and a good character than to have a million dollars. This is an old truth, but it was so evidently the prayer of the father's heart that his boy should be a trained, cultured, good man above everything else, that his way of expressing his thought clung to me. This is the prayer of the fathers and mothers who send their boys and girls to the schools which this Association represents today. The two things above every- thing else which this Association stands for are training and character. When Booker T. Washington wishes to lift the colored people from the shackles that bind them, he offers them education. When Rockefel- ler, Stanford, and Carnegie wish to use their millions for the benefit of the race, they endow colleges and build libraries. When the states in this Mississippi valley wish to make strong the civilization of this new land, they build educational systems extending from the district school to the university. When Cecil Rhodes undertakes to promote the peace of the world and extend and perpetuate the ideas and ideals of his coun- try, he gives millions for the education of young men. A president of a denominational school recently said in a pamphlet addressed to his church, *'If you would save the church you must keep up your colleges, for the church needs and must have educated leaders for her work." This one thing upon which church and state and mankind are united is the necessity of education for national and individual development and prosperity. To intellectual training must be added character. If the stars and stripes of our beloved country shall continue to float over a nation of freemen, to knowledge and power must be added conscience and charac- ter. *' Character is reiterated choice between good and evil." If day after day, as you come to the parting of the ways between the good and the bad, you choose the good, then you have a good character; if the bad, then you have a bad character. It was Maria Mitchell who said : "If I were sure of the right way, I could find the strength to follow it." This is the essence of character. The beauty of it is that good character can be attained by all. We differ in physical strength. We differ in intellectual power. We differ in spiritual insight. But to seek to know and to do the right is equally open to all. I will probably not be able to prove this proposition to you, that suc- cess or failure is more a question of character than of anything else. It is like the proof of the existence of God. It does not come by a syllo- gism. When the idea of His existence once takes hold of the mind, whether it comes as an original intuition, a revelation, or like the nebular hypothesis, everything in nature is a witness to its truth ; so when you come to a realization of the importance of good character in a truly suc- cessful life, you see its illustration in the life of every man and woman 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General whom you admire and love. You can read it in the life of your friends and associates, you can read it in the lives of the greatest men the world has produced. It is confined to no walk of life. If we should make a list of the most successful men of the world today, certainly Abraham Lincoln would be one. An analysis of his career will show that the greatest element in his success lay in his high character. This is illustrated by an incident which I remember my mother told me when a boy. At a cabinet meeting Mr. Lincoln had read his great document, the Emancipation Proclamation. His cabinet members said : " Mr. President, the time has not come for that document to go out to the American people." But he had made a thoro study of the situation, and it presented itself to him in the light of a duty. He had thought over it day and night, and finally he resolved to do it. Thus, when the objection came up in the cabinet, he said, *' I will issue that document, for I promised God I would." Having decided what his duty was, he did it. Force of character was the dominating element in his life. So, fellow-teachers, as we gather here today from all parts of this great republic, accepting the gracious hospitality of this great state and city, we dedicate ourselves anew to the service of the people of this demo- cratic land, to the end that the rising generation of all classes, rich and poor, weak and strong, may grow in knowledge, in power, and in character. Sessions] PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 55 ADDRESSES PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS THE THREE HS IN EDUCATION W. M. BEARDSHEAR, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIA- TION, AMES, IOWA The progress of education is akin to the evolution of thought in the history of the art of the Madonnas. The artist first placed the Madonna and the child in the consciousness of the Infinite, as suggested by aback- ground of mist and cloud, thereby sharing largely the magnanimity and limitlessness of early myth, legend, and philosophy. Then came the Madonna as enthroned. The Virgin and the child were placed in the most costly enthronement known to history and to art. In the third period the Madonna is enskied, in which position motherhood and child- hood were portrayed upon the limitless expanse of the heavens, environed by beauty of cloud and the profundity of the ethereal depths. Next, the Madonnas were portrayed in the out-of-doors, in some beautiful land- scape, garden, or meadow, so that the matchless envelopment of the entire earth, generous and fragrant, formed a background for the expres- sion of motherhood and the innocence of childhood. Finally, the Madonna and child were exhibited in the home, prefiguring the sancti- ties and dignities, emblematic of the fathomless relations of love. This is a befitting evolution of a noble life for a human being. The infinity and limitlessness of early folklore, the supremacy and royalty arising from the epoch of enthronement of Madonna and child in art, the ensky- ment of womanhood and childhood, the generous beauty and expanse of meadow and landscape, and the empicturing in the homes of earth the many mansions of heaven preparing thru the master-love of the truth — all these epochal meanings have enwrought, under the magnanimous influ- ences of education, the primer of knowledge with which our youth is fed. By these we are coming to embody Buisson's definition of education in the International Congress of Education, at Chicago, in '93, and harmo- niously build up the character of the child, "not by means of the three R's, but rather by means of the three H's — Head, Heart, and Hand — and make him fit for self-government, self-control, self-help: a living, think- ing being." 56 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General THE h's versus THE r's The celebrated three R's reciprocate the commercial spirit that gave them birth. One trouble with our educational work today is that the three R's appeal more strongly to the average citizen than do the three H's, and a money-value, rather than a soul-value, of education is still dominant in the esteem of the masses. Many of the teaching profession have taken up their work for the little ready money there is in it, rather than from the love of learning and a love of life, with their ceaseless unfold- ing of wondrous possibilities. True education is not merely to give us material progress and supremacy. Everyone who does not know how to write his own love letters and business letters today, and read his own ballot, is in serious subjection to his fellow, but there are not enough of them living in America, illiterate as it is, to give remunerative employ- ment on this technical ground of the three H's. The opening of mending- parlors gives better returns than the establishment of such a bureau of information. The three R's are for figures and dates that make full money- drawers, large bank accounts, and too often scant heads and hearts. The three H's assume the stock values of the R's, and make for a perfected life and a just nation. The three R's study history and science in the light of Roger Ascham's precept " A small area well culti- vated," almost solely for the earth of the area, and their highest outcome could be only a paid critic of new books or a salaried professor of belles- lettres. The three H's take up history and science to discover what is true and false, to exalt the noble and dethrone the ignoble, to admire the beautiful and ignore the ugly. Their truest aim is to make an intel- ligent being still more intelligent. And their highest outcome is the perfection and supremacy of our humanity and the making of Bishop Wilson's "right reason and the will of God prevail in the world." The hand is a twin with the brain. The dispositions, temperaments, habits, thought, and lives are written upon the human hand. There is a phrenology in the palms of the hands as well as in the contour of the skull. He that neglects the brains of his hands is as faulty as he that slights the brains of his skull. He who thinks he can't make anything or do some things that are reasonable is plunged into the inabilities of fear and inex- perience that besmall the soul. One of the severest blights that can come into the mind of the child or man is the fear of certain inabilities. Fear is a Hercules with "don'ts" and a weakling in "lean's." A person with the brains of his hand uncultivated is incapacitated in a large measure for usefulness and enjoyment. Whatever our youth expect to do in future life, the educational worth of the culture of the hands is comparable with that of any other form of education. The intellectual imagination of the pupil is appealed to over and over in the books and elementary science, but thru the hand the constructive imagination, which is the most vital to the originality and individuality of the child, is still too largely ignored in education. Sessions] PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 57 SWEETNESS AND LIGHT IN THE INDUSTRIAL PROFESSIONS The education of the hand still has to struggle against the prejudice and vice of the head in past ages. Too many share the sentiment Matthew Arnold expressed in the preface to his Culture. He spoke of a really noble monument of munificence, in regard to one of our American universities, and concluded by stating as to its foundation, "yet seems to rest on a misconception of what culture really is, and to be calculated to produce miners, engineers, or architects, not sweetness and light." But by what philosophy, other than the rote of custom, are sweetness and light in education confined to the purely Hellenistic culture ? Why can- not reason and the will of God prevail in the hand arts as well as in the classic arts? In fact, the new education of the hand is making reputable avenues to the completest development of life. The bias of the learned professors has shut out a vast amount of sweetness from the old educa- tion. The laboring professions have not yet caught up with the literary professions in the scope and efficiency of their culture. Their practical utilities, however, have induced new methods and infused fresh life into the so-called learned professions. They have disclosed the warp in the professions of literary culture of the past. The miner, the engineer, the agriculturalist, or the tradesman can be an embodiment of sweetness and light, and this is the ultimate goal of the widest education of the masses. We have educated some of them just enough to be restless and discon- tented. The need of the hour is a higher spirit of learning, not begotten by any hole-and-corner organization, but an outgrowth of the best there is in the human mind. A holy discontent is at the foundation of all real progress. How much does the well-directed culture of the hand differ in its noble elevation from that of the brain ? It also has an inward activity, having for its characters "increased sweetness, increased light, increased life, and increased sympathy." THE SUPREMACY OF THE HEART Some belittle sentiment as a work of weakness. Wholesome senti- ment is stronger than intellectuality. The heart sees farther than the eye, feels more deeply than the hand, and understands more profoundly than the brain. The heart is the seer in the kingdom of life. It knows divine writ in sky, in field, in friend, and in God. The heart is the com- rade of the hand, and the shekinah of the understanding. Half-hearted is half lost ; whole-hearted is the beginning of salvation. The badge of the heart is, " A chaplet from the tree of life." The plea of a great English writer was for "a shade more soul" in the aristocratic barbarians of his countrymen; and a shade more soul is the need of our civilization and the crying want of our entire educational system today. We are bound too much by the mechanics of our 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General profession and have stiffened by the whale-bone of preconceived rule. Welcome method, hail system of pedagogy, commend convention, and hasten interchange of ideas, but, like the hallelujah chorus of the Messiah, rise all with reverend heads in honor of the heart in education. With the graduates of our schools and colleges there arises the serious difificulty of leavening the crowd. From one of our great universities we have the striking array of 777 graduates this year. The marked increase of attendance in public schools, colleges, and universities must be wisely leavened with increased facilities, or it possesses elements threatening the scholarship and character of our youth. This gathering of the masses in our schools and colleges too frequently means over-crowded classes, over-worked teachers, and a low grade of school work. An English poet has said — "Join twenty tapers of unequal height, And light them joined, and you will see the less How 'twill burn down the taller, and they all Shall prey upon the tallest." The teacher is constantly amid these influences that prey upon the tall- est. It is a great privilege and honor to be thus preyed upon, but the tallest taper cannot exist for any considerable time without the self- estrangement of solitude. We have made of the presidents of our col- leges and universities business managers. The tendency is to pervert the city superintendent and town principal along the same line. " The nurse of full-grown souls is solitude." And too many of our teachers and school leaders are deprived of this divine nursery. All successful per- sons, especially in the field of art and letters, have experienced much of solitude. Crabbe said — Men feel their weaknesses and to numbers run, Themselves to strengthen or themselves to shun. There is a strength in the crowd, but it is not the strength that will exist, enjoy, and aspire without the crowd. It is not the strength that will inspire, uplift, and regenerate the crowd. Solitude is the insulation of the Almighty in which a man is filled with electric energies of a higher life, and a great need of the American teacher today is leisure for this insulation. The birds that throng all about us with their sweetest songs are in the highest trees, and their coziest nests the most secluded retreats. Solitude is a patch of the infinite letting in the light of a lim- itless life. It is silence "open-doored to God," and therefore open-skied to the heart of man. HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS It has been said that young women taking higher education in America "should have more Greek and less gravy."^ A number of us who have toiled thru the magnificences and the beneficences of Greek have no fault to find with its culture, but in comparison with the two, it Sessions] PRESIDENTIAL ADD! seems to me the grave need in the domestic education of our youth is more gravy, old fashioned gravy like mother's, abounding in the ingredi- ents of life. This does not mean more grease, more stuffy kitchens, more haphazard cooking and ill-tempered stomachs; but it means more science with practice in the gravy; the be-scenting of the kitchen with the aroma of foods, and the enriching of the stomach of the people with the whole- some red blood that shall nerve the brain, sustain the muscle, and fortify the soul in magnanimous livelihood. Victor Hugo conceives man pos- sessed of three centers : the brain, the heart, the stomach, and says, "Civilization is but a mass, science is matter, religion is blessed with hams, feudality with digests, royalty is obese." He gives the character- istics of the stomach as appetite, satiety, and putrefaction. He makes it break the equilibrium between the soul and the body, and makes Rabelais the discoverer of the stomach's place in history. This conception of Hugo is still too prevalent. Education has overlooked this third center — the stomach in civilization. Learning and science are beginning to hear the divine call of the stomach, to displace its satiety with purity of flesh and its putrefaction with nobility of soul. Household economics is fundamental in the humanities. It is not a few practical lessons in cook- ing at the summer Chautauqua, but the crowning of a four-year course of higher education beyond graduation from the high school. Household economics makes for the redemption of this third center in civilization. A stomach's god shall no longer be Silenus, as Hugo claims, but the god- dess Hygeia; its emperor no longer Vitellius, but the empress Victoria ; its animal not the pig, but an exalted man. The stomach shall hot be the weight of history, but the generous stay of its stupendous forces, uniting soul and body in safest and wholesomest ministry of life. We determine scientifically the balanced ration that will fit a steer for the market, a horse for strength or speed, a sheep for long or short wool ; the whole realm of animal industry is far better provided with scientific information than the nursery of our youth. Now it is high time to feed a human being more fittingly to make a man. The skillet is mightier than the sword. RE-EMPHASIS OF OLD-TIME VIRTUES Under these H's some old-time virtues need re-emphasizing. The rapid development of our physical resources, and the consequent ease of multi-millionaires, has begotten a spirit of wrong stature of life. Many of our people have roamed the continent for a better place and greater ease ; many have rushed into the cities in hopes of having less work to do ; parents declare in the presence of their children that these children shall not have to work as hard as they ; these children dream of elysian fields, in the language of the old hymn " dressed in living green," with- out the intervention of calloused hands and hardened nerves to produce them. We used to hear, " labor conquers all things." Now, luck, chance. 6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General and a piece of good fortune secure all things, and the world goes dream- ing after it, forgetting that luck is a fool and pluck is a hero. Instead of the certainty and never-failing increase of honest labor, too many have changed the old hymn, " Sure I must fight if I would win, Increase my courage, Lord ! " to "sure I must speculate if I would win," and it doesn't make much difference whether the Lord is in it or not. Even the laboring people have taken up the idea of there being a laboring class, and we are all making false divisions of our American society by wrong standards of classification. In fitting American girls and boys for truest citizenship, the old doctrine of the nobility of labor must be reiterated to the child of the banker as well as to the child of the hod-carrier. The meanest aris- tocracy in the world is that assumed thru the pocket or the empty brain. We must ground the youth of our schools in that newest of the old-time doctrine, that labor is the basis of the worth of the soul, as well as the foundation of the value of the dollar. " So for all men the law of work is plain ; It gives them food, strength, knowledge, victory, peace ; It makes joy possible and lessens pain ; From passion's lawless power it wins release, Confirms the heart, and widens reason's reign, Makes men like God, whose work can never cease." ATHLETICS The emphasis of physical culture in the education of these recent years makes the question of athletics ever new. The physical education of the youth should be brought still more nearly to the teacher and the school authorities. There is a great waste in the athletics of the hour. Such a waste cannot be fully estimated. There is a severe waste in the number of youngsters that drop out of school because they have gone to seed in play. There is a question about the desirability of an athletic board of a college spending thousands of money, aggregating in some cases $60,000 annually, in maintaining the athletics of the season. It is debatable on which side of the balance sheet will fall the benefits and influences of frequent trips of school and college teams to different sections of the state and of the country fulfilling the reciprocity of games. The matter of football still raises serious problems. Useful means of culture must not destroy that which it is designed to build up. The injuring of life and limb in the training of the physical man has ever been incident of severe exercises, and the injuries and fatalities attending the developm_ent of football in our American schools are still causes of rightful alarm. In addition to these we have the "football heart" and the "boat heart" added to the medical terminology of the age. These results emphasize the necessity of the gymnasium, under intelligent management, as the Sessions] PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS basis of the severe tests in the athletics of the day. There is a tendency to have too many inter-school and inter-collegiate contests ; and a diminution of the number would help greatly. Fair home contests among the individuals and classes of the same institution bring, upon the whole, the most desirable results. Conducted in a spirit of more wholesome rivalry, they are freer from abuses, and hence more accordant with the true purposes of education. They eliminate professionalism and avoid the serious loss of time and extra training and extra trips from college to college, and the undue anxiety preceding and following inter-collegiate contests. They secure and maintain quite largely the good results inci- dent to public contests. But I am not yet ready to advocate the abolishment of inter-collegiate contests. I believe our American youth ought to be so trained in these initial schools of their lives that they can enter into the most intense and partisan struggles with their fellows of other schools and colleges with an unswerving regard for honor, integrity, and fair play. They ought to be so imbued with the spirit of manly conduct that they would count defeat more honorable, in the face of superior strength and skill, than success by foul play and unmanly endeavor. A serious curse of our politics, our business competition, our social emulations, our professional strifes, is the too frequent prevalence of cut-throat methods that have little regard for the welfare, the honor, or the life of an opponent. The ethics of true athletics must make for a higher life among our citizens. I believe that it is in the games which not only the children, but the entire youth of the schools play, that they learn most thoroly the principles of justice, and to yield to public opinion. "Fair play is the earliest conception of justice which enters into the mind of a child," and we must keep sweet these fountains of public life for the health of the nation. The spirit of the old-time contests along the highways, at times of military muster and festive gatherings, and the playgrounds of our public schools, in which everything in a man's possession, his jack-knife, his gun, his horse, his muscle, and wit were put up in friendly struggle with those of his fellows and must come up smiling, even out of defeat, bears wholesome hints for our modern athletics. Football is a soldier's game. If we cannot have it attended with less maimed bodies, broken necks, and shattered nervous systems, it will have a Clevelandic dose of innocuous desuetude. MENTAL AND MORAL GYMNASTICS There is a field of athletics whose serious side is still illy understood by parents and teachers — that of mental and moral gymnastics. I still remember the wonderment excited by a venerable professor in college when he said to our class, "Young gentlemen, you have a risky road to travel in coming to be conscious somebodies in the world." In after months the sympathy of his tones became a heaven-born solace, as his 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General meaning dawned thru personal experiences. Unless such periods bring on nervous prostration or suicide, the people, and too often teachers, are largely ignorant of the risks and dangers of mental and moral gymnas- tics. A broken limb is serious, but a broken spirit is thrice sad. A maimed body is lamentable, but a maimed soul is doubly so. Deformed souls beget deformed thoughts, defective customs and statutes, warped dominance, diseased life and civilization. " A people is but the attempt of many To rise to the completer life of one ; And those who live as models for the mass Are singly of more value than them all." But a serious problem is that, as in physical parentage so in mental parentage, our citizenship and civilization bear the marks of the models, ** gross and fair," living singly and perpetually among the masses. Untimely deaths upon the playground in life's young spring tax sympathy to its utmost, but when a soul goes out forever by the ungoverned forces of its own awakening, we break down in wonderment and despair in view of the sad spectacle. Next to the destinies of eternity stand the destinies of time's limit and life in the pupil. The average youth does not face the problem of his life's pursuit without the most serious revolutions and evolutions of being ; and the finer his metal the keener his struggle. He is thus a chaos, a world-former, a miniature philosopher, demi-devil, and semi-god, and the issues largely are fought out that make for diabolism or for divinity. The more thoughtful are taking into consideration the seriousness of this life-and-death struggle in the education of the youth. The sanctity and the skill embraced in the delicate conception of Socrates that a true educator is a sort of midwife in aiding the birth of ideas, has not fully entered our method and practice. Too long the spirit prevailed in our educational methods that actuated rude boys in teaching each other to swim. The subject was caught by head and limb and heaved into water over his head, to sink or swim, survive or perish, if he expected to exhibit his personal declaration of educational independence. The hazing and rude initiations of beginners and freshmen, that were long-lived in our country and yet too frequent, were at times the hidden spirit of the mas- ter out-cropping wild in his pupils. It was a sort of " let him prove himself a man before showing signs of helping him to become a man." Even the past year a professor in one of our prominent colleges is quoted as favor- ing hazing because it helps to make a man of a student. Such an instructor has not gotten out of the swaddling clothes of his first summer dresses in college. If public education cannot make a youth respectful for law and authority rightfully expressed, it is a signal failure. Of all places in the world, the student at college must be law-abiding. Barba- rous college customs of long-boasted and reputable standing must not blind the goddess of justice. A law-breaker in college must not be Sessions] PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 63 allowed to hide behind the nobility of his pursuit or the prestige of class custom, but must answer for his wrongs as any other outlaw. Yet this should be approached with an all-things-are-yours spirit, upon the part of those in authority, that will keep in successful control the world-wide claims of the bounteously generous periods of youthful presumption and assumption. The fact that inter-class feeling in our institutions of learning is mollified, that the banquet, friendly reception, and good will have taken the place of the pump-spout, the midfield, snipe-like excursions, and mid- night orgies is a most wholesome sign of a larger and better heart in our education. The rivalries of our schools and colleges must be saturated with a magnanimity that will appreciate all this soul-worth. The sensi- tive nature, the right to one's own individuality, feelings, the ideals, the life of each pupil or student, must be sacred and honored by every other. The spirit of the Arab and the barbarian must be abolished from every class, and from rivalries of every character. One does not much blame Shelley, the poet, for his morbid feelings against conventionality, creed, and man himself, after reading the injustice and tyrannies exerted over his delicate nature on the playground by his schoolmates. Yet in school and college today the barbarities of the ape and the tiger of the past come to issue on the part of a number of young stalwarts first awakened to the conscious power of their physical endowments in measurement with those of their fellows. The school atmosphere is not to be one of sickly sentiment, undue fostering, and blind sympathy, but a place of friendly helpfulness, truest fellowship, soul deliverance, and of indirection finding direction out. HIGHER EDUCATION IN AMERICA Lower forms of education cannot be eminently successful without clear outlets above. You cannot place a planet alongside of the world without thinking and knowing of the entire system in which it is to serve its part. The most crying need of the times is for the higher education of our teachers and people. Many reputable writers claim that a republican form of government cannot produce great thinkers and the highest form of education. This I do not believe. Yet, as a nation, we can scarcely claim the credit of one great university in the ranks of world-wide light. A very creditable authority too truthfully says that, for what there is best in thought, America, in soberness, is still ''a province of England." This humiliates our pride, but should stimulate our holiest ambition. Our educational system has succeeded well in reaching the people as a com- mon family of man. Our aim to educate all people alike has rightfully attracted the attention of the world. " A noble aim Faithfully kept is a noble deed." Our educational system is in touch with the masses yet. "The popu- lar breath, even when winnowed by the winds of centuries, is hardly 64. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General pure." Our poets and painters have scored their successes from the ground- work of our boundless landscapes, ocean-wide fields, and seas of nature. '* Earth's crammed with Heaven, Every common bush afire with God, But only he who sees takes off his shoes." And the trouble is many of our people still stand in their shoes amid these wondrous revelations. Grecian culture, the best in the world, has the scent of the outdoors upon it. We have the conditions of a Hellen- istic culture, but not yet the attainments. A philosopher has said, " There are ten thousand chances to one that genius, talent, and virtue shall issue from a farmhouse rather than from a palace." We have the genius of the farmhouse prolific, but not the leisure and the ideals to make it live to the strictest and noblest uses. Descartes, an apostle of literary humility, says, ** Those who wish to know how to speak of everything and to acquire reputation for learning will succeed most easily if they content themselves with a semblance of truth which may readily be found." Too sadly, many of our educational folk "know how to speak of everything," but few of them know how to speak everything of anything. We have academic universities, business universities, normal universities, college universities, but scarcely a university. This should not detract from the merit of many higher institutions of learning in our land that are doing the best they can with~ the material at hand. Higher education is all- sidedness. A trenchant writer has said, " The American people seem still to be somewhat in the position of our new millionaires. Their fortune is above them; it overshadows and oppresses them; they live in fine houses and have common things, they have costly libraries and cheap culture, and their rich clothing poorly hides their coarse breeding." We can allow such words only from a fellow countryman and a patriotic American. They are the truth for the ears of our inner household circles. Some of our millionaires as patrons of learning are doing nobly in estab- lishing great libraries, universities of learning, conservatories of music, and museums of art. Emerson says, " It is a rule that holds in economy as. well as in hydraulics that you must have a source higher than your tap; the mills, the shops, the theaters, and the caucuses, the college, and the church have all found out this secret." But these higher sources on tap must be kept scrupulously wholesome. You may remember several years ago how a frightful epidemic raged in one of the cities of the Alleghanies because in the water supply of the mountain heights fever germs had gained harborage. Mountain heights alone are not sufficient in advanced education. Out of the short ranges of today grow the dangers of the school-desk. Educational leaders must live back into the ages and then secure new births and give " foreign shape," as bespoken by Schiller for artists incarnated of the centuries and home-made to these youth and this present-day civilization. Higher education is myriad-horizoned. Like ^^^K Sessior ^P Shak Sessions! PRESIDENTIAL REPORT 65 Shakespeare's plays its thousand-mindedness makes the college and the university graduate, who is a college and a university graduate, composed amid many conflicting _planes and visions, theories and doctrines, prob- lems and solutions, conflictions and triumphs, middays and midnights, a nursling from "the milk of a better time." Metternich said: "Revo- lutions begin in the best heads and run steadily down to the populace." The higher education of the country leavens our civilization with the learning of the best heads, enlightening like a meridian sun hovel and mansion alike. In learning there is a solid gold cham of enlinked highers — higher mathematics, higher English, higher history, higher literature, higher physiology, higher astronomy, higher science, higher art, higher philosophy, and now we must add higher business education, higher household economics, higher agriculture, higher mechanic arts, higher government, all culminating in the higher life. The most encouraging thing about the system of our higher education is the " Effort and expectation and desire, And something ever more about to be," SO markedly prevalent in the hearts of our scholars and youth. And, tho of Wordsworth's glorious creatures in higher education only one is to be found in ten thousand, yet our institutions, our free government, and liberal education of the people predict an affirmative answer to the question of higher education in America. " What one is, Why may not millions^be?" THE MOST RECENT IMPETUS OF HIGHER EDUCATION The past year chronicles two centuryfull marvels in effort for higher education: the Carnegie Institution at Washington and the Rhodes' bestowal of American scholarships for Oxford. The Carnegie plan of research is as universal as the aspiration of man for knowledge. Its scope is more extensive than that of a university. The Carnegie bene- faction bestirs and fosters the originalities of a student, an inventor, or an institution aiming at the supreme merit of man and the universal welfare of mankind. The Rhodes benefaction tends to brotherhood and cosmopolitanism in education. , Its outcome should be to foster learning for learning's sake and the man's sake, apart from provincialism and sectionalism. These bestowments for higher education in the world hasten the embodiment of universal life, subordinating station, geography, and nation. In the scholarship of the new ages they should prefigure " The season by gifted ones foretold, When man shall live by reason and not alone by gold, When man to man united — " not as an American, nor as an Englishman, nor as a Frenchman, nor as a German, but as a cosmopolitan whose supreme citizenship is of the universe. 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General SOME PRESSING PROBLEMS DR. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY [STENOGRAPHICALLY REPORTED] Mr. President, My Fellow- Teachers, Ladies and Gentlemen : No one who meets year by year with the membership of this vast national Association, and no one who rises to face an audience like this, can permit himself to doubt for an ipstant the vitality and public impor- tance of our present-day educational problems. As a great people, we seem to the world to be more concerned with matters of government, of finance, of commerce, and of trade j but every true American citizen knows that deep down in the heart and conscience of the people lies serious concern for questions of public education. We have convinced ourselNjes, and it may prove to be our lot to convince the world, that education lies at the basis of democratic institutions, of material pros- perity, and of the public weal. We, who are born, as it were with the golden spoon of a rich and ripened civilization in our mouths, hardly realize how new this point of view is, or how recently it has obtained recognition among the peoples of the earth. It is, as the studious teacher knows, the offspring of the thought of the century which has but just closed. So rapidly has that thought progressed, so manifold have been its conquests, that we accept as axioms propositions of which our grandfathers had hardly ever heard. They might have read of them in the writings of the philosopher or the publicist, but it was beyond the dream of their wildest imagination that these great truths and principles should within any reasonable time con- quer the intelligence and the conscience of a great nation of freemen. I hold that we have not come together here merely to discuss and consider questions of technical and professional concern. Some -of the questions which we consider, and some of the papers and addresses to which we listen, relate themselves more directly, it is true, to general public interest than do others, but there is no question, whatever the topic, presented to the members of this Association assembled in their great annual meeting, which is not in a sense a question that touches the public welfare, because it bears upon the life-history of some one individual child. It goes without saying that if we were dealing with a series of prob- lems which had been solved, if we were dealing with a series of events which had been halted, and with a scientific life which had been lived, our task here and elsewhere would be little more than one of anatomical dissection. We might pick apart the limbs of the dead body to allay and satisfy our curiosity, but the public at large would care little for what we said and did. It is just because the reverse is true, and because we Sessions] SOME PRESSING PROBLEMS 67 are dealing with living truths, developing before us and thrusting living problems upon us while we speak — it is because of this that these dis- cussions of ours are of such vital and far-reaching public importance. It is because I believe so absolutely in the practical importance of these problems, and because I am so entirely convinced of the general public interest in their right solution, that I shall undertake this evening in a few brief moments to discuss with you two matters which seem to me at this time to deserve most careful attention from us and from our fellow-citizens. I do not undertake to say that I have chosen for dis- cussion the two most important and the two most significant problems, because as to that we might honestly differ; but I do hold that the two matters which I propose briefly to discuss are problems pressing for solu- tion at your hands and mine, and important in the highest degree. I wish to speak, first, of the problem presented by what I conceive to be the waste in our present educational system. My observation and reflection have convinced me that as matters now are we take too long to do too little. I wish to expand that thesis for a few moments in order to make clear just what I mean. You do not need to be reminded that among the nations of the world we have the reputation of being a wasteful people. Nature has dealt kindly with us, fortune and Providence have smiled upon us, and our colossal growth and great material expansion have produced an economic waste which, if translated into concrete figures, would reach amazing pro- portions. I hold that this same element of waste has crept into our educational system, and that it has tended to increase during the last gene- ration, and that it has now reached the point where it is our duty to consider seriously whether we may not check and overcome it. I judge that there is waste in our educational system because of two series of facts that are open to the observation of anyone. The first is the fact that the boy who goes thru our educational system from top to bottom has grown to mature manhood and has used up much more than one-third of his probable life before he is ready to enter upon a practical career. Add to the years of the kindergarten the eight and sometimes nine years of the elementary school, the four years of the secondary school, the four years of the college, and the three and now four years in the professional schools of law, medicine, engineering, and the rest, together with the necessary years of almost unpaid apprenticeship, and the boy is quite unprepared to face the world as an independent, self- supporting man until he is nearly thirty years of age. Those of us who have to deal with the higher education are vitally impressed with that aspect of the problem, but there is another. I take into consideration also the fact that the average total education of an American citizen is five years of two hundred days each, or only one thousand days. There 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General is Still another germane fact, namely, that the average annual attend- ance of the pupils actually enrolled in the schools is but ninety- nine days, and I ask whether we dare waste even one of those precious days in the life of the pupil, the sum total of whose formal education will be completed when that brief period of one thousand days comes to an end. This waste in our elementary, secondary, and higher education is a matter which, perhaps, I need not discuss in detail, because I think it is very generally admitted. I am concerned with trying to point out, if you please, what seems to me to be one chief cause of this waste, and then to point out what seems to me to be at least a partial remedy. We cannot afford to come to an agreement that there is a proved cause for this waste in our .education without making conscientious and intelligent effort to remove it. If one student is unsuccessful in assign- ing the cause and prescribing a remedy, then let other students take the problem up and face it in a scientific spirit, until by our united efforts we have succeeded in solving it. It seems to me patent that waste occurs chiefly at two points in our educational work. I am distinctly of the opinion that the four lower elementary grades, the primary grades as they are called, and the four years of secondary work in the United States are, on the whole, thoroly well and economically occupied. I am convinced that the waste is serious in the four upper elementary, the so-called grammar, grades, and in the college ; and I believe, and believe firmly, that we must shorten the time given to the upper elementary grades and shorten the time given to the college, because we are now taking longer than we need to do the modicum of work allotted by common consent to the students in these two stages of our education. Why should there be waste in the upper elementary grades and not in the lower ? And before answering this question I want to pause long enough to say that every year trained European observers from France, Italy, Russia, Germany, England, and other countries come over to study our educational system, and every trained European observer who has visited our shores during the past five years has asked why it is that our upper elementary grades are so much below our lower elementary grades in educational efficiency. In other words, I am not resting upon my own judgment or on the results of my own personal observations and the observations of those with whom I have conferred. I am resting also upon the judgment of trained observers from other lands who have looked upon our work dispassionately from without. My answer to the question is that this undoubted waste is due to two easily ascertained causes. First, lack of sufficient scholarship on the part of the teacher ; and, second, the growing tendency to exaggerate the importance of method in teaching. Sessions] SOME PRESSING PROBLEMS 69 Lack of scholarship is always wasteful in teaching, for the reason that it takes a long time to teach what you do not know. After a child has been in school for four or five years he is brought by the course of study to the point where the subjects begin to divide. They begin to take on separateness. The pupil comes in contact with the higher reaches of knowledge, and no person short of a genius can command the scholarship to teach wisely and economically the whole series of subjects which are represented in the upper elementary, or grammar, grades. To prepare teachers adequately for the work now required of them in those grades is an absolute impossibility. We need, first of all, so to rearrange our work in those grades, and so to readjust the teaching of the subjects there, that we can command better scholarship. We cannot do this until we divide the subjects among several teachers. Second, I hold that the tendency of the last twenty-five years to exag- gerate the importance of method in teaching has resulted in holding back students who are eager and ready to go forward with the subject-matter. Let me illustrate what I mean. 'I'wo generations ago it became patent to the people of this country that mere scholarship was not a sufficient preparation for teaching, and schools came into existence whose object was to prepare teachers by a study of method. That was a desir- able, indeed a necessary, reform if the schools were to increase in effi- ciency beyond the point they had then reached. But I am clear that that movement has now gone too far, and that teachers of method have now become enamored of method for method's sake. They have for- gotten that method is a means and not an end, and their fine-spun analysis and long-continued preparation of a very simple lesson is like placing a great, huge vestibule before a very small and insignificant house. It makes education wasteful in the highest degree. Not so many weeks ago I was visiting a grammar-school class in arithmetic, and I saw forty pupils, bright and intelligent, devote a period of forty minutes to one example, most of the time being devoted to putting it on the board in a precise and specific fashion. A great deal of that sort of exaggeration is going on in schools on every side. We must go back to first principles and remember that the fundamental matters in the training of the teacher are two : scholarship and a firm grasp of educational principles. Add to these the true teaching instinct and spirit, and this scholarship will develop a sound method from the funda- mental educational principles as a matter of course. To attempt to substitute schoolroom method as a special subject of study for a knowledge of the fundamental principles on which method rests, and out of which it proceeds, is absurd ; to attempt to substitute it for scholarship, which is the basis of the whole relation between teacher and student, is yet more absurd. 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General It seem clear to me that in the upper grades of elementary school- work we must come back to a new conception of the relation of the teacher to that work, and that we must give opportunity for, and insist upon, greater scholarship and cease laying emphasis upon method for method's sake. Many of you have read the elaborate instructions given by Quintilian for the building up of an oration. I have no doubt the directions of Quintilian were practical and useful, as oratory was practiced in ancient Rome, but I think one might safely say, woe to the ordinary American orator who should endeavor to detain his audience while he slowly built up his oration according to the strict letter of Quintilian's rules. Just so there is too much machinery, too much artificiality, too much scaffolding in our schoolroom method, all of which tends to hide the main structure, the chief purpose of the educational process. I have sometimes thought that those who are so fond of exaggerating method are very much in the position the Good Samaritan would have been in if, upon finding the poor traveler upon the roadside on the way from Jerusalem to Jericho, he had taken a good look at him and had then gone off and written a monograph on the relief of the suffering. What the traveler wanted was relief, not to be made an item of scientific study. Exactly the same thing is true of the growing child. He wants a place found for his training, his instruction, his development, and not to be made a mere experiment to serve the purposes of some study carried on for quite a different end. My contention is that we must give up all this exaggeration of method, and come back to the ideal teacher's training, namely, that system of training which puts a new emphasis on scholarship, new emphasis on educational principles, new emphasis on the teaching spirit, and which subordinates method to all three of these. This seems to be a matter which has a moral as well as an economic aspect. I hold, my fellow-teachers, that we have no moral right to practice upon a child. And I hold that we have no right to spend time and money intrusted to us by the community for the purpose of education for anything whatever but the most direct, the most useful, and the most efficient teaching. If we can remove these sources of waste in the elementary school the very first result will be to keep the children, certainly in cities, longer in school. I have made sufficient inquiry from principals and parents to become convinced that a very considerable proportion of those boys and girls who leave school before the completion of the course leave it because they feel they are not getting value for their time. I know that there are other reasons, which are repeatedly advanced, and there is force in every one of them; but I say that some proportion, I am not prepared to say what, of the great army of children who never reach the high school at all are deprived of that advantage because they or their parents feel dissatisfied Sessions] SOME PRESSING PROBLEMS 7 1 with the result of the time and effort given to the elementary-school course. I am convinced that we ought to be able to accomplish in six years, at most in seven, what we are now doing, as a rule, in eight. I commend to those of you who are interested in following up the details of this matter the report of the superintendent of schools of the city of Cambridge, Mass., where it is shown, after carrying the statistics over a period of seven years, that those students who complete the elementary-school course in the shortest time complete the high- school course with the greatest credit; those who complete the elementary-school course in the intermediate time complete the high-school course with somewhat less credit; and those who complete the elementary-school course in the normal time complete the high school with the lowest degree of credit. This is an actual experiment, worked out in a community of about one hundred thousand souls, and it throws light on just the point which I am making. I am not going to detain you with a discussion of this problem, so far as it concerns the college, farther than to say that we are faced there by practically the same conditions. The trouble in the colleges is not, as has sometimes been thought, too much scholarship; it is lack of appro- priate scholarship and lack of teaching spirit that waste the time there. I am sure that time can be saved in the college course, and that time must and will be saved in the very near future. When this happens, and when the work of the upper elementary grades is properly adjusted, we shall have accomplished two important things: First, we shall have enriched the life and opportunity of the hundreds of thousands of children who must get all of their education from the elementary-school course; and we shall have decreased, perhaps by lo per cent., the length of time allotted to the task of getting ready for the work of professional life or for the highly specialized callings which depend upon a college education as preliminary training. This, then, is my view of waste in education as I see it, and these are the rough and brief suggestions which I make for its removal. Let me now pass to another matter not at all related to that of which I have spoken, one about which I know there is great difference of opinion. It is partly for that reason that I propose to speak of it with entire frankness. I want to call attention to a phenomenon which is so universal that we do not notice it — paradoxical tho that sounds — but which, if it is per- mitted to continue, will one day produce most startling results in our life and civilization. I refer to the facts that owing to a series of causes, operating over a considerable period of years, knowledge of the English Bible is passing out of the life of the rising generation, and that with this knowledge of the Bible there is fast disappearing any acquaintance with the religious element which has shaped our civilization from the beginning. 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fGeneral Not long ago my friend, President Thwing of Western Reserve Uni- versity, printed in the Century Magazine the results of an ingenious inquiry on this subject, which he carried on among college students. His purpose was not to find out what they knew about theology or what they believed about religion. His purpose was to find out what they knew about the greatest work of English literature. Those of you who have read that paper will remember the astounding results that his inquiry revealed. In what I am going to say about the English Bible I want to make myself clearly understood. I want to make this fundamental distinction clear: I am not now talking about instruction in religion, important as many conceive that to be. I am not talking now about instruction in theology, important as some feel that to be. I am merely laying down this thesis: the neglect of the English Bible incapacitates the rising gen- eration to read and appreciate the masterpieces of English literature, from Chaucer to Browning, and it strikes out of their consciousness one ele- ment, and for centuries the controlling element, in the production of your civilization and mine. 1 hold this to be true, even if there were not one person living in the United States who subscribed to a single article of any Christian creed. I am speaking now about literature and life, not about religion or theology. I hold in my hand an edition of Milton's Paradise Lost, edited and annotated by a member of this Association. I want to read in this pres- ence a few of the opening lines and tell you what happened when I read them in another presence not so long ago : Of Man's first disobedience and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world and all our woe. With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us and regain the blissful seat, Sing heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed. In the beginning how the heav'ns and earth Rose out of Chaos ; or if Sion hill Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed Fast by the oracle of God ; thence Invoke thy aid to my advent'rous song, That with no middle flight intends to soar Above the Aonian mount, while it pursues Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme. I read these lines to a company of college students, students who came from cultivated homes, who had enjoyed the advantages of a liberal training, and in that company of students there was not one who could make sense out of any line but the last, " Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme ; " I submit that the same is probably true of a majority of this audience. Sessions] SOME PRESSING PROBLEMS 73 Teachers all over this land are trying to teach Chaucer and Spenser and Shakespeare, Tennyson and Browning. How are they to understand men who refer to the Bible, that veritable treasure-house of literature, on every page, if they cannot take children to the source from which the supply is drawn ? How are they to discuss and interpret the style of Ruskin, of Carlyle, of Emerson ? How are they to teach the history of the heroes of our own independence, many of whom were religious in every fiber of their being, and whose work will continue to bear the stamp put upon it at the beginning, utterly regardless of what has become of religious faith in the interval ? How is one to teach the truth as his- tory reveals it, unless he teaches the whole truth ? And yet, see what has happened : The quarreling of religious sects, of churches, each claimin'g this book for its own and denying the truth of what other persons find in it, has brought about a state of affairs in which the English Bible, a foun- tain of English literature, has been practically stricken from the reading of a large proportion of the American people. Some years ago I was present in the city of Jerusalem at the extraor- dinary celebration of Easter day in the calendar of the Greek Church. There were gathered in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher representatives of Christian communions from beyond the Ural mountains, from the far regions of Abyssinia, Copts from Africa, together with representatives of the nations of western Europe. When at high noon the supreme moment came, the visitors were treated to this shameful spectacle : Representa- tives, many of them clergy and high officials, of churches calling them- selves Christian, were engaged in physical struggle for place that they might see, and were held in place and kept from assaulting each other by the sneering Mohammedan soldiery. Have you ever thought of the sig- nificance of a sight like that ? Mohammedan soldiers, despised Turks, with cynical sneers on every face, held these devoted Christians from tearing each others' eyes out on the most sacred spot in Jerusalem. It is just this sort of thing that we are reproducing on a small scale in our bitter sectarian controversies over the interpretation of the Bible. I contend that we are not only on the point of impoverishing life and literature by the neglect of the English Bible, but that we have already impoverished life and literature. I am not dealing with a problem that lies in the future, I am speaking of a condition which is at hand. We are impoverishing life and literature by striking out of our life and our read- ing one great monument of our literature, the source from which much of what is best in later centuries is drawn, the inspiration upon which the best English style has been built. My own feeling is that what has come to pass can only be described by one word, shameful ! I regard it as shameful that we have permitted, blindly no doubt, this tremendous sacrifice of literature and life and knowledge because we cannot agree upon questions of religious and 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General theological interpretation. Why must we wait for agreement in matters of exegesis before we study matters of history and literature ? Why should we not go back to a study of the source from which much of our noble English speech has come ? More than that. How do you propose to teach American history without teaching the pupil who sits in front of you the controlling motive that drove the pilgrims to the New England shore ? How are you going to explain that migration unless you teach the cause from which it sprang ? How are you going to teach the history of Europe ? How are you going to teach anything that has happened since the breakup of the Roman empire without teaching that the controlling element in most of it was the sum total of the conceptions and feelings which we sum up under the name of Christianity ? One does not need to be a Christian to live in a Christian civilization. He lives in it whether he will or no. We are face to face with a series of facts which have been in process for nearly two thousand years, and this applies as well to the non-Christian as to the Christian. The non- Christian needs to read this literature, because he wants to understand it. My contention is that we have made it impossible for the pupil to understand history and literature as they really are, because we have eliminated from his reading and study that which has been from a very early period a controlling force in both. We study the religious books of other peoples, and hardly know our own. We do not study our own because we do not agree about the theological interpretation of them. We study the religious books of other peoples because we do not feel a direct personal interest in the theological inter- pretation of them, and the result is that we are today training more pupils to understand the elements that make up the life of ancient Rome than we are training to understand the life of our twentieth-century civilization. I forbear to dwell longer upon this subject. It interests me exceed- ingly, but I have no reason to assume that it is as interesting to others. I want once more to make it perfectly clear that I am not talking about religious teaching in school; that I am not talking about theologi- cal influence in education ; but that I am only protesting against sacri- ficing a knowledge of our civilization to theological differences. I beg that I may be understood distinctly on this point. I know that the supreme court of the state of Wisconsin has held the Bible to be a sectarian book. I know that the state statute-books are full of laws prohibiting the reading of the Bible in the school. My view is that this is wrong. I am not in the least concerned in disputing that it has been done, but I think the time has come for us to regard it as a pressing problem to begin to get it undone. As I said at the outset, I have selected these two subjects to speak of here in your presence, not because you will all agree with me that they Sessions] ENGLISH EDUCATION AND ITS DEBT TO AMERICA 75 are the most important or most pressing, but because I think they are very important and very pressing, and because I know there is a sharp difference of opinion about both of them. I am very much more inter- ested in discussing things about which there is a sharp difference of opinion, and where there is a fair chance for open debate and contro- versy, than in talking over the old truisms upon which all agree. It is in that spirit that I have ventured to discuss these two problems, (i) waste in our educational system, and (2) the situation presented by the lack of knowledge of the English Bible as a work of literature, the source of knowledge of a controlling element in our historic civilization. THE ENGLISH IDEAL OF EDUCATION AND ITS DEBT TO AMERICA MICHAEL ERNEST SADLER, LL.D,, DIRECTOR OF INQUIRIES AND REPORTS, EDUCATION OFFICE, LONDON, ENGLAND Standing before this great assembly, an English student of education would wish his first words to be words of gratitude for the unstinted kindness which is shown to those who come from a distance to gain guidance and encouragement from American educators , and American schools. We in Europe owe much to your educational experience and still more to your educational faith. Our desire to learn from you has never been so strong as it is today. Your British guests at this conven- tion, and those whom you have welcomed with equal cordiality before, have come to learn, and, like good teachers, you have spared no pains to help us. Your kindness is all the more appreciated by us because we realize that you show it to us as being, in a measure, representatives — spokesmen for a great multitude of British educators who cannot them- selves come to America, but who, if they could come, would do so in the spirit of admiration for your achievement and of confident hope for the future of your schools. I wish that I could adequately express to you the deep feeling of friendship and sympathy with which students and teachers and pupils in my own country regard American educational work. Profoundly attached as we are to what is strong and good and true in our own methods of education, we have learned many lessons at your hands, and we are prepared to learn more. We cannot directly imitate you — at least in some things — for every nation is in part controlled by its own past and cannot change its methods of education as if they were merely mechanical devices of photogravure or electric traction. Any ideal of education which is alive (and that of England is very much alive) has its roots deep in history and possesses profound psychological signifi- cance. It is not a thing to be lightly tampered with or recklessly destroyed. But if we cannot directly imitate you, we can and do heartily and affectionately admire those points in which, by reason of opportunity 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General and circumstance and the looser grip of controlling tradition, you have excelled us in the public organization of your schools and univer- sities. You cannot wonder that in our hearts we should be proud to think that the world's belief in the power of education has been deepened by the faith, the undaunted persistence, the liberality, and the business-like ideal- ism of a nation which still has so many ties of kinship and association with the old home. And when, therefore, your President honored me with an invitation to address you tonight, I came to the conclusion, tho with much misgiving as to my power for the task, that I should, perhaps, not do amiss if, during the time which you are so good as to spare to me, I were to attempt to sketch the ideal of English education and to measure its debt to America. The keynote of all the best educational thinking of our time is hope. Never before has the work of national education been so full of profound interest to the teacher, the student, and the statesman, or so full of prom- ise for the future. We are hopeful because so much has already been accomplished, because so many formidable and threatening difficulties have been overcome. Three things especially call for thankfulness. We are thankful for, first, the growing and now almost universal recognition of the fact that all human beings, however humbly born, have the right to the fullest possible measure of that physical, intellectual, and spiritual development which is appropriate to them and for which they are ready to make the necessary personal sacrifice of effort and of time. Secondly, we are thankful for the wonderful results which have followed most con- spicuously in the sphere of applied science, but not less in other fields of human effort, from brave and single-minded devotion to exact truth. Thirdly, we are thankful for the proofs — so plain to those who hav^ eyes to see — that, stupendous as have been the achievements of men thru the mastery over many of the forces of nature which machinery has placed in their hands, the greatest of all facts are still the spiritual facts — love, will, faith, endurance, self-sacrifice. But no standing still is possible. Our very success makes further advance imperative. Applied science is rapidly changing the conditions of industrial life. It is multiplying certain kinds of opportunity, but also fixing the boundaries within which opportunities must be found. Much forethought and wise guidance will be needed to prevent the growth of economic and social conditions which would gravely hamper some healthy forms of individual initiative. Much wise teaching, much noble example, will be needed to prevent some of the rising generations, who grow up under the domination of applied science, from suffering a sort of atrophy of the moral will. Again, in the decay of old restraints, it is becoming pathetically plain that some upholding tradition and authority are needed for the welfare of many human lives. And, lastly. Sessions] ENGLISH EDUCATION AND ITS DEBT TO AMERICA 77 the instinctive longing of so many hearts for certainty and guidance is revealed on all sides of us by signs of spiritual unrest. These things profoundly affect education, because all true education is a mirror of life. The result is that all over the world educators are tak- ing counsel with one another, in order that, in the difficult times which are coming upon us, we may have at our command a wide knowledge of what is being done by teachers in countries far away and of what was done by teachers in times remote from our own. Nothing is less char- acteristic of the educational student of our day than complacency and confidence in his own knowledge. It is, indeed, a difficult problem which confronts us all. How many things have we not to seek to com- bine : The stimulus which makes an alert intelligence ; the discipline which trains to bodily and intellectual self-control ; those deeper influences which fortify against temptation and help us to bear sorrow and loss and pain ; and that highest kind of individuality which purges itself of self-seeking thru service to others — dying to live. Other causes, too, make it natural and easy for us thus to compare our educational experience. Distances are shrinking by reason of swift and cheap means of transit : the post, the telegraph, the press and photography are bringing distant people into closer contact and are giving them a more vivid realization of one another's lives and needs. And a great psychological change is coming over the world thru the spread of educa- tion in its wider sense. People are more impressionable to new ideas, readier to welcome new influences. In all quarters of the world we can see opening doors. Thus it is that we can see gathering before our eyes, as it were, a great procession of the nations, each bringing into the world's common stock its own tradition of excellence, its own' native insight into truth. Each, indeed, brings with it much that it would fain forget, but each brings also much that the others would fain receive. Germany comes with her noble idealism and her patient devotion to scientific truth ; France comes with her insight into the significance of political ideas, with her exquisite lucidity of thought and speech, and with the measured beauty of a still living classical tradition. Scandinavia comes with her refinement of home-life, her skillful training of bodily powers, her care for adult education for laboring men and women, and her wise use of handicraft as a means of intellectual and moral training. America comes with her genius for self-adaptation and for assimilating diverse elements under a common flag ; with her power to seize great opportunities on a great scale ; with her intense belief in the value of individual develop- ment, combined with her not less striking readiness to subordinate, in moments of crisis or danger, individual interests to the claims of col- lective advantage or to ihe needs of public discipline. Russia, the true Russia, comes with her intense love for the plain, common people ; with 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General her passion for self-surrender and self-sacrifice ; and with her pathetic resolve to see things as they are and to paint things as they are, preferring the beauty even of ugliness and of despair to the illusions of an unreal view of life. And then comes, too, the far East, nearer to us all than ever before, and yet how indescribably remote, with her symbolism, her quietism, her fatalism, and the mysterious undertones of her immemorial philosophy. These eastern voices may not yet be heard above the hub- bub of our trains and cars and industrial activities ; but they are waiting to be heard, and their time will surely come when we realize that quietude and withdrawal and contemplation are among the better things of life, and when we grow weary at last of "that unrest which men miscall delight." I have not yet spoken of what Great Britain and Ireland bring to this gathering of experience. Small as those islands are on the map of the world, they have brought, and are bringing still, a very varied gift. Celtic Ireland comes with her genius for romance, with her deep springs of pathos and of poetry, with her charm of style, and with her allegiance to the memories of the past. Scotland comes with her supreme gift of manliness and self-control, with her passion for adventure, her love of the open air, her deepest humor, her iron faith, her philosophical power, and her faithfulness of word and deed. And last I would speak of Eiigland. England, that land of deep, silent feeling, of strange contradictions, and of conflicting ideals, the common home of Wicklif and Sir Thomas More and Drake and Shake- speare and Bacon ; of George Herbert and Nicholas Fonar ; of Richard Baxter and Col. Hutchinson and Oliver Cromwell and George Fox ; of Puritan, Anglican, Quaker, and Catholic; England, which has always been so well and tenderly served by some part of each old regime that she has never at any revolution swept the whole or any one of them away; England which cares so much for the things which lie at the root of true education that she has never yet been able to agree to any one simple plan for the provision of a common education compulsory and uniform for all alike. I believe that in no country in the world — considering its size — has there been a deeper concern for education in its wider sense than in England for the last two generations. The force of educational zeal has been strong enough to have removed the barriers to reasonable social equality, and to have scientifically fertilized our rural districts by a wise and far-seeing diffusion of the human residuum of our great cities. But the force has been unhappily divided in its application, and much of it has been spent in a sort of deadlock of pathetically conflicting ideals. There has, indeed, been great advance : public funds have been spent without stint. The world hardly realizes what strides have been made by primary, secondary, and technical education in England and Wales during Sessions] ENGLISH EDUCATION AND ITS DEBT TO AMERICA 79 the last thirty years. But the same effort and outlay would have produced much more striking, and in some ways more valuable, results, had they been concentrated on the building up of one system of schools instead of on the concurrent development of what are in effect different systems of schools representing different ideals of education. Tonight I cannot enter into the explanation of this contorted, painful growth. It has been the outcome of many ancient causes, not of mere stupidity or extrava- gance. In the sphere of modern educational administration we in England have had to pay a heavy price for the intensity of our inherited convictions, and for that wonderful variety of spiritual and racial elements in our body politic which has been the secret of the fr-eshness, the elas- ticity, and the power of our national life. But thru all this mist of misunderstanding and conflict, the student feels that he can trace the lines of agreement among most thinking and responsible Englishmen as to what should be the aims of English national education. This ideal, never yet realized on a commanding scale, but never failing to realize itself in patches here and there, can be stated in a very few words, tho it is the most difficult ideal in the world effectively to put into operation. Education, as an Englishman conceives it, is not an affair of schools or colleges alone, but of a variety of influences which subtly play upon our will and color our thinking and have their outcome in an atti- tude of mind, in a tendency to certain type of judgment, in a sympathy toward certain forms of life and institutions, and in a deep love for old familiar ways and faces. How many things go to form these currents of influence, and how comparatively few of them are affairs of the school- room or limited to the brief hours of our school life ! Love of father and mother, of sister and brother, of the old home, the public opinion of our playmates and of our companions in study or in work, the itera- tion of " Familiar matters of today, Some natural sorrow, loss or pain That has been, and may be again." Words which fall on our hearts in worship, thoughts which cross our minds in solitude, the suggestion of some familiar friend, or ** Tasks in hours of insight willed, To be in hours of gloom fulfilled." And far more ancient and mysterious things than these — strange outcrops of instinct, dim hints from the depth of our nature, the unspoken assump- tions of national life, loyalties which lie too deep for words, but which are learned from example — these, and not direct instruction only, are among the unnumbered influences which in their sum and complex aggregate make up what we mean by education. Some of these Influences the school should focus ; some it should generate ; for others it should 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General prepare us. But education is a larger matter than pedagogy ; it is really the training of life. And therefore such part of education as is formal instruction should prepare for life. It is easy to say that, but very hard to say how it is to be done. Yet far harder still is it to say what shall be the kind of life for which we are to prepare. A national system of education involves, implic- itly or explicitly, a definite theory as to the right ordering of national life, alike in its economic and spiritual aspects. The building up of a stable form of education for life involves either a stable condition of society and an equilibrium of social forces, or extraordinary foreknowledge of the future and afar-seeing adjustment of means to definitely intended ends. But all over the modern world the current of social, economic, and intellectual change is running like a mill-race, and to whom is it yet given to foresee the future and to predict how far hence this fierce and tossing torrent of social change shall sink into calm rest in some pool, as when " The swan on still Saint Mary's lake Floats double, swan and shadow." Next, we believe that education must train character as well as sharpen the intelligence. By character we mean, in part, the power of saying No — the trained power of knowing when, and why, and how, to say No. The greatest things which have been written about education by English- men have been written not in treatises on pedagogy but in poetry about life. The ideal outcome of education is The reason firm, the temperate will, Endurance, foresight, strength, and skill. It is not unfitting to quote these words of Wordsworth in this connec- tion, because Wordsworth is our English Pestalozzi. As it is the root belief of Englishmen that education should prepare for life, and as there are many kinds of life, it follows that there will be many types of school training. Our conception is that the national system of education in England should be an intentionally variegated system : not a pyramid of state schools built out of uniform materials ("standardized," as the saying is), but, as it were, a free national federation of schools of very differ- ent kinds, teaching different things from different standpoints, but all jointly recognized as forming part of the national provision of schools ; some mainly literary, some chiefly practical, some predominantly classical, some predominantly modern, but all humane, all enjoying great freedom in their choice of studies and methods of teaching, but all in return recognizing as a common obligation the duty of high efficiency and of devotion to the national cause ; and all grouped in a clearly intelligible manner, so that there should be no doubt as to the educational service rendered by each of them. Such a system would be costly : but in Sessions] ENGLISH EDUCATION AND ITS DEBT TO AMERICA 8 1 education is it not cheap and pretentious inefficiency which is really dear ? In the Middle Ages the genius of England lay in artistic'handicrafts, in its local piety, and in the planning of communal recreation. We want to revive all this without its excess and its superstition, but with all the resources of modern science, and as a factor in a healthy, keen, aspiring national life. We owe to John Ruskin and to William Morris the warn- ing that too much of our modern life is wastefully ugly, and that a strenu- ous England may be a merry England, too. We are opposed to anything like uniformity in education, because we believe that very much depends on the free personality of the teacher and on the characteristic atmosphere of individual schools. What would English secondary education have been without William of Wykeham and Winchester; Dean Colet and St. Paul's ; Dr. Arnold and Rugby ; Mr. Thring and his work at Uppingham. Schools are not dead counters in a game : they are centers of living influence. What John Henry Newman said of Oxford is true of every great school which makes men and which men love. Our view is that the true ideal of national education is not an inter- locking system of schools, machine made to pattern, but a free and willing union of self-governing institutions, diverse in their methods and tradition. And this view is confirmed by the fact that the very process of education itself is an ever-varying combination of opposites. It teaches us to inquire and to question, but also to obey and to believe. It fails unless it strengthens character as well as sharpens intelligence. It has regard to the training of the body and the training of the mind ; to personal responsibility and freedom, but also to the claim of the community on each of the individual members of which the community is composed. It calls into its service each and all of the elements of culture : science and letters, manual training and artistic expression, physical exercise and moral discipline, according to its judgment of the needs of place and time. It is an artistic and spiritual work ; a communication of life, full of diverse and apparently conflicting influences, and yet itself a whole. In the noblest kinds of education there is something that reminds us of what was said of the countenance of Fenelon : "It combined every- thing, and yet the greatest contradictions produced no want of harmony." Such is, as I conceive it, our English ideal of education. It has realized itself far oftener than we know, because the best things in England are "obscurely great." But for the last 150 years it has been struggling in vain to realize itself on a large national scale. The struggle has been fruitless, because during that period we have been passing thru a pro- longed crisis of industrial and spiritual change, and the English ideal of national education really postulates a state of economic and intellectual stability. Moreover, during the same period of years — and for reasons nearly connected with our inner conflicts of national ideals — we have 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General been building up a vast empire in the East, the claims of which profoundly affect the work of our higher schools, and render what was already a complex task more complex still. I would that it were possible to strengthen the ties of personal inter- course between American and English educators. We have very much to learn from you ; perhaps in our multiform variety of schools you would find material of interesting study. It is much to be desired, from an Englishman's point of view, that more of our ablest young men and women should come to your universities for courses of post-graduate study, and I hope that ere long our great English universities will do more to organize their provisions of post-graduate work, especially in social economics, Indian and colonial administration, and in the history of British education. I cannot help feeling, too, that more might be done to facilitate, as has been already suggested, the interchange of teachers between American and English schools. Nothing gives so much insight into the real state of national education as an opportunity of teaching in a good school. Many of our best teachers would derive very great benefit from temporary service in an American school, and I am certain that the presence of clever American teachers in many of our English schools would have a most stimulating influence. It is, perhaps, worth consideration whether a small international committee could not be formed to register and advertise vacancies, to examine and report on the credentials of candi- dates and the status of the schools, to provide English and American candidates with the detailed guidance which they would require, and to facilitate their seeing, during their sojourn, a representative variety of typical schools. We owe already a great debt to American influence in our English education. Your influence has been one of the most potent forces in destroying the baser forms of social prejudice in regard to education and to the opening of careers in life. The true feudalism expresses itself in terms of social duty and service. The baser form of feudalism expresses itself in terms of selfish social privilege. Secondly, we are under heavy obligations to you for the influence of many of your great writers and students of education. New England has had a profound influence on English thinking, and of all the New England writers Emerson has meant the most to us. We students of education are constantly drawing suggestion and inspiration from the work of a multitude of American educators, but perhaps I may be allowed to say that we are especially indebted to the writings of Dr. Harris, of President Butler, of Dr. G. Stanley Hall, of President Eliot, of Dr. John Dewey ; to the work of Teachers College and of the Chicago University School of Education, and to the periodical and other publica- tions of your educational press. Sessions] DEVOTION TO TRUTH: CHIEF VIRTUE OF TEACHER 83 Thirdly, we are learning from you the necessity of re-modeling much of our education in the light of modern needs and of the demands of applied science. We shall learn from you to do more in the way of leaving out the non-essentials. You are stirring us up. It is one of our characteris- tics (good or bad, according to circumstances) to "stay put." It is no accident that we have thus learnt from you. In the deeper matters of life, kinship means a great deal. We seem to be drawing closer together. We differ in the form of our institutions, tho we both of us have a balance of freedom and authority in our national life. We differ in the nature of our political tasks, tho we are both coming to bear a part in the white man's burden. But we share three things — language, practical idealism, and the belief that the ideal of national life is to be reached, not in mechanical uniformity of state regulation, but in unity thru diversity. These are things which it lies very near the central task of the schools to transmit from one generation to another. Is it too much to hope that, in years to come, not the United States and Great Britain alone, but all the great nations of the world will find themselves drawn more and more, thru union in common tasks and thru the wise influence of just teachers, into the spirit of truth, unity, and concord? That is our prayer ; that is our brightest hope. DEVOTION TO TRUTH: THE CHIEF VIRTUE OF THE TEACHER. MOST REV. JOHN IRELAND, ARCHBISHOP OF ST. PAUL, ST. PAUL, MINN. Were I to choose a device to adorn the class-room and inspire teacher and pupil, whether in lowliest rural school house or in stateliest univer- sity pile, it should be this: " Devotion to Truth, for Truth's own sake." Devotion to truth is the prime condition of intellectual life and progress ; it must be the dominating virtue in the work of the pupil whose mind is bidden to unfold beneath the sweet and penetrating light from Heaven's own skies, and yet more so in the work of the teacher whose task it is to turn this light in its full power and radiance toward the mind of a willing, but inexperienced, dependent. I should say, too, devotion to truth for truth's own sake, with heart undivided, with intellect unbiased. Truth is a jealous and imperious queen ; it has the right to be such, so rapturous its beauty, so sublime its majesty. Truth scorns the wooer whose proffer of homage is not plenary, and hides itself indignantly from his gaze. What is truth? The brief, calm definition, given at first questioning by philosophy, is: Truth is that which is ; truth is reality — reality in actual existence, reality in causes, reality in effects — the thing itself, whatever that thing be, completely and exactly as it is. 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General What is, is true ; and what is, is good and beautiful. The three terms are substantially convertible: truth, goodness, and beauty. The simplest definition given of truth secures to it our reverence and love, and tells the baseness, the sacrilege of that illusory phantasm which fain would put itself in the place of reality, which fain would distort or destroy reality, which has for name error or falsehood. This is not all. Upon further questioning, philosophy soars into its highest altitudes, and there, speaking to us, it exclaims : Truth is divine ; it is either God himself or the image and the work of God. Challenged we are to award to truth the devotion, I would say the worship, which is due to the eternal First Cause, the Infinite, the Omnipotent, the Omnis- cient ; and rightfully are we so challenged. Truth is that which is ; truth is reality. But the plentitude of reality, and consequently of truth, is God's eternal, infinite essence. We recall the biblical words, God's own definition of Himself : " I am who am." What, then, is truth in its eminent entity but God, the Eternal, the Infinite? God, being the First Cause, the Creator of all else that is, all else is the externalization of ideas eternally resplendent in his uncreated essence, and the effects, whether immediate or mediate of his omnipotence ; and so, whatever else there is, it is and it is true so far, and so far only, as it mirrors the divine essence, and is that which God willed it to be. And thus truth is ever divine ; in its eminent entity it is God himself ; in tiniest form, it is, in the measure of its special entity, the image of God's eternal essence, and the fruit of his wisdom and power, being in itself truth only inasmuch as, when seen and judged by his supreme intellect, it is in conformity with its prototype within his essence and with the coun- sel of his will in its actualization. Every being, from the smallest grain of sand on the seashore to the mightiest sun in the firmament, from the most diminutive insect to sov- ereign man, from all that is created to the Creator, is truth ; every act going out from infinite God or finite creature, every fact or incident marking the flight of time since time began, is truth ; and wherever truth is, the divine is there; and it is very religion to approach it with respect, and, in opening to it our mind, to bid it enter thither, in its native per- fection, unaltered and undimmed. In God and in man there is mind, the ability to know truth. God, infinite mind, knows all truth ; man, finite mind, knows truth partially ; so far as man knows truth, so far is he nigh unto the infinite, partaking of the life, the beauty, and the power of the infinite. As the bodily eye is made to see bodily things, so the mind is made to see truth. The mind lives of truth : it is dead when no truth comes to it ; it is dying when false appearances, instead of realities, are set before it. With the avoidance of error it is freed from disease ; with the increase of truth it grows in vigor and in power. Sessions] DEVOTION TO TRUTH: CHIEF VIRTUE OF TEACHER S5 Truth is light, and light is the adornment, the beauty, of the mind. Every being, every fact that is truth is a ray shed upon the mind ; and, as ray follows ray, as the slender streak first cleaving the darkness widens into sun-kissed horizons, the mind glows and is afire ; it mirrors more and more the intellect of the infinite ; it is ravishing of comeliness and splendor. Truth begets strength in the mind. Every reality, which is seen and laid hold of by the mind, transmits to the mind its own force; and as the mind travels from reality to reality, absorbing force after force, it ascends in stature and mightiness, dominating the universe around it, making its owner, man, what God intended man to be, the sovereign of creation. The strength of the mind is strength to the whole man. All, indeed, in man is dependent upon the mind. The several energies in him, thru which he may work and conquer, are set in motion by his will. But the will of itself is blind; it sees not whither it should tend; it needs the light which comes from mind; and the more brilliant this light, the more far-reaching its diffusion, the more capable is the will to dis- cover the pathways over which man's other energies may travel, the more ambitious is the will to issue words of command, and the more ready are the other energies to obey it. The knowledge of truth is power; it is the condition of all movement, of all progress in the individual and in society. And hence it is that all communities that live and seek to go forward clamor for greater truth, and labor that knowledge of truth be co-extensive with their member- ship, and, at least here and there, rise upward into towering peaks whose summits may bask in the luster of truth's highest and most radiant suns. The noblest and most sublime thing in creation is the human mind. It is the image of the highest attribute in God, the divine intelligence. Thru mind man is conscious of himself; he knows himself; he knows things outside of himself : ranging far and wide thru the universe, he grasps and appropriates to himself the truths that are within it; he rises far beyond the universe into the regions of ideas and principles ; rising still higher he reposes upon the very bosom of the Infinite — the First Cause and the Final term, the Alpha and the Omega, from which all truths come and to which all truths lead, and there he enriches himself with the life, the knowledge, the grace, the power, which are God's. "O Lord our Lord," exclaims the Psalmist, "how admirable is Thy name in the whole earth ! . . . . What is man that Thou art mindful of him Thou hast crowned him with glory and honor : Thou hast set him over the work of thy hands . . . . O Lord, our Lord, how admirable is Thy name in the whole earth?" It was the mind which is in man that the Psalmist was contemplating while he uttered his hymn of praise. Does not the human mind compel our respect? Does it not, by its capability of beauty, of grandeur, of power, demand from us the homage 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General that we open its portals to that, and to that only, which is for it beauty, grandeur, and power — to truth, and to truth only? To draw darkening clouds around it while it craves for purest light, to proffer to it vilest husks while it hungers for the food of God's skies, to put before it error and falsehood, instead of truth, truth whole and entire in its unpolluted vir- ginal radiance, is treason and sacrilege. Be it the device of the class-room : be it the religion of all sanctuaries of learning : be it the inspiration of the teacher as he gives guidance to the pupil, and of the pupil as he questions the teacher : " Devotion to Truth for Truth's own sake. " What in regard to truth is in every man a sacred duty appeals with singular emphasis to the conscience of the teacher. For the teacher is by profession the apostle of truth and the guardian of the human mind. The dignity of the teacher! I say it, when I recall that the subject-matter of his labors is truth, that the purpose of his labors is the introduction of truth into the human mind and, as a consequence, the exaltation of the soul of man into the regions of the divine. The dignity of the teacher! I say it, when I recall that the search of truth is the search of the divine, that the search of truth is an act of religion. The profession of teaching is the priesthood of truth ; where the teacher speaks there is a sanc- tuary— the sanctuary of truth ; and the sense of the Divine should per- meate the atmosphere. It was the great thinker of France, Joubert, who wrote: "Study the sciences in the light of truth, that is, as before God ; for their business is to show the truth, that is to say, God everywhere. Write nothing, say nothing, think nothing that you cannot believe to be true before God." Words sweet and beautiful, those of Joubert! They explain and con- firm the device : "Devotion to Truth, for Truth's own sake." Is there need that I urge faithfulness to truth. Is not truth at all times sought out and revered, as it deserves to be? Do not its native charms suffice to open every pathway to its advance, to remove whatever obstacles might retard its march? We have but to cast a quick glance over the world of letters and speech to be satisfied that to truth its rights are not seldom denied, that not sel- dom, where truth should be supreme, error and falsehood prevail. Truth has enemies. At times it is the inertia of mind and will which recede before the effort that genuine devotion to truth makes necessary; at times it is prejudice ; at times, again, it is passion — pride, anger, self- interest. Frequently truth retires to a distance ; it delights, as it were, to hide from its suitor, and to surrender only to toil and patience. It is not truth ; it is error calling itself truth that they lay hold of who would con- quer at first sight, whom indolence impels to quick retreat. It is proposed to study a foreign country. A few months, a few Sessions] DEVOTION TO TRUTH: CHIEF VIRTUE OF TEACHER 87 weeks are made to suffice, the greater part of the time being spent in hotels, which in no manner are representative of local thought or custom, whose ciceroni are especially trained to say and show what may flatter the national pride and prejudices of guests. Nevertheless, the volume is published, portraying the whole life of a nation, its moral and intellectual conditions, its religion and its politics, its commerce and its industry, concluding with most assured predictions of its approaching rise or fall, and with abstruse philosophical disquisitions on nations and races in general. A book, bearing the name of a litterateur of fame, written to describe America and its people, is today widely read in Europe. The writer spent in America eight months — five of them in a charming winter resort in the heart of Georgia, and one amid the bustle and fashion of Newport :. what could he know of America as it is and as we expect it to be ? Many are the books read in America, written to describe countries foreign to us, whose authors spent far less time in those countries than Paul Courget did in America, and without the cosmopolitan information and the keen- ness of intellectual insight which characterize Paul Bourget. Monsieur Bourget's candor of spirit led him not long ago to entitle a book, which he had written as an account of a very rapid journey thru Italy, Sensations from Italy. History, the material from which is woven so largely the texture of our thoughts and of our philosophy of life, is very often gathered from the mere surface of things. What was said by writers of yesterday is repeated by writers of today, as what had been said at an earlier date was repeated by writers of yesterday. And readers, unfortunately, are inclined to give their faith to the volume which first falls into theirhands. Fre- quently the sources of our historical store are second-hand statements, and, in this manner, egregious historic falsehoods can be pointed out that pass down thru many generations, doing vast injustice, not only to individual names, but to whole nations and whole races. What should be done for history is to go deeply into first sources, study each question in the light of the epoch, more or less remote, to which it originally belongs, by impartial investigation of contemporary documents of what- ever nature these be ; or, if this is impossible for certain ones among us, to seek out, as far as we may, writers who have gone to first sources and who are noted for their fairmindedness ; and, in controverted matters, to give an attentive hearing to witnesses on both sides in the dispute. In late years there is visible a wondrous improvement in the study of history, for which the worshipers at the shrine of truth cannot but be most grateful. No one is today reputed a worthy historian who has not gone, in a most patient and laborious manner, to first sources. Luster of name, literary beauty of style win no confidence, if proofs are not given of sound erudition and absolute honesty of purpose. Facts are in demand, 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera and facts must be offered, or the volume is ruthlessly set aside. National governments honor themselves by lending aid in this search for facts. Their secret archives are opened to investigation, and their treasures, hid- den for ages on dusty shelves, are printed for public use, usually at the expense of governments themselves. In this instance I take pride in recalling the act of Leo XIII. twenty years ago, in giving to alUnquirers free and facile access to the archives of the Vatican palace, to which there, repaired in ages gone by, more than to any other center of action, the records of the plannings and doings of Christendom. But why should not governments, whether of spiritual or of temporal polities, be ever ready to enlighten the world on the happenings of the past? Govern- ments, or powers whatever, afraid of truth, are doomed : for truth crushed and silenced today will rise and speak tomorrow, so surely as the God of truth reigns. "Truth is mighty, and it will prevail." Then, if we are earnest seekers of truth, caution must be taken, lest our judgment be warped by prejudices — opinions previously formed on grounds that are irrational. Says Sir William Hamilton, making the words of another writer his own : There is no one who has not grown up under a load of beliefs — beliefs which he owes to the accidents of country and family, to the books he has read, to the society he has frequented, to the education he has received, and, in general, to the circumstances which have occurred in the formation of his intellectual and moral habits. These beliefs may be true, or they may be false, or, what is more probable, they may be a medley of truths and errors. It is, however, under their influence that he studies, and through them, as through a prism, that he views and judges the objects of knowledge. Everything is therefore seen by him in false colors, and in distorted relations. And this is the reason why philosophy, as the science of truth, requires a renunciation of prejudices, that is, conclusions formed without a previous examination of their grounds. It is necessary, indeed, in view of the situation in which is cast the child, or the adult even — and there is no reason why we should deplore the fact — that very much of our judgments and opinions come from our surroundings, such as we find them ; and it were fatal to proper intellec- tual life were we to preach universal and instantaneous rejection of all beliefs which we have not subjected to previous examination. But what, on the other hand, would be equally fatal and still more unreasonable, would be to- hold fast to what we once had heard or believed, without allowing ourselves to imagine that truth may lie in statements now coming to us as new, and without giving to such statements the attention which the manner of their presentation, or the gravity of the matters upon which they bear, seem to warrant. How much we have had to revise in our scientific and historic judgments ! How much, we are daily made aware, we must revise in our opinions of men, and of institutions, when these come to be thoroly known by us! Readiness to accept truth, whencesoever it comes, courage to set all else aside rather than reject it, is the proper disposition of the really rational mind and the really sincere heart. And I Sessions] DEVOTION TO TRUTH: CHIEF VIRTUE OF TEACHER 89 this disposition, of course, is all the more needed, and all the more com- manded in the teacher — be this teacher he who instructs in the class room youthful listeners, or he who thru tongue or pen influences the thoughts of a whole community. The words of Paul have a philosophical as well as a theological application : "Prove all things : hold fast that which is good." Until we have heard those who differ from us, or who bring to us a message that is new, and weighed their arguments, we have no right to scorn their opinions ; the mere fact that we hold other opinions, into the grounds of which we have not seriously peered, should be no justification of our contempt or indifference. How much there frequently is of prejudice in the judgments of one people regarding another, of the adherents of one religious creed regarding those of another! How much harm there thence follows, not only in the interests of truth, but in those of social peace, and of the bonds of friendly amity that should bind together all the members of the human family! Prejudice usually springs from narrow-mindedness. Its victims are men who, from very lack of mental vision, cannot see things that are at all outside the periphery of their own little circle of thought. They are to be pitied rather than blamed ; invincible ignorance gains for them our indulgence. But not with equal leniency are we allowed to treat other enemies of truth — those whom passion dominates. There are those whose pride is wounded by truth : whose profit it is to combat it. An opponent must be broken down ; a cause, in the success of which we see a coveted prize, must be upheld. What then? The appeal is to sophistry and calumny; all that favors the antagonist is kept out of sight ; all that damages him is brought into evidence; facts and arguments are distorted; motives are misconstrued ; direct falsehoods are uttered. By dint of arguing, one so blinds himself at times that injustice is seen as justice and is championed as justice; one's chosen side must be defended, and it is defended, what- ever the means — as it was said of o\d, per fas et nefas. You remember the hero of Goldsmith's rustic school : In arguing, too, the pastor owned his skill : For e'en though vanquished, he could argue still. You can remember, also, many disputes among neighbors and asso- ciates, sometimes more or less jocose, sometimes growing into bitter feuds — all the results of false reasoning prompted by pride and imaginarv self-interest. Those, the more innocent forms of the evil, that I deplore. There are other forms of this evil, which drive back into long oblivion truths vital to the welfare of humanity, which lead to bloody contests, even to war between nations. I am one of those who see in the sequence of the late Spanish-American war the guiding hand of a mighty Providence, and the outburst of forces long gathering- in the bosom of the nation, sure, at one moment or 90 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General another, to break out in resistless self-assertion. Nevertheless, I shall never deny that among the immediate causes of the war there are to be numbered the exaggerated statements, the lies, too, and the calumnies, the ceaseless appeals to wild and reckless passion which disfigured and disgraced the utterances of certain newspaper writers and of certain other manipulators of public opinion. I know for a fact that the instruc- tions going from the office of a certain newspaper to its European corre- spondent read this wise: "Wire all that makes for war, nothing that tends to prevent or delay it." Grave, indeed, were the causes, demanding from America a solemn act; strong were the provocations given to ruflde the national temper ; yet we can never approve methods in which false- hood and passion play a large part ; and we cannot but assert that it were immensely better for the country if results attained thru war could have been reached by other and less direful means. How unguarded and reckless, and how reprehensible are many of the statements published at the present time, as from the Philippine Islands, purporting to tell of dreadful deeds of cruelty and of injustice, for which on close examination no foundation in fact is found! I shall name in this connection one instance, which I am particularly pleased to censure. A little while ago certain Catholic newspapers raised the high cry, that proselytism was the order of the day in the schools of Manila; the chief officials in the Department of Instruction, it was said, and the teachers in the Normal being regularly ordained ministers, who divided their time between the multiplication table and tract reading. The matter was investigated, and it was discovered that the chief officials and the teachers in the Normal were not ministers, and that their own good sense, as well as the strict rules of the government, confined them strictly to secular matters. The newspapers that had admitted into their columns such statements have since, indeed, repudiated them ; but, mean- while, much needless excitement was raised and much harm was done. If I were to choose where, outside the class-room, for the general wel- fare of humanity I should have devotion to truth prevail, I should name the newspaper. The newspaper is today pre-eminently the mentor of the people. It is read by all; it is believed nearly by all. Its influence is paramount; its responsibility is tremendous. Its province is to narrate facts — to give the truth, nothing but the truth, and all the truth — to allow both parties to a controversy to be heard ; never to palliate or dis- tort; to omit nothing when that which is omitted may be of relevancy in the formation of public opinion ; never to publish the doubtful as cer- tain, the mere gossip as well-ascertained news ; never, above all else, to put before readers error and falsehood. Facts given, the editor is at liberty to argue from them in favor of his own tenets ; but, even then, thru limpid lines, there should appear radiant the fair love of truth, never the mere wish to extol party or sect. Journalism that is honest and Sessions] DEVOTION TO TRUTH: CHIEF VIRTUE OF TEACHER 91 honorable is one of the nation's most precious inheritances; that which places notoriety ancf pelf above truth and virtue, and adopts as its tactics of war the stunning sensation rather than the calm statement of facts, is one of the nation's direst calamities. Numerous in America is the jour- nalism that is honest and honorable; now and then is found that which worships, above all else, notoriety and pelf. There is here a duty of conscience and of patriotism for Americans; may they be ever mindful of that duty ! There is a sphere where, if anywhere, thought should be most serene and heart should be kindest ; and even here passion fears not to lower its wings of harpy. It is the sphere of religion. The odium theologicum — the most baleful of hatreds — the sternest foe of truth ! Religion is but another name for peace — the peace sung at the birth of Christ in Bethlehem : " Glory to God in the highest, and peace to men of good will." And yet, in religion's name how often families and communities have been divided, whole nations driven into bloody war- fare! In religion's name how often such passions are awakened that the pursuit of religious truth is made absolutely impossible. This is what happens in religious controversies. We refuse to hear the other side. We are convinced beforehand that we understand our opponents better than they understand themselves ; and that the dispute must be waged on our statement of the case. Then we mistrust and misconstrue their motives ; a priori they are the unjust, and we are the just; they have no truth, and we have all truth. Why, I ask, should it be thus ? Why not assume that others are as honest as we are, and obey their consciences as we think we are obeying ours ? And why not always, before we decide one way or another, bid our opponents give us their statement of the case, instead of taking as the exclusive ground of our judgment our own statement or one received from those who are noted as partisans of our own opinions ? With precautions of this kind, such as simplest justice should ever make imperative, we could argue with a degree of reverence for our intellect, and, before we finished, we should most likely have discovered that at least there is something to be said on either side, and that there is between us and our opponents much common ground, upon which to labor for the common good, in peace and in love, and with due respect for the consciences even of those from whose principles we may otherwise believe ourselves obliged to differ. Truth is impregnable ; it is the reality of things ; nought can alter it, nought remove it. Those who know truth partake of its security, and have no fear for it or for themselves. They confide in its beauty and justice, and scorn other methods of defense. They who lend them- selves to passion, who expose themselves to the peril of irrational or unfair warfare, make confession of the weakness of their position. 92 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General Truth and its friends are patient : the future belongs to them. Today it may be only as the weak dawning of the early sun' thru clouded skies ; but it will grow in splendor, it will rise high in the heavens, brightening even the surrounding clouds, dispelling them with its light and heat : "Truth is mighty, and it will prevail." And why do I talk before a convention of America's teachers of the perils that crowd the pathways to truth ? Do I not know, beyond a doubt, my hearers' sincere love for truth, and the noble sacrifices they make in the pursuit of it ? All this I do know ; and for all this I praise America's teachers. But I have in mind to lay deepest stress upon the importance of truth, that utmost care be taken by them to instill into the souls of their pupils their own love of truth, their own devotion to it. Truth is not always loved and served, as it should be, in the world around us. How shall it be in the world of tomorrow ? The class- room of today is to be the world of tomorrow. Into whatever the chil- dren of today are fashioned in mind and in heart, that will the men and women of tomorrow be. And the children of today are fashioned in mind and in heart by the teachers present or represented in this assembly. Each pupil is the Parian marble, now rough-hewn and unformed. Every word, every act of the teacher is as the stroke of the chisel falling upon this animate block, to reveal in it the glory of the angel. No Michel Angelo had ever vocation so noble, so blessed, as the instructor of the youthful soul. Let the teacher do well his duty ; let the pupil be prop- erly formed, and great will be the America of tomorrow, devoted will it be to truth. Teach, I pray you, to your pupils the love of truth ; extol before them its beauty ; obtain that they make consecration of themselves before its shrine. Tell them that their souls are noble and grand only when no clouds of error hover over them, only when truth in its plenary objec- tivity is so fully reproduced in their minds that those minds are trans- figured in the beauty of truth, and are, as it were, in themselves truth. And tell them that the truth which is in their minds must be the adorn- ment of their lips when those lips part in speech, the adornment of their pen when that pen moves in writing ; teach them that the lie spoken or written is yet more baleful and more inglorious than the lie ensconced in the mind ; for from lips or pen it goes out to darken and pervert the minds of others. I said that truth is divine, that truth, in a very real manner, is God. When God in human form walked upon earth, he was seen of men as " full of grace and of truth ;" He said of himself : " I am the way, the truth, and the life ;" and, announcing the fruits of his coming, he said to his followers : '' Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make ye free." Christ was in all things, and before all else, truth ; no better mani- festation could there have been of the divinity within him. Sessions] EDUCATION OF THE AMERICAN FARMER Q3 Let us, in imitation of Christ, be true. His prayer for us to the Father was: "That they be sanctified thru truth." The intellectual grasp of the truth will not suffice unto full sanctification ; there must be, too, the grasp of truth by the heart, the active union of the heart with truth. But so potent is truth, that, once thoroly possessed by the mind, it easily makes its way into the heart — " The truth will make ye free." It might be said that Christ's words bore more directly on such truth as reveals immediately divine life in the soul ; I fear not to say, they bore on all truth ; for all form of truth is akin to every other form, the spirit of one being that of the other, the essence of all being the eternal prototype in the divine entity itself. Moreover, the soul attuned to truth in any form will pursue it under all forms ; and, even if after due labor it reaches not unto all truth, it will at least be in its affections truth-like and worthy to possess all truth in heaven. Let truth be in smallest pebble, in tiniest herb, in mightiest star, on earth or in the firmament, or in the highest heavens above earth and firmament ; it is everywhere divine, it is God- like, and God-like who seek it, know it, and love it. THE EDUCATION OF THE AMERICAN FARMER HON. JAMES WILSON, UNITED STATES SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 1 bring to you today the cause of the farmers of our country — the creators of wealth, the foundation on which society rests ; the conservative class that work in the sunlight thru long days, keep level heads when others are excited, pay taxes, and reinforce all other classes when they wear out. Our country has grown great among the peoples of the earth because of industrial activity brought about by the high average intelligence of Americans. The world has never seen such vigorous competition for commercial supremacy as exists at the present time. The teacher is called upon to strengthen commercial lines, so that the highest intelligence shall guide and direct the movement and interchange of commodities. The manu- facturer has come to the front in competition with the world and chal- lenges the position of artisans, long masters of the secrets of changing raw materials into products of skill. The teacher is helping to prepare the manufacturer for this world's contest, and millions are being given by philanthropists to endow tech- nological institutions to train the man who works in the shop. We have the best system of transportation in all respects of any people. The companies educate their men by precept and example, applying every scientific discovery and invention and the results of all experience and observation to the carrying of freight and passengers. The railroad 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General man is a specialist of the strictest order, and learns how to do things by doing them, taking nothing for granted into which he can inquire, nor resting satisfied with anything he can improve. The teacher intervenes in this great industry to furnish forth the experts who direct these great systems that shorten time and space and contribute so much to our suc- cess and comfort. This may be said of our people in all the different lines of activity in which they are engaged — they are educated toward their life-work. Our earliest colleges were organized to teach theologians; the oldest schools were instituted to teach the people to read, write, and cipher. Both college and school have extended their courses of study, but neither has greatly extended the original purpose of its creation. Our common-school system has so long been the best devised by man that the average intelligence of our people is much higher than any other. Our school system reaches all the people, our colleges educate the few. We have adopted much in our systems of education from peoples who have not our responsibilities, peoples who educate men of leisure, fashion, class, privilege, caste, birth, and all that. The people govern here. They should be educated with a view to their development along the lines of their life-work, whatever that may be. The problem of educating the producers of wealth presents itself with much force at the present time. The world is small, and its ends seem to come nearer together as invention and enterprise shorten travel and the cost of it, bringing into active competition in the race of life the workers in the fields of all lands. What can be done for our producers that they may live on higher levels of comfort and happiness, that they may help the weary hand with a better-trained head, and have more time to devote to intellectual, moral, and spiritual life, is the previous question which the educators of the great producing states of our country are called upon to answer. The four-year college course does not begin soon enough, nor con- tinue long enough, to meet the requirements of our day in this regard. Teachers are wanted in primary and secondary schools and in post-gradu- ate work in the university. They are wanted to do work that has not been done in all the ages, the discovery of truths underlying production and their application to the farm. Let us see how our professional men and our best equipped educators are prepared for their life-work. They attend primary, graded, and training schools until they are fitted for college; after the bachelor's degree is wrested from the faculty with much tribulation and some vexa- tion of spirit on both sides, post-graduate work at home or abroad for the future teacher is the common road to be traveled. The professional enters upon special study, longer or shorter, and finally teacher and professional begin practice on people's minds, or bodies, or souls, or teeth, Sessions] EDUCATION OF THE AMERICAN FARMER 95 or misunderstandings, as the case may be. Our educated men travel this road — nearly all of them ; it is a long study from youth to early man- hood or womanhood, without intermission — this preparing for profes- sional life-work. It answers a good purpose; it is perfected for those who need it, but it is not sufficient for the farmer. There are self-made men who become strong in certain lines without university training, but rarely in more than one line. The West nurtured many of these unique characters thru its vigorous ways of object-lesson teaching, but western conditions are changing. The prairie grass, the wild flowers, the fierce winds and bad roads, the privations, and the neigh- borliness among the people are going with the grand men and women they inspired; and, with them, much self-reliance and individuality. I would not advise young people to avoid our regular channels of learning and depend upon self-development. They would graduate late in life. The education of the youth who is to work in the fields, grow plants, and rear animals cannot be pursued as the professional prepares for future usefulness. He attends the district school, secondary schools, or the upper grades of our high schools; but they lead to literary or pro- fessional studies. Is there a way by which we can enrich primary edu- cation with agricultural studies, so that the farmers' boys and girls may have their vision strengthened to see, on clear days, the delectable mountains of an educated farmer's life, towering in the distance as high as other elevations ? The most useful and valuable educational work in all the world appealing to the educator is that of the farmers of the country. Pioneer work along this line is waiting. The organization of faculties to do the work; apparatus, laboratories, text-books, illustrative material from primary to post-graduate and beyond, where studies of specialities must be combined, where research must be broadened, and where specialists must be grouped to reach a desired end and meet the pressing demands of producers — all these are waiting. This is the great field of applied science, where the grower seeks the help of the scholar, of the experi- menter, and of the observer. The millions of farmers look to you for help in these directions. The learned professions, so-called, with commerce, manufacturing, transportation, mining, lumbering and the like, have invited young men to neglect the study of the sciences that relate to production ; but edu- cation has been overdone in several of those lines, and the supply exceeds the demand. The average mechanic earns more than the average pro- fessional. The farmers are being educated, but the studies that are offered by most educational institutions are not what the producer from the soil requires. He goes to the warehouse to buy, and must be contented with what he can get. His interests require him to prepare himself for doing one thing, and his training prepares him to do another ; he needs 96 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General garments to answer in one kind of work and finds little or nothing for sale in his line, so he puts on what is designed for something different or designed for mere show. The acquirements of literary and professional men would be only ornamental to the farmer if he acquires nothing else. They are more ornamental than useful to many who rejoice in them in our day. There is a pernicious idea abroad among old-time educators that one educational system is a sufficient foundation for future useful- ness in all walks of life, and specialization should take place only after that foundation is laid. We find, in preparing scientists for our work in the Department of Agriculture, that no one specialty is sufficient for him whose life-work it is to study soils and their composition, climate and its effects, moisture and its potentialities, animals and their uses, insect enemies and friends, the microscopic plants and animals and their influences, the economic growth and disposition of crops, and the like. These are all specialties, to the study of each of which a scientist might devote a lifetime, but concerning which the farmer should have thoro information to manage his affairs intelligently. Life is too short to make acquaintance with these sciences after going thru primary schools, sec- ondary schools, and colleges, and attaining manhood with no knowl- edge of them. Their study should begin with the primary and continue thru life ; then the country will have farmers who will get response from the soil. To bring this about, to organize, inspire, and develop the farmer for his work when necessity calls upon him to assume its burden, is the work of the educator, and you should begin with the child in the primary school ; and that you may do this, the state should give you facilities to prepare for this work. The Department of Agriculture is educating 260 young men and women in these sciences at the present time, because the colleges and universities have not trained them in the sciences relating to agriculture. Our scientists should devote their time to research in co-operation with state institutions, and this they do as far as practicable in every state and territory and in the isles of the sea under our flag, but we must educate assistants in all lines. I find fault with no system of education in opera- tion for the benefit of any class of men. I assert that systems in vogue are not suitable for farmers, because they do nothing, comparatively, to make them use their heads to help their hands when the hands must lift the burden. I am not content to have the husbandman ignorant of the truths of nature ; I am not content to have the American farmer remain as ignorant of the sciences that relate to his lifework as the European farmers are; I protest against conditions continuing that give grounds for tracing relationship between the farmer and the ox. A thoro study of applied science and modern languages will develop the mind sufficiently for all practical purposes. You will find that the student will acquire any Sessions] EDUCATION OF THE AMERICAN FARMER 97 modern language that will help him in the discovery of truth written in a foreign vernacular, and it will be the same with regard to other studies that will help the toiler in the field ; but let the necessity for every acquirement be apparent before the pupil is required to engage in it. The man who lives by the soil will only devote time to acquiring the useful. The highest aim of the educator should be to educate the people, and all of them, along lines of greatest usefulness to them and the common- wealth. The farm is the fallow ground, the neglected outfield, the unworked claim, the promising subject that will yield the best returns on the investment. I speak of the class that cannot afford an ornamental education and will not have it. In the methods of all farm operations we are in the lead of foreign farmers, thru the efforts of the farmers themselves to learn of their own affairs as best they may. We are taking the lead in research after scientific truth, and have no veneration for the borrowed educational systems of the old world. Our American carriers excel, our American mechanics excel, our American miners excel, our American manufacturers excel, our systems of government excel. Why should not our systems of education excel also, especially for the creators of wealth, who never have had a university adapted to their wants, nor even a college, until within the memory of men still in the prime of manhood? Foreign countries are looking to the United States for educators along these lines. Owners of land properties are inquiring for trained agriculturists at home and abroad. The state colleges and experiment stations inquire for masters in agricultural science to teach and investi- gate. Every farm that is being robbed of plant food is crying aloud for better treatment. The vanishing forests distress us with their dying wails, drouth-stricken fields admonish us, inferior animals advertise that the farmer's education has been overlooked. The United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, the agricultural colleges, the state experiment stations, the high schools of agriculture, agricultural societies, the agri- cultural press, authors of books on agriculture — all require help in higher education, while the specialist needs facilities to expand into kindred specialties to fit himself for doing some simple thing that has never been done before, to help some producer in wresting from nature some truth that has been hidden in all the past. The American people always find the right man to meet the emer- gency. We want a man now to organize the education of half the people under our flag, who till the soil and furnish 65 per cent, of our exports, who create the wealth of the country from materials found in earth and air and water ; we want organization from the primary school to the university and beyond, into fields where things grow ; into the stable 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General and yard thru which crops go to market ; into the farm factory, where skill should add to value ; into the pasture, where skill should direct form, feature, and development ; into cultivation, where science should defy drouth and deluge ; into fertilization, where observation and expe- rience must be supplemented by education regarding soils and their com- position. The American farmer is waiting and watching for the coming of this man. Are we to look for him in some one of the half-dozen institutions that are doing promising work, or will help come from as many sources, and a highway be constructed by several men who realize the needs of our country in this regard? We will look for the coming nian in some state where the people see the wisdom of strengthening the producer and admonish their representatives to that effect ; where boards of control appreciate the value of this work and apply endowments of state and nation to their legitimate uses. Five thousand students attend agricultural colleges, but these colleges are feeling their way in the dark along untraveled paths. They are fitting and trying, as carpenters built barns in old times ; they will at last forge out a system, by comparing notes, that will meet the require- ments of producers and be entirely new and suitable to our conditions as a people. The farmers of this country asked for and secured the endowments of 1862 for agricultural colleges for the several states and territories, and supposed that nothing more was to be done. They did not consider how students should be prepared for colleges, nor what they should do after commencement. They forgot to ask where teachers would come from who would be competent to apply science to the farmer's work. How few teachers the world possesses ! It is interesting to look back over the intervening forty years and see the things done and left undone by these colleges. How grandly some of them have overcome obstacles, and how very little others have done ! They have had no university to guide them. They have run like wild trains without a time table, and some of them have used for other purposes the money Congress gave to educate the farmers. Boards of trustees and faculties, who would under no circumstances break the laws of God or man, do not hesitate a moment to substitute students in something else than the sciences relating to agriculture. Less and less of this is being done, however. The wonder grows that such far-reaching interests have not had well-defined educa- tional facilities along every special line. Look at the array and consider the want of exact information regarding them. Soils, buildings, grasses, grains, farm animals, fibers, forests, fruits and vegetables, twenty-five billions of dollars in value. The time has fully come when educational institutions, especially in an agricultural, mining, or manufacturing state, should apply science to industry, and to this end the faculty should be constructed. Sessions] EDUCATION OF THE AMERICAN FARMER 99 My highest conception of duty when I went to Washington was to help to strengthen the state institutions along lines of agricultural educa- tion and research. I am still of that opinion, but I found it necessary to first strengthen the scientists of the department by better facilities, apparatus, assistants, salaries, selections from outside, and education within. Some progress is being made along all these lines. State and other institutions and foreign countries are calling on us for strong men. The whole column is marching toward the position of placing our country in the front rank of producers of everything that contributes to the happi- ness of mankind. I look to the educators of our country to take into consideration the producing half of the people under our flag. There is good work being done in the Missouri University toward introducing the elements of agri- cultural science into common and secondary schools, by holding a summer school for the education of the teachers of these schools. This is the place to begin. The average American is the product of the common school. The stream does not rise higher than its source. The teacher should have facilities to learn along these lines at the expense of the state. The faculty of the agricultural college of the state is the reposi- tory of this information, and the teachers should have their expenses paid while they are becoming possessed of it. We need text-books regarding agricultural studies that can now be compiled from work already done by the nation and the states. The Canadians have taken up the work of educating their teachers by grouping the schools and sending instructors to each group. The British government has been trying to educate the parochial school- teachers, but the scope of instruction is limited. Something has been done by several institutions thru university extension work in our own country. Alabama gives $2,500 annually to support a school of agricul- ture in each congressional district in that state, with a view to making them feeders for their own agricultural college. Minnesota has an admirable school of agriculture, and Nebraska is well along in the work of organizing one. Wisconsin has taken the lead in the organization of short courses that will no doubt become feeders of the agricultural college. Iowa excels in animal husbandry among other things. Several of the states have well-organized and growing colleges that hold out hope of good things in the future, and several states divert the money given by Congress for the education of the farmer to education along other lines. But progress is being made in most states, the tillers of the soil are appreciating what has been done, and will not rest content until well- equipped faculties are organized in every state and territory of the Union. We find that progress is being made toward the education of the farmer ; that belief is extending regarding its necessity ; that opposition is vanishing among educators whose studies did not include the science lOO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Genera of the farm ; that demand for instructors and organizers along these lines is growing; that, as a nation, our power for good at home and abroad depends upon the education of all our citizens; and that all classes, kindreds, tongues, and peoples look to you, the educators of America, to lift the whole up to higher intellectual and moral altitudes. THE HOME AND THE HIGHER EDUCATION MRS. CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT, NEW YORK CITY Within a few days there have been graduated from our colleges and universities an estimate of between four and five thousands of young women. The fact represents the fruit of a half century of earnest and intelligent agitation in behalf of the right of women to receive the higher education and the duty of the public to provide means whereby that edu- cation may be acquired. College women are now far too numerous to be regarded as an innovation, and their achievements have been too impor- tant to consider them longer as an experiment ; yet there is evidence in plenty that the college woman, her present sphere, and her future destiny still furnish a problem which vexes the spirit of many a skeptic. Within the year, if the increased number and the character of contributions upon the subject to our periodical literature is a safe criterion of public opin- ion, there has been a recent re-opening of the old question. The discus- sion, however, is upon entirely new and certainly unexpected ground. The subtle ridicule which attended the advent of the college woman has given way to cordial approval, and the world's conversion to the college woman's right to exist seems complete. When college women were yet rare in this country, a German profes- sor was told that an American woman had written the best answer ever made to Edwards' " On the Will." In horror stricken tones he exclaimed in reply : " Then may Heaven forgive Christopher Columbus for having discovered America." That man represented a type common in his day, in our own country as well as in Germany. Unreasoning and intolerant as was their attitude of mind, their opposition was founded upon honest doubt. The conversion of intolerance into tolerance, of ridicule into applause, is due to the fact that these doubts have been forever quieted by the indisputable demonstration of the fallacy of the four chief claims of the opposition. 1. Women are mentally capable of grasping a college education, and a great many women are more capable of doing so than a great many men. 2. Women are physically able to bear the continued strain of a college course, and many of them are far better able to bear it than many men. 3. The college woman has no more lost the "eternal womanly" than the college man has lost the "eternal manly" in the struggle for education. 4. College women, like college men, have not lost their ability and desire to become homemakers, nor their willingness to obey the second law of nature, " the preservation of the species." Sessions] THE HOME AND HIGHER EDUCATION This demonstration seems to have been generally accepted among the educated as final. The new discussion does not dispute the right of women to receive the higher education, nor deny their ability to grasp it ; nor does it seriously question the beneficial effect of the higher education upon women themselves nor upon the homes over which they preside. In fact, the new criticism represents an entire turning of the tables. The whole spirit of it seems to have been inspired by a belief that in some mysterious way men are being defrauded of their rightful prerogatives by the co-educational college women. For fifty years the extension of edu- cational privileges to women has been a concession to the plea for the rights of women ; the new question has been raised in defense of the rights of men. An impetus was undoubtedly given to the new line of thought when, in 1898, W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, made the pre- diction that if women students at colleges should continue to increase as rapidly, in proportion to men students, as they had done in the past, it would not be many years before there would be more women than men in our colleges. Following this announcement, the figures of the Commis- sioner's report of 1900 may have seemed ominous to those who had regarded the college woman as a negative rather than a positive factor of society. In the years between 1890 and 1900 men students in colleges increased 60.6 per cent,, while women students increased 148.7 per cent. These facts have evidently frightened the conservative, and have aroused a cautious but firm opposition to co-education. The discussion has assumed sufficient importance to alarm many women who fear that the advantages won after years of serious struggle may be lost ; and to lead at least three great daily newspapers to predict, editorially, that co-educa- tion will be replaced ere long by the separate school. Three incidents have wielded a somewhat potent influence in the discussion. The first was the action taken by Adelbert College, of Cleveland, which closed its doors to women in 1888, after fifteen years' experience in co-education. The college is not of sufficient importance in itself to have added any particular weight to the discussion, had it not been for the significance of the cause which led to its act. If reports given by those who claim to know are correct, the women students were in no wise blapiable for the step. Their absences from college exercises on account of sickness aver- aged less than half as many as those of men ; their average scholarship was creditable, and during the fifteen years they had won a majority of the honors of the school. It was alleged, however, that this condition was a dangerous one, and, should women increase in numbers and improve in standing as rapidly as they had done in the past, men might prefer other schools. Women, therefore, lost their privileges at Adelbert College, not on account of their failures, as would once have been dis- mally prophesied, but because of their superiority. The second incident, which is of far more serious moment, since it occurred in the West, which I02- NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General has been regarded as the stronghold of co-education, was the action taken by Stanford University to limit the number of women students, while the number of men students should remain unlimited. The excuse offered is the same as that given by Adelbert, that is, the possibility that women would outnumber men if the present rate of increase should continue. The third was the remarkable address of President James, in which he said : " In Northwestern University women have increased faster than men, and if the same increase continues, in ten years women will form half the student body, a condition which many friends of the University would view with concern." In this connection it is interesting to note that in the commencements of this year Cornell University graduated a class of 190 students, 75 of whom were women ; Michigan University graduated 261 students, of whom 115 were women. It is probable that the rather discourteous conduct of men students in the Chicago University toward the women students in connection with the convocation exercises, and the position taken by the men of Columbia University concerning the use of the campus and baths by the students of Barnard College, may have added force to the opinion that men students in all colleges would be glad to be rid of the presence of the women students. The very recent action of the Chicago University, in segregat- ing the women from the men in the freshmen and sophomore classes, inexplicable by any other theory than that it has been a concession made to the ungallant protests of the men undergraduates, will probably strengthen this point of view. The fact that girls graduate from our grammar and high schools in considerably greater numbers than boys, and the even more significant fact that men in our nation now carry a larger per cent, of illiteracy than women, may have added to the general alarm of conservatives. Denuded of meaningless platitudes, the opinions expressed seem to resolve themselves into a fear that a struggle for the "survival of the fittest " is going on in our educational institutions, from the lowest to the highest, with an alarming possibility that women may gain the final supremacy. To my mind co-education will suffer little from the present flurry of opposition. The system is founded upon claims too broad, too sound, and too progressive to be dislodged without serious and fair reasons; and cer- tainly the objections thus far offered can hardly be considered as either logical or compatible with "fair play." Nevertheless, the position taken by these new opponents of co-educa- tion is worthy of analytical investigation. Why should the friends of any university "view with concern " the fact that half, or even more than half, its students are women ? Is it because the scholarship of the women has fallen below that of men ? No one claims it. Is it because they have in any way failed to meet the demands of college life ? No such suggestion has been made. Sessions] THE HOME AND HIGHER EDUCATION 103 Reducing the statements made, within the year, to their very lowest denomination, they become simply this: the work of the world has been assigned to men, and the work of the home to women. Man's work is of more importance in public estimate than the work of women. There- fore, if either is to have superior training or superior advantage, it must be men, since the achievements of men accrue more largely to the credit of the college. So, these college men would turn women out of the co-educational schools because in their opinions their work in after-life is not likely to be equal in value to the work of the men graduates. They do not pause to ask why their work is not equal to that of men, or whether it may not be made so. Despite the common allusions to the sacredness of home and the nobility of motherhood, it is evident these functions are not in reality regarded as equal in importance to those accorded to men. One needs only to turn to commencement orations and baccalaureate sermons to be postively assured of this fact. In a careful perusal of a number of those delivered this year in co-educational colleges, I have failed to discover a single reference to the future of the women students. These orations have recounted in elegant terms the opportunity offered in American life for the services of the "scholar in politics," and for the college man in affairs; they have painted in glowing colors the fame and fortune and satisfaction of the educated expert in great enterprises; they have reviewed the problems which hang unsolved over the heads of our people, and in earnest appeal have urged the college man to consider them well and, having considered, to speak and to act. Each address seemed redo- lent with the very "joy of achievement." One may well imagine the thousands of young men, with intellects trained to fullest vigor and bodies developed to enduring strength, barely able to sit in patience to the end, so anxious might they well have been, when thrilled by such promises of conquest, to gird on their armor and to go forth to claim their destiny. But no word of advice, no inspiration to endeavor, no hope of achievement was offered to the women graduates. Nor must it be supposed that these addresses were intended for both sexes. The phraseology unmistakably reveals the fact that men, and men alone, were held in the thoughts of the speakers. An uninformed listener might well have thought that while life was just opening to these young men, it had suddenly come to an end for the young women. These addresses are significant straws which point unmistakably to the direction of the wind in this new discussion of co-education. We may sift the reasoning down to a few questions. Is the home the sphere wherein the complete possibilities of the lives of women are to be confined? And if it is, then is the work of the home equal in value to the work of the world? If the work of women is not equal in value to the work of men, why is it not, and how may it be made so? Should the I04 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General training of college women be reduced to a level with the work they are supposed to do or the work lifted up to meet their training. A careful analysis reveals the fact that the whole difficulty lies in the failure of college faculties and boards of trustees to perceive the really pivotal point in the whole question. The home of today and the home of a hundred years ago are two entirely different things. There was a time when the work of women was wisely confined to the home, but the modern woman has been freed from many responsibilities and burdens which once belonged to the household, and in consequence her time and talents are largely liberated for other work. In common with these conservatives I believe the home is, and always will be, the foundation of our nation's greatness and liberty ; and I also agree with them that the home, as we have known it, is passing by; but I do not agree with them that anything men can do will stay a change which is inevitable. The home, as it has been, is passing, not thru the over-education of women, but thru the encroachments of commer- cial changes which have constantly limited its functions until little of dignity remains. It is a popular belief that the " woman's rights" move- ment has encouraged women to get out of their own sphere and into the sphere of men, and that the home has been impoverished thereby. Instead, the present confusion has arisen because men have gotten out of their sphere and have entered the sphere of women. One needs to turn backward but a few pages of history to discover the time when the major- ity of women within their own homes were weavers, knitters, garment makers, soap, starch and tandle makers, bakers, fruit canners, and meat preservers. To be a good housewife a woman must have learned many trades. Her work may have been menial, but it was at least skilled labor which she performed, and the division of labor between the sexes was fair and equitable. The work of the woman in the home was quite as important to the welfare of society, and quite as dignified and as skilled, as the money-making labor of the man in the field of outside work. At that time the contribution of the home woman to the welfare of society was quite equal to that made by men. Then came the wrecking hand of commercial progress. Just in pro- portion to the rapidity with which the business sagacity of men has per- ceived opportunities for profit in the home vocations of women, these employments have left the home and entered the factory. Her labor has been literally snatched from her hands, and the finished product returned to her, paid for with money earned by some other member of her household. Men bakers, clad in her discarded apron, bake her bread ; men tailors fashion her gown ; and men milliners, with deft fingers, trim her bonnets. As the atom in the chemical reaction, when liberated, grasps some other atom, thru its affinity, and thus forms a new molecule, so women, freed from many duties of an earlier day by commercial reactions, have seized Sessions] THE HOME AND HIGHER EDUCATION 105 new opportunities and have thus formed new combinations in social life with which college faculties must reckon. In forced reciprocity they have entered the sphere of the work of men ; for industry, energy, and a desire to perform useful work, are innate in the civilized man and woman. In view of these facts, the reasoning advanced by the new questioners of co-education is not complimentary to the trained intellects of college men. To attempt to confine the interests and the work of women to the home of today means an artificial division of work, and also of actual brain power. Surely, from the college point of view at least, the greatest thing in the world is a well-trained intellect. The world cannot afford to lose one such factor for good, nor can it afford to assign a single trained mind to work beneath its abilities. It is not only the right but the duty of each human being to give to the world the best service of which he or she is capable. If, then, there is a loss of power when women are con- signed to home-making, because its duties do not require so high a degree of training as these opponents hold, the logic of the situation is not to lessen the training of the woman until it is reduced to a par with home- keeping, but the true logic is to lift the home until it is upon a par with the highest educated woman. The world has no right to bury a single talent, nor to hide one light under a bushel. If work commensurate with the college woman's best abilities cannot be found within the home as it is, then the home with the woman at its head will be made a factor in the world's work. This will come as the inevitable, in response to the mighty causes which compel humanity to move forward whether it wills or wills not ; the causes which are never created by men, nor eliminated by human power. An artificial division of labor can no longer be made between the sexes of today. Some men prefer women's work and do it well, and some women prefer men's work and do it well. Since liberty to do, to be, to feel, to grow according to one's own natural inclination is the keynote of all intelligent progress, this condition must continue. Nor must we forget that, if such a division were possible, it would represent a sheer loss to the world of valuable service. We now know that men and women contribute equally to the hereditary traits of their children, and that at least half the children of the world draw their most distinctive characteristics thru cross- inheritance ; that is, the girls inherit the leading qualities of the father and the boys the chief qualities of the mother. So long as women are the daughters of men, we shall find silly, vain, and irresponsible ones among them, because their fathers were so before them ; and we shall find others strong, gifted, and able to achieve the best. So long as men are the sons of women, there will be men whose natural bent will lead them to become clerks at a ribbon counter, and there will be others, formed in the image and likeness of their mothers, who will climb the heights of human endeavor. To limit the liberty of the well-endowed woman to use io6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General her talent in her own way is as great a crime against race progress as to limit the liberty of a man. In the transition from the eld division of labor to conditions of the future, amusing confusions have arisen, and this we must expect. I once visited a western college conducted on the dormitory plan. Sitting at the dinner table, I complimented the president upon the character of the meal which had been served, since it was superior, from the standpoint of hygienic selection and skilled cookery, to those usually served in insti- tutions of that kind. " Yes," replied the president, "our cook is a man. He is very enthusiastic over his choice of profession and exercises the greatest possible care and intelligence in his work. He earnestly believes that the quality of the scholarship of our school is directly dependent upon the quality of the food he provides." "By the way," added the president, " the lady who sits opposite is his wife. She is the professor of Greek." And why not ? Since men have taken from women the portion of the world's work which has been theirs since civili- zation began, they must be generous enough to reciprocate and to divide theirs too. The home has been robbed of nearly all labor requiring special skill or intelligence, except the care of the children, and even here the former years of care are curtailed by the kindergarten which educators now declare to be a necessary foundation for the best training of the child. But the home, cry out these questioners, is it to perish from the civilization of the world ? We would save it by specially educating women for its functions. Surely women should yet find their all in the duties of motherhood. There is much of pretty sentiment in this theory, but very little of practical common sense. Who is wise enough to teach her ? The college woman is a new figure upon the stage of the world's action, and we cannot expect her to have evolved a science yet. She has been forced to expend not a little of her energy in finding a place to stand. The science of men may, with comparative certainty, regulate the inheritance, the environment, and the perfect development of all domestic animals, but can the science of men teach a human mother how to command the mysterious laws of inheritance so that her child may be well-born ? Nay, not so. Can the philosophy of colleges teach her to train that child with certainty to its highest and best ? Nay, not so. Then who can instruct her ? Alas, the A B C of this " science of moth- erhood " is all the world knows. It may come some day ; and, in the interest of the coming race, we may hope that it will come soon. Let us not lose sight of the fact, however, that when it comes it will not be the science of motherhood at all, but the science of parenthood, and it will be the duty of future educators to teach it to fathers as well as to mothers. No, we may not find woman's sole contributions to the world's good I Sessions] THE HOME AND HIGHER EDUCATION 107 in motherhood. In the old days, women had time to perform the duties most vital to the family in addition to motherhood ; now that those func- tions have been removed from the home, she has even more time for work. Even tho there was no other reason for a woman to work outside her home, the full duties of motherhood should make it imperative. That mother is the best progenitor whose mind is active thru responsibility and whose soul is filled with the satisfaction which comes from useful, helpful work. That mother is the best care-taker, whose intelligence is con- stantly receiving new stimulus from a variety of causes. The most serious impediment to her success is monotony in her daily life. If she studies child development she does well, but if that is all she does she will fall far short of her own ideal. Altho this is an age of specialization, that specialist is always the best worker who can bring to his duties a general training, and this is pre-eminently true of the mother. If we are to expect a coming race of great men, we must provide great mothers ; and if we are to create a race of great mothers, we must provide great fathers. The race cannot rise by the development of one sex alone, but we "rise or fall together." The best training the expe- rience of the world has devised is none too good for the mother. I do not know that I can claim any authority to speak, but I may at least testify in the case. In the prosecution of my own work I have traveled in all the states of the Union but two and have been entertained in some 1,500 homes. Many were the homes of college women. I have been permitted to talk intimately with them concerning their modes of life and their aspirations. I have found the comradeship of college hus- bands and wives upon a high and congenial plane. Their relations have been lifted out of the commonplace and the material into a realm of intel- lectual harmony, where there must always be found the truest and most permanent satisfaction in marriage. I have found college husbands proud of their college wives, and college wives secure in the love of their hus- bands. But despite this fact I have found many of these women restlessly groping, amid the wreck and confusion of the passing of the old-time home and the coming of the new, for work satisfying to their ambitions and abilities. Within the souls of many there is a '* pent-up Niagara." Many have been childless, many had sent their grown boys and girls to college, and in the prime of life found themselves sitting with folded, idle hands, or frittering away time in social vanities. Still others found time enough, while the little ones were in the home, to feel a nameless void which could alone be filled by useful work. Drudgery, if it be in the interest of work helpful to humanity and of such nature as to test her best strength, would be welcomed by many a college woman as a boon. To other women, self-satisfied, contented with their own stunted develop- ment, it is true the new work would come as a burden to be avoided. But can the world afford the loss of power which comes thru an idle io8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General womanhood ? Can it afford the waste of a motherhood not developed to its best ? Certainly mind and character, like muscle, grow more efficient with use, and to secure the best use there must be incentive. Women of means, robbed of important home duties, find themselves con- signed, by the customs of our time, to lives of wastefulness. No oppor- tunity for relief offers itself to the majority, and no incentive urges them to find an outlet for their energy. The real question involved in the present discussion of co-education should be how may an incentive be found for the college woman which will guarantee her continued growth, and which will produce work accruing to the credit of her college, her sex, and her race ? The new attack upon co-education is based upon the most superficial observations, and the action proposed is cruel and unrea- sonable. It is not the loss of a college education to a few women which is involved, but the movement is an attack upon race progress. These college men have attempted to seize the wheels of progress in their onward revolution and to turn them backward in their course. Justice demands that an incentive to equal work with men shall be given the college woman. Mr. Roosevelt talks much of the man who "can do things." We need to create a demand for the woman who can do things. Surely, the first duty lies with the colleges themselves. If college profes- sors, now lost in contemplation of the beauties of the stars above or the mysteries of creation in the earth beneath, would turn their eyes human- ward in serious study of the question of everyday life for a time, a solu- tion might be found. It is plain, however, that this unexpected attack upon co-education will impose a new duty upon its friends. That duty is to protect its interests by securing the appointment of more women upon the faculties of our colleges and universities, and especially upon the boards of trustees. If college faculties are really alarmed over the increasing education and literacy among women, and give credence to the prediction which has been made by more than one distinguished foreign observer, that the time is not far distant when the average American woman will rise supe- rior to the average man in general intelligence and information, let them not lay a staying hand upon the growth of women, but urge the men of the nation to come up higher. If they fear the antagonism of men stu- dents to the women students which has been demonstrated in not a few colleges, let them recognize the spirit for what it really is, the manifesta- tion of the savage, not yet eliminated from the civilized man. Let them analyze well their own attitude of mind to discover whether the action of the men students is not a rough reflection of their own point of view. Let them analyze well the present conditions of society, and then in class- room, in chapel, in baccalaureate sermons, in every thought and act, magnify the duty of the college woman in American life, as they now emphasize the duty of the college man. k Sessions] THE HOME AND HIGHER EDUCATION 109 In a thousand paths the college woman might walk forth to conquest. If she inclines to science she may maintain her laboratory in her own home. She no longer needs to spend her time in canning fruits and vegetables, for this work has left her home and gone to the factory ; but a problem has come to take its place. How is the factory preserving done ? With formaldehyde and salicylic acid, with glucose and analine. Then, with crucible and test-tube, let her nominate herself the nation's detective and ferret out the sins or the virtues of every cannery in the land. When her facts are in command let her call forth the legions of other college women to wage a war in the interest of pure food. Tho she must overcome glucose trusts, political rings, and public credulity, let her map out her campaign to save our nation from the wrecked health of body and mind toward which this commercialism is rapidly forcing us. The college woman who may win the victory for pure and honest food, will deserve to rank with our highest and best. If the college woman inclines to philanthropy, let her organize her forces to teach the women of the poor hygienic cookery and sanitary housekeeping. Men may build model tenements, schools may try to educate the young to better things, but until trained women teach the housewives of the poor the higher standards of the home, the race will not rise much beyond the present. Invite the college women to share freely in the work of the world, according to her inclinations and her abilities. Recognize her as a posi- tive factor in society, as from the character of her endowments we may safely conclude nature intended her to be. Then endow her with the ballot that she may have authority to enforce her opinions, and to do the work of her choice in the most effective way. In the beginning, the gift of education to the people thru our public schools was not given in the spirit of philanthropy, but was extended in order that our government might rest upon an intelligent citizenship. Now that a majority of the products of the public schools are girls, and the preponderance of literacy of the nation has tipped to the side of woman; now that the interests of women can no longer be confined to the home, but are to be found on the outside as well as the inside of that home, the logician will have diffi- culty to find a sound reason for believing that the government, as well as the home, the school, and the church, may not be safely trusted to the joint judgment of men and women. Surely college faculties, with their trained powers of observation and their breadth of view, need feel no paucity of resources in the effort to find incentive for the college woman. The only hindrance is their own failure to perceive that she needs an incentive ; and meanwhile eyes are blinded by the shadow of the belief that the sphere of a woman is within the four walls of her home, while the sphere of a man is compassed only by the limits of the wide, wide world. There is no sphere for men and no NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General no sphere for women, but a joint responsibility is laid upon both to give their best and highest service to the uplift of the race. With perfect lib- erty of choice each man and each woman will perform that service, and in doing so they will find their natural sphere. Perfect freedom of action and perfect freedom of training is the need of the hour. If in the evo- lution of society the home as we have known it, with its rooms to be swept and its furniture to be dusted, its food to be cooked and its dishes to be washed, shall succumb to the general wrecking process, we may rest assured that the change will come so gradually there will be no jar. The home as it is to be will silently steal in to fill the void. We may not locate the new home in space. We may not describe its material equipment, but we may rest assured that so long as time shall last, whenever two congenial souls shall meet, they will unite in the old, sweet way, ever new, and where they pause, there will be a home. That home will continue to be the bulwark of our nation and our race. Children will come to it, more beautiful, better born, and better trained than we have been. The tenderness of mother-love planted ages ago in our animal ancestors will never know its divinest flower until women, under the influence of encouragement and incentive, have developed to their highest and their best. In the transition, which we could not stay if we would, the eternal forces of evolution may be trusted to save the race from mistakes too serious. Meanwhile it is our present duty to hail each college woman, as well as each college man, as a possible apostle of higher light, and our safest guide will be the motto, " Liberty to all, cur- tailment of opportunity and growth to none." EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, PRESIDENT OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. I shall not at the present time speak of the educational system planted in the Philippines by the Spaniards. In the time of the Spanish sov- ereignty the church was a part of the state, and the church controlled all education. Manila boasted of a university which had a papal charter, and the Jesuits had a college there ; and in Manila and all the other orga- nized towns of the archipelago there were public schools for elementary instruction. We do not know statistically the extent or efificiency of their work, but the masses of the Philippine people are certainly unedu- cated and grossly ignorant, and it seems no exaggeration to say that only a minority of them can read or write. But, in estimating the services of Spain to the Filipinos, we must remember that she lifted them from bar- barism to civilization, and from heathenism to Christianity (excepting only the Mohammedans and heathen in Mindanao, Sulu, Palawan, and other remote parts, who together constitute less than one-fifth of the Sessions] EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES III entire population of the archipelago), and that, if she did not accomplish the elementary education of all the people, she did almost as much in that direction as she had done for the people of her own country ; while in the matter of collegiate and professional instruction the educated Fili- pinos one finds scattered — tho very sparsely, it is true — all over the islands, bear living testimony to Spain's desire to bestow the highest intellectual gifts upon a select and favored class of young men among her subjects in the Philippines. As I studied and reflected upon educational conditions in the Philip- pines, it seemed to me that the soil was peculiarly fitted for the kind of sowing which American administrators would naturally undertake. Here, as at many other points, I discovered a perfect harmony between the needs, desires, and ideals of the Philippine people and the practice and traditions of the American people. The Filipinos wanted free public schools for the entire population ; but free public schools for the instruc- tion of the children of all the people is the central feature of the American educational system. It is natural, therefore, for us to give them, not only what they desired, but what they had demanded in every revolutionary program their patriots had adopted when in rebellion against Spain. I never saw anywhere, in any part of the world, a people who longed more ardently for education. Conscious of ignorance, the people desire instruction. They feel that a new era is opening for them, and realize that it is only thru popular education they can accomplish their national mission. They have seen what schools have done for Japan, and it is the dream of every thoughtful Filipino to make of his country another Japan — with the additional advantage of being Christianized as well as civilized, and of having a republican instead of a monarchial government. And so, as I have said, all thru the islands, there is a hungering and thirsting after knowledge, and the educated man is the object of popular admiration, and he easily becomes the political leader whom the people delight to follow. In view of these facts the first Philippine Commission, of which I had the honor to be president, recommended in its report that "public educa- tion should be promptly established, and, when established, made free to all," and also that " English should be taught in the schools of the archi- pelago to the utmost extent feasible." These recommendations were adopted by President McKinley, and incorporated in his instructions to the second Philippine Commission, of which Judge Taft was appointed president. And the results, short as the interval has been, amply confirm the wisdom and beneficence of the policy. About nine hundred American teachers are now at work in the Philippines, and about one hundred more will soon be appointed. Between three thousand and four thousand Filipinos are employed as elementary teachers; and of these about two thousand daily receive at 112 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General least one hour of instruction in English. Not less than a hundred and fifty thousand children are enrolled in the free primary schools. The number of native adults receiving English instruction in evening schools conducted by American teachers was ten thousand in October ; but at the rate of increase then exhibited there are probably twenty thousand, or even thirty thousand, at the present time. There is a wide and enthusi- astic demand for instruction in English in all parts of the archipelago; and next to that is the demand for instruction in manual training and the mechanic arts, the lack of which has hitherto so greatly retarded the progress of agriculture and other industries in the Philippines. It is another proof of the intelligence of the Filipinos that they so quickly recognize the kind of education they most need : applied science for the development of the vast natural resources of their islands, and English for use in government and in trade and commerce. I need not describe the organization of the public-school system of the Philippines. It is, of course, an adaptation of the system of our own states and territories. There is a superintendent for the archipelago with eighteen district superintendents. Each town has its board of education with advisory functions. The moneys expended are all Philippine, nothing coming from the treasury of the United States. Our function is to administer the funds of the Filipinos for their educational benefit, but in view of the coincidence between the educational desires of the Fili- pinos and the educational system of the Americans, I am firmly con- vinced that no other nation on the globe could render the Filipinos such valuable educational service as we are doing at the present time. While the American teachers who went to the archipelago were undoubtedly attracted by the compensation offered — the salaries ranged from $900 to $1,200 — I know that some of them, and I believe that many of them, were actuated by the spirit of educational missionaries, and the letters I have seen from them show that among them are those who are devoting themselves to their noble but difficult work in a spirit of unconscious heroism. And they have the earnest support of Judge Taft and the other members of the Philippine Commission. But undoubtedly the chief praise for the success of our great educational work in the Phillippines must be awarded to the able superintendent, Mr. F. W. Atkinson; and personally it is a great satisfaction to me to recall that when Mr. Atkin- son consulted me in his doubts about accepting the appointment, I strongly advised him to take the position and pointed out the possibility of such a work and reputation as he has since performed and acquired. There are two unsolved problems, two difficulties, which confront our educational work in the Philippines. One is the relation of the church (by which I mean the Catholic church, for the civilized- Filipinos are all Catholics) to education; the other is the relation of the English language to other languages as a medium of instruction. Sessions] EDUCATION IN THE PHrUPPINES 113 As concerns the church, you will recall that it has been for centuries a part of the state in the Philippines. The two were inseparable; and of the two the ecclesiastical power was undoubtedly more potent than the civil. Spanish officials and military officers came to the Philippines, and after two or three years returned to Spain; but the friar remained in his parish, the permanent representation of Spanish sovereignty, and partly by law and partly by custom he came to wield the authority and sanc- tions of the temporal power as naturally as he exercised the functions of his own spiritual office. In education his voice was supreme, as you will see tragically illustrated in Rizal's Noli me tangere. And education apart from religion, schools separate from the church, were not only the objects of the friar's detestation, but a thing absolutely unknown among the Filipinos. Now, altho the friar has lost his influence among the people, the Filipinos are, and remain, good and loyal Catholics. Consequently the success of our educational work in the islands will, in no inconsiderable degree, depend upon its acceptability to the authorities of the church. We have separated church and state, clearly and decisively. We have made public instruction purely secular, tho, in imitation of the Fairibault plan, we permit any religious denomination, under certain conditions, to use the schoolhouses for purposes of religious instruction. I believe that so far no religious denomination has availed itself of this privilege and, on the contrary, private and parochial schools are springing up in which religious instruction is given and the Spanish language used as the basis of education. Owing to the poverty of the people, it will not be easy to maintain such voluntary institutions as successful rivals of the state-sup- ported schools; yet the Catholic church never shrinks before difficulties, and there is always the prospect that the Filipinos, if permitted by Americans to manage their own educational affairs, would vote public moneys for the support of parochial schools, or even combine the public and parochial schools under the authority of the church in some such fashion as is practiced by the Catholic and French subjects of Great Britain in the province of Quebec. From the American point of view, it would greatly simplify things if the Catholic church would content itself with the extension of the Fairibault plan to the schools of the Phil- ippines. But the outlook at present is not favorable to that hope. And, if it comes to a contest of forces, the church has, and is likely to retain, the hearts of the people, and will control their religious faith, including the question of the place of religious instruction in the schools. The government, on the other hand, has public funds for the support of its schools, which therefore ought to be the more efficient. The people themselves will be divided between the demands of the church and the superior scholastic attractions of the public school. What the ultimate solution may be, it is impossible to foresee. In the meantime, the rivalry 114 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General between public and parochial schools is stimulating each to its best efforts, and in that way at least the Philippine people are the gainers. The second difficulty to which I referred is the language question. Of the 6,500,000 civilized and Christianized people of Luzon and the Visayas, possibly 5 or 10 per cent, speak Spanish. The rest — some six million souls — know only their own vernacular. Of these, 2,500,- 000 speak the Visayan language; 1,600,000 the Tagalog, 500,000 the Vicol, 600,000 the Ilocano, and the remaining million the Pam- pango, Pangasinan, and other dialects. The number of languages among the Mohammedans and heathen is very great. But, so far as concerns the Filipinos with whose government we have to do — the civilized and christianized Filipinos of Luzon and the Visayan islands — two-thirds of them use only two languages, Tagalog and Vis- ayan, while the remaining third have some acquaintance with one or other of these dominant languages in addition to their own vernaculars. Now, what shall the place of English be in this polyglottal archi- pelago? That it should be the official language is reasonable enough, tho the use of the natives' own tongue should be permitted in the courts of justice, if not also in the legislature (as French is authorized in the parliament as well as in the courts of Canada). As to Spanish, I do not see that any special effort need be made to perpetuate the slight hold it has gained upon the Filipinos. But the substitution of English for Spanish as the official language will not make it the general language — the popular medium of communication. Great is the schoolmaster, but even the schoolmaster cannot eradicate the language which the pupils acquired with their mothers' milk. I sometimes think that our American administrators in the Philippines are guilty of overlooking this truth, which is indeed a truism. English will be indispensable for the poli- ticians at Manila, and the traders there and elsewhere. But does any reasonable man suppose that the Philippine peoples in general can be induced to forget their own vernaculars (which come, as it were, by nature) and laboriously and painfully acquire English, which the masses will never have occasion to employ? Such an illusion defies, not only the psychology of language, but the lessons of history. Why, English experience in Quebec and Spanish experience in the Philippines, to go no farther afield, should dispel such a fancy. All history teaches that no race or people ever abandons its vernacular. If the schoolmaster could impart facility in the conversational use of a foreign language, how many hundreds of thousands of American children would today be able to converse in French, German, and even Latin or Greek! But everybody knows that to speak French or German, even as a bungler, it is necessary to go to France or Germany and hear and speak no other language for a year or two. And then, on returning, how soon the acquisition fades away, unless you have constant practice in conversation! The naive Sessions] EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 115 assumption that we can teach the Filipinos to speak English by scattering a thousand American teachers among six million or eight million natives (who have no use for any language but their own) is surely the climax of American energy, self-confidence, and invincible optimism! I dwell upon the matter because of the pernicious consequences which may follow from it. One is pedagogical, the other political. If you undertake to anglicize the Filipino, you may think it your duty to teach him everything thru the medium of English. If you adopt such a policy, very restricted indeed will be the pupil's acquisitions. The foreign language will stand in the way, blocking all progress. Take an analogy too favorable to us. Suppose the children in the elementary schools of an American town of eight thousand souls, where one German lived, were required to learn their arithmetic, reading, writing, history, and geography, not thru the medium of their own language, but by using German only, what progress do you think they would make? Well, in the same way, if our thousand American teachers are to do the most effective work among six million or eight million Filipinos, they must learn the language of the people among whom they live — Tagalog in central Luzon, and Visayan in Panay, Negros, Cebu, Samar, and Leyte. Reading, history, civics, geography, and arithmetic are more important for the rising generation in the Philippines than any foreign language — even tho that language be English. The, few officials and traders who need English will undoubtedly learn it, as their fathers learned Spanish. The people as a whole have no need of English, and, while it should be an optional course in every school that has an English teacher, I would not make it compulsory in any elementary school, and still less would I make it the basis of all other instruction. Still more pernicious is the political consequence that has been drawn from this linguistic fallacy. It is claimed that we must train the Fili- pinos all to speak English in order to make a nation out of them. I have already shown that it is impossible for us to alter the speech of a whole people, and I now go on to add that, tho unity of language is a circum- stance favorable to nationally, it does not constitute nationality and is not essential to it. The Germans in Austria speak the same language as the Germans in Prussia, but they are under a different flag. Indeed, the American empire is a congeries of different peoples. And Switzerland has four national languages — French, German, Italian, and Rhaetian ; yet there is no people in the world that has a stronger sense of nationality. Nationality is compounded of unity of interest, sentiment, and aspiration, and it is favored by unity of race, religion, and language. All these factors, with the exception of language, enter into the composition of Philippine nationality ; and that is more than most European nations can boast of ; and, in the matter of language, Luzon and the Visayan islands are not worse off than Switzerland, Austria, and Russia. The vital ii6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General elements of Philippine nationality are separation from the rest of the world, community of interest, unity of race and color, and identity of religion, sentiment, and political aspiration. Philippine nationality is already there ; it does not have to wait for the language lessons of the foreign schoolmaster. If there could be no nationality until all Fili- pinos had learned English, there never would be one. Thank God the national consciousness of the Filipinos is His gift, not our manufacture. I repeat that, as nearly two-thirds of the civilized and Christianized Filipinos speak either Tagalog or Visayan, they are, in the matter of lan- guage, better qualified for nationality than Austria, Russia, or Switzer- land; and, since all educated Filipinos, whatever their dialect, speak Spanish, the people of the archipelago enjoy a common medium of com- munication which is denied to the people of Austria, Russia, or Switzer- land. Of course, the heathen and Mohammedans of Sulu, Palawan, Mindanao — perhaps one and a half million souls in all — have multifari- ous tongues and dialects; but it is not of them, but of the six and a half million civilized and Christianized Filipinos of the rest of the archipelago that I am speaking. It is these who make what is known as the "Philip- pine problem. " They are the people who fought us. They are the peo- ple to whom, on July 4th, President Roosevelt proclaimed amnesty and on whom he conferred civil government. They are the people who have been demanding independence and who will demand it in the future. They are the people whom we must eventually either make our fellow- citizens and equal partners in the United States of America or set up as an independent republic in the Orient. And my point is this : that their present lingual condition is no bar to independent nationality, but dis- tinctly more favorable to it than the lingual condition of several of the great nations of Europe; and that a knowledge of English is not, for them, a prerequisite to independent nationality. No one can consider the educational work we are undertaking in the Philippines without wondering what the issue of it all will be. Some of the results are obvious enough. There will, for example, be a great mul- tiplication of schoolhouses, school furniture and apparatus, and school books. The rising generation of Filipinos will go to school. Elemen- tary education will be the possession of all the boys and girls of Luzon and the Visayas and the civilized portions of Mindanao and other islands. Its character, too, will be different from that of the elementary education given in the time of Spanish sovereignty. It will be secular, not reli- gious ; and it will be more realistic and less formal, developing the powers of observation and thought as well as the memory. And high schools, colleges, and universities, with modern subjects — living as well as dead languages and literatures, history and political science as well as philoso- phy, yes, and modern physical science — will be established in the Philip- pines as they are now in America and in Europe. And, on the side of i Sessions] EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES U? y intellect and scholarship, the Filipinos may be expected to rival the Japa- nese, as well as in material civilization and the application of the sci- ences to industrial life, wherein Japan already presents a very American appearance. This modern education will undoubtedly lead to an intellectual eman- cipation of the Filipinos. Physical science, historical criticism, and rational philosophy will profoundly leaven existing conceptions, beliefs, and views of man and of the universe. In non-Christian countries like Japan and India the result of the contact of European science and scholarship with oriental modes of thought has generally been the pro- duction of skepticism. What the effect upon a Christian people like the Filipinos, to whom the Jesuits have already taught astronomy at least, may be, it is difficult to forecast. But, whatever the temporary results, we cannot but believe that the mingling of oriental and occidental intel- lects will ultimately lead to broader and juster views, both of human nature and of the mysterious universe in which men find themselves so mysteriously appearing and disappearing. But it is not only the scientific and material elements of American civilization that are destined to reproduce themselves in the Philippines, tho these will greatly modify, and perhaps transform, the existing meth- ods of production, transportation, and exchange. While economically and industrially the archipelago will take on a new and much improved countenance, there is one other phase of Philippine life — a deeper and more vital phase — that is destined to be still more profoundly influenced by all our educational work in the archipelago. If American civilization- differs from European, not by the greater excellence of its literary and scientific productions, but by the superior skill and inventiveness with which it embodies laws and principles in machinery that nature operates, thus increasing man's economic efficiency, it also differs from that older civilization in another respect, which cannot but have momen- tous consequences when transplanted to the Philippines. I refer to our political philosophy, which is radically different from that of any Euro- pean people, past or present. We glory in our applied mechanics, which are destined to develop the physical resources of the Philippine islands; but far more glorious is our political philosophy which is full of hope and prom- ise for the Philippine nation and for every people and race on the globe. Now, every teacher we send to the Philippines is a missionary of the American gospel of self-government and national independence. For he will tell the Filipinos about the United States, and teach American his- tory in his school. Every Fourth of July will not only record the declara- tion of American independence, but utter the prophecy of Philippine independence. The birthday of Washington will inspire Filipinos with the patriotic ambition to consecrate themselves to the liberation of their country. The name of Lincoln will perpetually remind Filipinos than to 1 1 8 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [General people, not even the Americans, is good enough to govern itself and to govern another people. The speeches of your orators, from Patrick Henry to Wendell Phillips, will be declaimed by Philippine schoolboys from Aparri to Zamboanga with all the fervor and conviction, with all the passionate reference to home and country, that made those eloquent Americans such irresistible champions of the rights of nations and of humanity. In pleading the rights of your oppressed ancestors, Burke said in the House of Commons that the English people was the last people in the world to argue any other people into slavery. I say that the American people is the best people in the world to educate any other people up to independence. Our history, our politics, our books, nay we ourselves would have to be different were the result other than this. The kind of people we are, the way we govern ourselves, the history we have made, and the political philosophy we have given to the world, all consecrate us Americans as the advocates and preachers of liberty, democracy, and national independence. And I believe that an independent Philippine republic will be the final result, as it would be the most glorious consum- mation, of our great educational work in the Philippine islands. HOW THE SCHOOL STRENGTHENS THE INDIVIDUALITY OF THE PUPILS W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. It is often said that a common-school system tends to cast all children in a common mold, and thus destroys or suppresses individuality. The common course of study, the three R's, geography, and history; the uniform disciplinary pressure insisting on regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry ; the action and reaction of one pupil upon another; all these result in a self-adaptation of each pupil to the social standard of the school as a whole, and all these things are alleged to have only a leveling influ- ence and to produce a common type of character, almost reminding one of the uniformity of product of the machinery of our manufacturing estab- lishments. This view has some plausibility, especially when one believes that the school produces a mechanical effect upon the child ; but its plausibility grows less and less when we consider the actual relation of school industry to the production of individual power. The good school will make its pupils alike in obedience to discipline and as to the possession of a knowledge of mathematics, geography, his- tory, language, literature, etc., but this means that it will make its chil- dren alike in possessing the power of developing and expressing their individuality. Sessions] HOW THE SCHOOL STRENGTHENS INDIVIDUALITY 119 Take first the piost mechanical side of school education, namely, its discipline. The pupils are required to be regular in attendance on the school sessions, and their coming and going is regulated by minute pre- scriptions as to time of entering and leaving, as to taking up each study, and attendance upon recitations or class exercises. This, in school par- lance, is called punctuality. Regularity and punctuality secure rhythm of action, and each pupil, by the acquirement of these semi-mechanical habits, makes possible school instruction. He learns to combine with his fellows. Without regularity and punctuality one cannot have concert of action. The work of a social whole becomes impossible. The sort of individualism that is left after taking away social combination is such as belongs to the isolated man, and, on a large scale, it produces the most degraded specimens of humanity. The Robinson Crusoe who has to do everything for himself does nothing well. But when he associates with him Friday as a co-worker he becomes — not twice as powerful, but four times as powerful. Ten men combined are a hundredfold more powerful than ten men isolated one from another. To give to each person in the social whole the net results of the experience of all his fellows is the object of education, and indeed it is the object of social life as a whole. Man is fitted by his faculties for this vicarious process of sharing the experience of others — he can live over in himself the lives of his fellowmen without having actually to make all the original experiments and suffer all the temporary defeats and disappoint- ments incident to the career of first experience. But the errors and defeats of one person save his fellows from repeating precisely the same experiments. It happens that ninety-nine one-hundredths of one's doing and thinking in a well-educated community is guided by the prescrip- tions of educative agencies of some sort. There are educative influences, first, in the family; second, in the industrial community; third, in the political state ; and fourth, in the church, taking the church in a broad sense as the collective instrumentalities that teach the accepted view of the world which is expressed in the prevailing civilization. The so-called uneducated person who has never been to school is all the more a person who follows the use and wont of his community — he has a little bundle of habits that he has learned in infancy from the family, and he follows them as if they were instincts or automatic impulses. He acts mostly from his spine or occiput — what are called the lower nerve centers — rather than with the cortex of his brain, which is used by the thoughtful person. The lowest savage has his traditions just as the highest representative of civilization has. His traditions enable him to follow the use and wont of the tribe to which he belongs. All of the tribal facilities combined do not suffice to give its individual members an ability to go outside of the narrow limits of the tribal territory and make business combinations with surrounding peoples nor to share with those peoples in their views of the I20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General world, discussing with them their theories and tfiereby^aining more pro- found views. Each person in a community is continually making some observations upon nature or thinking out the causes and results of facts and events in his experience. To share in the aggregate results of the observations and reflections of one's tribe, one's nation, or of the world's civilization, is a very important privilege in any case, but the privilege varies in value enormously according to the scope of the participation involved. It is a good thing for the unlettered peasant to learn by hear- say from his fellows what they know by experience and what they have thought out. But it is incomparably more useful to be able, by means of books and the printed page, to have access to the observations of all men who have observed and reflected in all times and places. School edu- cation, as distinct from the education of the family, the state, the church, and the industrial community aims to give the means of access to the store- house of observations and reflections of men in all ages and in all climes. This, 1 have already said, is a help to the development of individuality. It gives it the necessary means of expression. It stimulates the individual to travel out of the beaten paths of his neighborhood, to emulate the great men of the world and to climb the heights of achievement. One may see what the school means in the development of individu- ality by going over the traditional course of study in our schools. This course of study excites our admiration because it has not been made by the wisdom of a few men getting together as a committee, but in its sub- stantial outlines is a growth rather than a conscious product. The use of the written and the printed word is the first object of the school instruc- tion, and it changes the child from ear-mindedness to eye-mindedness. Confined to the use of words known only by the ear, the individual has great difficulty in acquiring or understanding a technical vocabulary. The cultivated man, whether literary or scientific, thinks in the form of printed or written words, and accordingly thinks in accurate technical terms and has at his command fine shades of expression. Stop and consider at this point whether the individuality of the child is not reinforced by the power to use these instruments of reading and writing. Without instruments he has a small scope of opportunity to act and to express his individuality. Armed with the arts of reading and writing, the opportunity of gaining facts and ideas from his fellow-men is increased indefinitely. He may manifest his individuality in a thousand new ways. By this process he will develop his individuality where other- wise it could not have been developed for the lack of the proper means. The experience of the illiterate is limited to what he can observe in him- self and in a small circle of neighbors. But his school-educated com- panion, who can read and does read, is all the time widening his mental view by what he gets from the printed page. He is all the time growing and with increasing rate of progress in accuracy of thought, and at the Sessions] HOW THE SCHOOL STRENGTHENS INDIVIDUALITY I2i age of fifty years he is growing far more rapidly than at the age of forty. In fact, he continues to grow more rapidly at sixty and at three score and ten, if he reaches that age, than at any previous epoch. The illiterate, after leaving school, perhaps doubles his power just merely by oral inter- communication with his fellows in the course of thirty years of his life, but the average school-educated person, who can read and does read, grows at least ten times as much. Who cares for the individuality of a person that cannot aid heroically in the conquest of nature or in creating social combinations and the development of institutions for the benefit of man. The individuality of the illiterate is mostly an unrealized possibility. The school helps the child to realize his individuality by getting hold of the instruments and appliances which form the right means for adding to his personal experi- ence the vicarious experience of the race. Hence the school-educated is able to reinforce himself by the social whole. The branches of study in the elementary schools include, not only reading and writing, but also arithmetic, geography, the grammar of one's native tongue, and the history of one's nation. Every one of these branches endows the pupil with some insight which gives him an increased ability to solve the practical questions of his daily life. Take arithmetic, for instance : the savage who cannot count beyond five or ten is limited and hampered in making combinations of things and forces. It is next to impossible to effect exchange of the most necessary articles without arithmetic and the merchant class of persons. This class becomes very numerous in the highest civilization. Its sole business it is to collect and distribute the productions of industry, and it can scarcely be said to exist in the tribe or in the illiterate orders of civilization. Karl Marx in his book on Capital, a book that forms the Bible of modern socialism, reduces the employments of mankind to two — (a) the production of commodities and {b) the exchange of them. He invents an algebraic formula to express this and to show the relations of labor to capital. C — M — C means the circulation of productions thru the aid of the mar- ket; C (or commodities) are sold and converted into M (or money), and then the money (M) buys commodities (C) again. The laborer has brought his productions to the world-market and exchanged them for what he needs of food or clothing, creature comfort or culture, and the circle is complete. Marx would minimize the usefulness of the middle term M (or money), which represents the class of men who are capitalists and mer- chants. Their formula is not C — M — C, but M — C — M, he tells us. They start with money (M), and with it buy commodities (C), but they buy only to sell again — they convert their commodities (C) into money (M), and aim to increase their capital by the exchange. M — C — M; money becomes more money by buying and selling commodities. But Marx does not seem to notice the importance of a world-market, or. k 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General indeed, of a market of any kind. He supposes that that will come by nature, just as grass grows. But the fact is (and this is my reason for mentioning Marx in this paper) that the person who invents the machinery of exchange and the world-market is by far the greatest benefactor, because he takes things from the place where they are not wanted and carries them to the place where they are wanted — he converts mere things into wealth ; he makes them property or capital. He unites widely sundered peoples by ties of mutual service. This gives us a glimpse of the way in which the school, with its three R's, performs its function of stimulating individuality — for the school-educated boy or girl sees more possibilities in each thing of nature than the illiterate sees. He has also acquired an appetite for social combinations and has obtained directive power to put together things into a machine and link man to man in a manufactory. If one takes the view that the so-called middlemen, those who collect and distribute, are not producers in the sense that they add wealth to the community, he should revise his theory, considering that the surplus pro- ductions are worth little or nothing unless they are carried from the place where they are superfluous to the community that needs and wants them. The immense peach crop of New Jersey would be of very little value were it not for the markets of Philadelphia, New York, and the merchant class of the population, as well as the class engaged in trans- portation. The one billion of dollars annually earned by freight of goods in the United States adds just that amount to the value of the goods transported. The study of geography in the elementary school substitutes for exag- gerated, distorted, monstrous, superstitious notions a reasonably accurate view of the physical world as the habitat and working field of man. It contributes much to the ability of the child to read and understand the daily-printed information that comes before him regarding the note- worthy events of nations and peoples living on the face of the earth. What a lameness to the individuality — no matter how much gifted by birth but which labors under the disability of illiteracy — that has not learned anything of geography ! Think of grammar and its bringing to consciousness the parts of speech. This study develops the power of introspection more than any other subject. It enables one to analyze readily and accurately a com- plex statement or a complex nexus of conditions presented to him, and gives him a growing power to separate the essential from the unessential and to discriminate things and forces, and reach clearness thru a con- nected process. Then the history of one's country, the story of the rise of its nation- ality, its collisions with other peoples, the heroic personages in its gallery of worthy men who have, by supreme self-sacrifice, earned the respect of Sessions] HOW THE SCHOOL STRENGTHENS INDIVIDUALITY 123 their countrymen — what a lame individuality would result if the knowl- edge of one's national history were missing, or if one possessed only such a knowledge of it as could be obtained by hearing the anecdotes of idle men ; for we must remember that oral information comes mostly from idle people. Those who are engaged in the highest and worthiest undertakings do not have leisure to recount to their fellow-workers any systematic view of the fragment of history in which they have personally borne a part. If the school teaches all the children of the community the good habits of regularity and punctuality it does so much toward enabling each pupil to work in the social combinations that exist in every civilized community. It gives him some power himself to direct these combina- tions. Directive power is a higher manifestation of individuality than that which simply obeys direction from a leader. The school habit of silence, the repression of one's tendency to prate and chatter, is another element of directive power, quite important. The ability to dig out one's lesson from the printed page and to learn to be critical and exacting in sifting the statements of others is also another service which the school contributes to the development of the individuality of the child. One kind or method of attention is developed in the school by requiring the child to study the text of the book by himself and master its contents with- out aid from teacher or fellow-pupil. The child learns to look below the surface and to seize the principle involved. He learns to overcome by patient and continued industry difficulties which at first seemed altogether insurmountable. The other kind of attention is that cultivated in the class exercises or recitations. All of the pupils concentrate their attention on the statements of the pupil who is reciting and on the cross-questioning of the teacher. It is a dialectic which calls for alertness and versatility of mind in the pupils who take part in it. But this kind of attention is not a substitute for the other one just mentioned. It gives one self-pos- session in the presence of difficult and unexpected emergencies, but it is not a substitute for the patient industry which absorbs itself in a study of the object and its causal relations. The studies of the school, on the one hand, develop a knowledge of nature and arm the mind of the pupil with the experience of those who have conquered or are conquering nature. On the other hand, the school studies relate to human character and arm the pupil with a knowledge of human nature. Of the latter character are all of the fine literary selec- tions in the school-readers. Each one of them gives a glimpse of human nature, which relates to what is generally sub-conscious — below the threshold of consciousness in the ordinary person's mind. The poet or literary man has succeeded in giving a worthy and elaborate expression to some one or more phases of human experience and thereby is making a conscious expression of this forever the possession of his fellow-men. 124 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General One will admit that there is a metaphysical catch involved in this com- plaint against the school that it has the effect of obliterating the native indi- viduality of the child. The history of the United States shows that per- sons who go out to the frontier as pioneers prove themselves to be full of resources in the way of subduing the wilderness and converting it to human uses, destroying wild beasts, defeating the Indians and banditti, and in like adventures. This would be called individualism by most people, but it is a very small part of individualism. The individualism which one wishes to cultivate in urban society fits one to become self directive among his fellowmen, and not merely to be effective against wild nature at first hand. In order to hold one's own in the midst of the urban or industrial civilization it is necessary to have a knowledge of human nature and a knowledge of the motives and purposes of one's fellow-men — yes, and of the essential aims of the civilization in which one lives. It should enable one to select his vocation intelligently and make a success of it in a competitive civilization. The one with small individuality takes his initiative from others and does not strike out for himself. He is dragged or pushed along, and does not contribute his quota of directive power to the community. This second kind of individuality, which can hold its own in an urban civilization, is scarcely considered by most of those who talk or write on the development of individuality, and the very best training of this kind of individuality — namely, that in our large schools — is therefore popularly supposed to have the effect of obliterating individuality. This same kind of individuality is the most important of all individuality — it is civilized individuality. The development of this higher order of individuality can take two directions. First, that of resistance to the influence or demands of the social whole. This development of the individual makes him disobedient at school and a criminal in society, and converts his career into a zero by uniting against him the organized forces of the community. Secondly, the development of the individuality may take the normal direction of mastering the motives and purposes of the social whole and growing into a leader of some one of its manifold interests. This lies in the direction of attaining skill in a chosen industry and in attaining thru letters a knowledge of science and philosophy, which are social aggregates of observation and reflection ; a knowledge of history, which shows the nature and behavior of social organizations, especially of the state and church and civil society; an acquaintance with literature, which reveals the depths of emotion and feeling and shows how feelings become conscious, thoughts and actions, literature in this respect being the study, par excellence, for giving a knowledge of human nature. Besides this, the pupil needs a training in the control of his individualism for purposes of intelligent co-operation with others, and he gets this in a large school better than in a small school, and he gets it in a school far better than with a private tutor or by himself in the family. Sessions] SIMPLIFICATION OF ENGLISH SPELLING 125 Dr. Thwing, who has written so much and so well on the higher educa- tion, has shown by the statistics of men distinguished for letters and science and in the practical fields of activity, that the college graduate is two hundred times as apt to become distinguished as the rest of society — his chances of originality and for the cultivation of a higher order of indi- viduality that can leave the beaten path and accomplish something that earns him the gratitude of his fellow-men are two hundred times those of the ordinary man who has not received a higher education. Whatever gives to the mind a larger view increases individuality; whatever gives to the youth the power of self-control and of inhibiting his impulses and whims for the sake of combination with his fellows increases his higher order of individuality and makes him a more worthy citizen, and in doing these things the common-school system is performing its greatest work. THE SIMPLIFICA TION OF ENGLISH SPELLING A PRESENT DUTY CHARLES PAYSON GURLEY SCOTT, ETYMOLOGICAL EDITOR OF THE DICTIONARY," RADNOR, PA. CENTURY Mr. President, Ladies atid Gentlemen, Members of the National Educational Association : I have been invited to speak to you as a dictionary man, and particu- larly as an etymologist, an explorer and historian of words, upon the sim- plification of English spelling. In the short time allotted to me I can do no more than to make some general statements and express some opinions. But I wish it to be under- stood that what I shall say concerning the treatment of English spelling is not merely my personal opinion, but represents, as I can prove, the general opinion, the solid judgment, of practically all the recognized scholars in English, in America and in England. You may ignore or forget my opinions, my utterances. It matters not. But, as teachers and writers, you cannot always ignore, you cannot always disregard, the deliberately formed and deliberately expressed opinions, the repeated advice, the serious appeals, of all qualified scholars, on a matter of so great importance in all teaching and writing as English spelling. The simplification of English spelling is a duty. It is a present duty. It is especially a present duty of you; not of "all friends of progress," not of " the spirit of the age," not of any other vague abstraction, but oi you; you, the members of the National Educational Association; you, the representative teachers of the United States ; you, the chosen leaders, in state and nation, of the great army of teachers ; you, the directors of the great American system of public schools ; you, the presi- 126 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General dents and professors of our great colleges and universities, the engineers of all the electric lines of learning. It is the present duty of you. This is a bold statement, but it is true, and for this reason : that you, whom I thus address, are rational beings, reasonable creatures. That is another bold statement, perhaps, Mr. President, but I will risk it. I wish to placate the audience, and perhaps they will be reasonable enough to allow me a little pleasant exaggeration. For this reason, then : that you are, in the main, rational beings. By your membership in the National Educational Association, by your pro- fession as teachers, by your functions as national and state officers, by your acceptance of leadership in academic learning and instruction, by your manifested interest in the acquisition and spread of knowledge, you proclaim yourselves rational beings; and, being entitled to all the rights and privileges unto that degree appertaining, you must also accept all the responsibilities and duties of the same. The responsibilities are grave. The duties are numerous. First among those duties is the duty of being rational, even about English spelling — one of the most irrational things in the world. As rational beings, you must look at English spelling and see what it is, and find out how it came to be so ; and you must consider, in view of its present condition, what can be done, and ought to be done, to fit it better for its present and future uses. And you must do this, each of you, by yourself and for yourself. You must lay aside authority, and tradition, and prejudice, and apathy, and must look into the thing itself. Or else you are not rational ; and you must be rational. We must all be rational. As teachers, as writers, we must use our minds, and think. It is uncom- fortable, it is a trial, but we must do it. What is meant by simplification of English spelling? It is spelling English words more simply, without useless letters or other dispensable irregularities. Simplified spelling is a form of amended spelling or improved spelling. It is in the direction of phonetic spelling, but it is not identical with phonetic spelling. It is a common mistake to confuse the two. No philologist proposes strict phonetic spelling for popular use. All philologists favor simplified spelling, in some form, on a phonetic basis. The simplification of English spelling must be by regulation of the existing forms. That regulation implies a rule or standard. That rule or standard is to be found in the actual facts arid prevailing customs and analogies of English spelling, and in the phonetic basis still therein present, tho now partly obscured by the cherished accidents of time and the accepted mis-teaching of spelling-books. The Roman alphabet is that phonetic basis. It can be easily adapted to a clear phonetic use and made a satisfactory phonetic standard of reference for the regulation of the ordinary spelling. The work has I Sessions] SIMPLIFICATION OF ENGLISH SPELLING 127 been done. There is a general consent among scholars. The principles have been laid down. They may be briefly stated. First, of course, the letters must have their Roman or European values. The consonants have nearly all the same values in all European forms of the Roman alphabet. Only c and z have been seriously distorted. But there is no doubt that c should be kept and used in its Roman power, as in Anglo-Saxon, namely, as k. It should not be set aside in favor of k. But the latter acquired values of c, namely, s, ts, tsh {ch), sh, are to be set aside as distorted and ambiguous uses, ^and x may stand, and non-ambiguous digraphs may be added. In spelling it is only the ambiguous that kills. The vowels must have their Roman values, the same values, within narrow margins of variation, as they had in Anglo-Saxon, in Middle English, and as they still have, within like margins of variation, in the principal European languages of the present period. On this principle depends the whole alphabet. There- can be no real simplification with- out it. Better, by far, the present spelling, than one based on the so-called "English" values. The vowels must be called by the names which they had, and have, in Latin, which they had in Anglo-Saxon and Middle English, which they had in early modern English, and which they still have in some English dialects ; namely, a (ah), e (ay), t (ee), 0 (oh), u (00), as in arm, eight, eel, old, ooze {rule). The fourth name (oh) has run a full circle of change, and is now right again in the ordinary use. The vowels must not be called by the recent altered forms of their names (ay, ee, eye, you), acquired under a blind conformity to the general run of phonetic change. We may continue to use this barbarous English rigmarole, ^'a, e, i, u " (ay, ee, eye, you), but we are not allowed as rational beings to approve it. We must not use this rigmarole as a phonetic standard or basis, in the conventional spelling-book style — a as in fate, erintendent of Public Schools, estimate of candidate's fitness (i) Moral character ? (2) Success in gaining co-operation of pupils and parents? (3) Tact in directing and controlling pupils? (4) Interest in work? (5) Energy? (6) Enthusiasm? (7) Skill in instructing? (8) Pover in stimulating pupils to do their best? (g) Influence over pupils out of school? (10) Efforts for self- improvement ? (11) Extent of general reading? (12) Manners as influencing those of pupils? (13) Capacity for work ? (14) For what kind of school would you recommend the candidate ? Signed P. O. The candidate does not know which three of the five references are interviewed. The replies received are averaged and recorded on the face of the certificate in a column numbered I, and a record is also made of the preliminary examination on the back of the certificate. This document, when properly filled out, gives a complete pedagogical his- tory of the person holding the same, together with the estimates of three competent judges who know personally of the holder and her work. It also includes a license to teach in primary, grammar, common schools, or public schools, and is valid for one, three, or five years, or for life. On a day previously announced, the candidates assemble at convenient centers, and written examinations in the several studies are given. These papers are returned to the department and are ranked, and the credits are entered upon the certificate in the column numbered 2, It will be seen that three items are taken into consideration in licensing a teacher : first, her personal and professional record ; second, the testimony furnished by three com- petent persons as to her ability and her success in the schoolroom ; third, her scholastic attainments as manifest in her written examinations. The following advantages are claimed for this system of issuing certificates : first, it is just to the candidate ; second, it reveals to the applicant, in tangible form, her merits and defects; third, it gives full credit for ability, scholarship, experience, effort, and skill ; fourth, it furnishes school officials with a reliable statement of the quality and power of the person applying for a position. Miss Margaret A. Haley, of Chicago. — I should like to ask Superintendent Stetson if he can get teachers with all the accomplishments he has mentioned for $38 per month. Superintendent Stetson. — Many are giving their time and their best knowledge and culture for a sum so small that they are unwilling to reveal it. Miss Haley. — Do the graduates of Smith and Wellesley Colleges support themselves on the small sum mentioned ? Superintendence] THE VALUE OF EXAMINATIONS l8l Superintendent Stetson. — These persons are native-born, Simon-pure maniacs, and are waiting for an opportunity to marry men with money enough to support them and supply them with the necessary amount of money to carry on their work. Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis. — Examination of principals and teachers brings to light other important points aside from determining the academic profi- ciency in the studies he or she is expected to teach. Examinations aid the superintendent and examining committee in determining traits of character and the moral proficiency of the candidate. These traits of character may not always be determined directly, but indi- rectly. It is sometimes true that the teacher who receives the highest per cent, on an examination is the weakest teacher, but this is the exception, not the rule. It is not gen- erally true that those teachers who pass the best examinations are among the strongest teachers. Under our rules for examining teachers, we hold an oral examination as well as a written. The oral examination always follows the written. We use the oral examina- tion to find out what a teacher really knows about the subject, and thru this medium, by a careful method of questioning, we are enabled to discover something concerning the teacher's personality and power. For instance, tke teacher is asked to read a certain selection and encouraged to talk about it. He is asked what his favorite book is, and he is given a chance to tell what he knows about the book. We find it an easy matter to have the resident teachers of our own cities or state take the examination before election to positions in our schools, but it is often impracticable to ask those who live a long way from St. Louis to come and take the examination in advance. The trip is expensive, and we cannot guarantee them a position in advance of the examination. For these reasons our board of education has adopted the plan of permitting principals and supervising teachers to come into our schools, after looking them up, and occupy positions upon proba- tion. This gives us an opportunity to gain a knowledge of their practical work and special fitness for the work to which they have been assigned. If at the close of the intervals of probation their work is satisfactory, they are allowed to take an examination and certificates are issued to them. Superintendent Charles R. Skinner, of New York. — How does your plan for examining inexperienced teachers differ from that of examining experienced teachers ? Superintendent Soldan. — Inexperienced teachers are not permitted to enter the schools upon probation without an examination, while experienced teachers are. Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan. — Is it really worth a teacher's time and efforts to cram for an examination ? I think that examinations should be so set that they will parallel the necessary preparation. Appoint a committee upon examina- tion to prepare a set of questions that will test a teacher's skill on what she will be required to teach. The questions usually prepared in reading are not at all a test of the teacher's ability to teach reading. This same criticism is more or less applicable to many other branches upon which teachers are examined for certificates to teach in our city schools. Superintendent J. ¥. Keating, Pueblo, Colo., asked Superintendent Soldan why he required a teacher to take an examination after she gave evidence of her fitness as a teacher. Superintendent Soldan. — Real scholastic ability goes beyond the ordinary requirements of a schoolroom. A teacher should be broader than the text book and the mere outline of work she is expected to present to her pupils. Superintendent Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. — I should place the names of teachers and principals resident in the city who have given evidence of careful prepara- tion and skill for the work on the approved list. Superintendent James A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal., asked Superintendent Soldan for what time he appointed principals without examination. 1 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Superintendent Soldan. — For the remainder ol the year at the close of which an examination will be given him. If he is not prepared on all the subjects in the usual list, substitution of studies of equal value is often permitted. Superintendent C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb. — Examination of teachers should be held to protect those whose duty it is to employ them. Dr. E. E. White, Cincinnati, O. — We have not yet discovered the best method of examining teachers. So long as we make no discrimination between the beginner and the experienced teacher, so long will the profession be unrecognized and unformed. A qualification in one state is not usually indorsed in another. The profession of teaching ought to recognize permanent qualifications for the work. A certain degree of prepara- tion and certain tests that may be made from time to time should be allowed to take the place of any future examinations. Our custom is to continue to examine teachers too long. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF ALL LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING DAVID L. KIEHLE, PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Life is the supreme treasure of humanity. Whatever it contains, whether much or little, it is still the most desirable of all things. "All that a man hath will he give for his life." Even when reduced to mere animal existence, it is still his precious treasure. And the history of the human race may be comprehended in the single aim, to make life more worth living, to enlarge the content of the ideal, and accordingly to appropriate or utilize man's environment to this end. Education, as the handmaid of civilization, may be comprehensively defined as a preparation for living. It has never been dissociated from this dominant idea of life, and therefore has always, in some sense, been practical. The form which education has assumed at various times has likewise been determined by the form which these two ideals have assumed, namely, (i) who are entitled to a living, interpreted in its highest meaning ? and (2) in what does living consist ? In general, we may say that the governing class — those who represent the institution in its governmental and social capacity — have claimed for themselves the right to represent in themselves the highest ideal of living. This they have claimed in its honors and comforts. They have not only excluded all others from the privileges they have enjoyed, but they have made all others contribute to their living by every necessary sacrifice of comfort, of convenience, and even of life itself. Education has therefore always been for the recognized dominant class, who have alone been given the opportunity to prepare for living. We shall find in our study of education that, with the expansion of this idea of the dominant class, the forms of education have changed to include the new classifica- tion, and also a change in method to prepare for corresponding life. Superintendence] APPLICATION OF LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING 183 Introductory to our discussion of modern education, let us recall a few prominent historical illustrations. The Athenian state was a pure democracy. The citizens of this city- state numbered some twenty -five thousand, and were the governing element of a community ten times as great, consisting of slaves, peasant farmers, tradesmen, and the like. The high ideal of these free citizens was philo- sophic leisure. To this end their education provided a most complete and harmonious culture — physical, intellectual, and social — in the palaestra, the gymnasium, the military service, the games, the theater, and the forum. But this most remarkable system was confined to the few citizens of the state, citizens who were relieved of toil, trade, and all occupations of industry, these being left to slaves and foreigners. Their system of education, so complete when considered with reference to their ideal, was correspondingly narrow. Gymnastics for the body, and music for the culture of the soul in aesthe'tics and philosophy, comprehended the entire range of their education. Commerce, manufacturing, and domestic arts being occupations of slaves, foreigners, and women, the subjects themselves could find no place in the curriculum of freemen. Passing now to the Middle Ages, when the Christian church was the educator of the world, the clergy were the dominant class. Life for them was religious, and education was especially for them as guides and teach- ers of the people. In this period philosophy was made the handmaid of theology. The product of Roman civilization in Roman law was made the foundation of canon law, even as temples and basilicas of pagan Rome were transformed into the churches of Christian Rome. Later, as in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as state governments began to form and take somewhat independent direction of affairs, Roman law became the foundation of civil law. Thus it was that the universities of Europe developed a curriculum intensely practical in the interest of the two great and dominant classes, the clergy and the secular aristocracy. This curriculum culminated in philosophy and theology, canon law, and civil law, to which should be added the no less practical one of medicine. Again, as in the sixteenth and seventeen centuries, the democratic spirit began to appear, as the people began to realize that life was for them as well as for their lords, and that a share of the comforts of life was for them also; they began to claim for themselves the advantage of education in gaining a livelihood. They instituted guilds for the pro- tection of labor, and schools for the better instruction of the laboring classes. These schools, so imperfect in their beginnings, grew to be the Burger- and Realschulen of Germany, the manual-training and polytechnic schools of America. Harvard and Yale and Princeton each provided an education of immediate and practical advantage to the clerical and legal professions, following the traditions of the past. If the representatives of labor — and in this I include all secular occupations of trade and the i84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago mechanic arts — pursued these collegiate courses, it would be for the gen- eral culture afforded by them, and not because they expected to make any practical application of learning to their several callings. During the past century our school system, culminating in the univer- sity, has been greatly modified and expanded to satisfy the demands of industrial life. In the University of Minnesota we have colleges of law and medicine, of pharmacy, dentistry, civil engineering, electrical engi- neering, mining engineering, and mechanic arts, and, last of all, agri- culture. So bountiful has this provision become that it seems as if no form of productive labor had been overlooked in the educational facilities of the state. If, now, you will recall the history from which we have selected our illustrations, you will observe that as the people have gained freedom and recognition as citizens, with the rights of freemen, the system of education has gradually expanded to give practtcal preparation for the several inter- ests which citizenship represents. First, you will also observe that there have been two stages of devel- opment; the first was that of education for the governing classes, social, secular, and clerical. The second, and that with which we have to do, is that of labor, or productive industry — not to supersede the first, but rather to supplement it and give it a more extended application. Thus far, too, the progress of education, as we have considered it, has been confined to men, because citizenship has been for men. Authoritative direction in affairs of church and state, in matters social and industrial, has been limited to men. Accordingly, education in all its history has been for men. In the earlier periods women were without either social or political consideration, and were consequently excluded from all privileges of edu- cation. It is only in recent times that the rights of woman and her position in state and church have come under serious discussion. As her rights of citizenship were recognized, she was admitted to the public schools, and the era of coeducation began. But the schools to which she was admitted had been planned for the ruling classes. What she was to get was because of what she was, and what she wished to pursue, in com- mon with men. This education began in the elementary grades, where study, like play and work, is quite the same for boys and girls. Later, as women have been admitted to colleges of academic and technical instruction, they have found the courses those that are demanded by men in the professions and the industries. As women emerged from the seclusion and the limitations of domestic life to assume the responsibilities and to discharge the duties of citizen- ship, they first asserted their industrial rights — the right to work for pay, to undertake enterprises requiring skill — according to their own prefer- ences and abilities. The industries and the technical schools opened to Superintendence! APPLICATION OF LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING 185 her were planned for men, and from them she must choose those adapted to her tastes and capacities. This condition has prevailed and still pre- vails thruout state institutions with few exceptions. In the University of Minnesota we have colleges of law, medicine, dentistry, several colleges of engineering, and one of agriculture, including instruction in dairying, horticulture, and general farming. From these women are free to select instruction on equal terms with men, and on the same terms offer their services to the public. Surely this is great progress, and in which our own country takes pre- cedence over all others. And yet this is not the goal for women and their education. The significance of what we have done is that, in so far as men and women have common abilities, common rights, and common aims, they may study and labor together; but beyond the point of differ- entiation, in a department of life which belongs pre-eminently and exclu- sively to woman, namely, the home and motherhood, no provision has been made. So noticeable is this neglect that the criticism has been pro- voked that we are educating shopkeepers and artisans — money-makers of our daughters, instead of wives, and mothers, and home-makers. It is doubtless true that in the development of civilization the first attention is given to the forum and the arts of government and conquest ; after these come the shops and the trades for the acquisition of wealth and the material comforts. But all this is only the beginning — the preparation for a living that is worthy the name. Until wealth brings its treasures from the shop and the bank to the home, in forms of use for the comfort of .the family; until art learns to beautify the dwelling-place of the family life as well as the cathedral and the capitol ; and until science devotes itself to the healthful rearing of children and the hygiene of the home, all these forces of our modern civilization of which we are so proud fall far short of their highest service, and that to which they were destined. And this final and noblest application of wealth and learning must be effected in the education of women. With equal rights to do what they may do in common with men, they must be permitted to continue their education in preparation for their higher duties of the home, which they alone are able to make and adorn. I do not hesitate to affirm that, if the subject is to be estimated from the standpoint of science and education, there is as much intelligence and good judgment required in applying science to the care of home and its children as to the care of the stock on the farm ; and that it comports with the dignity of any educational institution to apply the principles of chemistry as well to the making of wholesome bread for the maintenance of health as to the mixing of drugs for its restoration when lost thru ignorance of the laws of health. So far in this discussion the progress we have noted has been in our 1 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fChicago higher institutions, and for the training of specialists of high grade in the several industrial lines of modern life. This demand of our times that our education should contribute to the better living of the people has found tardy response in the high schools of our states. These high schools are the colleges of the people. They must not only fit the few for the higher institutions, and for the special courses, but they must give the final prep- aration for practical life to the majority of its students. The positions to be filled by those who are graduated from these high schools are, in the main, common forms of business, the trades, farming, and, for young women, the duties of home life. That the high school and every other school should, in its appropriate way, represent and keep before its pupils the highest aims of education must not for a moment be lost sight of. Its spirit should be to encourage every youth to make the best of himself and the most of life by the highest culture which his circumstances will allow, and by his intelligence and skill to make himself a part of the largest world of human interests and activity of which he is capable. Nothing would be more calamitous to our high schools than to close the avenues to a high culture, and to give undue prominence to mere money-making occupations of life. Having guarded this aspect of the high school, I may say, without being mis- understood, that, inasmuch as life must be lived by the largest portion of the people without the privileges of a collegiate education, it is the duty of the high school to educate this body of its students to the best ideas and the most practical application of them to the station they are to fill. This is especially important in regard to the industries. Until the era of popular education, the educated classes were occupied with social, govern- mental, and professional duties. The industries were followed by the uneducated classes. The aristocratic application of education, more prop- erly named training, for the improvement of menial service did nothing toward popularizing industrial life, and in giving it rank with the occupa- tions of the cultivated classes. These young people who are in our high schools will not enter the class of menials, no matter how excellent the training. If, however, the useful industries, as manual training and the domestic arts, are given an educational and a culture value in the curricu- lum of our high schools, the problem has found a solution. The claims of such commercial courses as bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, and the like, that are now being urged upon our schools, in educating and social value, are not to be compared in importance with those I have named, and for reasons such as these : 1. They are urged by the spirit of trade — a spirit which is already a dominating one in our American life. 2. The elements of commercial transactions ought to be provided as a practical application of, and within the time given to, writing and arithmetic. Superintendence] APPLICA TJON OF LEARNING TO BE TTER LI VI NG 1 8 7 3. In educational value the subjects I have named are immeasurably superior. Domestic science requires skillful application of the best results of the sciences of physiology, hygiene, and chemistry. Manual training is an application of geometrical conceptions of forms, in accu- rate observation, comparison, and judgment, in forms of wood and metal, and also an aesthetic adaptation of the same to useful ends. 4. But, above all other considerations, these subjects foster those forms of life which, for reasons already given, have been in disrepute, and yet are most important to comfortable living. We are already under the influ- ence of a money-getting, commercial spirit, which is intruding upon the quiet comforts of home life, and diverting our youth from occupations which require diligent and steady application to employments that promise moderate yet certain and steady returns in profit. Our young women have already too many encouragements to take positions of public service in shops, stores, and offices; and our schools as promoters of high ideals of life and service owe it to themselves that these subjects receive the attention they deserve. The educating policy of continental Europe has been to improve the intelligence of the people in order to make them more efficient in their respective spheres of life, and thereby to increase their usefulness to society above them, as well as to add to their own happiness, but without disturbing the traditional class distinctions as they exist. In America the opposite idea has largely prevailed ; those in humbler life have been taught that education is the avenue of escape from the sphere of life into which they have been born, and with which the evils of life have been associated. Under this impulse our educational system has fostered a general migration from domestic and industrial life. Our daughters are headed away from the home fireside, and are strung along the way from the merchant's counter and stenographer's table up to the practice of law and medicine. Our boys have dropped the hoe and the hammer, and are headed for the town to become clerks, doctors, lawyers, and legislators. Now, it is not in my mind to condemn this view of education or to oppose it ; but I do urge that we enlarge our views to include that other idea, that education has for its aim a preparation for a life of comfort and honor in every walk of life. It is to furnish our youth with culture of mind and heart that will make them noble men and women, and with the necessary skill of hand that will make home a place of refinement and health, and the shop a place of intelligent and remunerative industry. It is to make all industry of cultivated life honorable, to encourage every young man and woman to seek and to occupy the largest place of useful- ness to which he is by nature adapted, to avoid none as if it were menial, and to make home life the center to which art, science, and wealth make their final and choicest contribution. It is not only that education should prepare for a better living, but it 1 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago should teach what a better living is. Next to living, the greatest problem of life is, what is good living ? And the greatest obstacle to a good sys- tem of education lies in the misconception of society respecting the kind of a living that is most worthy of our seeking. No one can object that man's first effort is for bread for himself and his children ; and until this demand is satisfied it is useless to interest him in anything else. But having bread, he should learn that the delights of life do not increase with the accumulations of bread in the forms of money and bonds. Our schools and our learned men have also to learn what the proper service of education is, and what the final end of its acquisitions in use. Explor- ers and searchers for things new, whether it be for new continents, new laws of science, or new philosophies of life, are great contributors, and deserve great honor, but these do not rank highest. They are but the forerunners of those who apply things new to the better living of the people; those who colonize the new worlds and establish governments of freedom of the oppressed; those who utilize science for the improvement of social conditions to make more people happier and better, and who multiply happy homes with happy children. Our great men, in great institutions, have too often forgotten this. They have risen so high into the sphere of the general and the abstract that they have forgotten their highest mission. The airalessness of the study of philosophy was exposed by Malebranche in the confession that if he held truth in his hand he would let it escape that he might enjoy the pleasure of its pursuit. Modern science, in a like spirit, assumes that all that is not pure science is impure. A German professor objects to applying calculus to concrete things as falling bodies and other physical phenomena. Another professor has introduced some new phase of mathematical science to his audience after this fashion : " Gentlemen, I am pleased to assure you that this is a chapter in mathematics which can not be applied to any practical purpose." Those men who devote them- selves to investigation and discovery must not forget that their honors will not be awarded until they or others have given their discoveries value in some practical application to living. In our day it is the people who are supporting education, and not princes nor a scientific aristocracy. The people are interested in nothing so much as living ; and they who are nearest the people are the men who take the crude material of discov- ered truth, which these miners have sent up from the dark chambers of their hidden lives, and have reduced them to forms of utilitarian beauty, to increase and to improve the happiness of men. And this test is being applied to our entire educational curriculum. Humanity has no use for "art for art's sake," for culture as an end in itself, nor for a science that disappears with its votaries in the realm of the abstract. The supreme test of educational values is: How do these things relate man to life? What better interpretation of living do they give ? And how do they contribute to better living ? Superintendence] APPLICA TION OF LEARNING TO BE TTER LIVING I 8 9 DISCUSSION Professor George E. Vixcent, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. — I am glad that my extemporaneous remarks are not typewritten and in the custody of the secretary, for Dr. Kiehle's comprehensive discussion drives me to the refuge of the university man — the field of the doctrinaire. Bear with me, therefore, while I philosophize briefly in what may seem far from a practical fashion. At the outset let me assert that in all this world the most practical, accomplishing force is the ideal. This is the one thought which I shall try to elaborate in the few minutes assigned to me. Three words in the topic of the hour I select as significant and as involving the questions at issue. These words are " practical," "application," and "better." What is a practical \xst of all learning; what is involved in its application; and what is better \i\- ing ? These are the problems. It is our habit to think of the mechanism of life as the chiefly practical thing. We naturally pride ourselves upon the railway, the telegraph, and the telephone, upon the factory and the printing press. But these are, after all, merely the machinery, the means of life, not life itself. To exalt the mechanism above the ends which it serves is to blun- der sadly. The real motive power, the force which brings things to pass, which is truly practical, is the imagery which fills the minds of men, the pictures which arouse their enthusiasm, the visions which inspire them to effort. The fundamental problem is to translate knowledge into ideals, to transmute learning unto an inner light. Every society is to be judged finally, not by its beautiful wares, its cunning contriv- ances, its treasures of art, but by the mental pictures of character, conduct, and destiny which arouse purpose and activity in its men and women. The chief task of a nation, then, is to energize its knowledge, to organize its learning into leading. The word "application" has for me an unfortunate suggestion. It somehow seems to imply an external, inorganic relation. One thinks of something fastened on or added from without. This may seem merely a quibble about terms, but I fancy a misconception lurks beneath the word. The learning which becomes truly practical cannot be applied or added to either individual or institution or society. It must be taken up into the life of persons and people. It must be a growth in the very fiber of the citizen and the state. The teacher who regards the studies of the school as external entities to be applied to the pupils is hopelessly a machine. Literature, history, art, science become a living, organic whole in the personality of the true teacher. Nor can any educated class in a nation apply learning and art and idealism to their humbler fellow-citizens. These things must live in the minds of the many. Leadership and suggestion are powerful forces, but there is no alchemy by which "leaden instincts can be fused into golden conduct." A people becomes wise and brave and just only as the imagery of truth and courage and righteousness fills the minds of its men and women. The glory of democracy lies in its faith that the many may live this richer, fuller life. Nevertheless, the few must discover the truth, translate it into ideals, and put these at the service of all. It is an inspiring task that may well arouse the noblest souls. Think of the devotion of these explorers ! I am not wholly content with Dr. Kiehle's imagery of the miners at work in their deep shafts, if that implies narrowness of view and inter- est. Nor can I feel that " truth for truth's sake " is not a noble quest in itself. It may be a subordinate aim in the hierarchy of purposes which the ideal of social service domi- nates, but it rises far above many of the practical and sordid ends which men and women are far too prone to seek. May our scientists never cease the pursuit of truth as an ideal end, as well as a means to a larger life for all mankind ! But knowledge cannot in itself fire the imagination and urge men to action. Senti- ment must provide the motive force. Ideals are impotent unless they arouse instant response of emotion, resolution, and effort. We cannot neglect this all-important factor. 1 9° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago this passion for realizing the nobler pictures which pass before the mind. However we may conceive religion, its essential part in the life of men cannot be denied. In these days when theological formulae are being revised or translated into the new "language of the times," the thoughtless may fancy that religion is passing ; but those who peer deeper see that the fundamental facts of religion, ideals of righteousness and fervent purpose to realize them, were never more potent than today. Religion as the passion for perfection, seeking the divine truth, and pressing ever toward loftier planes of individual and com- munity life, is a permanent force in social evolution. I need not dwell upon the meaning of "better living." Life is to be judged finally by the imagery, the ideals which pass in ceaseless panorama before the minds of men. In so far as these pictures present the richer, nobler aspects of conduct and aspiration, existence passes over into living. Thus again we reach the assertion that the most fun- damentally practical task of every people is to produce and diffuse the imagery which will inspire its citizens to the highest aims. Truth, purpose, and effort, then, are the necessary factors of achievement, of practi- cal accomplishment. In a general way, this is no time for nice discriminations. Science, philosophy, and religion stand for these three things : science gathers facts and formu- lates laws; philosophy unifies these into a theory of life; religion tiansforms this theory into dynamic power. Not one of these factors can be neglected. Each is essential. The absence of science means ignorance and fanaticism ; the neglect of philosophy leads to mental anarchy ; the decline of religious fervor spells apathy and stagnation. We rejoice in the conquests of science because they contribute to an ever truer philosophy of living, a more and more accurate picture of what is, a loftier and more imspiring vision of what may be. Philosophy — and with this I include theology — becomes increasingly a social philosophy. All knowledge is brought to bear upon the common life of men, not only to produce more goods, but to give each one a more vivid image of himself as a member of society. Thus the old artificial individualism yields to a truer picture of social solidarity, and the person thinks himself in terms of his fellows. Religious enthusiasm, a zeal for righteousness, seizes upon this new ideal and infuses new fervor into daily duty, civic loy- alty, and public service. This in brief outline is the mighty movement by which deeper learning passes into richer living. Let us not overlook this fundamental task — the most vital and practical which we can further. Nor should we waste time in idle disputes as to the relative value of science, philosophy, and religion. It is vain to give precedence when all are essential and interdependent. Science furnishes materials for the ideals of life and con- duct which philosophy creates and which religion urges into action. These ideals are. the practical forces which bring things to pass. They are the ends which mechanism serves. They are, in Watson's phrase, " the things that are more excellent." The grace of friendship, mind and heart, Linked with their fellow heart and mind ; The gains of science, gifts of art. The sense of oneness with our kind ; The thirst to know and understand, A large and liberal discontent, These are the goods in life's rich hand. The things that are more excellent. N. C. SCHAEFFER, State superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.— ' Teaching consists in getting another to learn. The word "learning" may mean the activity by which the mind acquires knowledge, or it may mean the results of that activity and thus be synonymous with the knowledge imparted at school. Using the term in the latter signification, we may say that, as applied to better living, all learning falls under three categories. First, the learning that exerts no influence upon living. In the days when Cicero I SupcrintendenceJ APPLICATION OF LEARNING TO BETTER LIVING 119^ spoke and Vergil wrote, there were men so rich that they dissolved pearls in goblets of wine to make the drink more costly. The names of these millionaires are almost forgotten. To teach their names exerts no influence upon the lives of the students. What application to life can be made of the knowledge implied in questions like the following : Name the English king who died in a carriage ; the spy who was caught in the attempt to carry a message in a silver bullet to General Burgoyne ; the soldier who escaped at the battle of Thermopylae. Is it the duty of the superintendent to exclude from the curriculum all knowledge that does not conduce to better living ? Secondly, there is the knowledge that is helpful in bread-winning, in money-making, Talk against bread studies as much as you please, the struggle for existence com- pels most pupils to seek knowledge that will be of use in making a living. When man's powers are exhausted in the struggle for existence, as during war, the very name of let- ters is a mockery. The demands of the body must be met if there is to be leisure for the things of the mind and the higher life. Thirdly, there are kinds of learning or knowledge which conduce to the higher life of thought, faith, hope, love. That which makes life worth living is love of kindred and friends, of home and country, of truth and of God, and of all that is highest and best in God's universe. The kind of knowledge, for instance, that stimulates patriotism is of supreme importance in the curriculum. The lessons in civil government should beget a love of country that will make the boys and girls willing to contribute their share of tax for the support of the government and the education of the people. Education is the common religion of the American people. We all repudiate Herbert Spencer's doctrine that the taxation of one man to educate another man's children is robbery. We all firmly believe in taxation for school purposes, but we prefer to let the other fellow pay the taxes, even if it is necessary to do this thru the coffers of a corporation. Tax-dodging has become a fine art. The school should inculcate the knowledge which bears upon this and other duties of a citizen. Learning may signify the activity by which knowledge is acquired. The test of good teaching is thinking. In the act of learning, thinking gives rise to permanent knowl- edge. No one has been fool enough to advocate the introduction of chess into the cur- riculum, altho a game of chess begets intense thought. Good teaching cannot rest satisfied with learning that culminates in mere knowledge. Knowledge of history must be applied to life's duties : its lessons must cause a pupil to love his country, make sacri- fices in its behalf, and, if necessary, die in its defense. Thru the transformation of knowledge all learning should conduce to better living, not merely to the enjoyment of physical comforts, but also to the enjoyment of the things of the mind and the higher life. This is the problem that keeps the superintendents awake at night, and is of infinitely more consequence than the little details of supervision to which some would confine the discussions of the Department of Superintendence. Mrs. Virginia C. Meredith, St. Anthony Park, Minn. — Dr. Kiehle sounded an important note when he spoke of the education of woman for the duties of the home and motherhood. The home protects the child. The home is an important institution ; the women who are to direct the affairs of the home should receive special and ample prepa- ration for their work. The knowledge woman possesses regarding the economy of the home will determine the proper expenditure of money for the needs of the home ; hence the importance of a careful training for a wise direction of home affairs. Superintendent Frederick Treudley, Youngstown, O. — I wish to speak of the spiritual frontage of life. All living that is possible to the individual is organized from the plains of life. Women should know more of the lives of real spiritual characters and possess their strength in order to perform the functions of mother in developing child life in the home. Fathers should remember the duties of the home and society, and by their conduct should quietly and unconsciously shape the lives that come under their influence. 192 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago INFLUENCES THAT MAKE FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP HENRY P. EMERSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, BUFFALO, N. Y. Last September I observed for half an hour the proceedings in the trial of Leon F. Czolgosz, the murderer of President McKinley ; I heard the prisoner say, in answer to the usual questions in regard to his age, occupation, and education, that he was born in the United States, and had attended public and parochial schools. Taken in connection with his oft-repeated assertion that he considered it his duty to kill the presi- dent, this answer naturally made a deep impression upon at least one person who had given over twenty-five years of his life to the work of training the young. Believing, as I always have, that a public school is in itself a social community where the child learns, if he learns nothing else, the necessity for subordinating his individual will to the welfare of the whole, I determined to learn more, if possible, as to the school life of the assassin. Eminent alienists declared him sane, but all that he said or tried to say bore evidence of illiteracy and neglect. His very appearance indicated weakness of mind and body. He. seemed to me a type of character that some of us have become familiar with in city truant schools. Czolgosz stated that he had lived in Cleveland, Detroit, and Alpena. Replies which I received from the public-school authorities of the above-named places make it evident that no public school, and probably no parochial school, is responsible for this abnormal and defect- ive character. He attended an evening school in Cleveland for a few weeks only. So far as I have been able to learn, this is the only school- ing he ever had. But, even if no school is responsible for Czolgosz, it is a serious question whether the communities in which he lived while he was of legal school age were not responsible for his lack of training. Our compulsory-education laws are based on the theory that a community, for its own protection, as well as for the good of the child, must make it impossible for any boy or girl to grow up in ignorance, a stranger to the ennobling influences which every good school. exerts. Without regard to who was responsible for such a product as Czolgosz, the terrible tragedy of last September ought to give new importance to the question whether we are doing all we can in the direction of moral training and preparation for life ; whether we are doing all we can to make the young appreciate the necessity for government as a guar- anty of law and order and liberty ; whether we are imparting right ideals as well as information ; whether we are giving as much thought to the work of inspiration as to the work of instruction. I admit that any attempt to secure these higher results in education is sure to meet with obstacles. In ihe first place, there are always timid souls who fear that the conscience is to be interfered with. A leading Superintendence] INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 193 newspaper of one of our large cities has recently asserted that it is danger- ous and un-American to make any attempt to influence the character of the young. Such people somehow confuse religion and morality, and claim that it is the business of the state simply to teach facts. They would secularize education to such an extent that even the emotional nature is left untrained and atrophied. One obstacle is found in the lack of co-operation on the part of the home. I am naturally an optimist, and it is hard for me to believe that people at large are less moral or live upon a lower level than thirty years ago ; but it is plain that there is less moral instruction in the home ; that there is more frivolity; that life is taken less seriously than a generation ago. You will remember how forcibly Herbert Spencer sets forth the inability of the average parent properly to train the child, the bungling and often cruel methods adopted to enforce discipline in the family. He evidently believes that, as a rule, the parents are more at fault than the children. Certain it is that when we consider the selfishness, dishonesty, and brutality of men as recorded in the newspapers and in police courts, and then remember that many of these people are charged with the training of families, we cannot wonder that the schools do not always succeed in turning out good men and women. The proper province of the school is to strengthen and extend the work of the home in the training of character, but, if this important matter is neglected in the home, it is all the more true that the welfare of the country is in the keeping of the schools. Another obstacle in the way of this higher kind of education is found in a mistaken notion of school discipline. No school can exert a proper influence on the character of the young if the teacher is a mere martinet who looks upon good order, not as a means, but as an end. Moral train- ing will never result from mere precision and perfection of system. Rigid courses of study and programs and electric bells will not alone build character. There must be at work the power and personality of a large minded and large-hearted teacher interested in the welfare of the children. The school that runs like clock-work is not necessarily the best. To the ordinary lay mind fine buildings, showy architecture, steam heating, and expensive sanitation are the all-important things about a school system. They are important, but, after all, they amount to very little apart from the life and character of the teachers. Machinery is helpless unless the right motive power is applied. There is a tendency in all teaching to drop into mechanical methods, to become narrow and bookish, to make more of words than of the reality behind the words, to forget that the letter killeth but the spirit maketh alive; and a school or system of schools is successful in the best sense only in so far as it over- comes this tendency. We turn to a pleasanter phase of the question when we consider the 194 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago influences that help in the making of good citizens. Every good school does a work that we can hardly overestimate in building character. Habits of neatness, order, and punctuality; respect for, and obedience to, properly constituted authority; the training in attention when attention is necessary; lessons in application, in industry, and systematic method of doing things; the mutual concessions which are essential in school life — all these are training in character and preparation for citizenship. The simple fact that children form the habit of dressing for school, of keep- ing clean, of being on time, of performing certain duties at fixed times and in regular ways — these things influence character. Every recitation, if conducted in the right spirit, affords opportunity for direct or indirect building of character. Biography, history, and literature afford the best means of moral culture, but the teacher who understands how to handle children can make them feel and enjoy the moral power of a principle in arithmetic or a rule in grammar. Any study, if rightly treated, is productive of ethical influence. Wherever the teacher succeeds in inspiring a love of truth, and honest effort in search for it, there character-building is going on. A school should give the young something elevating to think about. It should awaken an altruistic sentiment, an interest in the general wel- fare apart from selfish considerations. Such a school will be a power for good in the coranmnity, altho no preaching is done, and the children never suspect that the teachers are trying to influence them. The power of such a school is felt thruout the whole neighborhood, because it sets in motion a general waking-up process, interesting the parents in the work of the school, furnishing topics for conversation at home, and generally arousing an interest in higher things. In Buffalo we have been giving elementary instruction as to our city, state, and national governments, with a view to illustrating the moral principles which underlie good citizenship. Our object is not merely to give information, but to inculcate a high standard of public duty, the obligation of civic pride, a sense of the dangers arising from official selfishness and corruption, the need of placing public interest above private gain. We try to show the necessity for good government, that is, good management of a city in order that it may be clean, healthful, and beautiful, and to emphasize the wickedness of squandering the people's money in bad work. The necessity for taxes, that is, money to carry on the government, is easily shown in a city by referring to the need of public schools, of a fire department, and of police protection — things which the children are daily familiar with. In showing that the business of government requires a vast outlay of money for buildings, salaries, etc., which is collected from the people in taxes, the teacher is expected to bring out the fact that taxes are trust funds, and hence should be spent more carefully than private funds. The last year of the grammar-school Superintendence] INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 195 course is reserved for the consideration of matters of importance to us as a city. Such questions as the common council, the powers of the mayor, the important appointments made by him, the city departments, the methods of carrying on public business, the difificulties in the way of good government in large cities, are presented and discussed. It is the business of a school to furnish proper nourishment for the higher life and aspirations of the young. Appropriate literature is one of the best means of imparting right sentiments, and of leading the children to appreciate self-sacrificing deeds and noble thoughts. By bringing the better emotions into play the sympathies are aroused, the spiritual nature cultivated, and the foundation laid for right conduct. The mind grows with what it feeds upon. We are dependent, not only upon our habits, upon the established trend of mental action pro- duced by exercise and discipline, but also upon our acquired ideas, upon the thought materials stored up and organized in the mind. This material seems to possess a kind of vitality, an energy, an attractive or repulsive power. When ideals once gain a place in the mind they become active agents. They are not only the material with which the mind builds, they are a part of the mind itself. The power to feel needs development as much as the power to know. The muscles of the body are developed by use. We make the mind strong and active by giving it exercise. So right feelings may be culti- vated by calling them into exercise. If the nobler feelings are often appealed to, nobler feelings become easier, and, finally, habitual. If there is any truth in this philosophy, how important a teacher becomes as compared with the book he uses ! If there is any truth in it, the age of the mere giver-out of information is going ; the age of the inspirer is coming. In an address delivered before this department three years ago. Super- visor Martin, of Boston, impressively showed that true moral teaching affects conduct indirectly by the general elevation of ideals ; that it can- not be separated from the general discipline, instruction, and moral atmosphere of the school ; that it must be the air which the young unconsciously breathe ; that the stuff out of which the ideal is made is always character in the concrete, qualities incarnate — not precepts nor codes of ethics. He cited the case of Abraham Lincoln. While this great man lived and was carrying burdens such as no president ever carried before or since, men wondered how such a man could come from such a beginning. From a child he lived seemingly without one gleam of light or of fair surroundings. Such largeness of understanding, such loftiness of purpose, such singleness of aim, such grasp of great moral questions and questions of state — they seemed an effect without a cause ; but when, after his death and under the influence of his growing fame, men began to scrutinize all the details of his early life and to find that 196 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago his early associates had been, not merely the rough pioneers of the frontier settlements, but the men and women of the Bible, of Pilgrim's Progress, of Plutarch and Shakespeare, the mystery was in a large measure explained. He had been associated with the great characters of the world and had grown into their likeness. Results such as I have described are not a matter of buildings, or systems, or text-books, or courses of study, but of teachers. It is essen- tial that the individual teacher possess those elements of sincerity and earnestness which belong to high personal character. Some of the most effective functions of a teacher are really performed when he seems least to be teaching, because the power of his own personal character is con- stantly creating ideals in a way not laid down in any book. Every teacher moves thru the school, and before the pupils, the constant and visible embodiment of some type of manhood or womanhood. The pupils feel the contagion of a selfish or a generous spirit, of an honest or a tricky disposition, of a soul cast in a large or a little mold. It is not easy to explain the power of a born teacher to influence character, to create right motives. The truth is that selfishness begets selfishness, and noble- mindedness begets noble-mindedness. The child unconsciously takes the measure of his teacher. If, in reality, teachers are disinterested, if their chief aim is to be of service to those under their charge, and if they at the same time are really skillful, the children, tho they may never have reasoned it out, feel and recognize the influence of their personality. I have never known an instance where a class, as a whole, proved an exception to this rule. The forming of right character, no less than the gaining of mental power, depends on the self-activity of the pupil. For this reason it is necessary to diminish, so far as possible, the element of coercion in dis- cipline and substitute for it self-control. It is easier, of course, to govern by force. You can make a troublesome boy obey you by flogging him, but you cannot change his moral attitude on the general question of obli- gation and duty except by long-continued patience and persistent effort. The less we repress and tyrannize over children, the greater their tendency to assert their freedom, sometimes in disagreeable ways ; but there is no other method of leading them into that self-government which is the end of education. We must give them some liberty in order that they may learn how to use liberty. Where there is no choice, no putting upon honor, no confidence shown, there can be no development of self-control. I trust I shall not be considered unorthodox and reactionary if I express a fear that our new methods of education, as carried on by extremists, easily degenerate into a source of weakness because they fail to develop the power of self-reliance and individual initiative, which are more and more necessary elements of success in life. The complaint is sometimes made, and justly I think, that the tendency of the new methods I Superintendence J INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 197 is to give pupils a many-sided interest, but less vigor of mind and pur- pose than the old way, that the power of the teacher to im^part knowledge and smooth out difficulties has been developed out of proportion to the pupil's power to acquire, and that the latter are less reliant and less pre- pared to attack and overcome difficulties than in former years. While we rightly try to make the schoolroom more homelike and attractive, we should at the same time remember that the world which the boy is to enter is no respecter of persons. While we attach less and less importance to exami- nations and aim to make the studies interesting and attractive, we must also remember that no education is complete that ignores the overcoming of difficulties as a factor in character-building. The human race has been developed by exertion. Except for care and struggle and pain man would never have risen above the intellectual and physical stature of Polynesian savages. As the chief argument against socialism is that nobody can explain what would spur on the lagging faculties of man when the incen- tive of want is taken away, so it would be difficult to show how the child is to be prepared for the struggle of life where he is allowed to proceed along the lines of least resistance, where there is no real downright hard work required, and where the boy thinks if he is not interested it is always the teacher's fault. It is taken for granted in this country that children are to make their own way in the world, that they will have to look out for themselves, that they are not to depend on their parents, or on society, or on the govern- ment. If at school they form the habit of relying on the teacher, of having things made easy, the more likely they are to rely on help from others, from the community, or the state. Why is it that a boy who leaves school early and goes to work so often proves more than a match for the graduate ? Because he is put on his own resources in circumstances where he has to sink or swim. In an article written since the Spanish war, President Eliot insists that, when it comes to a pinch, the source of victory in modern warfare is in the personal initiative of each individual commander, private soldier, or sailor. "When all preparation is made," he says, " when all appli- ances have been perfected and brought together, in the particular thicket or mined strait in which the work of the moment is to be done, it is the perceptive power or moral resolution of the individual that commands success." In industries as in warfare the automaton counts for less and less, and the thinking, resourceful individual for more and more. What has made the English-speaking peoples the leaders in the mod- ern world, whether in planting colonies, or in maintaining self-govern- ment, or in extending commerce, or in storming forts, or in boarding ships ? It is their common-sense, their readiness of combination, their realistic logic, their power of individual initiative. Surely this type of character is not developed where boys are coddled and entertained to 198 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChicaeo such an extent that nothing is actually learned, and where the memory is so far Underrated that even the learning of the multiplication table is considered to be unpedagogical. I plead for schools where there is freedom enough in matters of con- duct to develop the power of self-control, where the requirements are definite and exacting enough to develop the power of self-reliance and individual initiative, and where there is inspiration enough to implant high ideals and right ambitions to the end that the power gained in school may not be selfishly used. I am aware that a school cannot, in this higher sense any more than in the lower sense, fully educate the young. It can only make the begin- ning, give the right bent, supply the means ; the rest depends on the individual. The important question in regard to the products of our schools is not alone, What do they know? but, What do they love, and what do they hate ? What is their attitude toward life ? What is their notion of success? Is duty to them only a myth? If they think that success consists in wealth or position obtained at no matter what cost of char- acter and honor, then their education has not done for them what it should. The bad, the unscrupulous, are never successful. When we speak of them as successful, when we envy them, we simply pass judgment on ourselves, and show that our own estimate of true character and worth needs toning up. The men who are the strength of society, who in times of stress and danger stand as beacon lights in the storm, are not men who simply look out for themselves, but men who are moved by some inner principle and are faithful to eternal verities. Whatever else we teach, let us inculcate this simple lesson : that no melancholy failure can possibly be in store for the youth who adheres to the simple purpose to be upright and useful; that plain living and high thinking is better than high living and no thinking; that self-denial is greater than self-indulgence; that selfish- ness cannot develop our highest capabilities, while a proper understand- ing of the higher meaning of life and its responsibilities has power to lift us above what is petty and trifling, make common life heroic, and give even to humble conditions something of greatness and joy. DISCUSSION William E. Hatch, superintendent of schools, New Bedford, Mass. — 'The subject that I was first asked to discuss and consented to speak upon was " The Tenure of Office of Superintendents and Teachers. " I cannot refrain from saying that I regret the sub- ject was changed. It is said that " in Spain to this day they bar the windows and leave open the door." The thought sometimes comes to me whether we, as superintendents, do not avoid the discussion of direct issues for the safer and more pleasing task of considering generali- ties. It may be that this view is due to my narrowness of vision, but 1 have always felt Superintendence! INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 199 that as a body we have been rather weak in offensive warfare. I trust I may be pardoned if I say a word on the original subject. , The question of the tenure of office of superintendents and teachers is one of great importance, and one that touches closely the future welfare of the schools. In Massa- chusetts, by the Report of the Board of Education for /8Q7-g8, one-third of the cities and towns of the state had availed themselves of the provisions of the statute by which teach- ers may be elected to serve during the pleasure of the school committee. This is the latest report which deals with the subject. Since that report was made other cities and towns have adopted the measure, among them my own. Now, either this is a movement in the right direction or it is not. I had hoped to hear the views of superintendents serving in various parts of the country on this important subject, and I am disappointed in not being able to do so. ** But to return to our muttons. " We can but agree with the speaker in his main contentions. No one would argue that an encyclopaedic man is a worthy product of the schools unless he can bring his knowledge to bear with force upon the problems of life that he is to meet. But I do believe that the field for improvement in fixing valuable knowledge in the minds of the pupils is yet wide. Full and exact knowledge is neces- sary if there is to be skill in application. That the schools are accomplishing all that they might in moral training may well be questioned, but that they are doing their part and doing it well under present condi- tions can scarcely be gainsaid. That the home is not doing all it ought in the development and the training of the children we all must feel who have thought much upon the subject. There is a tendency in parents, even among the best, to shift their responsibility upon others. This is as noticeable from the early age at which the wealthy pack off their boys to the boarding school as from the sad neglect to be observed in the homes of the poor. The spirit that causes the constant increase in urban population — the desire for companion- ship and the enjoyment of social pleasures, whether in the gilded ball-room on the one hand or the saloon and the cheap theater on the other — is characteristic of the age, and makes the problem of creating a strong and clean citizenship in the future a difficult one. But withal the rich and the poor are the extremes, and there is a large and dominat- ing middle class who are God-fearing and serious in their lives, whose children are worthy of their sires ; and I am optimist enough to believe that America is in no danger from the degeneration of its youth as yet. We are absorbing much of the very dregs of Europe, and in a generation or two making of their sons and daughters men and women, able, upright, and to be honored. In my travels thru Europe I have never seen children so happy, so strong, so interesting as our American boys and girls. This is the children's age, at least in this country. It may be that we have swung to the extreme of the pendulum ; that we are moved more by our sympathies in our treat- ment of children than by our judgment. But it seems to me that we must always remember that men and women are only boys and girls grown a little older. Children are influenced more by example than by precept, as are their elders. I think sometimes that we give them tithe of anise and cumin, and expect them to render tribute in the coin of the realm. If, as the speaker has said, the true welfare of the country is in the keeping of the schools, we as guardians and directors of those schools have grave responsibilities. In organizing them, in planning the courses of study, in directing their administration, do we proceed from a thoro knowledge of the conditions of the community in which we serve ? Do we know the various classes of children who are to be the victims of our planning ? Do we look sufficiently into the future ? If the welfare of the nation depends upon the public schools, we and the teachers are the conservators of that destiny. And the teachers are the most important of all. If the schools are to send forth 200 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago graduates healthy in mind and body, with convictions of right and wrong, and with cour- age to uphold the right, with ability to think,and with courage to act, they must be taught by strong, honest, just. God-fearing men and women who are properly educated and trained for their vocation, who take a pride in it and realize its responsibilities. That these things may be true, the teaching force must become a more stable body than it is today. The occupation of school-teacher is still used too much as a stepping-stone to some profession, or a place to earn a living while waiting for a husband. Teaching must become a profession recognized as equal in dignity to the so-called liberal profes- sions, if the work in them is to be of the quality desired. The proportion of strong men in the schools must be larger than it is today. The percentage of woman teachers and weak men in them is by tar too large. That teaching may be raised to a profession the remuneration must be larger and the tenure of office secure during efficiency and good behavior. When these things are accomplished stronger persons will enter the vocation and will remain longer in it. With skilled supervision securing good organization and good management, and with able teachers, those conditions that produce neatness, order, punctuality, industry, and systematic work will prevail naturally as a result. Formal introduction in civics and ethics should form a part of the course of study in the schools from the lowest grades up. Children should be taught the reason for government and order in the social organism and learn to respect it. They should par- ticipate in government itself while in school, and learn by it self-control and how to direct others. In the great English schools this is a marked feature in their training that has borne good fruit. This does not mean a letting down of control or freedom from restraint. 1 heartily agree with the speaker as to the value of acquaintance with good literature as a force in the development of the moral nature and its effects upon character. From his entrance into school to his finish the child should have presented to him the thoughts of the great writers both in prose and poetry. It is exceedingly important that this work should be begun when young, that his taste may be cultivated so well in the good that later he will have no desire for the trashy and bad. I am no sharer in the belief that modern methods of education, which introduce a child to a great variety of interests in the early stages of his education and provide for him a wide field of electives in the secondary schools, necessarily tend to less vigor of thought and purpose than the old. They are not responsible for any apparent weakness. The cause must be sought for elsewhere. 1 believe this change is proving the salvation of many a boy and girl who otherwise would grow up useless members of the com- munity. Today we live in a many-sided world as compared with fifty years ago, and the schools must be many-sided to meet the new conditions. The danger to the future of American citizenship lies not here. It lies rather in that spirit that makes pleasure and ease the chief consideration ; the spirit that shirks honest, manly toil ; the spirit that fears any privation if in the performance of duty. It is the spirit that leads the well-to-do to neglect their civic duties ; the spirit that causes them to remain at home and grumble at the corrupt administration of our cities instead of exerting themselves to change it. It leads to a molly-coddling of the children that gives them no duties to perform outside of school ; that makes them think that they cannot go to school if it sprinkles, and demands the signal for no school to be struck frequently; the spirit that influences teachers to do work for their pupils that they should do themselves. Among the poor the same spirit leads them to neglect their children and their homes that they may seek such pleasures as are within their means and reach. Their children become enfeebled in mind and body thru neglect, and make the country hoodlum and the city criminal and tough. In one primary room in my own city one morning it was found that seven children had come to school without any nourishment; and there is equal neglect everywhere. The courts show us that juvenile crime is on the increase in every community, notwithstanding all that is done to guard against it. Superintendence] INFLUENCES MAKING FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP 20 1 Rudyard Kipling has stirred England to its depths with his " Islanders." The Lon- don Globe, in a vigorous article recently published, deplores the molly-coddling that has begun to invade the great historic public schools of England. It says: " Boys* characters are built up at school ; and, if their slackness and softness is the rule, it is little wonder that so many fail when they have to face the stern realities of life." We think that we are doing much for the children and youth of our land, but there is scarcely a community that is doing what it ought. The people have thrown the responsi- bility of the training and education of the children upon the schools. They do not realize it, but they have, and they must be made to see and supply the means that the schools may meet the responsibility. More must be done by the schools for the health and bodily development of the children than they are doing today. The lack of proper physical training is one of the most serious defects in the public schools of this country. The next ten years will produce as marked an advance in the schools in this respect as the past ten have produced in manual training. We have the best material in the world from which to create a future citizenship worthy the nation and the age, the American boys and girls. Coming to join them every year are thousands ignorant of the American language and life. To assimilate these latter and make of all American citizens possessed of healthy bodies and trained minds, honest, law-abiding, and self-respecting citizens, is a task that demands high talent in the schools and a co-operation of all the social forces. This country is fortunate in possessing great agricultural regions. Every citizen should thank God for the boundless prairies of the great West. When the urban popula- tion of our country exceeds that of the rural population, the problem of creating and maintaining a citizenship equal to that of today even will be a ' task immeasurably greater than at present. H. O. R. SiEFERT, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. — Of the various means which have been mentioned as being of importance in forming the character of the young American there is one which seems to deserve special attention — appropriate literature. In order to waste no time we will accept the conventional definition of the dictionary, which says : " Literature embraces all compositions resulting from observation, thought, or fancy." And by appropriate literature we mean that which is fit to be read by a child, and in which he can be interested. This would include true stories of animals, fables (with the moral unexpressed), and fairy tales for the youngest children; legends, myths, biographies, and historical tales for the middle^grades ; masterpieces of literature for the upper grades ; poetry for all grades. While the literary treasures of many peoples will furnish material for our purpose, the child must, above all, be made familiar with the literature of his own country. The great deeds of the warriors, the sublime wisdom of the statesmen, the lofty thoughts of the poets of other lands, doubtless have a wholesome influence in forming the views and sentiments of the child, but it is primarily the contemplation of the virtues and deeds of his own countrymen that will make the most lasting impression upon the plastic mind ; not so much because the heroes of his own country surpass all others in the greatness of their achievements, but because the mentioning of their very names carries with it that feeling of affinity which engenders a degree of sympathy not likely to assert itself under other con- ditions. It makes quite a difference whether the author of a certain beautiful poem once lived m England or in some other country, or whether you can tell a child that such an author was born in Boston or New York, and that he lies buried in a place not far from the child's home, where some day he may go, and, as a tribute of gratitude and veneration, lay a wreath of flowers on the resting-place of a great compatriot. There was a time when the critics outside of this country considered Edgar Allan 202 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION i Chicago Poe about the only American writer of real genius. But it is no longer denied that there is a galaxy of American authors scarcely inferior to the best of other lands. One particular trait not often found in foreign authors seems to be common to our own — making their productions pre-eminently suitable for children's reading. It is the purity of sentiment. The erotic element which in the works of many of the world's greatest authors dominates to such an extent as to render them unfit in their original form to be read by the young, or — I say it boldly — by any man, is, in its objection- able aspect, almost entirely absent in the works of our best writers, and in its place we find filial affection, philanthropy, and love of country. For these reasons, and others which might be advanced, I hold that in our common schools the children should be made acquainted with the best American authors thru those of their works which are best suited for that purpose. The following may serve as a suggestive list : Benjamin Franklin, Autobiography ; Irving, Sketch Book, History of New York, Alhambra; Cooper, " Leather-Stocking Tales," The Spy, The Pilot; Bryant, Lines to a Waterfowl, The Yel- low Violet, and other poems ; Drake, The American Flag; Hawthorne, Wonder Book, Tanglewood Tales; Longfellow, Evangeline, Hiawatha, and a number of the shorter poems; Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle To?n's Cabin; Whittier, The Barefoot Boyy Barbara Frietchie, and other poems; Poe, 7%^ Raven; Holmes, Old Ironsides; Low™, The Fountain; Parkman, Histories; poems by the Gary Sisters, Thomas Baily Aldrich, and others too numerous to mention. Of the world's great books which every child should read I will mention only Plutarch's Lives, The Pilgrim's Progress, Robinson Crusoe, and Ivanhoe. In the regular school reading-books there might be, without offense to anybody, a selection of the parables from the New Testament, the Sermon on the Mount, and a few of the psalms of David, such as the twenty-third, for example. The question may be asked, " How can all these books and selections be read in school?" It is not intended that this should be done. Some of them can be read during the time that is set aside for supplementary reading, but the majority must be read by the children at home. It is the teacher's function to get the child interested in a book by reading, or, still better, relating, portions of it at some suitable time. This may be done in connection with the various studies of the curriculum, thereby making the studies much more interesting. For example, it is much to be desired that the study of geography should be correlated with history.' 1 remember from my own school days that I cared little about the West Indies until 1 read the story of Columbus. Mexico and Peru, with their quaint institutions, became wonderlands to me through Cortes and Pizarro. When a young child 1 was made to study zoology from a regular text-book. The lessons were dry and tedious, and I took no interest in my work. The colored pictures in the book were the only things I cared about. One day I found an old book in which the animals were made to describe themselves and tell their own stories of life and peculiarities. My interest was at once aroused, and in a few days I had not only read the whole book, but I had learned more about animals than 1 should otherwise have learned in a year. The right kind of literature had animated the dry bones of a technical study. Poetry has a wonderful influence on the receptive and unpolluted mind of the child, and it should be made use of more than it is. The very young child will enjoy the nursery rhyme for its jingle and innocent fun. Gradually and unconsciously, as he grows older, he will learn to love the music of the meter, and finally he will feel the whole beauty of the thought clothed in regular form. Poetry should be read and recited to the children and by the children, and, if suited for the purpose, it should be sung. To sum up : Keep the children away from the harmful influence of bad literature ; teach them to appreciate and love that which is pure and patriotic and elevating ; be not merely their instructors and governors, but their monitors and pastors, and they will grow up the noble sons and daughters of a noble country, and bless the teachers who led them in the ways of righteousness. Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 203 John MacDonald, editor Western School Journal, Topeka, Kan. — I do not agree with Superintendent Emerson when he says our schools are deteriorating. Our schools are better than they were years ago; they are better today than they were yesterday; they will be better tomorrow than they are today. Let us pray for Brother Emerson. Superintendent Emerson (in closing). — Superintendent Hatch is not as much of a martyr as he represented himself to be. While it is true that the general subject was changed, it is also true that he was notified of the change at least a month before this meeting. I feel warranted in saying that very few, if any, of those who are on the pro- gram began the preparation of their papers more than a month before the meeting. In reply to Mr. MacDonald, I simply wish to reaffirm the statements I made in my paper, contrasting the present and past conditions of the public-school work done in this country. THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL WILLIAM H. PAYNE, PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. I foresee that the term " typical normal school," or " the normal school of the future," will best indicate my treatment of the subject which has been assigned me. I do not propose to set up a normal school in Utopia, certainly not within the space of thirty minutes. The school that is to be is the school that is, of course with modifications. . Human institutions acquire a momentum which carries them forward, oftentimes without regard to rhyme or reason. Institutions also obey the law of growth. They emerge from one stage of growth and gradually pass into a new and more advanced stage. Humanity as a whole is to have a better future, but this better future is to be an evolution out of a relatively good past.' A sudden break with tradition is seldom justifiable. We may be quite sure that any policy that has had the long sanction of the wise and the good has a large measure of truth in it. An idiot or a madman ^may destroy, but only wisdom and prudence can build. What we need, to use Mr. Spencer's happy phrase, is "to take stock of our progress," to try our work by some rational standard, and to introduce needed revisions and amendments. In order to simplify this discussion, I shall limit my treatment to one type of the normal school, to what may be called the prevalent type, namely, the state normal school. It is no part of my purpose to discuss either the schools which lie below this plane or those which lie above it. We sometimes make substantial progress by judicious and prudent retreat. In our haste to grasp the new we sometimes lose our hold on the old and the true. I have been much struck with this sentence from John Morley's account of Diderot and the Encyclopedists : "Alas," he says, " it is one of the discouragements of the student of history that he I " The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be ; and that which is done is that which shall be done." 264 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago often finds highly civilized remarks made one or two or twenty centuries ago which are just as useful and just as little heeded now as they were when they were made." '^ During the period from 1839 to the present time the type of the American normal school has radically changed, or, rather, there has been a change in the center of interest. Possibly this displacement has not been wise. Possibly it may be prudent to return to an abandoned ideal. The law of a piece of mechanism is the product which is to issue from it. If the product must be modified, some special modification must be introduced into the mechanism. The governing law of a school is a clear conception of what its pupils should be. The normal school stands in this case. By observation and prophecy we determine what a teacher should be, and then we organize the forces necessary for realizing this conception. It is simply a case of adapting means to ends. Obviously, in the minds of those who mold public opinion there has been a change in the conception of what a teacher should be, and as a result there has been a corresponding change in the policy of our normal schools. If we can agree as to the required attainments of the teacher, we shall hardly disagree as to the means for producing these attainments. But there is room for sane and honest disagreement. Just now we are passing thru the period of discussion in which disagreements and differences are inevitable and pardonable. I shall not waste time by dwelling on details. In such discussions we should move only along main lines, not losing ourselves in by-ways. If we find our way along the highways of our science, we shall economize both effort and speed. It is doing but deserved justice to our normal schools to state that their fortunes are being directed by the best educational talent of the day, by men who are alive to the spirit of the age, and who have the gift of serious and solid thinking. In no other department of educational enterprise is there a keener search for truth or a more determined effort in the line of substantial improvement. Following the line of procedure already indicated, I shall venture to State some opinions as to the qualifications and attainments needed by the ideal teacher, and shall suggest what seems to me the rational means of securing these endowments. I prefer to speak in the potential, or in the interrogative, mode, but if I sometimes resort to the indicative, it is not that I would dogmatize, but that I may give expression to an honest opinion. To discuss this large subject within the prescribed limit, my treatment must needs be fragmentary and incomplete. The capital fact, the one that antedates all others in importance, is this ; The teacher should be an artist rather than artisan. An instance of what I have called the displacement of interest is the movement from 3 Diderot, p. 185. Superintendence] THE WEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 205 scholarship to technique. Is it not a false analogy which likens the art of teaching, which deals with spirit, to the mechanic arts, which deal with matter ? '' Training " is a term of sinister import, as it seems to put the emphasis on sleight of hand and to suggest limited acquirements and endowments. It is freely admitted that in school administration there must be some degree of mechanism, but it is a gross error to regard the school simply as a piece of cunning machinery. If it is a machine at all, it is a machine animated, inspired, and directed by spirit, the spirit of him or her who teaches. Is it not absurd to think that teachers are to learn their art by methods analogous to those that prevail in mills and shops? The shop deals with the matter that is uniform in quality, and it aims at products that are uniform in style and finish. The school, on the contrary, deals with impalpable spirit, multiform in its manifestations, and necessarily and properly multiform and variable in its transforma- tions. Is there a truer conception of teaching than that it is a process of induction, a process by which plastic spirit is molded and fashioned by a master-spirit richly endowed with the finer qualities of mind and heart ? In the last analysis it is not the linguist, or the scientist, or the specialist of any sort that educates, but the man or the woman inspired by scholar- ship and culture. In illustration of what I mean, I will repeat for the hundredth time the saying, attributed to President Garfield, that the real essentials of a college are an impressible boy on one end of a bench and a Mark Hopkins on the other. It is the net personality of the teacher that educates, and schools that profess to educate teachers should preserve this net personality rather than allow it to be broken up into disjecta membra. Mere specialists are a menace to a school in which teachers are to be educated for high and efficient service. A specialist may instruct, but he cannot educate, as education implies what is wholesome, that is, wholeness. If the specialist must needs be, his destructive work must be offset by culture subjects, such as literature and history, which appeal to the whole man, and tend to preserve his essential integrity. Ultimate analysis destroys a work of art as an educating instrument. It is a dese- cration to dissect a piece of literary art by grammatical and linguistic analysis. I shall not be misunderstood when I say that the scientific treatment of a subject, that is, its analysis into its molecules, and then the inspection and evaluation of its fragments, destroys it for purposes of education proper. This so-called scientific process which is now in vogue is very like the application of a microscope to a painting. It resolves a masterpiece into shreds of canvas and patches of paint. All this amounts to saying that studies of the culture type should have a large place in a school whose aim is the education of teachers. A normal school should teach chemistry, but it is not its function to educate chemists ; it should also teach language, but it should not aim to produce linguists, etymologists, or philologists. The unwisdom of 2o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago this specializing process is seen when each of a half dozen instructors attempts to make a specialist out of the same pupil. More than once I have tried to reconcile myself to the contention, sometimes made, that geometry in a high school and geometry in a normal school should be taught by methods essentially different. This contention is made, doubtless, partly to differentiate the normal school from the high school, and partly to conform to the dictum of Mr. Spencer that the method of instruction should conform to the method of dis- covery. Of one thing I think there can be no doubt: a normal school should teach a given subject, as geometry, just as its students should teach it when they in turn become teachers. It is not true that teachers as a class are to be investigators, discoverers, or specialists, but that their function in the main is that of disseminating and distributing. The vice, of vivisection lies in the assumption that a long-discovered fact is to be rediscovered for the ten-thousandth time. Perhaps in the distant future we may have normal schools like the famous Ecole Normale Superieure of Paris, whose function is the education and training of specialists ; but we have not yet reached this stage, and the becoming function of our state normal schools is to prepare young, men and women for diffusing capitalized knowledge ; not for creating a new chemistry, but for teaching the chemistry already created. In saying this I am mindful of the fact that the communication of knowledge is only one aim of the school ; but it is one of its principal aims. In his terse way Alexander Bain declares that one of the needful con- ditions for learning is the "quiescence of the emotions." A normal school should live in a state of peace. It should ever be in a condition of stable equilibrium. Its function should not be the discovery or even the rediscovery of educational truth. It should have a settled policy and a prevalent doctrine, but it should not be militant or revolutionary. It should not lend itself to doubtful disputations. It should be religious in tone and spirit, but it should not teach a controversial theology. So it should be inspired and guided by a real tho unannounced educational creed ; but it should be sheltered from the warring factions of educational doctrinaires. Its purpose is not to recruit the ranks of educational theorists and reformers, or even to recast our educational philosophy. Per se these are legitimate functions, but they lie far above the plane of the normal school, and far beyond the ability of the normal-school student. All this said in the way of reasonable limitation. In the future toward which the term "ideal" points, our educational philosophers will continue to speak from their high vantage ground, but between them and us who move on a lower plain there should be author- ized interpreters who can bring these larger utterances within the com- prehension of the ordinary mind. It must have occurred to many who have attempted to comprehend the new pedagogy that a new philosophical Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 20? language is in progress of formation, which is almost utterly unintelligible to the lay reader or student.' There is some reason to fear that this new symbolism may invade the normal schools to distress and bewilder their students, and that they will finally issue from their "laboratories" to inflict the new speech on helpless children. In our profession we need another Rousseau to teach the virtue of simplicity and to preach a return to the use of simple, frugal, transparent English. What is to be feared is the downward diffusion of jargon. What is to be desired is the prev- alence, in school and out of school, of the beautiful and wholesome English of the New Testament, of the English of De Foe, of Addison, and of Bunyan. In the way of philosophy it should be remembered that the colossal common sense of John Locke expressed itself in terms easily intelligible by the ordinary reader and thinker; it did not attempt to clothe obscure conceptions in obscure symbols. As the normal schools are now dwelling so much on technique, it is to be feared that the new jargon may become sporadic. It should be one of the professional mis- sions of the normal school to insist on the use, in speaking and in writ- ing, of clear idiomatic English. This problem is now complicated by the feeling, far too common, that obscure utterance bespeaks profundity of thought. Philosophical language, as used by some of our writers, easily shades off into congenial obscurity; but it should be regarded as a mental weakness to make a thought vague by clothing it in unintelligible terms.' All instruction should aim at what Macaulay calls "intellectual eman- cipation," that is, the creation within the pupil of the ability to deal with the problems of life, general and professional, at first hand. In other words, men should be taught to do their own thinking and to come to their own conclusions on all matters coming within their proper province. A Greek proverb says that a mob has no brains, and it is not a bad description of the aim of education to say that it should supply men and women with individual brains. The routine work of the school encour- ages routine thinking, and this in turn produces teaching that is dreary and wooden. In Carlyle's phrase a teacher should be a live coal rather than a dead cinder, and this simile points to versatility, variety, and originality; and so far as instruction can produce these endowments, they flow from studies and disciplines of the liberal type. I fear it must be said of many normal schools that they do not produce liberal scholarship and the ability to do independent thinking. There is a necessary incom- patibility between technique and liberal training; and so long as the I " Will is actualized in an object which is itself will, and this is a will which wills will. Such an object which is existent in the world as will, whose end and purpose is to secure will, is an institution." 2" There is a well -recognized literary disease which may be called logomania, and which subjects its victims to the irrational influence of words. The intoxication at times becomes complete, and the victim reels under the dominance of the poison, though maintaining a semblance of coherence and occasionally of wisdom." — The Dial. 2o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChicago Stress is placed on empirical method, there is no hope that the prevailing spirit of the school will be liberal and scholarly. A liberal art is best learned thru the science which underlies it. The mastery of a prolific principle or doctrine is a rational art by implica- tion. The most that should be required of the methods by which a given subject is taught is that they should have a typical resemblance. They should find their unity in some principle which implicitly contains them. Methods, to be wholesome and inspiring, should reflect the per- sonality of the teacher who employs them, just as a dress should reflect the personality of the wearer. Dull uniformity has become a school disease, and its only cure is to be found in that broad intelligence which can interpret a general principle or doctrine. Stated in the order of their importance, the three aims of the normal school will stand as follows: scholarship, science or doctrine, method. It is a widely prevalent error that psychology, as a whole, is con- vertible into an art — the art of teaching. It would be almost as sane to say that astronomy is convertible into an art — that we can draw utilities from the stars. I suppose the truth is that only the more obvious and simple principles of psychology can serve as a basis for the educating art. Teachers who are overzealous in the interests of the new education seem to think that the road to success lies in a study of the occult and abstruse psychology now in vogue. I have in mind the principal of a little school who has placed his teachers on a course of study in the "application of psychology to education." It is not difficult to see the result of this dreadful infliction: a groping in darkness, a bewilderment of spirit, a disgust with the higher pedagogy. It is pathetic to see good intent so utterly misplaced. The psychology of the normal school should be simple, comprehensible, and descriptive of the more obvious facts of the intellectual life. Its relation to psychology, as a whole, is about the same as the relation of hygiene to the general science of physiology. In fact, there are two psychologies, a simple, plain, common- sense treatment for the use of the lay members of our profession, and an abstruse, transcendental science for the use of our discoverers and exposi- tors. The first is a psychology in action, written from the standpoint of the mind as it is engaged in the act of learning. The other is a purely abstract science, lifeless and inert, as remote from human use as the '^ m'echanique celeste.'' The psychology taught in the normal school should be the science which will give its students practical guidance in the practice of their art.^ I Since writing the above paragraph my eye has fallen on the following lines from the pen of Dr. Miinster- berg: " I do not believe in it [the new psychology], and that overwhelming movement toward psychology among the elementary teachers seems to me a high tide of confusion and dilettantism, and the only thing about which 1 am doubtful is which of the two necessary results is the worse, the results with the superficial teachers or the results with the earnest ones. The superficial teachers torture the poor children with experi- ments, and deceive themselves with empty phrases about reaction times and psycho-physic laws. The earnest and sincere teachers feel very soon that all those woodcuts of pyramidal ganglion cells and pendulum Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 209 It should be remembered that our main source of professional improvement is the study and interpretation of our classical writers on education, such writers as Plato, Aristotle, Quintilian, Plutarch, Come- nius, Montaigne, Rabelais, Rousseau, Kant, Pestalozzi, Richter, Rosen- kranz, Ascham, Milton, Locke, Spencer, Bain, Horace Mann. These may all be found in intelligible English, and it is as reasonable to expect that teachers should be familiar with these books as that physicians, lawyers, and clergymen should be familiar with the great writers in their respect- ive professions. So far as the higher interests of our profession are con- cerned, would it not be a clear and wholesome gain to devote more time to the study and interpretation of our classical literature, and, if neces- sary, a little less time to practice teaching and the discussion of methods ? ' Both on its own account, and as an offset to the scientific trend that seems to be prevailing in our education, the art of literary interpretation should be urged on all who aspire to do educational work of a noble type. Of course, the sciences which deal with matter should have a place, and an important place, in every scheme of instruction ; but they should not overshadow the sciences which deal with spirit. Not only the art of reading good books, but, even more, the appreciation of good books, should hold a high place in the education of teachers. To construct and furnish natural history cabinets is a pleasing and educative occupation, but to construct and furnish a good library is an achievement of tran- scendent value. To read and interpret the Republic is to join company with Plato as he moves on his high intellectual plane. To enter into hearty communion with the poet is to experience an upward transforma- tion of spirit. There is a vital relationship between literature and life, the life of the soul. The purpose of the literary art, so far as it concerns the students in our normal schools, is not criticism, but appreciation. It is a sorry business to see striplings sitting in judgment on the masters of the literary art. Their becoming and ennobling attitude is that of appre- ciation and enjoyment. In one of the picturesque cities of New England I once discovered a normal school sheltered in an art gallery. Nothing could be more becoming or more wholesome. To be in daily communion with the beautiful and the graceful in art is to inherit the endowments necessary for interpreting the beautiful world which is our habitation. Such a chronoscopes do not help them a bit, and they then become disappointed, lose their confidence in their own ability, and try and try again with the ganglion cells till they are tired, and till their natural teachers' instincts are scattered and ruined. Call me conservative, call me reactionary, call me ignorant, but I adhere to my belief that the individual teacher, for his teaching methods, does not need any scientific i>sychology, and that tact and sympathy and interest are more important for him than all the twenty-seven psychological laboratories of this country." I " Printing ink," says Richter, " now is like sympathetic ink, it becomes as quickly invisible as visible; wherefore it is good to repeat old thoughts in the newest books, because the old works in which they stand are not read." 2IO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago culture may not be needed for teaching the multiplication table or lists of names and dates in history, but it is needful for producing that spirit- ual transformation which is the secret of education proper. There is a good reason for furnishing a normal school with maps and globes and with apparatus, physical and chemical, but there is even a better reason for furnishing it with engravings, paintings, and statuary. We must transport into the school of the future many of the good things to be found in the school of the present. In the way of science, it is hazardous to declare that certain things cannot be ; yet there are some things so good that it is hard to see how they can be mended. These reflections occur to me as I recall incidents connected with visits to several of the larger normal schools of the South. It was at Rock Hill that I observed what seemed to me then an ideal system of school hygiene. The buildings, tho large, were scrupulously neat and clean ; the ventilation of schoolrooms and dormitories was thoro and effective ; there was a gymnasium with baths attached ; a bowling alley and a laundry; by means of a covered walk the dormitories were connected with an infirmary; at the head of this infirmary was a trained nurse ; there was a well-appointed kitchen in which the skillful cook prepared food for the sick; and over all there was a resident physician. Incidentally I have spoken of liberal scholarship as one of the fore- most aims of normal-school instruction, and since we are dealing some- what in ideals, I beg leave to present the lineaments of the ideal scholar as I find them set forth in a very ancient book : A lover, not of a part of wisdom, but of .the whole ; who has a taste for every sort of knowledge, and is curious to learn and is never satisfied ; who has magnificence of mind and is the spectator of all time and all existence ; who is harmoniously constituted ; of a well-proportioned and gracious mind ; whose own nature will move spontaneously toward the true being of every thing ; who has a good memory and is quick to learn ; noble, gracious, the friend of truth, justice, courage, temperance.^ I may now fitly close this list of suggestions by quoting another ancient ideal which twenty-three centuries have not overtaken : There remains the minister of the education of youth He who is elected, and he who is the elector, should consider that, of all the great offices of state, this is the greatest; for the first shoot of any plant rightly tending to the perfection of its own nature has the greatest effect on its maturity; and this is not only true of plants, but of animals wild and tame, and also of men. Man, as we say, is a tame or civilized animal ; nevertheless, he requires proper instruction and a fortunate nature, and then, of all ani- mals, he becomes the most divine and most civilized ; but if he be insufficiently or ill educated, he is the most savage of earthly creatures. Wherefore the legislator ought not to allow the education of children to become a secondary or accidental matter. In the first place, he who would be rightly provident about them should begin by taking care that he is elected who, of all the citizens, is in every respect the best ; him they shall do their best to appoint as guardian and superintendent. To this end all the magistrates, with the exception of the council and the prytanes, shall go to the temple of Apollo, and elect by ballot him of the guardians of the law whom they severally think will be the best I Republic, passim, 475-87. Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 2 1 1 superintendent of education. And he who has the greatest number of votes, after he has undergone a scrutiny at the hands of all the magistrates who have been his electors, with the exception of the guardians of the law, shall hold office for five years ; and in the sixth year let another be chosen in like manner to fill his office.^ DISCUSSION Frank L. Jones, state superintendent of public instruction of Indiana. — 1 am sure that we find ourselves so much in accord with the fundamental statements of the paper that it is hardly necessary to restate them even for the sake of emphasis. That "the teacher should be an artist rather than an artisan;" that "mere specialists are a menace to a school in which teachers are to be educated for high and efficient service ;" that "the normal should prepare young men and women for diffusing capitalized knowl- edge, not for creating a new knowledge ;" that there should be no hindrances to educa- tional progress due to the haziness in which it is often shrouded, as seen particularly in the indefiniteness of its purposes and the generalities of its statement; that the education should be liberal, tho somewhat limited; that "the psychology of the normal school should be simple, comprehensive, and descriptive of the more obvious facts of life;" and, above all, "that it should be democratic," are so obvious that they might safely be stated as educational principles. There remains one point, however, the first one raised by the reader of the paper, which should be enlarged upon in the discussion — it is this: "The governing law of a school is a clear conception of what its pupils should be." In this statement of the law it is wise to lay emphasis upon the w^ord pupils. It would certainly be false doctrine to assume that the law of the school is a clear conception of what the pupil should be — the former enables us to evolve the ideal group ; the latter, the individual. The classification of the school, its administration, its recitations, its exercises, and its study are based almost wholly upon the notion that the group is funda- mental, each pupil relating himself to the whole, and estimating his standing in it by his variance from the general standards of it. The ideal normal school, therefore, must surely take first account of the possibilities of the entire group of teachers and place its emphasis upon a standard of efficiency which will enable that group as such to maintain itself upon as high professional basis as all of the attending conditions will admit of. It would be a waste of time to elaborate a system designed to make each teacher a master, or indeed to make each teacher a graduate from a course of study covering three or four years of academic and professional work subse- quent to his completion of either the common- or high-school courses. The promulgation of such a system as this thru the statuses of a state would make necessary the with- drawal of 85 per cent, of its teaching corps, and would leave the schools in a condi- tion of chaos. A study of the qualifications and training of teachers in the ten states, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa (from 600 to 13,000 reported in each state), shows the following : 1. The number of college or university graduates in the profession of teaching varies from the highest, 6.4 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, i.i per cent, in another. 2. The number of normal-school graduates, including all grades of these schools and all courses from one to four years, varies from the highest, 53.1 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 2.8 per cent, in another. The large number of normal-school graduates in the first is due to a low standard of entrance requirements and a short course of study. 3. The number of teachers who have had no training above the high school varies from the highest, 68 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 30.1 per cent, in another. I Laws, 765, 766. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chirago 4. The number of teachers who have had no training above the common branches in the common schools varies from the highest, 45 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 13.3 per cent, in another. 5. The number of teachers who are teaching this year without previous experience varies from the highest, 23.9 per cent, in one state, to the lowest, 5.5 percent, in another. 6. In a total of 20,662 teachers studied in ten states, including all of the teachers in each county reporting, 12.4 per cent, are teaching without previous experience, 23.7 per cent, are teaching without qualifications above a common-school training in the common branches, 40.8 are teaching without qualifications above a high-school education, and 7.3 per cent, have had less than one year in normal schools. A condition which admits of the return of more than one-half of the graduates of our public schools, without further training, to become teachers of their former associates on the playground and in the class-room, possessing no insight beyond the educational standards required of their pupils for graduation, makes much progress impossible, and places before the normal school a practical problem. In view of this low standard of teaching ability and experience it is at once apparent that two very different views of the essentials of an ideal normal school may be had, each meritorious in certain large aspects. The one looks toward the maintenance of a high standard of entrance requirements, four or more years of careful study in residence, standard courses in the theory and practice of teaching, and one or more years of training- school experience under the supervision of critic-teachers ; the other looks toward a short course, tho thoro and efficient, following at once the common- and high-school courses, with a view of striking contact with the great body of teachers, tho for a brief period. Who can say which of these views, consciously followed thru a period of years, would strengthen more the teaching ^roup? If the first be followed, we keep before the teacher an ideal difficult of attainment, great individual expense, and the expenditure of much time in study. Under present standards of promotion and compensation this arrangement presents difficulties to the average teacher impossible for him to overcome ; he sees the immense labor, the large outlay of money, the very inadequate compensation at the other end of the course, and as a consequence decides to obtain a license at once, and by fairly acceptable' teaching, local, political, or social influences, or otherwise, keep himself in the schools, tho wholly unequipped, just as long as possible, rather than face the normal course and professional training on so large a scale. The larger course has its chief virtues in its ability to set high standards, to educate leaders, and to equip super- visors and superintendents. The sprinkling of this leaven thruout a commonwealth exerts a powerful influence for good and disseminates lofty ideals and standards, f)ut fails in large measure to elevate sufficiently the whole teaching group, as is attested by the fact that only 8.1 per cent, of the teaching corps of eight states can lay claim to normal graduation, even reckoning all grades of those schools. It may seem educational heresy to advocate lower standards in normal courses, but only in such, it seems to me, can we remove the barriers to an early uplift of the teaching group. The ideal normal school should first of all seek to come into contact with as many of the state's teachers as possible. To do this, would it not be wise to maintain courses of study and practice that will not present impossible barriers to the majority of the group ? Let us equip our normal schools with brief tho vigorous courses of study and practice. Issue graduate diplomas at the end of two years of resident study ; limit the courses to the common branches — literature, music, general history, the theory and practice of teaching, and composition — and the teaching by the graduates from such a course to the common schools; make the diploma a state license valid to teach in only the common schools for a period of years, conditioning its renewal as a license after that period upon a high degree of success in teaching and a fair degree of progress ; in this brief course give to each student-teacher ample opportunity to do practice-teaching or to observe the daily work of a skilled teacher, not indeed to mimic, but to catch inspiration Superintendence] THE IDEAL NORMAL SCHOOL 2 1 3 — the observation of how a master works has its compensation not so much in the ability to go elsewhere and do likewise as in the consciousness of the attitude, self-mastery, com- placency, tact, skill, and ability of the master by which such work is made possible. The value of such observation is that it reflects the master in the doing, and thus enables each observer to become a master. I am convinced, however, that the practice and observation in training schools as now established, where the whole organization is based upon the social and educational conditions in cities, have in them very little help for the teacher who gives his time to the rural and village schools. It should be required by the state that model rural schools, accessible to normal-school students, be maintained for purposes of observation in con- nection with and under the direction of all normal schools. In addition to this course, continuing thru two years, there should be one extending thru four years, encompassing all in the briefer, and adding the necessary academic and professional courses to equip teachers for high-school instruction, principalships, and supenntendencies. The completion of such a course should entitle the holder to a life state license to teach in all grades of schools. It seems to me that an arrangement as here suggested would hold as many students in the longer courses as we have now, and in addition would encourage hundreds of teachers to take at least the briefer course, with a possibility of creating such a good taste for better training that many would continue thruout the entire course. Richard G. Boone, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O. — I am sure I voice the common sentiment of many of my hearers in saying it has given us genuine pleasure to hear again our friend Dr. Payne. His theme is one that has been familiar to him for years. His phrasing of it is all the better for the changing of a word. The maturest, best-considered current notion of the normal-school type has an abiding interest for those who employ or supervise teachers. What are the really vital qualities in the teacher which the normal school must stimulate and cultivate ? I am not sure that limiting the discussion to state normal schools is important. Indeed, it is not quite apparent that the leader has observed the limit. Every qualifica- tion mentioned as needed by the ideal teacher would be valid for one trained in a city or private or secondary normal school, not less than in the elementary normal schools supported by the state. Nevertheless, the discussion is made simpler by thinking of the preparation of teachers for elementary schools chiefly. I think I should agree with the general statement that the great change in the normal- school ideal in a generation has been in working away from wholeness of culture toward specific training. The movement has often led to short courses and pedagogical tables and formal steps and syllabi and manuals and plan books and device inventories. Grad- uates have carried away with them the coat-of-arms of their school. They have mas- tered a way of doing things, and arguments to justify the way. They have been trained, but not educated. They are artisans, tho skilled withal. Some things may be done expertly well ; but there is often lacking a breadth of view because there there is no breadth of foundation. Scholarship is wanting, and so the rich character results of scholarship. Paucity and provincialism of experience easily pauperize character. To have thought little and narrowly and chiefly of one's own time and region is not conducive to a deep personality nor to the uplift of one's teaching. In the words of the speaker, "it is the net personality of the teacher that educates," not his learning, not his discov- eries, not his scientific or linguistic attainments. He reveals his teaching power rather in his large heart, his good sense, his receptive, alert mind, a resourceful interest in his charge, and a masterful grip on the much or little learning he has. Next to being born with these qualities, a course in those subjects that converge upon human interests and fix the human relations, especially upon the planes of the fine and industrial arts, con- duct, personal and social responsibility and privilege, man and his institutions, and the 214 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago conditions of race and individual improvement, will probably do most for the intending teacher. There is wanting then " not so much scientific analysis as scholarly interpreta- tion" in the fitting of teachers; a fine and liberal appreciation of what is best and most inspiring and wholesome among the incentives to right living and effective doing. It may well be questioned, however, whether a familiar and sympathetic acquaint- ance with nature, a knowledge of and interest in growing things as they grow, and forces at work in the material world, will not open doors for as effective teaching as any or all studies of the " culture type." Among these phenomena child experiences begin.; among them are the occasions for sense-training and manifold interests and mental alertness. If these qualities of mind and heart are to be secured to the child, they must have been mastered by the teacher. The laboratory and the field will yield some lessons that cannot be derived from books ; lessons that are vital in the education of the young. I have great faith in the scientific mind as a factor in the training of teachers. But here again, as mentioned in a previous paragraph, what is needed perhaps in the preparation of the teacher is interpretation, sympathetic, intelligent appreciation, not criticism and an analytic system ; clear insights, a sane and balanced joy in watching and directing the processes of growth, a familiar knowledge of how the mind behaves in learning, and the tools it best uses. I have been quite as much interested, Mr. President and fellow-teachers, in noting what the leader omitted from his discussion as in what he said. No mention was made of conditions of entrance upon the formal preparation, of length of course, of cadet or prac- tice schools, of supplementary and optional courses for teachers of different grades of schools, or of method, except to class it under general scholarship and self-initiative. I fully agree with the paper as to the order of the three aims of the normal school, viz., scholarship, science or doctrine, and method, but believe that more importance should be attached to the mental processes involved in learning and a sound method of procedure as conditioned by that process. The main source of improvement for teachers may be "the study and interpretation of our classical writers on education," from Plato to Horace Mann ; but, if so, the improvement will probably be because the study has made them thoughtful of their acts of teaching and learning, and the most effective methods of effecting results. The handling of the elementary branches and school exercises as instruments of education is an art, a fine art, and has its body of principles, expertness in applying which may be cultivated in many persons under favorable conditions ; else there is no call for normal schools. There may be very satisfactory scholarship, and a profound knowledge of educational doctrine, and a lack of teaching skill. To have accomplished the first and second aims and to have failed in the last is to have failed in an essential. The normal school is to turn out as its product teachers, not scholars merely, or doctrinaires. C. F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Worcester, Mass. — It seems to me that one business of the normal school is to eliminate the candidates for the teaching profes- sion who do not have natural ability. Such persons can be worn out in the normal school by requiring them to repeat the work of the course. I want to add that I am in complete accord with Mr. Payne. I have never heard anybody maintain any opinions contrary to those of the paper. The normal schools in Massachusetts formerly gave practice to students by letting them practice upon each other. I had some hesitation in opening up at New Britain the first practice school of another kind. Oswego has been reported as having 500 in the largest practice school in the world. There are 1,500 in the New Britain practice school. That idea has spread, and there are now three normal schools in Connecticut instead of one. I believe that every normal school in New Eng- and is now shaping its work in the same direction. Let us give to Dr. Sheldon, of Oswego, that grand old hero, credit for what was done. The superintendents of Massa- chusetts now say to a girl who has graduated from college : " We wish you to go to a normal school and into a practice school before you apply for a position as a teacher." Superintendence] BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN EDUCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 2 1 5 Superintendent Greenwood, of Kansas City.— I wish we miglit have a definition from the speaker as to his meaning in the remark that a specialist in a normal-school faculty is a menace. It does not follow because one is a specialist that he is ignorant of other subjects. Those who believe in the subjects they teach and are well-bred people, good thmkers and good workers, are a help and an inspiration to all the students in a normal school. I stand for that kind of specialist. The great danger is that persons who are teaching in the normal school may lack both scholarship and inspiration. The specialist is worth a great deal if he does not insist on putting his drawing harness on all the children. Miss M. Elizabeth Farson, district superintendent of Chicago. — The normal school is in need of open vision. We believe that the normal-trained school teacher should come to us able to see things from every point of view. THE DANGER OF USING BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN REASONING ON EDUCATIONAL SUBJECTS W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHING- TON, D. C. For many years I have been attracted and afterwards repelled by one theory and another relating to education, which undertook to reason from the body to the mind — from the brain to the soul — from the events of animal life to the events of spiritual life, and to explain the latter thru the former. The attempt to reform the school in some particular by the light of physiology, or by phrenology, or by the study of prehistoric begin- nings of civilization, has often been successful; but quite as often it has been unsuccessful. In the former case some waste of bodily power has been prevented ; in the latter case some more important spiritual power has been dwarfed or paralyzed to gain some less valuable advantage for the body. When one first begins to think on a subject which has hitherto been purely a matter of routine and tradition with him, he falls too readily into a habit of criticism of the established order and condemns with undue haste. As a consequence his corrections and would-be reforms all need readjustment to prevent them from doing more harm than good. For he has seen only one evil out of many, or only one phase of an evil instead of the whole of it. On this account he may, by removing one evil, let in another and worse evil that has been held in check by the choice of the less noxious one. I must confess, with a degree of sadness, that I have become from year to year more skeptical in regard to reforms advocated in the name of school hygiene. Not that I doubt tne importance of hygiene, but rather that I doubt the attainments of those who talk so glibly about it. For I see them unduly securing minor advantages at the expense of great and permanent injuries to health and normal growth. 2 1 6 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION LChicago The schoolhouse, at first, was only a slight modification on the dwell- ing-house. There was light and ventilation sufficient for two, three, or four persons in the room. The dark parts of the room were light enough for many purposes of housework, and if one wished to read or to sew or perform the work of cleansing or separating such articles of food as had been ground and needed sifting, or as were composed of small grains or kernels and needed picking over, a seat near the window secured the requisite light. But the school needed a room lighted in all parts as nearly equally as possible, and with a constant supply of fresh air, heated properly. It was gradually discovered that the room of the dwelling-house was poorly adapted for school purposes. Some pupils got too little light and became near-sighted by holding their books too close to their eyes; some came to have weak eyes by having too much light. For the glare of a page on which the sunlight falls is sufficient to produce partial blindness. Even pure sky light, without the direct rays of the sun, will tend to do this. Many have been the so-called improvements which, in correcting the evil of insufficient light, ignored entirely the great injury done to those pupils who sat in the full glare of the sun or of the clear sky, and for hours, each day, tried their eyes on perceiving letters and figures in small print. I need not speak here of the various attempts to light the room from the front of the pupil, forcing him to strain his eyes in order to make out the words of the page when seen in the direction of the source of light ; the experiment of lighting from two sides, the left and the right, with its attendant impossibility of getting the light upon the book from either side without at the same time facing the light of the other side. The light was tried from the right side alone, and the pupil had to have the shadow of his hand on the place where he was writing. Light from the left and rear came at last to be adopted with much unanimity by educa- tional experts in this country in 1876. But the tendency to make large buildings has since that time permitted and encouraged the construction of schoolhouses with one-half of the rooms lighted from one side only ; this, too, without due consideration of the relation between the height of the tops of the windows and the width of the room. The consequence of this is that most of our cities have schoolrooms in which there is a row of desks where pupils sit in a twilight and acquire the habit of holding their books too near the eyes ; and another row of desks where the pupils have the glare of light that I have described, and the effort of nature to adjust the retina to the overplus of light dims the power of vision below the normal standard. In the schoolroom of a building altered over from a dwelling-house there is also another attendant evil. The pupils in a row of seats placed directly under the windows are exposed in cold weather to chilling cur- rents of air which are constantly flowing down the sides of the wall and I Superintendence! BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN EDUCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 2 1 7 especially down the window surface. Children not of robust constitution often lay the foundation of much bodily disease in this way. Improper lighting, by reason of the sympathy of the eyes with the stomach, pro- duces in pupils of delicate constitution a tendency to nervous dyspepsia. Indeed, the errors in lighting and in avoiding drafts of cold air seem to me so serious that I cannot listen patiently to those who praise the countless devices which are invented for one and another trifling advan- tage in the hygiene of the schoolroom. For it were better that they had not been discovered than to distract, as they do, the attention from the far weightier matters of light and temperature and ventilation. One idea crowds out another in some cases, altho in other cases one idea leads to or brings in another. The general idea suggests its appli- cations. But the particular idea having small scope may get in the way of more fruitful ideas. We have to measure ideas as to their relative value and decide for ourselves which may properly give way to the other. For example, take the unhygienic school as it existed and now exists in the countries that are backward in this matter of school architecture, and we must admit that the great purposes of the school were secured and are secured in the log schoolhouse, in the dark, ill-ventilated tenement building rented for a school in a slum district, or in a mere shanty school in the west of Ireland. The great purpose of learning to know printed language ; to become eye-minded instead of ear-minded ; to gain besides one's colloquial vocabulary also a vocabulary of science and literature and philosophy ; to become able to understand and use technical language — all these things came then and come now to the gifted youth without the improvements in hygiene that we clamor for. ^Abraham Lincoln read by the firelight of the blazing hearth and fed his mighty mind. It is true that the average of life in those unhygienic days was far less than now. But the illiterate savage does not reach a life average so great as the unhygienic but civilized man, and, what is more to the point, fifty years of Europe is worth a cycle of Cathay. A rational life, growing in the production of science and art and literature, and in diffusing the blessing of civilization, is better than a savage life, even if the latter were to have an average of eighty years, while the former were to have an average of thirty years. According to the merely biologic point of view, life is life, whether of plant or animal or man, and the more of it the better. But such is not the spiritual point of view. Some years ago Max Miiller wrote up the theory of the sun-myth as found in the beginnings of mythology. The stories of the heathen gods were thinly veiled allegories of the solar year, or of the four seasons, or of the diurnal revolution. The words signifying divine things are origi- nally words describing the phenomena connected with the progress of the sun in the equinox, or thru the hours of the day and night. Later on, the sun-myth theory was used to explain all religion. It is all 2l8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago founded on sun -myths. The conclusion was drawn by many devotees to philology that the basis of religion is only a personification of natural phenomena, and that there is no reality corresponding to religious con- ceptions. It was said that the sun- myth is a disease of language. Then religion came to be regarded also by this school of philologues as also a disease of language. Outsiders who observed this extension of the sun- myth theory began to expect that sooner or later the theory would be carried one step farther, and that philosophic thought would be declared to be a disease of language; and, sure enough, this appears to be the upshot of the book of Professor Max Miiller on the Science of Thought. This is made plausible by the following step : The words of a language stand for classes and species of objects, and not for mere individuals. Tohn is a boy says that John belongs to the class of beings known as boy. The word "is" has universal significance as copula expressing subsump- tion ; the article "a" expresses the general concept '* one of," and even the word "John" says any boy who is called John. We have to add to language a meaning of our own to make it apply to a particular individ- ual being, and no one person's meaning of a word is absolutely what another person means by it. Now, add to this view another one with reference to the nature of objects that exist — namely, that all that exists is composed of some one or more definite things ; that only particular individuals exist ; and that language has made all its words stand for general classes of beings, actions, and relations, and in so doing has made it entirely symbolic, instead of corresponding, literally and in detail, to reality — and we now begin to see where we are going. It is only one step to the conclusion that all general thought relations rest on the scaffolding of language, and are baseless as regards their truth. Generalizations of thought regarding the world and its destiny are the product of a disease of language. In fact, we might as well call language itself a disease. But where can we stop ? If the anthropoid ape invented the disease of language, his animal relatives who could not yet talk were not for that reason any more healthy. For all animal life is a disease as compared with plant life. The animal feels, perceives with his senses, and acts by impulse or instinct. To feel is to set up an activity within a self and after a sort to make one's self an object, or, so to speak, to exist for one's self. Hence to perceive other beings is to represent them by one's own activity, and thus to create within one's self a semblance of other realities. Perception thus rests upon creating within the perceiving being an appearance or semblance of a reality. This is almost as bad a disease as language is, and we may see that the misfortune of language goes farther back and attaches to sense-per- ception itself. For the animal that feels or perceives makes for himself an image or representation, in fact, a seeming or make-believe, or some sort of untruth, to stand for the reality. Superintendence] BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN EDUCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 2 1 9 The plant, it would seem, does not feel nor perceive nor move itself. It does not, like the animal, "dally with false surmise." It feeds on its environment, however. Its life is a life of assimilation and nutrition The plant is engaged in seizing upon its environment, and converting it into vegetable cells, and adding them to its own structure. Here we have reached soundness and health at last, for we have realities at every step. We have the plant a reality which acts upon inorganic substances in the soil and the air, and gathering them to itself makes them over into vege- table cells of its own kind or species. But after the plant has thus acted, it has destroyed the individuality that previously existed in that part of its environment now appropriated for food. It has annulled other indi- viduality to build up its own. What was real as carbon and oxygen and silica and soda no longer is real in that form. As real they are united and converted into organic compounds that form the cells of the plant. As ideal they may be still only carbon and oxygen and silica and soda. If the plant dies, its vegetable cells will be captured by inorganic forces, and these elements (carbon, oxygen, silica, and soda) will reappear in their old form. Here we have to ask whether the plant life is not itself also a disease. Is it not a masquerade ? Does it not act to enshroud the inorganic matter in new forms, making it as vegetable cells possess entirely new properties and lose its old properties ? Does it not, after the death of the plant, let the old individuality of the elements reappear ? But which is the true reality under the appearance ? Is it the inorganic elements, or the organic compounds ? Why should we not say that the inorganic is a state of helpless abstraction in which it does not realize its true being ? And is it not the life of the plant that lifts up the inorganic into a higher and more concrete and perfect form of existence wherein the inorganic elements reveal the wondrous possibilities that were in them, but not made manifest or brought into actual reality ? And again, if the inorganic is only itself a masquerade, hiding its higher life until by the aid of the plant it comes to actualize or make real its true self, why shall we not say that the plant, also, takes on a higher form of realization when it in turn becomes feeling, perceiving, and will- ing, on being taken up into the animal organism ? For the representa- tion of another existence than one's own is, after all, a higher form of reality for the being that represents. For the inorganic does not fully realize itself until it comes in the plant and the animal to show what syntheses it is capable of, and in what ways it can be instrumental in the process of self representation. Self-representation in the form of feeling is, indeed, something that belongs to the order of the miraculous, as looked^ at from the standpoint of the inorganic — it stubbornly resists a mechanical explanation. But now, if we admit this new view of the subject, we must go farther 2 20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago and claim that man, by inventing language, creates a still more wonder- ful reality. For he produces a sort of counterpart to the general process that appears in chemism, in plant life, and in animal sensation. He gives an appropriate form to universals. Words make fast the fleeting mani- festation that goes on in the lower orders of being. Words as tools of thought make possible the grasp of a deeper reality in the universe, which the inorganic cannot compass, nor the plant, nor the mere animal. For thought can grasp the process in which the individuality of the lower order of beings is immersed. Thought can perceive particular things in their causes, and it can think a unity of all causes in a final cause. We have to return to our first statement, or the statement of the philologist, and entering our protest say, therefore, that religion is not a disease of language nor a disease of any kind. But religion is an insight into the final and deepest order of being — the truth which is under all seeming or imperfect being, whether inorganic, or plant, or animal, or human. Neither is thought to be called a disease of language because it deals with generalities. For the general process which is revealed in the changes that inorganic matter undergoes, and which take on new forms in plant and animal life, is first seized as the deeper reality by philosophic thought become possible thru language. Thought reaches this deeper reality underlying all actualities, and it joins the voice of religion in say- ing that the deeper reality is a divine personal reason that reveals itself in the world. That absolute reason has a divine purpose which is the crea- tion of personal beings — training them to individuality in the cradle of time and space. In the light of this divine purpose, all imperfect realizations, such as the inorganic, may be seen to be more or less appearances having each some fragmentary or imperfect form of being that does not fully and adequately explain itself, altho each step above the inorganic is a nearer approach to the absolute reality. Reversing the biologic standpoint, those lower forms of existence maybe called disease. Plants, just because they do not possess feeling and sensation, may be said to be diseased. Then, too, the animal that is less deeply diseased because he possesses sensation and locomotion as well as nutrition — the animal is diseased because he does not possess language. He cannot reach religion or thought. But man is more healthy and less diseased than any other being on earth, because he can form some adequate idea of the divine purpose of the world, and by that reach ultimate ideals thru which to guide his life. By his thought he can see what the fullness of reality means. According to biology as it is, many, or indeed all, of the higher facts and activities of man may be regarded as diseases of vital functions. But, on the same ground, life itself may be regarded as a disease forced on the inorganic. Superintendence J BIOLOGICAL ANAL OGIES IN ED UCA TIONAL SUBJECTS 2 2 I This use of the analogy, however, which makes life itself a disease, leads us to suspect the truth of the biologic view of religion and philos- ophy, and suggests to us the necessity of turning abound the measuring process. We must interpret the lower from the standpoint of the higher. The lower is the incomplete and imperfect being. The higher is the more realized being, the more perfect, and it explains to us the existence of the lower by showing its purpose. The analogy of the lower order of being does not suffice to explain the higher orders of being. The scale must be inverted before the human can be understood. DISCUSSION I Dr. G. Stanley Hall followed Dr. Harris' paper in discussion, saying first that he failed to see in it any practical application to the work of superintendents. Again, he believed that modern psychology today almost repudiated the old phrenology of bumps. Expert students of brain localization still differ much as to the extent of even the centers for the upper and lower limbs, eye, and speech, which are best established, and some reject all further localization ; but, despite Hollander's absurd book to the contrary, there is essentially nothing in common between modern brain studies and phrenology, which is essentially dead today so far as localization of function is concerned, while its concep- tion of faculties is, if possible, more outgrown and worthless. As to biological analogies, Dr. Hall held that one of the greatest advances toward a spiritual conception of the universe was the slow but progressive substitution of these life-forms of thought for the old mechanical forms. To bring this about was one of the chief endeavors of Lotze, one of the greatest of modern philosophers. The study of life-forms has given man a vast number of new figures, tropes, forms of thought, terms by which we can both grasp and express the phenomena of life and mind with progressive clearness and accuracy. No one who knows biology can possibly speak of it as Dr. Harris does. For myself I will only say that I associate the divine logos, or word, more and more with the great bio-logos, or spirit of life, that has brooded over the uni- verse and developed all the ascending orders of existence. 1 he fact that students of the mind and soul are casting off the old mechanical conceptions of the world and the machine logic that hammered them out, substituting vital thought-forms, is an immense step upward and onward toward a true spiritual view of the universe. Dr. Harris. — The same old trouble that met the phrenologist comes now to the experimental psychologist. The question is : How much does the school exercise the brain? In how much does it give power for the solving of the problem of humanity? We should put the whole brain to school, as Professor Woodward would say if here. As manual training does much in that line, let us have manual training. In the study of past life, the study of man as an animal, and of other animals in reference to man, is necessary to find what has been done in all these ages. The study of prehistoric man is good for many purposes, but not for the drawing of lessons in edu- cation. As we go back, we shall find a period of walking on all fours, a period of fish life — perhaps man was a microbe some time. The books of life are biological, of course. When the child comes to school, the teacher asks him what he has been learning in reading, arithmetic, etc., and wishes him to go on getting power. He does not care so much about his age or really how far he has advanced. If the child is nine, and understands algebra and geometry, the teacher 22 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChicago does not say: " You are in the period of arithmetic." Neither would the teacher under- take to grade a person anywhere on the basis of age. In the grammar school are those who do not seem able to get hold of geometry or algebra, and yet they may be mature in body. There is a great deal written about adolescence as extending from the age of twelve to thirty, more or less. It is evident that it is not possible to tell much from a biological classification what you should put in the course of study. In the writings I have read it is suggested that this period is the period of sentiment. Would the psychologist say that adolescence is the period of the imagination ? Children from the age of one to twelve are more imaginative. Adolescence is the age of thinking. From the standpoint of biology, one to twelve is the age of dolls, and, therefore, to be consistent, every child should be put to playing with dolls. I think the good teacher carefully avoids the imaginative with the adolescent children. ROUND TABLE PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS FIRST TOPIC : INSTRUCTION IN THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE IN RURAL COMMUNITIES L. D. HARVEY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. [an abstract] This question is one that is attracting attention in a number of states, especially of the north-central group. There is a general feeling that elementary agriculture should be made a part of the course of study in rural schools. Last winter a bill was introduced into the legislature of Wisconsin making such instruction compulsory. This bill was quietly killed. The amount that can be accomplished in this line in rural schools is very limited, for two reasons : in the first place, the majority of children are too young to comprehend the subject; in the second place, teachers lack sufficient training to accom- plish practical results. This may not seem a very optimistic view, but it is based on results in countries where it has been tried ; for in not one instance has it been a success. In 1872 Canada tried the plan, which proved a. dismal failure. Later it was tried again, with like result because of lack of preparation of teachers. Ireland, France, Prussia, Bel- gium, Norway, Sweden, and Finland have had nearly the same experience. But in these countries the work done in schools higher than the elementary grades has been successful. In the north-central states there is at present a feeling of unrest in rural communities, often a demand for elements of agriculture. The farmers themselves do not know exactly what they want, but ask for something practical. There is a feeling that the pupils of rural schools (and 90 per cent, of them complete their education here) are not fitted ade- quately to meet the responsibilities of life, especially farm life. A number of the strongest educational men of Wisconsin insisted that a compulsory law be enacted for securing this instruction in rural schools. But this would amount to nothing unless teachers were trained to make the work efficient. Superintendence J STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 223 In district schools the conditions are very different now from what they were twenty or thirty years ago. Instead of young men and women, we find children, a great majority under fourteen years of age. In eighteen schools visited recently, only ten pupils over fourteen years of age were found. The same condition prevails in other states. The first thing needed is that parents send their children to school longer. The courses in our present rural school cannot be extended, but a school may be provided giving a kind of training not found in schools now organized, a training for rural life, an opportunity for intellectual life on the farm. At first this may be considered on a money basis, but after a practical interest is aroused, higher motives may and will follow. I would advocate a class of secondary schools to meet the needs of those completing the course in rural schools. As an illustration, in Wisconsin, county schools of agriculture and domestic economy are being founded. These have a two-years' course, which may grow into a longer course, designed to meet the needs of boys and girls from the farm. These schools undertake three lines of work : first, the elements of agriculture, including the study of soils, relations of crops to soils, and similar practical topics; second, the study of plant life on the farm, from the economical as well as the scientific standpoint, beginning with the seed and continuing to its care before marketing the product ; the same course is pursued with regard to animal life ; the use of farmers' tools is also taught; third, such high-school branches of practical value as may be carried along with the above. In these schools girls are taught domestic economy, practically applied to such home problems as preparation of foods, selection and adaptation of foods, with the scientific basis of the same; the ventilation, lighting, and heating of the home. Two counties have voted liberally for the erection of such schools. Similar schools are found all over Europe, adapted to the particular needs of various communities. From these country schools the plan will work down into rural schools in suitable form. This year Wisconsin will try a six-million-dollar experiment. Last year there was a loss of six or seven millions due to the smut in oats. The prevention of this would cost one cent per bushel on seed. The plan of prevention will be put in an Arbor Day Manual sent out to all the teachers, and thru them reach the farmers. DISCUSSION Mrs. Virginia C. Meredith, State Agricultural School, St. Anthony Park, Minn. — I agree with Superintendent Harvey as to giving instruction in rural schools. Minnesota has an agricultural high schoul in connection with its university. Here are five hundred students, one hundred of them girls. There is a six-months' term, which is one of the foundations of its success. A nine-mouths' term trains the taste away from the farm. Most states have an agricultural college, but no training to make boys and girls eligible for admission. The greatest obstacle in the way of such training schools is their expen- sive equipment. In the Minnesota school, girls are given the same instruction as boys. Girls also learn something of sewing in connection with a knowledge of fabrics, and of cooking and of foods. The cause of families leaving the farm is often the dissatisfaction of the women, who do not sympathize with farm work because they do not understand it. The future of farming depends largely on what women put into the farm home. Young men attended this school ten years before girls were admitted, their admis- sion coming by request of the young men. It is a good thing to keep boys and girls together at work, espricially at work for the farm. Here is an illustration of what one of our students accomplished after leaving our school : A girl of twenty began teaching in a country school. In addition to her regular work she gave lectures on plant life; also instruction in sewing, which the boys wanted as well as the girls. As a result, the attendance in this school was the best in its history, 2 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fChicago and the teacher's wages were raised by the board without request on the part of the teacher. If she had added cookery to her subjects, how many homes she might have affected in that community! In pliysiology the child learns that the skin is an organ of excretion, and immedi- ately forgets it. The fact would be of some practical benefit if taught in connection with home life, including bathing, changing and airing of clothing, airing of beds, use of sleep, etc. Man. agricultural high schools are needed in each state, fitting the boys and girls for the life they will lead. Girls often become property owners, and hence have a right to know how to take care of the farm. Superintendent Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania. — From what area do the students come ? Answer : From hundreds of miles, even beyond state limits. Superintendent Barrett, of Iowa.— Are these students enrolled in the college? Answer : No, there are about forty students in the college proper. Superintendent Carrington, of Missouri. — In Missouri the state is trying to prepare teachers in such subjects as nature work, preparatory to the work of the more advanced schools. Summer courses in the elements of agriculture are offered to teachers. In twelve weeks much is learned that has proved beneficial to ordinary rural schools, improving and modifying the work as a whole. In southern Missouri a fruit experiment station has been established. This year a summer school will offer a course in horticul- ture. Some work is also done in the normal schools, each of which has an agricultural department. Superintendent J. W. Olsen, of Minnesota. — Do district ofificers show apprecia- tion of these efforts by offering and paying teachers thus prepared better wages ? Answer: Salaries are raised, and such teachers are in demand. Superintendent Roberts, of Peoria, 111.— I was much disappointed that the leaders both led away from the subject of agriculture in the rural schools. Superintendent Harvey pronounced the work in the district schools a failure. I think something can be done in a simple, practical way in the rural schools to awaken the interest in the commu nity before they are ready for high school or county school. Many boys never will get to either. There should be something done to get the work down to the district school as an incentive to go on to higher work. An experiment was tried in Illinois; work was planned at the university and outlined and presented to the teachers. Seventy-five per cent, of them tried to carry out instructions. The course was very simple, including such subjects as the kind of chickens raised in the district, lists of vegetables raised in the neighborhood, the baking and boiling of potatoes, garden work, keeping accounts, etc. This work can be done in rural schools. SECOND TOPIC: THE FINANCIAL PHASE OF THE CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS CHARLES A. VAN MATRE, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MUNCIE, IND. To the end that knowledge and learning be generally diffused thruout a community, the various states have provided for a general and uniform system of common schools, to be supported by a public tax. Schools have been established in each community within convenient walking distances of the homes. Owing to the uneven distribution of the population, some communities may have very large schools, in which the per capita cost is small, while the adjoining communities may have small schools, in which the per capita cost is comparatively large. A school of fifty pupils may be maintained at practically the same expense as a school of ten. The principal items of expense are tuition, fuel, supplies, repairs, and buildings. A small school must have the same provisions as a Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 225 f larger one in all these items. The per capita cost cannot be reduced by maintaining each separate school. The only solution to the difficulty is to combine two or more such schools, or to combine them with larger schools. In this manner it may be possible to reduce the cost of tuition by reducing the number of teachers, of fuel by reducing the number of rooms to be heated, and consequently the cost of supplies, repairs, and build- ings. While there is a saving in all of these items, another factor is introduced by the consolidation — the cost of transportation of the pupils of the abandoned schools. That the per capita cost of the small schools may be reduced, this cost of transportation must not be greater than the saving in the other items of expense. The reduction in per capita cost and the expense of transportation will depend wholly upon local conditions — the number of pupils to be conveyed, the distance, and the condition of the roads. The subject may be best presented by studying special cases. The following statistics have been collected from places where the experiment has been made : Number of teachers employed in the consolidated school Number of teachers added because of consolidation . Number of teachers fewer in the districts Number of teachers doing grade work in the school Number of teachers doing high- school work in the school . . . Total daily salary of the teachers in the grades Tota daily salary of the teachers in the high school Total number of pupils in the consolidated school Total number of pupils in the grades Total number of pupils in the high school . . Number of schools abandoned in the township Number of pupils conveyed at public expense Number of pupils conveyed in public conveyance Number of pupils conveyed in private conveyance Number of wagons used Daily expense of drivers Daily expense for private con- veyance Cost of wagons Cost of fuel per room per year . . . Cost of all other supplies per room per year $12.25 $3.50 195 $30 $25 $5- 10 $1.25 $30 $25 $7.00 $3-50 141 119 24 24 $1.50 $100 $30 $25 5 3 5 4 I $10.30 $3-2o 190 175 15 5 129 $500 $30 $25 3 3 I $7-50 $3-25 140 122 18 3 50 25 25 2 $2.20 $2.20 $32 $20 4 4 I $9.10 $3.50 130 110 20 4 25 14 II $0.75 $0.40 $15 $7.20 $S $37 $25 $5-40 96 500 500 5 150 5 $12 $50 80 $20 From the above list it may be seen that Daleville, Ind., has a school employing six teachers. Five are doing grade work, while one is doing high-school work. A small school of seven pupils is conveyed to this school. No additional expense is incurred in the Daleville school because of the admission of these seven pupils. The only expense for these seven pupils is the cost of transportation, which is $1.25 per day. To maintain a separate school for them would cost much more than* this amount. Other district schools in the township in which this school is situated cost from ^5^2. 75 to $3 per day. The same results would be secured had the school as many as twenty or twenty five pupils. All could be conveyed in one wagon, and the large school would still admit 2 26 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago them, since they would be distributed thru the grades. No one teacher would receive all of them. Cross Roads, Ind., shows similar conditions. A school of seven pupils is conveyed to this school, which employs two teachers, at the daily expense of ^1.25. The saving in this case is the same as at Daleville. These two schools are located in the same township. The wagons are provided by their drivers. Thus the total expense for each is ^1.25 per day. The saving to the township is from ^3 to ^3.50 per day. For a seven- and-a-half-months' term of school the saving is from ^450 to $500 per year. Selma, Ind., shows even greater results. Two schools have been abandoned and combined with the Selma school. The pupils — twenty-four in number — are conveyed in one wagon at a daily expense of $1.50. No additional teaching force is required in the Selma school. The saving to the township is about ^600 per vear. As a solution to the rural-school problem, the school at Royerton, Ind., is a fruitful field for study. Six districts, comprising an area of about eighteen square miles, have been combined into one. The union school is located at Royerton. Under the separate- district plan seven teachers were employed — two at Royerton and one in each of the other districts. Now five are employed in the union school, a difference of two teachers resulting from the change. Three teachers are doing grade work, one does high-school work, and one divides his time between grade and high-school work. Some little high- school work w^as given when there were but two teachers in the Royerton school, but no high-school work was given in the district schools outside of the Royerton school. Under the separate-district plan seven rooms were maintained. Now there are but four, and a small room used for recitations, which adds no expense. No additional buildings were needed at Royerton, due to the fact that there was an old building which had not been in use for several years. Thus there has been a saving in tuition by reducing the number of teachers. Not considering the high school, four teachers do the work formerly done by seven teachers — a difference of three. The cost of fuel, supplies, and repairs for seven rooms has been reduced to the cost of four. There are 190 pupils enrolled in the school, 129 of whom are conveyed from the abandoned schools — about two-thirds of the number enrolled in the union school. The daily expense for transportation is $8.75. The following will show the comparative cost of the two plans : DISTRICT PLAN Salaries for seven teachers for seven months $2,492.00 Institute fee for seven institutes 124.60 Fuel for seven rooms at $30 per room 210.00 Supplies for seven rooms at $10 per room 70.00 Repairs at $20 per room 140.00 Total $3,036.60 CONSOLIDATION PLAN Salaries for four teachers for seven months $1,442.00 Institute fee for seven institutes 72.10 Fuel for four rooms at $30 per room 120.00 Supplies for four rooms at $10 per room 40.00 Repairs at $20 per room 80. 00 Total $1,754.10 Transportation, at $8.87 per day 1,225.00 $2,979.10 Difference in favor of consolidation 57 50 $3,036.60 The salaries shown in the above estimate are the actual salaries paid the teachers. The cost of the fuel has bgen estimated upon a coal or wood basis. The supplies include maps, globes, charts, desks, books of reference, etc. The repairs include fen- cing, wells, pumps, floors, windows, papering, janitor work, etc. These are only esti- mates. If there is any error, it has been in making them too low. However, this SuperintendenceJ STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 227 would only make the saving greater, and does not interfere with the argument. Build- ings are not included. There was no additional expense for buildings. PER CAPITA COST Consolidated Plan District Plan Tuition per day - - - $0.060 $0,100 Transportation per day - - 0.067 " " " • • Other items - - - - 0.012 0.041 $0,139 $0,141 The pupils of the original Royerton school are not transported, which makes a reduction from 14. i to 7.2 cents per capita. There are about sixty pupils in this district- In the township in which Royerton is situated there are other schools not centralized at Royerton. Each of them enrolls more than thirty pupils. The cost of tuition cannot be greater than 8 cents per capita, using as a basis the same rate as used in the other estimates — $2.50 per day. The cost of transportation cannot be much less than 6 cents per day per capita, considering that the average cost of driver, wagon, and team is j^l.25, and that a wagon may convey from twenty to twenty-five pupils. If there be thirty pupils, two wagons may be needed, which would increase the per capita cost. To con- solidate such schools would be more expensive than to maintain separate schools. Webster township, Wayne county, Indiana, has centralized all its schools at one point — the town of Webster. But two wagons are used. The township is sniall, and much of the school population is centered near Webster. The outlying districts have a very small school enumeration. It has been found very much more satisfactory to con- vey the pupils from the three out-districts to the Webster school than to maintain these small schools. Three schools have been abandt)ned. To maintain these schools would cost from ^8 to ^9 per day. Aside from the high school but one teacher has been added to the Webster school because of the consolidation, at an expense of ^2.50 per day. Twenty-five pupils are conveyed in two wagons at a daily expense of $2.20. Twenty- five pupils are conveyed in private conveyances at about the same expense. Perry township, Wayne county, Indiana, shows similar conditions. The township has one school at Economy. The rural population is scattering. Twenty-five pupils are conveyed at a daily expense of $1.15. Formerly there were four schools maintained in addition to the Economy school ; now there are but twenty-five pupils not within con- venient distance of the Economy school. MASSACHUSETTS Six years ago Warwick maintained nine schools twenty-four weeks per year. The average attendance xjf pupils in the town was eighty-seven. Teachers' wages in the eight outside schools were %% per week ; in the center school, ^6 per week. With few exceptions, the teachers were young and without experience, educated in the district schools. Some were under sixteen years of age — one term a pupil in a school, the next term a teacher. Occasionally, in recent years, a teacher of marked ability and success- ful experience has been employed, but the number of schools made it impossible to pay wages that would retain the services of well-qualified teachers many terms. The schools were poorly supplied with books and materials. Now all the pupils in town are in three rooms of one modern, well-lighted, heated, ventilated building, pleasantly situated in the center of the town. The rooms are supplied with good blackboards, and with books and appliances for the use of pupils. The school has three teachers — normal-school graduates of exceptional ability. The average wages paid are $9 a week ; the school year is thirty-six weeks. Special teachers of music and drawing visit the schools each week. Pupils are conveyed to the center union school from distant part« of the town. The average attendance in the fall term was ninety-six — a gain over the attendance in all of the nine schools six years ago. The schools are well-graded from lowest primary to highest grammar grade, three classes in a room. 228 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Teachers are selected whose qualifications are especially adapted to the ability and needs of the pupils under their charge. The number of recitations being less than in ungraded schools, the teachers and pupils do much more effective work. The relation of the teachers to one another is one of mutual helpfulness, and the association of so many pupils in the schoolrooms and on the grounds under the supervision of the teachers is pleasant and beneficial. As a result of the consolidation of its schools and a wise administration of school affairs, the town has in six years lengthened the school year 50 per cent., increased the teachers' wages 75 per cent., and employed special teachers for drawing and music, with- out materially increasing the school tax of the town. Because of the reduction of the number of schools thru consolidation, the cost of instruction by the regular teachers has been lessened. A large increase in the amount of money received from the income of the state school fund has been of great benefit to the schools. Much time that would be needed for travel by the superintendents and special teachers in reaching many small scattered schools is saved for profitable use in the one building in the union school. The citizens of Warwick have manifested a deep interest in their public schools by the employment of an efficient superintendent, the erection of a school building which is a ^credit to the town, the consolidation of its schools, and the employment of efficient teachers. In general, it may be said that any school in which the daily per capita cost exceeds 15 cents maybe consolidated with other schools without increasing the expense. This estimate will be true when the cost of tuition is ^2.40 per day. This rate will be reached when the enrollment of the school falls below twenty, and the conveyance may be made with one wagon. Considering that a teacher may successively teach a school of fifty pupils, provided that but one or two grades be represented, and that he receive ^50 per month for his services, the minimum cost of tuition will be $i per month per capita. Also considering thiat wagons may convey from twenty to twenty-five pupils, and that the cost of wagons, drivers, and teams will be from $1.25 to $\.^Q per day, the minimum cost of transportation of pupils will be $1.10 per month per capita. The cost of repairs, supplies, and fuel will be about 20 cents per month per capita. The total cost of maintaining the school of fifty pupils will be ^2.40 per month per capita. With this estimate as a working basis the following s compiled : TABLE SHOWING THE RATE LEVY PER ^1,000 FOR A GIVEN NUMBER OF PUPILS FOR A GIVEN LENGTH OF TIME WHEN ALL ARE CONVEYED Number of Pupils 100. 200, 300. 400. 500, Number of Months and Rates I Month 6 Months 7 Alonths 8 Months 9 Months $0.24 .48 .72 .96 1.20 $1.44 2.88 4-32 5-76 7.20 51.48 3-36 5-04 6.72 8.40 $1.92 3-84 5.76 7.68 9.60 $2.16 4-32 6.48 8.64 10.80 The rate of tax levy may be computed from this table for any number of $1,000 for a given number of months and for a given number of pupils. Divide the rate of tax levy shown by the table for a given number of pupils for the given number of months by the given number of ;^ 1,000, and the result will be the rate of tax levy on the dollar. l^or instance, the number of pupils in a certain township is 400 ; the desired length of school term is eight months; the assessed valuation property is $1,000,000. By referring to the table the rate is $7.68; dividing this amount by 1,000 gives $0.00768 Superintendence] STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS 229 — the rate on %\, or ^0.768 on $100. This rate would be excessive for the state of Indiana. The maximum rate established by law is ^0.96 on the ;^ioo. The maximum special school levy which must provide for all expense other than tuition is 50.50 on the $\0Q. The maximum tuition levy is $0,35 on the $\oo. These are the local levies. In addition to these levies the state levies a tax of ^o.ii on the $100, which is collected from the various counties and redistributed, together with the revenue on the permanent school fund, in proportion to the school enumeration. Deducting the $0.1 1 levied by the state in the case cited above, the local levy would need be $0,658 on the $100. Not having made provisions for buildings in the estimate for this levy, the rate approaches too near the maximum local levy — $0.85 on the $100. A margin of $0.30 on the $100 should be left for cost of buildings, the remaining $0.^^ should pay all other expense for maintaining the school. However, in the township being considered no more than one-half the pupils would need be conveyed. By centralizing at two points the other one-half would be within convenient walking distance from the union schools. To con- vey but one-half would reduce the levy from $0,658 to $0,466 on the $100. This rate would not be excessive. Most cities and towns levy higher rates. For additional illustration another specific case is given. A certain township enrolls 300 pupils ; the desired length of school term is seven months ; the assessed valuation of property is $850,000. By referring to the table the rate is $5.04. Dividing this amount by 850 the rate is $0.00593 on the $1, or $0,593 on the $100. Deducting the $0.1 1 levied by the state, the local levy is $0,483 on the $100. If no more than two-thirds of the pupils would need be conveyed, the rate would be $0.39 on the $100. The conditions in this particular township are such that not more than one-half would need be conveyed. In such case the levy would be $0.33 on the $100. The illustrations given cannot be universally applied. However, the following sum- mary may have general application : 1. To convey all pupils will require an excessive rate of tax, unless the number of pupils be small and the assessed valuation property large. 2. The township with a school enrollment of one hundred to an assessed property valuation of $250,000 may convey one-half the number of pupils with a reasonable rate of tax levy. 3. Any school with an enrollment of fewer than twenty pupils may be combined with a similar or larger school at no increased expense, provided the distance be not too great for the transportation, and the roads permit of easy and rapid transit. DISCUSSION I Superintendent Sch aeffer, of Pennsylvania. — Is the consolidation law compulsory in Indiana ? Answer : It is not. Districts on petition vote themselves in, but trustees may join a school of less than twelve pupils without waiting for a petition. Dr. Schaeffer, — What is the usual cost of transportation? Answer: From $1.25 to $1.50 per day. In Ohio from $8 to $45 per month; average $18 or $19. Superintendent Bayliss, of Illinois, asked Superintendent Bonebrake, of Ohio, if any schools in that state had discontinued the plan. Answer : A very few, where the opposition had gained control of the board ; but sentiment in favor of the movement is constantly growing, as is shown by the numerous calls upon the state superintendent to speak on this subject. Superintendent Fall, of Michigan. — While the plan is not in operation in Michi- gan, there is a great and growing interest in the subject. In comparing the school expenses of the city of Jackson with the cost of the ungraded schools in the twenty townships about it, it was found that the per capita tax in Jackson was $1.27, while in the country 2 30 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago It was ^l.6o. This shows that the country children should have at least as good an edu- cation as the city children, for their parents pay more for it. In eight country schools visited in one area the highest enrollment was thirteen, the lowest six ; each of these contained worthless reading charts costing $37.50 apiece. Superintendent B. E. York, of Kingsville, O. — The consolidation of rural schools in Ohio began at Kingsville six years ago. Now the whole town is consolidated ; at the last election the vote carried six to one in favor of the plan. The gross expense is a little more, but the per capita expense is less. A high-school course of four years has been established, and there are seventy-four pupils in the high school. Superintendent Collins, of South Dakota. — The advantages of the system more than outweigh any small increase in cost. Farmers will be willing to pay a little more if they see results. Great interest is shown in South Dakota. Many are opposed, but do not give the cost as the reason for opposition. Social conditions must settle the question. In prairie states probably three-fourths of the towns might save money. If the schools were large, consolidation would add to the cost ; if small, it would not. Superintendent Bright, of Cook county. 111. — The two subjects on the program are closely related. There would be a good opportunity for instruction in the elements of agriculture in the high schools established by consolidation of the districts. County Superintendent W. G. Hartranft, of Seattle, Wash., said he had come to the meeting expressly to hear this topic discussed. There are so many schools in Washington of three or four pupils that something should be done. He is urging con- solidation. He reaches the farmers by a paper explaining and commending the plan. Superintendent BoNEBRAKE,of Ohio. — Centralization not only gives better results in the grades, but results in the formation of high schools. Such has been the experience in the townships of Ohio. Sixty-three new high schools have been established this year. Growth of libraries and the bringing in of lecture courses have also followed consolidation. These high schools should not imitate too closely the high schools in large cities. Review work in the common branches should receive attention as well as advanced subjects. B. ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS TOPIC I: FOUR MINOR DUTIES OF A SUPERINTENDENT I. C. MCNEILL, PRESIDENT STATE, NORMAL SCHOOL, SUPERIOR, WIS. The four topics I am asked to touch upon in this short discussion relate to the selec- tion of teachers, the elimination of teachers who are not intellectually prepared, the elimination of teachers who are not morally prepared, and the stimulation of teachers to reach the fullest measure of individual strength so as to render, thru active co operation, the most efficient service. SELECTION OF TEACHERS Every superintendent is confronted with serious problems in the selection of new teachers. There are economic, practical, and prudential reasons for selecting some people of little experience from one's own city. The superintendent and the school board have opportunities, because of their residence in the neighborhood, to make closer analyses of the intellectual and moral fitness of inexperienced home applicants than they can make of nonresidents. Worthy and loyal teachers who are important factors in the community life can render abler service in interpreting the schools to the patrons, and the patrons to the system, than equally well-prepared strangers can give. Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 231 Notwithstanding these facts, it is exceedingly dangerous to employ young teachers fresh from the high schools. They have vague notions of the duties teachers must assume, and are able to give no better reason for their employment than Micawber could give for the practice of law. Untrained high school graduates have been in contact with teaching processes as pupils, while Micawber had been in contact with legal processes many times as defendant. High-school graduates of worthy character and exemplary habits should be encour- aged to take two-years' courses in good normal schools, supported at public expense or by ample endowment, where subject matter, ideals, and work can in no way be influenced by fees paid for tuition. After the training and the close sifting of well-equipped and well-conducted n'^rmal or training schools, the young teachers will be anchored to some fundamental notions so that they can begin to adapt themselves, subject-matter, methods, and government to the capability of the taught. With very few exceptions, the most able and successful teachers in any large system are they who have had professional training in normal schools. It is the experience of most superintendents who have studied the question in all its phases that the probability that young teachers will succeed is greatly increased after graduating from a well-conducted training course. New blood should be infused into the city school system by selecting some teachers of recognized training, scholarship, successful experience, and pleasing and worthy char- acter from outside every year. It is a menace to the best interests of the schools to erect a wall so high that it is not possible to scale it and secure the most efficient service with- out regard to municipal or state lines. The superintendent should base his recommendations for the selection of new teach- ers upon his own knowledge when possible ; and, in other cases, upon honest, expert, disinterested advice from people who, thru contact and visitation, know the teacher at work, and have given attention to the personality, the scholarship, the organization of knowledge as illustrated in the recitation, and the kind and efficiency of his or her dis- cipline. Special care needs to be exercised to distinguish between the personality that wins the visitor because of blandishments, and the personality which guides the children to cheerful and independent work because of the presence of character. As a matter of fact, many selections must be made upon information given by interested parties, such as personal friends and teachers' agencies. In such instances the information should be considered as tentative rather than final ; and verification of it ought to be sought from all other sources at command ; for all mistakes reflect upon the judgment of the superin- tendent. The more confidence the community has in the honesty and soundness of the superintendent's judgment, the more hearty and generous will be the support given his school administration. ELIMINATION OF TEACHERS WHO ARE NOT INTELLECTUALLY PREPARED There is hope for the teacher who is weak in scholarship but strong in character. Elimination does not necessarily mean retirement. Weak scholarship in many instances may be overcome. As a general line of action, it is my opinion that the superintendent should attempt to stimulate self-culture, and thus eliminate weak scholarship by study, observation, and reflection, rather than by dismissals ; yet, retirements because of weak scholastic attain- ments sometimes act as a powerful spur and cause intellectually inefficient teachers to embrace every opportunity to grow in knowledge of facts and plans of organizing them, as well as in methods of teaching. The problem of inefficiency cannot be solved by retiring all teachers of poor scholarship; for frequent changes in teaching force usually lower the vitality of a system of schools. It is well for the superintendent to be animated by a desire to stimulate poor teachers to become fair teachers and fair teachers to become excellent. Teachers who are inefficient in one grade may sometimes do better work in another 232 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago where tact and management count for more than scholarship. Such teachers will usually be found ready and anxious to follow courses of study for self-improvement. The super- intendent, or someone under his direction, may form classes in which the facts of the branches, one branch at a time, and the organization of the facts into teaching plans, are taught at stated intervals until the fundamental branches are understood and organized in the minds of teachers of poor scholarship. Teaching plans, such as State Superin- tendent L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, has promulgated, are heartily commended, and might well test both scholarship and the organization of subject-matter with teachers of the class now under consideration. Summer schools, conducted by educational experts, in which teachers attempt not more than two branches, often help teachers rich in character but poor in scholarship to be able to approach their duties in such a way as to do violence to no child brought under them for instruction and moral guidance. The most effective means of helping is to win the confidence of teachers of this class and induce them to ask for leave of absence for one or two years to enter upon a scientific study of the branches and the general subject of education in a well-equipped normal school. When they shall have completed the course of study, their places in the system should be opened to them without doubt. I personally know superintendents who have followed this last-mentioned plan to the decided betterment of their schools. Many of the teachers who are thus helped soon prove themselves superior and are in line for promotion when better places are open. In dealing with all teachers of the class now considered the utmost frankness and the fullest sympathy should characterize the intercourse of the superintendent with them. They need the uplifting influence of honest hearts and friendly hands in overcoming obstacles which stand between them and due proficiency. One of the greatest rewards that may come to a superintendent is the consciousness of having placed about a teacher of poor scholarship and beautiful character such influences as induced her to make prepa- ration for a larger and a fuller life which culture and training enabled her to reach. ELIMINATION OF TEACHERS WHO ARE NOT MORALLY PREPARED This topic is one that causes the superintendent the greatest concern. Teachers who are morally prepared have trained and logical minds, high ideals of right and eq'iity, active and sensitive consciences, steady wills, persistent purposes, keen sympathies, and an abundance of common-sense. The teacher who is weak in character lacks in develop- ment of mind, of ideals, of manners, of conscience, of steadiness and persistence of will, of sympathy, or of common-sense, but not of all. The teacher who is positively depraved represents arrested development or active degeneration in intellectual or moral lines. Such a person is short sighted and looks to present selfish gratification. A very few forms of moral disqualification may be overcome. The indiscreet teacher in her actions outside the schoolroom may sometimes be saved by a frank request from the superintendent that she change her course of conduct concerning the things he sets forth in a firm but pleasant manner. The passive teacher, correct in her own personal habits, lacking power to exert an active, positive influence for right in her pupils, by association as assistant with a positive, aggressive type of teacher may sometimes, but not often, thru imitation, be brought into the light of clearer ideals and caused to take on a disposition to guide the energies of children and secure a power to control. The nagging teacher, the fuming teacher, the vindictive teacher, the slovenly teacher, the untruthful teacher, the giddy teacher, and many other types of teachers who are not morally prepared, should in very many cases be advised to find other avenues of employ- ment. The school's great aim is to train the character of the pupils, not the character of the teachers. Elimination by substitution is the safest method of dealing with teachers who are morally unfit for their duties. Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 23s STIMULATION OF TEACHERS TO FOLLOW RIGHT IDEALS The superintendent's task of stimulating each individual to do his best in teaching, in managing, and in carrying out plans for private practice or public policy is one that tests training and common-sense. The superintendent who, thru a laudable desire to secure the greatest efificiency, insists that his plans in the minutest details shall be the only guide for individual faith and practice, soon finds himself rated as an educational czar. There is danger that such a man, no matter how great an educator he may be, will kill off by the "starvation plan" individual initiative and hearty support which are always needed to give tone and public confidence. On the other hand, the "good fellow," who makes it his chief business to "stand in'* everywhere in the course of time, is looked upon as a person without educational charac- ter. Such a superintendent is often made the tool of designing egotists with their fac- tional organizations. He becomes unable to enlist effort to improve, because he lacks the power or courage to recognize individual merit by directing attention to personal worth or by promoting deserving persons when opportunity arises. The superintendent needs, thru contact with teachers and thru observation of their class-room work, where he may estimate the intellectual and moral development of pupils, to have an intimate knowledge of the working power, scholarship, educational philosophy, habits, and abilities of the teachers, that he may encourage them to keep on doing well the things that are done well and to change ideals and practices regarding the duties that are done poorly. Monthly teachers' institutes and grade teachers' meetings at stated intervals, if planned to establish clearer notions of teaching or managing and led by inspiring persons who because of ackaoivledged success or skill stand for ideas, will give zest and purpose to the system. The best interests of the schools will come from a care- fully articulated course which starts with conditions as found and leads to consistent and persistent effort to avoid waste and to move in a straight rather than a broken line of progress. Schools and teachers, because of standing on the solid ground of right adjustment of matter and method to the pupils, should be pointed out so that they may be studied and the sources of superior merit discovered by less forceful workers. When teachers are busy trying to reach safest methods in guiding activity of pupils so as to result in power and character, they are constructive and positive ; they lose no time in tearing down good things. The superintendent should be secure and steadfast, not easily turned aside by the petty worries and sordid cares of the daily turmoil. Some work may be done by the superintendent whose views are narrow and whose ideals are low, but the best work is done only by the man of large heart, broad views, and habitual singleness of purpose. The great superintendent, who realizes that education is a constant force that operates wherever ideas for good or for evil are alive, lives in the minds of associates as an exem- plar of honesty, justice, courage, and courtesy. He should have a personality and stand for something in the educational world and out of it. The elements of leadership will enable him to "Allure to brighter worlds And lead the way." TOPIC II: MODERNIZING THE COURSE OF STUDY W. A. HESTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE, IND. In his efforts to modernize the course of study, to what extent should the superin- tendent be governed by: (i) the crack of the college professor's whip? (2) the nervous woman writer's tirade on the " crowded curriculum " ? (3) the conclusions of 234 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago the notoriety-seeking schoolroom experimenter ? (4) the demands of the old-school men that all be eliminated from the course of study excepting the " three R's" ? I have a bright young school friend whom I shall call, for the sake of convenience, Charles Merrill. Mr. Merrill is college-bred, thoughtful, sober, sensitive, and almost painfully conscientious. He voluntarily entered the profession of teaching when quite a young man, and, because of his superior intelligence, close study of his work, tactfulness, and devotion to duty, he was rapidly and deservedly promoted, his last position, and the one which he now holds and has held for nearly six years, being the superintendency of a system of schools in a prosperous western town of about thirty thousand people. As a superintendent he has had what may be termed a rich experience. He related much of it to me during last Christmas holiday week, and it was to me so interesting, so suggest- ive, and is, withal, so similar to that of many other young superintendents, that 1 ven- ture to present a portion of it for our discussion here today. He stated that before he took charge of the schools his board told him that their schools were not up to the standard of certain other schools which they named, and that they would expect him to bring them to such standard as soon as it could be done. Having given the superintendency of schools but little attention, said he, I began at once a careful reading of everything bearing on school management that I could find, and wrote to a number of the writers of articles that had impressed me most deeply for fuller statements of their views. Several of them replied promptly and elaborately, and their letters have been of great help to me many times since their receipt ; but others made assertions and expressed opinions that I could not but regard as bemg dangerously heterodox, they were so dia- metrically opposed to what 1 had been taught to believe was good pedagogy. 1, therefore, laid their communications aside, determined to allow the writers to prove the pedagogical worth of their theories themselves, rather than risk testing them myself or allowing them to be tested in the schools for the success of which 1 should be held personally respon- sible. The first and most important duty which the new position brought to me was the revision and improvement of the course of study. The old course, as 1 found it, provided for work in what we usually term the " eight common-school branches," none of the so-called " fads " finding a place in it. About the first thing which I did, therefore, was to recommend the introduction of a system of drawing, to which I held with a blind faith in the efficacy of the system, tho I knew little of its real educational value, notwithstanding the fun that was poked at our "mud-pie making," our "scissor-cutting nonsense," and our "failure to turn out artists." A proficient and popular supervisor soon quieted the spirit of unrest, however, and things have gone serenely on in that department of our schools ever since. The necessity for a complete course of nature work for the grades was also urged upon me, and what appeared to me to be a carefully worked out scheme of nature study was presented to the board, which readily adopted it, and then to the teachers, who sighed, but acquiesced and went faithfully to work to master the new subject as it applied to their respective grades. Of course, time had to be set apart for the two new subjects of drawing and nature work, and it had to be taken from the time formerly devoted to instruction in the other branches. Right here the college professor offered his assistance. He commended me for what I had done in " shortening and enriching " the course of study; but said that my work had not gone far enough. He insisted that further eliminations and contraction should be effected in the old-time subjects, and that a full eight year course in history should be given to the pupils of the grades ; that Latin should be begun in the seventh, and that elementary algebra and geometry should be made a part of the eighth-year assignment. I was persuaded that all this must be done if we would be " up with the times ; " Superintendence] ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 235 and, as my board had said this must be our condition as soon as practicable, and as our advisors made it so emphatic that all the changes enumerated were essential in any attempt to modernize a course of study, the new subjects were introduced as rapidly as could be done without creating a panic and general strike among the teachers. In the process of elimination and contraction of the old course much of the technical part of the grammar was sacrificed. This, of course, created dissatisfaction among the advocates of parsing and analyzing, and much complaint was heard from high-school teachers of English, German, and Latin when the pupils began to enter their classes. Besides this, many of the topics in arithmetic previously dwelt upon by teachers and labored with by pupils were stricken from the assignment and the course in that branch shortened a full year. The criticisms which this elicited from a number of our pioneer, but substantial and highly respected citizens, products of the old school, were such as 1 do not care to repeat. It is sufficient to say that no argument presented to them was strong enough to convince them that the new was a great improvement over the old. They held tenaciously to their demand that the " new-fangled notions" be dropped and the "three R's" be emphasized. The course of study in geography was next abbreviated by substituting a one-book course for the two-book course then in use. One year's work in geography was thus saved and the time given to the new subjects. But this was not the end. The vertical-writing wave reached us, and in its mighty roll threatened to submerge us and thus to consign us to oblivion ; but we mounted its crest with the other progressives, and the change from the more rapidly written but now condemned slant to the slower but popular vertical was soon effected. Altho the pen- manship of the older pupils was for a time almost illegible, all ere long were writing the so-called vertical script, which in most instances was a plain backhand. These changes, together with the addition of two oral lessons per week in scien- tific temperance, made necessary by a recently enacted law in response to a demand of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union ; two oral lessons per week in patriotism, as requested by the Grand Army of the Republic and the Daughters of the American Revo- lution ; two five-minute exercises each day in calisthenics ; and one ten- or twenty-minute period each day given to vocal music, afford some idea of the evolution thru which those schools passed during the first three years of my superintendency. Much of the time during the next two years I spent in defending the schools against what I felt were unjust attacks from evil-disposed persons. But these did not disturb me quite so much, nor have they been so difficult for me to meet, as the criticisms of persons who I have had every reason to believe were friends of the schools. Intelligent and ambitious parents claimed that their children, their daughters par- ticularly, were being unduly burdened with work. As gentle reminders, some of them sent to me marked copies of magazines and pamphlets that contained long and scathing criticisms on the public-school system in general because of its "death-dealing work with the youth of the country." On investigation I learned that many, tho not all, of our girls who were reported to be slowly breaking down were naturally delicate or very nervous in temperament and incapable of sustained effort; or were members of society, whose demands on their time and strength consumed the better part of their vitality, and their school work, too often a secondary consideration, was a consequent sufferer. Many of the boys, yet not all of them either, who were reported as not being able to keep up with their classes were found to be cigarette fiends, a condition which seemed to have rendered them alm'ost wholly incapable of steady and continuous mental application ; while others real- ized as keenly as did the girls the demands of the social circle on them, and they felt constrained to respond to this demand even to the detriment of their school work. To meet these difficulties and to allay them, if possible, by affording the patrons of the schools a fuller knowledge of the policy of the schools in their changed conditions, and 236 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago thereby bringing the patrons into closertouch and sympathy with the schools, mothers' meet- ings were held in various parts of the city. While some of these meetings were deemed successful and profitable, many of them were dominated by persons of strong personality and good following who criticised in such severe and convincing terms much of the really good work of the schools, which they could not understand nor appreciate, that harm to the schools rather than good resulted from them. We have not tried fathers' meetings, said he. We fear it would not be wise. During the third year of my term of service, one of the members of my board learned that written examinations had been tabooed in several schools that he was told were thoroly " up to date," and he insisted on .their being abandoned, as an experiment at least, in our schools. He was so enthusiastic, yet so kind, in the expression of his wishes in this respect, that the experiment was tried, and now nothing but written tests are known in the schools ; and, tho there are now two or three times as many written tests as there were formerly written examinations and tests together (a condition which seems to prevail also in the schools to which he referred), he is pleased and claims credit for the change, and is congratulated by certain patrons who called his attention to the "desirable improvement." As tho this were not enough, a movement, the strength of which I have not yet been able to determine, has lately been started by the mothers' clubs of our city, having for its purpose the breaking up of gradation in the schools and the substitution of individual instruction. It is claimed that this system of instruction is in successful operation in a number of good schools ; that it is now no longer an experiment ; and that it is certain to supersede the graded system or class teaching. Their immediate presentation to our board of the superior claims of individualism is prevented, I understand, by the difficulty which the ladies are experiencing in determining which of the several *' best individual systems" is the best for our schools. As soon as they reach a mutually satisfactory con- clusion in this respect, we shall doubtless hear from them. While the ladies have been busying themselves about this "great cure all" for the ills of the schools, I have been endeavoring to find our true bearings and to determine, if possible, whither we are drifting. I have questioned myself with all the sincerity of an honest questioner, and have been trying to answer the questions just as honestly: Have we really improved on the old as much as we have tried to convince ourselves and our friends that we have ? Does our present course provide for solidly progressive work ? Is it a pedagogical unity ? Is the work as now outlined well articulated and wisely pur- poseful, or does it encourage and almost compel scrappy and superficial work ? To be candid with you, I am not satisfied with present conditions, and, tho I am ready to acknowledge having made mistakes, if 1 can be satisfied that such is the case, and I am willing to rectify where defects occur, still 1 am more or less uncertain where to begin or just what to do. In the first place, I am becoming more and more strongly of the impression that there is truth in the statement that the majority of our school children have too much to do. Both they and the teachers, 1 fear, are overburdened. Nor do I feel that we can prune the old course any more than we have by way of relief. I am not certain but that some of the old citizens are about right in their statements that we have already crossed the danger line in our eliminations. I am now sorely tempted to undo some of the things which we have done in the name of progressiveness and modernization. To be specific : While I see some virtue in the work done by the pupils of the eighth grade in concrete geometry as a help to them in mensuration, I have little faith in the value of the smattering of algebra which they get, and less faith in the educational worth of the Latin which the seventh-years learn in a year's time. I am persuaded, too, that we ought, in the interest of a more thoro grounding of the children in the essentials of an elementary education, attempt to do less in history below the seventh grade and less in nature work above the third, and concentrate our efforts on the other subjects. The use SuperintendenceJ ROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 237 of nature work as a basis for the development of the power of expression in the first three primary grades, its formal and regular teaching in those grades, render it so valuable as to make it really indispensable there, and it should be retained. Above the third grade all that is of especial value in nature study, it seems to me, can be taught incidentally in con- nection with the teaching and illustration of the other subjects and in correlation with those subjects. Almost the same thing may be said of history, with the exception that its regular and formal teaching be begun in the seventh-year grade, but that in every grade below the seventh the reading assignment be so made as to give large attention to biographical and historical sketches and nature stories. 1 would retain the course in drawing, but cause it to take two distinct lines, one looking to industrial training Work and the other to the development of the artistic sense. I do not expect to worry about the work in pen- manship. It will take care of itself, and sooner or later the natural slant will take the place of either a forced vertical or a prescribed slant. These eliminations and combinations — call it retrogression, if you will — will greatly lighten our work and will give two or three periods each day for manual-training work in the grades, the kind of education that, in my judgment, is well worth planning and sacrificing for; for I believe that the good accruing to the boys and girls from such training is by no means equaled by that which they can realize from the effort and time which they must give to the subjects I am proposing to eliminate, and which have hereto- fore stood in the way of manual-training work. What think you, said he in a most appealing way, of my conclusions ? Do you not think that the interests of my boys and girls demand such action on my part ? TOPIC III: HOW TO MEET THE PEOPLE LOUIS P. NASH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOLYOKE, MASS. I say nothing here of one's private friendships or social relations. The superin- tendent will meet the people, if he is inclined to do so, by appearing at various public and semi-public occasions, before associations, etc. It is well to respond to such calls. The superintendent has to exercise leadership in the community, and there is economy in getting hold of a group of people .perhaps representative of a class in the community. They may be a set of people that he would never come to know at all in any other way. Of course, one will not take up these things so as to use too much time or to admit the impression that the superintendent likes to pose before the public. Then there are the interviews with people at the office. I suppose we all have a great many of these interviews, and some that are mere waste of time. Yet it is my opinion that we should encourage the people to come. If there is friction or dissatisfac- tion anywhere in the system, it is great good fortune if the people affected will come straight to headquarters and give an early opportunity to set matters right. Every such interview gives the superintendent a chance to find out the exact feeling toward the schools of some individual, and he may represent a great many moie. It also gives a chance to show that person the right course to take, and, if possible, to secure his sup- port. The superintendent of schools ought to be the most accessible man in the city. That does not mean that one must be on call all the time. We should keep definite office hours ; but we must have time for study. We are false to our own selves and to the higher needs of our schools if we do not take definite times for our own study in profes- sional lines, and in philosophical or literary lines as well. But by being accessible I mean especially the attribute that welcomes approach by the people. We have to teach 238 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago the people ; very well, we should get as close to the people and to as many of them as pos- sible, and 1 think it is an error for the superintendent to want to be free from approach or suggestion by the people. There is a movement now in the development of civic life to make the heads of departments practically free from control. " Responsibility of the heads of departments" is the cry, and it has been helped along by writers whose opinions harmonize with those of Mr. Bryce. Upon this principle, there are school superintendents who wish to be auto- crats. The movement, however, is a mere eddy in the great development of government in this country, as well as all over the world, which is making for greater dependence upon the whole mass of the people. We have started out in this country to realize the democratic ideal ; we believe that on the whole and in the long run, despite errors that can doubtless be shown, it is better to put the direction of affairs into the control of all the people. So far the results are fairly satisfactory. City government is not a failure ; the people are going to exert more direct power, rather than less, and we ought to bend our work and influence in accordance with that tendency. This ought to be a matter of conscience with us. It goes far deeper than mere policy. Abraham Lincoln said that the nation could not long endure half slave and half free, so it would not long endure half moving toward democratic ways and half toward autocratic ways. Growth is sure to be along democratic lines. Even the president, burdened with a load of cares without precedent in history, finds it a benefit to take time to meet all the people. It is not mere policy; there is a strange, spiritual influence ; the president gains strength from feeling that he is "in touch" with the mass of the people. The superintendent of schools, in his own field, needs that same support. If he is a leader of men, then the more he meets them, the more surely and successfully he will lead. The more he meets the people and knows them, the better superintendent he will be. The teachers' association may contribute to mutual acquaintance, helpfulness, stimu- lation, inspiration among the teachers. It encourages initiative. It is better for us always to do things for ourselves, even badly, rather than to have things done for us. The planning and carrying on of general teachers' meetings may be done largely by the teachers' association. There is no danger that the superintendent will not have influence in shaping affairs. The teachers' association should have sections or committees engaged in special lines of work : a particular committee to read and advise as to th.e policy of the public library; a committee on reading, or other subjects ; a committee to report on educational progress. Above and beyond this I think there is a future for the teachers' association, which at present we can only dream, tho some things done or attempted at Chicago, at my neighbor city of Springfield, and elsewhere may give a hint. If our medical association issues a declaration upon some question of public policy that is within its sphere, that declaration is received with great respect. Why should not the teachers' association in like manner exercise leadership and be the recognized authority upon any question that has to do with public education ? Why should not its advice be sought and accepted as sure to be courageous, high-minded, wise, the best guidance to be had ? The grade meeting has its peculiar place and usefulness. It is here, in a small meeting, that the superintendent can come close to the individual needs of his teachers. The grade meeting is the place for discussion rather than for lecture or exhortation. Every teacher, tho of briefest experience, should be encouraged to give her views, and the part taken by the teacher, whether of discussion or of exemplification of class work, ought to be at least as prominent as the part taken by the superintendent. Here is the place to go into details of class work, impossible in the general meetings. Here is the place, too, for the superintendent to show his teachers how to be students. Many of our teachers do not know how to study. They are not in the track of the best ideas. They do not know the great currents of thought nor the best books. Ideas are in the air, like Hertzian Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 239 waves ; the teacher should have the means to get their impulse. In the grade meetings the superintendent has a good chance to lead the minds of his teachers into the danger zone, where they are liable to be struck by new ideas. Pay-rolls and financial statements : In a little city, where one man must do every- thing, with but little clerical help, clear and economical methods of arranging the office routine are important. I have a city of less than fifty thousand people, and no assistant superintendent. It is necessary that the committee should be kept fully informed, espe- cially on financial matters. Here is my plan for a pay-roll : The name of each teacher and substitute is written once, for the year. There is a space for every school day. A call comes in for a substi- tute. A clerk turns to the substitute list ; sees who is available ; writes the school opposite the name, in the space for that date ; sends the substitute ; then, in the corresponding space opposite the teacher's name, sets down the name of the substitute. At the end of the month, here are the days all accounted for, and the amount is set down in this space. My principals send a report, but I do not find that report free from errors. At the end of the month the total expense in each ledger account is carried forward into an account of monthly totals. From that it is copied upon a sheet like this : (i) appropriation for each account; (2) expenditure to date; (3) balance to date; (4) bills and orders; (5) fixed charges to end of fiscal year ; (6) appoint balance. This account goes to the board meeting. Some expenditure is contemplated — per- haps new kindergartens to be established. The question always is: "Have we the money ? " Here is the positive answer. We have such a balance in sight for the end of the fiscal year. Here is a definite, positive thing that the average school-committee man can understand. He does not know much about pedagogy, but he knows a definite statement of business. And the superintendent who can prove that his estimate comes out just right has gained power and respect which he can use elsewhere. C. ROUND TABLE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS CONFERENCE A.— NORMAL SCHOOLS TOPIC I: WHAT ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND CHILD STUDY ARE SUITABLE SUBJECTS FOR INSTRUCTION IN NORMAL SCHOOLS? DISCUSSION Professor Daniel Putnam, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. — The neces- sity for brevity must be my apology for the dogmatic style of this paper. It is assumed that all agree that the normal school is a special and professional school, having a specific and definite purpose, the preparation of teachers, mainly, for grades of schools below the high school. While broad general culture is very desirable in teachers for such schools, as indeed for all schools, it is not the function of the ordi- nary normal school to provide the means for such culture. If this becomes its chief aim, its existence cannot be justified. The nature and extent of its courses of study and instruction must be determined by the purpose of the institution. Studies and portions of studies may be included in the curriculum of the normal school for any one of three reasons : I. Studies which its students are expecting to teach. The instruction in such studies 240 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago will be, to a large extent, in the way of reviews, with direct reference to methods of teaching. 2. Some studies which the students may not expect to teach, but a knowledge of which will be of great service in the presentation, explanation, and illustration of the branches which they do teach. Of this kind are algebra for its aid in teaching arithmetic, rhetoric and literature for their help in teaching language and grammar, and English history for its service in teaching United States history. Other examples will readily occur. Instruction in these branches will, in most cases, be reviews with a definite pro- fessional end in view. Incidentally such studies tend toward extending the general knowledge and culture of students. 3. Studies a knowledge of which gives the intending teacher a thoro insight into his own nature, into the natures of his pupils, into the nature of the processes of learning, and of the correlative processes of teaching, and most of all into the springs of human conduct, and into the forces, motives, and influences which are most potent in molding and fashioning human character, and in giving right direction to human activities ; in other words, the forces and influences most effective in the production of such men and women as are needed in the community for the uplifting of society and of humanity generally. Among the studies of this third class are psychology, ethics, and sesthetics. Psy- chology is the only one with which we are now directly concerned ; and the inquiry is : What aspects of this study should be presented and especially emphasized in the normal school ? The obvious answer must be: Those aspects best adapted to aid in securing the objects just spoken of. This general answer of course settles nothing. It remains to find a more definite reply by determining, if possible, what are these aspects. In respect to this evidently considerable differences of opinion exist among normal-school men, if one may judge from the varying courses found in normal-school catalogs and yearbooks. It is expected that this paper will present the views of the writer without apology or begging pardon. The same liberty is freely accorded to those holding different opinions. Time permits only the statement of conclusions without the grounds upon which they are based, or the processes which have led to them. I. All intelligent study of psychology must of necessity begin with the study of self. The intending teacher must, first of all, become consciously acquainted with the various activities of his own mind ; with the occasions and conditions of their normal manifesta- tion. In a final analysis, the personal consciousness must be the arbiter upon all questions of internal psychic action, and the authoritative interpreter of all outward mani- festations supposed to involve psychic elements or to result from psychic forces. The mind of the normal, sane, intelligent, and fairly developed man is, for the student and for us all, the typical, ideal mind, the criterion or standard by which the powers, activi- ties, and manifestations of all other minds, whether human, super-human, semi-human, or animal, are examined, compared, measured, and estimated. The activities of other minds may be greater or less than our own, but only so far as they can be compared with our own, thru either similarity or contrast, is it possible for us to comprehend or understand them. This fact determines the point of departure and the general method to be pursued .in the study of children. If the child is altogether unlike the adult, a different being in kind, it will be a waste of time and energy to attempt to study him. The same may be said of the study of animals, if psychic manifestations in them are in their nature wholly unlike our own. This aspect of psychology should be especially emphasized in the normal school to prepare its students for intelligent and fruitful study of human nature in the schoolroom and in the community, and for the study of comparative psychology. So far the dis- cussion has been of a general character. It will be necessary to make it more specific and definite. Superintendence J NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 241 2. In order to know himself the student must have a fairly thoro knowledge of his physical organism and of the relation of this to what we call mind. Hence we have that aspect of psychology named physiological. This bears to psychology proper a relation similar to that of the vestibule to the temple, or of the gateways and doors to the park and the house. When a new aspect of an old science is discovered and presented, it usually for a time commands and absorbs attention. It seems to many students and to some others "to be the whole thing," if one may borrow a phrase bordering on "slang." This has happened in the case of psychology. The recent tendency has been to give an undue share of time and attention to the doors and the vestibule. An illustration of this tendency has been described in an article in a recent number of the Forum. Physiological psychology and its near relative, experimental psychology, have properly large room in the laboratories of universities and other higher institutions, but only a limited place in the ordinary normal school. It is to be assumed that the students of a normal school have a tolerable acquaintance with the structure of the brain and the nervous system, and with their functions in general. Some additional instruction may appropriately be given on their special functions in connection with sensation and per- ception, with experiments requiring but little apparatus, and in most cases no apparatus at all. 3. That aspect of psychology which treats of the powers and processes of thinking should receive a large share of time and attention. Apperception, so-called, belongs to this aspect. The processes embraced under this term are among the most important of the mental activities, and are, at the same time, very easily and readily understood, pro- vided they are not obscured and mystified by learned explanations and awe-inspiring terms. The processes involved in the exercise of judgment and in reaching valid conclusions by the processes of reasoning should be so taught, in a simple and elementary way, that teachers will not impose upon themselves or upon their pupils, or be imposed upon by specious or unsound arguments. The ability to think, and to think correctly and readily, and to express one's thoughts and conclusions clearly and convincingly, is of the highest importance to every instructor. A course in psychology which does not, at least, aim to develop and cultivate this power has small claim to respect. 4. Another aspect of psychology which should have a comparatively large place in the normal school is that which includes the emotions and the sentiments, especially those sentiments which are essential elements in the highest and noblest types of human character. The ethical sentiments are also properly embraced in this group, unless the study of ethics has a separate place in the school curriculum. An extended study of ethical theories is not of great value to the teacher in the common schools and is out of place in the normal school, but practical ethics from a common-sense point of view should receive a good share of attention, either separately or in connection with psychology. The power of a teacher to build character upon a solid basis, and to give right direc- tion to the activities of those under his charge, to make of them good men and women, depends upon his skill in exciting the best emotions and allaying the bad ones, in bring- ing into activity the highest and purest sentiments in place of lower and baser ones, and in leading his pupils to act habitually in harmony with the promptings of the best elements of their natures. 5. One other aspect of psychology should receive special attention — that aspect which treats of the self-determining power of man, and of the supreme importance of this power in the practical work of educating and elevating human beings. The psychology which in effect eliminates the power of self-determination from the human soul and reduces the will to the rank of one of its functions, voluntary attention, upturns the real foundation upon which true character must be built, and takes away the strongest incentive to effort for the improvement of the individual and of society as a whole. Extended study and discussion of theories concerning "fate and freewill," or "determinism and liberty," 242 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago are altogether inappropriate in an ordinary normal school, whatever they may be elsewhere. Immature minds generally, and mature minds frequently, are confused by such discus- sions, and left in a condition of unstable equilibrium. They are unfitted to a large degree for giving instruction upon questions of duty and responsibility. Wherever the logic of the book or the inductions of so-called science may appear to lead, there is no question as to the direction in which consciousness, human experience, and the logic of common- sense impel us. They all affirm human responsibility, and consequently some good measure of liberty of choice and self-determination. It is this aspect of what may be termed the psychology of common-sense and experience which needs to be taught and emphasized in the normal school. There is very nearly a crying demand for such teach- ing, and it should have a place in proportion to its importance. No one questions the influence of heredity or the power of environment ; but the children need to be taught that they possess power which, if resolutely employed, will enable them to overcome, to a large degree at least, the influences of inherited char- acteristics, and to resist the forces of environment. Besides this, teachers have need to comprehend the truth that they will not develop men and women with abiding characters of moral worth and sterling integrity, characters which will withstand the " storm and stress " of real everyday life, by any process of veneering thru the influence of improved surroundings. These are of value and will be greatly helpful. But true, permanent character must have its roots within, in the power of choice, in self-determination, in conscious personal effort. The child must feel that he can do something toward his own elevation and improvement, and that consequently he ought to do something. The psychology that fails to do this has no rightful place in a school, one of whose primary functions is the development and upbuilding of character. Dr. W. B. Carpenter wrote, some years ago : " To myself it seems as if nothing was wanting, either in my own self-consciousness or in what I know of the conscious experi- ences of other men, to establish the existence of the 'self-determining power' for which I contend. I cannot conceive of any kind of evidence of its existence more cogent than that which I already possess. And feeling assured that the sources of my belief in it lie deep down in the nature of every normally constituted human being, I cannot anticipate the time when that belief will be eliminated from the thought of mankind — when the wcids 'right,' 'duty,' 'responsibility,' 'choice,' ' self-control,' and the like will cease to have the meaning we at present attach to them ; and when we shall treat each other as automatons who cannot help doing whatever our ' heredity ' and ' environment ' neces- sitate." President Homer H. Seerley, State Normal School, Cedar P'alls, la. — Every- thing taught in a normal school should be definitely and decidedly helpful. There is no time for studies whose provinces and results are not clear and certain. Psychology has such a place and does perform the right service for the teacher, as it gives him the knowl- edge that enables him to grow in power and efficiency as he extends his tests and ideas thru his experience in the schoolroom. Psychology may be studied for itself alone, without any relation to vocation or utility, the same as any other science or art ; but in a normal school its province is limited to such phases and investigations as will give the key to a successful career as a teacher of children and youth. Such limitation upon the province of the study excludes at once many parts that are interesting and even instructive, because they have no real bearing upon the business of teaching children and youth. The teacher of psychology in a normal school has plenty to do when he limits his work to the fields of thought and investigation that have a bearing upon educational work. He has no time at all to spend on the obscure, the peculiar, or the eccentric, as there is plenty of the common, the definite, and the 'real to employ all the time and atten- tion of his classes and to meet their lajgest needs. I SuperintendenceJ NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 243 1. There must be a certain knowledge of the science that is general and preliminary. Those beginnings should consist ol the main features of the permanently developed normal mind, the greatest stress to be placed upon those features that should have the largest bearing when applications are made to the years of infancy, childhood, and youth. This naturally places the most definite emphasis upon sense-training, memory, imagination, and reasoning as the chief features to be comprehended and identified. Since these are constantly affected by the emotions and sentiments in their action, there must be a comprehension of these elements of the human mind as a key to the great diversity found in the human family when application is attempted. 2. These fundamental studies furnish a basis for individual investigation of personal cases of the normal type. The interpretation of concrete cases is a constant necessity, and the power to instruct and manage and govern and direct, as well as to assist and to influ- ence, enlarges a person's usefulness in proportion as he can apply his knowledge to the unraveling of human nature. 3. There is no such a person as an " average child," and the normal-school student must know early that he is a scientific myth — suitable for books and discussions, as an ideal to be regarded in the making of courses of study, in planning a program of studies, etc.; but that it is necessary at last to adjust everything to suit the needs of the real normal individual, with all the many variations in which he appears — never being repeated again, and adjustment and approximation never being completed or ended. The following lines are therefore thought to be profitable and practicable in a normal school : 1. Analogically — the extensive — the training of the ability to institute comparisons and make classifications which will involve the variations and similarities that he con- stantly encounters in the investigations he must daily conduct in the carrying on of his work as a teacher. 2. Analogically — the intensive — as regards comparisons of a child's development and modification in his own career, such as are consequences of the results of advancing age, experience, and training. By this means a teacher is prepared to anticipate the changes that must occur, and welcome the need to adapt his management and instruction to the expanding human career in every direction that is occurring. This is necessary to make the teacher fully acceptable to the demands. 3. Genetically — as to recent and remote heredity, showing the good and bad con- ditions that give promise or that may indicate hindrance. Heredity is a factor, but not a permanent one, as latent conditions do not need to be developed, and can be retarded and dwarfed by proper care, culture, and management. Such a knowledge is not the accept- ance of fatalism, but is a guide to the proper nurture and protection that will bless and save and sanctify. Indications are interpretations of the possible and the probable, not of the necessary or the absolute. The normal child is the rule, not the exception, but he is not the so-called average child. The phenomena that we commonly classify among the abnormal and the heredi- tarily unfit are generally types of the incomplete, of the immature, of the undeveloped, rather than of the irregular, the unfortunate, or the unfit. The normal child is possessed of the moderateness of the mediocre, not the extrava- gance of extra brightness, of unusual ability to respond, of largeness of gifts and talents in acquirement. These much-lauded phenomena, ranked as greatest and best by the schools and the teachers, are evidences of abnormal status and prospects rather than of the best and most hopeful. The exceptional, the eccentric, as well as the defective, must be recognized ; but they are the few rather than the many, and school work deals with the normal and the ordi- nary, and it is for those that the studies of the normal school must prepare. Such a per- sonality is not perfect, not complete, not trained, not good in judgment, not skilled in 244 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago anything, not effective in planning — as he is needing all that education and civilization can do for him and his career. 4. There should be a study of (l) normal inhibition ; (2) movement; (3) imitation; (4) emotional life ; (5) impressionability; (6) simple and complex action ; etc., etc. Attention should also be given to a full knowledge of the field opened for study in the applications of the gift of language. This has probably the largest field of actual usefulness to these ages and grades of teaching. The development of the individual in speaking, writing, acting, etc., to convey his thoughts, and in the training necessary to attain the acquisition of these elements of power, is among the most important in pedagogy. Even a partial knowledge in these direc- tions will enable the teacher to avoid many mistakes, while a complete and careful knowledge of these fundamental elements will always guarantee efficiency and skill, if good judgment is used in adapting the teaching to the pupils. It is very essential also to recognize the effect of the spirit of the school and the teacher upon the work of the pupils. The pupil is always subject to misunderstandings, misinterpretings, false conceptions, deceptive indications, teacher's accusations — all of which interfere with happiness, prosperity, and success. Fundamentals of happiness, the conditions that make such experience possible — as it comes from indirection — are among the essentials that cannot well be omitted, as the power to touch the emotions and the sentiments is a power that can be used for the greatest good or the greatest evil. 5. Each child is an individual problem — -the sole edition of his kind, having his own province to fulfill, his own career to work out, his own message to give, his own ser- vice to humanity to perform. Hence his problems, his difficulties, and his perplexities are always to be considered and thoughtfully assisted toward a solution as far as the teacher's knowledge and experience can contribute. Psychology and child study has limitations, and very definite ones at that. It is no substitute for judgment and common-sense. It is rather an assistant than a guide, even to common-sense. It will help one to interpret, but it is not an interpreter, as that is the teacher's own work. Its greatest effectiveness is found in the vital side of affairs, not in the formal side. Life is not a classification, but a unity. The mind is not a lot of faculties working at variance, but in co-operation. Its study must not end in analysis, but in synthesis. President Albert Salisbury, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis. — We teach one course orally and one in the text-book. We have tried nine different books, and then we have returned to some of them a second time and have again discarded. We are not able to recommend any particular book. We cannot find a place for child study except as a part of psychology. There seems to me something unwholesome about carry- ing this subject to the extent of sentimentality. President Livingston C. Lord, Eastern Illinois Normal School, Charleston, 111. — It seems to me that the study of psychology in the normal school should result in some culture, how much I do not know. If the normal school stands for the cultural side of psychology, it could get some grasp of that subject in the study of Shakespeare, Thack- eray, George Eliot, Hawthorne. There is a knowledge of the mind which is valuable to the teacher, and this is something more than merely a knowledge of human nature which makes for a teacher's success. The knowledge of mind set forth by great writers is the knowledge to which I now refer as valuable. The mass of knowledge possessed by a student coming to me is greater than all I can add ; the teacher does a great service by arranging for the student knowledge already in his possession. The cultivation of the power of attention is important. Interest is the result of attention. Memory, including imagination, of course, ought to be given very high place. So many people talk about cultivating higher faculties, forgetting that the lower faculties must furnish the matter. A man cannot remember what he has not clearly sensed. Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 245 Principal James M. Green, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. — The highest culture that I know about is the culture that comes from the mastery of subjects. When you talk to me about a cultured man, I want to see a man who knows his subject; if it is physics, I want him to know physics ; if it is mathematics, I want him to know that. When it comes to the normal school, we must be practical. We are directly in contact with the taxpayers. We want to help the one who goes out into the schools. We want to send out teachers who can give a knowledge of these branches in the best and quickest way. The psychology we want is to help in that direction. I have noticed, in my work as superintendent and as principal, certain very marked faults. There is the teaching of symbols that do not symbolize anything. I have seen college graduates in a primary grade trying sentences which convey no impression to the mind of the child similar to that in the mind of the teacher, and the teacher did not know how to test the child to see whether he was getting the idea. In other words, it seems to me that the art of making an impression must be studied. Some years ago it was decided in a city in our region that we do not do enough object-teaching. I think Oswego was working in that line. In the school referred to, a certain number of objects — blocks, etc. — were purchased, and the teacher was required for six months to teach from these, and pretty generally they became blockheads. There was no knowledge on the part of the teachers of the things to be symbolized. It seems to me that the normal teacher must know psychology to give force to symbols. I have known of certain schools that decided that the proper way to teach spelling was by writ- ing; no oral teaching whatever. They made no test to see whether something was gained thru the ear. Not a great while ago there came into our section of country the theory that we must teach the spiral system in arithmetic. We must select from the higher subjects what was simple, and teach ifin the lower. The pupil would leave school before reaching the sub- ject, and the spiral system was so worked out that not enough time was given you to make an impression that would endure. There were so many impressions made that none were deep enough to be lasting. It was not very long before very severe criticism came upon that school ; the bankers and merchants knew that their boys could not work arithmetic. The banker's children had spent more time on arithmetic than the father ever had, but it was scattered. I wish to close with this statement : that I think the psychology we are to study must show us the habit of the mind in learning. I do not ignore that physiological psychology which teaches us to know what it means to be tired, the study of a sort of phenomenon psychology. For the normal schools, in our field of labor, we must remem- ber that we come in contact with the children of all classes, and we must teach that psy- chology which will most help the children. John A. H. Keith, of Northern Illinois Normal School, De Kalb, 111., was asked to state President Cook's point of view on this subject. — I am reluctant to attempt this, because I have not heard the discussion. The teacher who is to study psychology should get out of it the knowledge of the process. She should be prepared to give the children the conditions for learning. We believe that the teacher should learn how the .child utilizes the things which he gets by his senses. She should get this from the child's point of view. The child-mind changes gradually from image-making to the more abstract pro- cesses. We are making less rigorous use of terms, and there is less of division between some of the terms used in psychology. The making of definitions so exact is not true to the reality. One-fourth waf our work centers around these two topics, attention and inter- est. We are also paying more attention than formerly to the agencies of the child's emotions. We believe that his interest depends on his attitude toward things. We pay considerable attention to the study of the genesis of the child's emotions in the formation of habit, also to how the child's experiences are shaped to form the self of the child. 246 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago which is not a fixed but a changing personality. This is the important thing to be reached in the teaching process. It all centers around this principle — that the teacher should learn how the child -mind acts, rather than judge by the adult's consciousness. TOPIC If: SHALL THE INSTRUCTION IN PSYCHOLOGY BE OPAL, OR SHALL A text-boor: BE USED? DISCUSSION Grant Karr, superintendent of practice, State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. — The question whether the text-book shall be used, or oral instruction, is a very large question, and what is applicable to other studies is applicable to psychology. It seems to me best to note briefly what method is. Method is usually considered simply a means of conveying knowledge. I do not believe in that notion of method. Mind is a thing that makes itself, and method is some sort of a procedure that takes into account this self- activity. Otherwise the teacher must be a sort of divinity that creates. The teachers who hold the theory of total depravity, and who aim to put into the minds of children ideas that are not now there, must have some such theory of method. Method is simply an environment. A mechanic is not a person who creates natural forces, but one who environs natural forces; no person creates electricity; the farmer does not create the forces that grow the grain. All the process that the teacher goes thru with might well be called method. Taking that view of it, there are four or five different varieties of method. The first, most common and easiest, is the oral method ; another is the method of presenting the book ; another is that of experiment ; another is that method of develop- ment which results from discussion. The text-book method is perhaps not the best method, and it cannot be used wholly and solely. The teacher has to know the indi- vidual. To present the book first is unduly hastening the matter. I do not think that the text-book, however good it may be, can ever replace the teacher. As a general thing, the book will be better than any outline that the teacher can construct. The author is usually a specialist. The person who teaches psychology must be a master of his subject ; he is the one who is expected to interpret the subject. There are decided advantages in using a text-book ; the subject is well outlined ; the book is gotten up in good form, is more easily read than notes, and is permanent. The book will shut up when you get tired of it. The disadvantages are those which per- tain to books in general — the chance to memorize, so that the pupils may recite without having ideas. Again, they may get the idea that the whole subject of psychology is in a book, and only one book. If they read many books, they may get confused because of conflicting opinions. To sum up : In the teaching of psychology both the text-book and the oral methods are valuable. To do without oral instruction does away with the teacher ; correspond- ence instruction would be very unsatisfactory. Whether the oral instruction shall precede and the reading come after, depends on the teacher's view and his previous train- ing. If he has a broad view, he can outline his course and put his work thru orally, and lead each student to make his own summary; but the student may get to think that writ- ing notes is studying psychology. If they are to read books at all, they should know what conflicts they are to find. I would, therefore, recommend that both the oral and the text-book methods be used, the text-book, as a general thing, to follow oral instruction. Thomas H. Gentle, director of training school. State Normal School, Platteville, Wis. — My work lies just between the children, on the one hand, and the teachers, on the Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 2^1 other. In many of our normal schools there are two courses in psychology — the ele- mentary a'nd the advanced. I think the advanced course has not much bearing on the work of the teacher in the training courses. The instructor in elementary psychology would better select a few principles which he thinks of value, and use children to illustrate the principles. Let the students take notes of what is done. After two or three such recitations have been held, let the stu- dents meet the instructor and hold a discussion. More lessons may then be given, putting these principles into application. 'After thus bringing out the principles, let the pupils go to the library and read on method rather than on psychology. I do not mean to crowd out the text book ; I think the teacher should have the text-book close to him. Teachers are likely to throw away psychological training, and fall back on tradition. If the stu- dent-teacher gets his psychological data from seeing it applied, he will see how his theory fits the pupils. CONFERENCE B.~TRAINING TEACHERS TOPIC : CRITICISM— WHA T SHALL IT BE ? INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS, JAMES E. RUSSELL, DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK [an abstract) We take for granted this afternoon that teachers can be trained for their work. The problem before us is how best to assist the young teacher in acquiring the skill which makes for success in class instruction. Or, from another point of view, how shall .the young teacher acquire those habits in class work which will leave him free to exert per- sonal influence upon his pupils ? Teaching is an art, and, like other arts, certain habits must be acquired in order to achieve the greatest success. Some light, it seems to me, can be had from the analogy of the ordinary workman. When an artisan is asked to make an object — for example, the columns in this room — we must supply him with material. In this instance the material is a hard wood. We must then give him the instruments which he requires and the means for carrying on his work — in this instance, tools for working in wood and a suit- able workshop. We must then provide him with a plan, showing the elevation and giv- ing the details required in the execution. If he is able to improve upon the plans given him, or to form his own plans in such a way as to meet our requirements and arouse our admiration, we no longer call the workman an artisan; he then becomes the artist. It is possible, however, for a man to invent very elaborate plans, to have the best of tools and instruments, and to be provided with an abundance of choice material, and still be unable to do the work required. He must have skill in the use of tools which are adapted for work upon the material, if he would shape this material in conformity with the ends to be obtained. How does the workman, acquire this skill ? If we applied this analogy to the work of the teacher, the material which is supplied is the pupil, the means and instruments are the subjects of instruction and all the school equipment which are essential in education. The ends to be attained are suggested by the study of the history and philosophy of education, and by the requirements of modern life. The skill which is looked for in the teacher comes from experience in doing the work of the teacher. The teacher who works blindly and who uses the means and instruments of instruc- tion thoughtlessly, or who is incapable of giving a personal touch to all that he does, is an artisan, not an artist. In the work of our normal schools we hope to make every student somewhat of an artist, but it should be borne in mind that artistic qualities are dependent upon clearness 248 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago of vision and strength of intellect. In the training of the teacher, therefore, due allowance must be made for these qualities. The person who has no considerable grasp upon either the ends of education or the means of instruction must approximate in his training the trainmg of the artisan. The normal school that has to do with students without ele- mentary training ought not to pursue the same methods as the normal school which deals with students of higher academic attainments. The difference, however, consists mainly in the amount of drill required in fixing the necessary habits. Every workman, whether artisan or artist, must know the nature of the material with which he is dealing. Both alike must have some idea of what is to be accomplished. The knowledge of these two factors will determine what instruments and means must be employed in the work. The study of the child and of the society of which the child is a part, of psychology, sociology, of the history and principles of education, may be expected to give a better knowledge of the pupil and of his possibilities, and a clearer understand- ing of what is worth working for in education. This knowledge, coupled with an under- standing of the requirements of the life which the pupil ought eventually to lead, must determine the nature of the influences which can be brought to bear upon the pupil. Important among these influences are the subjects of instruction in our schools and the manifold activities of school life. These are the teacher's tools. Of course, all teachers must know the subjects which they teach. But how about the skill which is required in adapting the means to the material and in doing the work in such a manner as to attain the desired results ? If the apprentice be ignorant, relatively speaking, we put him under a master-workman, and that master- workman will show him what he is to do. He will teach him how to use the instruments ; if necessary, he will guide his hand in doing what he is told to do, and he will keep him at it until the habit is fixed. In other words, the apprentice is (i) given to understand what he is to do, (2) shown how to do it, and (3) compelled to perform the action until satisfactory results are obtained. With a higher degree of intelligence the workman can be taught something of the quality and strength of materials, of the laws of mechanics, physics, and chemistry, and of other subjects which have a bearing upon his work. The man who is well trained in mechanical engineering may be unable to make the simplest implement or bit of machinery used in his profession ; but it is. safe to say that, if such a man is thoroly anxious to perfect himself in any mechanical art, he will not only acquire the skill more quickly than a more ignorant workman, but he will always be the better prepared to improve upon his art. So it is in the training of teachers — an important consideration is the degree of intellectual strength which we have a right to expect of the pupil-teacher. If he is weak intellectually and the period of special training is short, it is impossible to get very far away from the apprentice's method. He must be told what to do, shown how to do it, and keep doing it until desirable habits are fixed. Of course, we expect in the teacher — certainly in the teacher with normal-school training — something more than we find in the artisan; hence, the normal school does something more than instruct in methods and give practice in teaching. But whether the pupil-teacher be strong or weak, the skill which he acquires in teaching must come from experience under proper direction. The topic for our discussion this afternoon, as I understand it, is : What shall be the nature of this direction ? Taking into account what the pupil-teacher brings from his other instructors in a normal school, what further directions should be given for teaching, and how can that teaching be improved thru criticism ? I think we ought to realize that criticism is not picking and nagging pupil-teachers. It dres not consist in telling them that this way is right and that wrong. There must be criticism both affirmative and negative, which must be categorically stated. But criti- cism, as we understand it, must be constructive. I have attempted to outline some of the most important matters which may properly Superintendence] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 249 be considered under this head. I put them before you for your consideration this after- noon. They are as follows : 1. General aims of criticism: («) to illustrate and apply theory; (3) to detect mannerisms and to check bad habits and practice ; {c) to secure acceptable methods of teaching. 2. Special objects of criticism: (a) teacher's personal appearance, dress, etc.; (3) use of language, voice, etc. ; (t) appreciation of personal peculiarities and needs of pupils in class; {d) knowledge of subject- matter to be taught ; {e) selection and arrangement of materials of instruction; lesson plans; (/) methods of instruction; reviews; presentation of new facts; summing up; fixing lesson by drill and application; ig) securing attention and interest; use of subject-matter; art of questioning; discipline; {h) personal influence of teacher upon pupils. 3. Persons to give criticism: (a) instructors in psychology and general methods; (3) instructors in academic subjects ; (c) special critic-teachers. DISCUSSION President J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. — President Wilkinson said that he would make no attempt to cover the points given in the out- line in the program. It had been well prepared and gave valuable suggestions in every item. It might be worth while to add as a general purpose of criticism the fixing of good habits in teaching. It is not enough to know that the student-teacher has done a little good work. A small sample, however good it may be, does not assure the excellence of the whole future product. The student-teacher, nerved up to a special effort or a few special efforts, may drop to a much lower standard unless this excellent teaching becomes a fixed habit. This consideration would suggest that a student-teacher who has already had some years of experience may need to do more work under criticism, in order to overcome bad habits and form good ones, than would a student-teacher who has never formed any bad habits in teaching. There must be such formation of habits in the line of scientific teaching as will make the teacher safe to do at once the thing that is philosophically correct without pausing to reflect. The teacher who must reason out the method for each new case cannot move swiftly enough to meet the new emergencies as they arise. The best theoretical prepara- tion that can be given will not prepare for dealing with the peculiarities of individual pupils. The illustration that the master of a trade must understand his material does not indicate the power that the teacher must acquire. His material could never be brought to uniform excellence, nor can anyone tell in advance how the pupil will behave under any given conditions. The teacher must acquire a sufficient surplus, a sufficient reserve power, to enable him to meet firmly any emergency that may arise. The student-teacher needs criticism and help until he has fixed good habits, so that it is easier to do good teaching than poor teaching. Guy E. Maxwell, superintendent of training department, State Normal School, Winona, Minn. — For the purposes of this discussion the elements of teaching skill maybe thought of as of three kinds : (l) The mechanics of tae schoolroom ; for example, the pas- sing of material, the seating of pupils, the regulation of temperature, and the like. These things are easily open to direction or change thru criticism. (2) What we may call the technics of teaching, which has to do with questioning, lesson plans, method of instruction, and so forth. These things are also open to change and direction thru suggestion and criticism, tho they are much less objective than the first kind, and thus less easily influenced by the critic. (3) Lastly, there is the vital phase of the art, dependent upon the subtle power of personality, and having to do with such things as the interpretation of the child's mental states, the knowing what to do next, and the like. This element springs from the teacher's inner self, and is pretty largely born in him. It is open to change only thru slow growth and thru the most skillful suggestions. Having the last of these three phases of teaching skill, tho without the other two, few teachers have been known to fail. 250 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Having the first two without the last, few have been known to succeed. In what I shall have to say I shal have in mind the third phase of the art only. One part of this vital element in teaching is spontaneity or naturalness, the giving forth of one's best effort with entire lack of self-consciousness. Criticism, it seems to me, should be influenced constantly by the necessity of preserving this life-element. The best part of teaching is so fully a spiritual process, is so fully dependent upon the subtle intercourse of mind with mind, that conscious efforts at following externals, devices, or imposed directions may easily destroy this delicate relationship. Overmuch criticism is like overmuch pruning. Pruning is a necessary process in the symmetrical development of a tree, but the pruning should be pretty fully governed by the vigor of growth, for it is more largely an incident in the tree's growth than a cause of it. In the first place, then, criticism should be in the large. Aims should be emphasized, results carefully examined, and the general tendencies of the work studied and directed. Just as in reading we desire to take the child's mind away from himself, and instead of saying to him, " You're reading with too little force," or even saying, " Read more dis- tinctly," we prefer to say, " Read so we may all hear," so whenever possible the aim to be reached should be made the objective point. The student's attitude, then, is not so much a matter of inhibition, or even self-exertion, as a desire to reach a clearly defined aim in the best way that the personality and temperament of the student may suggest or make possible. If we say to a student teacher, "Make these pupils more fully appreciate this lesson," he does not need to think so much wherein he is failing as to think whereby he may reach this end. If we direct the teacher's mind to the object sought, then gesticula- tion, facial expression, forceful illustration, or what not, will result in terms of the teach- er's own personality. Again, critics should permit much latitude in the planning of subject wholes, while holding the teacher responsible for results, and for a statement of the principles upon which his practice is based. There is a temptation to permit, or to encourage, student- teachers to work by the day; to be related to the critic as the laborer to his foreman, or the apprentice to his master. When this is true, no large grasp of the work is secured, no rational and self-directed efforts are put forth, and at the end any success is due to the skill of the critic, and not to that of the student. I believe that some student-teachers are over-criticised, and that passivity rather than activity is their resulting attitude. The "inverse Socratic" method should largely obtain, that in which the pupil comes to the critic with questions, having found his own difficulties, or at least having doubted his success. Too often the prospective teacher's attitude is: "Well, here I am, ready to be made into a teacher. What criticisms have you to offer?" This shows that the cart has been put before the horse, and that the critic may have helped to put it there. The student must pretty largely work out his own salvation, else he is not saved. Patience is the virtue on the critic's part that permits the learner to get the victory for himself, while too much criticism steals, not only the victory, but the possibility of it. Again, we ought to avoid the harsh criticism of minor errors and personal idiosyn- crasies which cannot be changed because too deeply rooted. The criticism of these things should be made in constant reference to their subordination to fundamentals. The perfect sympathy between teacher and student should not be jeopardized by leaving to the critic the work of reforming his "personal appearance, dress, etc.," or the "use of language, voice, etc.," as noted in the outline. The teacher of academic subjects in the normal department should attend to these faults before the student-teacher ever comes to the children. Moreover, the fact that these things are matters of habit, and are changed only thru long effort, is an additional reason why their correction should be begun early in the course, and not left until near the end. The critic's attitude of mind is to be that of full sympathy with the student-teacher. To make the work sympathetic it must be mutually helpful. There should be mutual growth on the part of the critic and pupil. They should together talk over the work in SuperintendenceJ NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TRAINING TEACHERS 251 the light of general aims, principles, and results, and not so much in the light of the critic's personal methods, which of course are individual. Thus criticism has a social rather than an individual aim, and is sympathetic rather than antipathetic. In other words, tho intellectual progress may be made when the teacher is not closely in touch with the inner life of the pupil, when one is teaching a fine art, where personality rather than intellect is to be influenced, the union of mind must be perfect. Joseph Landon summarizes the matter in these words : It is the Clitic's business to put himself in harmony with the work, and to mentally adjust himself to the teacher's condition He has to interpret as well as appraise, to see deeply, to expound clearly, and to judge justly and intelligently. Sympathy with the work is essential. Good criticism is not intolerant, and is simply neither praise nor blam^; it is broader and more helpful than opinion alone, no matter how correct. It is an intense illumination of the inner and finer qualities of the work, a full recognition of its spirit and purpose, and an accurate display of its meaning and value. Finally, then, the mechanics of teaching is open to instruction, the technic of teach- ing is open to illumination, but the spirit of teaching is open to inspiration. Miss Sarah J. Walter, principal of training department, State Normal School, Willimantic, Conn. — It is important, first, to determine what is meant by criticism from a training teacher's point of view. To one group of teachers it means one thing, and quite a different thing to another group. It may mean individual and personal talks concerning errors in daily teaching ; or conferences held for the purpose of discussing class-room problems ; or general talks upon discipline and pedagogy. Criticism should be the expression of judgment, based upon pedagogical principles, on the teaching work, and on the effect of this teaching upon the activities of the child. The general motive or aim of criticism should be to surround the individual preparing for the work of teaching with such influences as shall help him to form and accept ideals, and, further, to enable him to become self-directive in the realization of these ideals. All criticism should be constructive and never destructive. Nothing so discourages a young teacher and tends to make her pessimistic as to receive criticisms which dwell unduly upon her faults. It is more helpful for the critic to point out the better way and to encourage the teacher to attain that. The model — the ideal, and not the defect — should be constantly before the worker. Criticism should demand active self -direction on the part of the student- teacher, and should not leave a way open for imitation. Thus only can the individuality of the teacher be preserved. No branch of educational work demands such rare qualifications as the work of the training teacher. Criticisms of teaching work should follow soon after the exercise itself, that the memory of each feature may be fresh. This criticism should always leave the student at the close of the discussion stronger and more hopeful than he was at the opening. All personal criticism should be given in private, and this should be searching, honest, friendly, tho sometimes severe. One of the most important duties of a critic-teacher is to maintain such a standard in practice as to prevent weak or immature students, especially those who have not shown strong professional tendencies, from going out as teachers. The true test of criticism in a normal school is the work of the graduate after he has left school. Principal Theodore B, Noss, State Normal School, Pa. — I think it unfortunate that we have certain words in our educational vocabulary. I think there is no place for the word "criticism." It was common, years ago, to have a feeling of antagonism between the training teacher and the student-teacher. We are much helped by criticism, if it is given in a kindly spirit. The training teacher who does not submit herself to the same test that the student-teachers have to submit to is not doing the right kind of work. Professor F. G. Blair, of the Eastern Illinois Normal School. — I admire Mr. Maxwell's clear presentation, but I think the tendency is to withhold frank criticism. I know that after a night of tossing, because of criticism by a person now in this room, I came back the next dav resolved to succeed. 252 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIAJTION [Chicago Mr. Wilkinson has suggested that a student-teacher must learn to stand on his own feet and must not be an imitator. The student-teacher must see good teaching. I am not afraid of imitation. We must lead them to see a few things, that they may see more. I rather think that this point should be added, that the teacher must be brought to feel his weakness. President Z. X. Snyuer, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. — There are three relations to be considered : First, the relation of the normal department to the training school. There must be a sympathetic, intelligent interrelation of these two departments. The training school is the center of interest. Second, each department should know the work of the other. Third, it is important that they know that they are doing the same work. There is no place in a normal school for an academic department which does not realize itself in the training school. When I find schools where the heads of the depart- ments disparage the work of the training school, I am sure the condition is bad. To the practitioner in the training school I would say: Keep your mouth shut, seek criticism, love the children. Professor Edwin C. Page, of Northern Illinois Normal School, De Kalb, 111. — Mr. Noss has suggested what I should like to speak of particularly. We recognize the danger to the student-teacher of criticism, which should always be so given as to make student- teachers critics of themselves. At our institution members of the faculty teach model lessons twice a week, teaching in the model school. In the following discussion our student-teachers are expected to criticise the conduct of that recitation. The result is, first, that it conveys to those student-teachers the true ideal of criticism. In the second place, the student learns correct methods of criticism by criticising his instructor, and gains at the same time ability to criticise his own teaching. One great benefit is the effect on the faculty. Every member is certain to be careful in planning and conducting his lesson, if it is to be criticised by the student-teachers. He has to deal with the very questions with which his student-teachers deal. The plan is beneficial from every standpoint, as we see it, and we have tried it three years. Dr. Frank M. McMqrry, professor of theory and practice of teaching, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. — If we eliminate the personal element in criti- cism, we must give full reason for the fault we point .out. We should avoid giving the student-teacher the feeling of being deluged with criticism. Good criticisms, in general, are subject to the same principles as recitations. Any recitation should leave the child feeling that only one, two, or three points are talked about. No matter how many criti- cisms we have to offer, we should reduce them to two or three points. The critic-teacher may point out every fault, and by this means absolutely check the growth of the student- teacher. John H. Glotfelter, principal of training department. State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.— It seems to me the function of the critic-teacher is primarily to see that the practice-teacher has an ideal ; secondarily, to review the result of the effort. That will take away from the teacher, perhaps, the feeling that he is under criticism, and will give him that bearing which he cannot have if self-conscious all the time. The result of this will be an interview with the teacher, which may be either of two kinds — one purpose to show the teacher how near he came to hitting the ideal, the other to show how far he missed the ideal. That leads to looking at the fault as rather an impersonal thing. Perhaps you will say that this is ignoring good form in teaching. Perhaps that may come in as a secondary matter; the vital thing is to get at results. President Livingston C. Lord, Northern Illinois Normal School, Charleston, III., suggested that too much is being said about making criticism mild and pleasant, and this raises the question whether dogmatic statement is not an element of necessity in life. There is such a thing as wasting time in attempting to soften criticism. The person SuperintendcnceJ PROGRESS OF EDUCA TION IN FOR TO RICO 253 should not be chloroformed when criticised. Sweetness is a good thing, but sometimes in this criticism there is more sweetness than light. Professor N. A. Harvey, of the Chicago Normal School. — Criticism should always be generic rather than specific. We have here a list of possible faults that practice, teachers are subject to. These possible faults are, in general, symptoms of disease. Some of these faults refer to character. One of the worst possible criticisms is that the character is weak or colorless. Dean Russell closed the discussion, saying that if the teacher did not have an infinitely more complex material than the ordinary builder, his task would, as Mr. Wil- kinson suggests, be much easier than it is. It has been said that criticism must cause discomfort to the person criticised. If criticism leads to discouragement, it is bad. Criticism may give temporary pam, but ultimate improvement. I cannot close this con- ference without suggesting that the self-criticism which has been commended must lead to efforts for improvement. I know no better plan for self-criticism than careful work by the critic-teacher with the pupil-teacher. PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO MARTIN G. BRUMBAUGH, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR PORTO RICO [an abstract] When the smoke of the Spanish-American war lifted from the islands of the sea, our government found itself in possession of new territory and new problems. Among these new acquisitions the most interesting and the most hopeful is Porto Rico. The people of the island not only did not oppose, but they joyously welcomed American occupation. When, therefore, we took the island under our protective care and began to study it, we found an island approximately one hundred miles long and forty miles wide, lying at the gateway to the new canal, and containing about 3,600 square miles. Along the coast is a level alluvial plain rich in sugar estates. The interior rises abruptly to an altitude of almost four thousand feet at the peak '* El Yunca," and upon the slopes of these mountains grows an excellent quality of coffee. In the rich inland valleys, caused by the rushing torrents, grows tobacco. Coffee, sugar, and tobacco are the chief productions of the soil. Tropical fruits grow wild and in great profusion. Hat-making and lace-work are also significant hand industries. Upon this area are crowded almost one million human beings — 28 per cent, being of the black race, and about 90 per cent, of the remainder poor whites with some admixture of old Borenquin Indian blood, and the remainder the rich landlords and professional men. These latter, being for the most part pure Spaniards, were the only element who at any time gave the American government any concern or opposition. Eighty- eight per cent, of the population was illiterate. By an act of the Congress of the United States civil government was established in the island May i, 1900. It was the first attempt of this 2 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOA [Chicago government to establish a colonial policy, and its results were destined to be far-reaching, because it not only involved the destiny of the people of the island, but also as an experiment it was destined to become a precedent for government in all our other possessions. By the terms of this act the executive function of the government was vested in a governor and a cabinet of six Americans, all appointed by the president of the United States. This cabinet, with five natives similarly appointed, is the executive council or senate, and the people choose a house of delegates consisting of thirty-five members. These two bodies constitute the legislative function of the government. The judicial func- tions rest in sixty-seven police judges, five district courts, and one supreme court. All these judicial positions are appointive. The governor appoints all save the highest court ; its five members are named by the president. Without precedent in the annals of our nation, this civil government began its arduous duties and gradually gained the sympathy and later the full support of almost the entire population. Spain in four hundred years had not erected one schoolhouse in the island. The one erected by the United States military government was destroyed by fire July i, 1900, and civil government faced a population of one million souls with- out one building at its disposal that was constructed for school purposes. In the meantime the schools had taken a prominent place in the uplift of the people. Under military rule, 612 schools were opened and about 23,000 pupils were enrolled. Under civil government, the first year, $400,000 was set aside for schools, and 800 schools, with 36,000 pupils, were opened and maintained for nine months. During the second year, 1901-02, $501,000 was appropriated by the local legislature, and now 1,000 schools, with 50,000 pupils, are in operation. Illiteracy has been lessened by ten per cent, and the demand for schools is steadily growing. In fact, were we able to pay the salaries of the teachers and had we the teachers in sufficient number, we could now have at least 150,000 pupils in the schools. The average monthly attendance in 1900-01 was 75 per cent., being i per cent, more than Pennsylvania in 1898, and only i per cent, less than Massachusetts in the same year. The funds for the maintenance of the government are derived from three sources : from tax upon property, $500,000 ; from internal revenues, $750,000; and from import duties, $750,000. These sums were estimated, and in each case the income has exceeded the estimates. The credit for this healthy financial condition is due to Dr. Hollander, our treasurer, and Porto Rico today does not owe one dollar, and has over $1,000,000 in the treasury. The island has not cost the United States one cent. This splendid financial condition is perhaps without a parallel in the history of Spanish -American countries. The school system has become the pride and the hope of the people. When additional schools are to be opened, our only difficulty is the lack Superintendence] PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN PORTO RICO 255 of teachers. To overcome this a normal school at Rio Piedras has been established. This school is the survival of a farcical school at Fajardo and the outgrowth of the summer school at San Juan. When it was proposed that a ten-weeks' summer training school should be opened during vaca- tion, it was freely asserted by prudent advisers that not more than one hundred pupils could be secured, owing to the poverty of the teachers. A circular was issued explaining the school and appealing to the young men and women of the island. When the school opened July 14, 1901, we had 806 pupils. It was the most magnificent indorsement of the system. At the end of ten weeks these young men and women asked the commissioner to set half the questions for a teacher's certificate in the English language. In fact, English is a common language in the island today. Some English is taught in all the schools. Everywhere the children speak it, and many parents attend night schools to acquire it. All the national songs of America are sung in the English language. Porto Rico had not one public schoolhouse until civil government was established. One structure for school purposes was erected by the military government. Fire destroyed it July i, 1900. Two hundred thousand dollars was given the commissioner to begin the work of erect- ing schoolhouses in Porto Rico. Today there are forty-six first-class American schoolhouses, some of ten, six, four, and two rooms, and some are one-room agricultural schools. Each building stands on a large cam- pus, usually of one acre, and the agricultural scholars cultivate the soil one-half of each school day. Over 1,200 pupils are thus receiving sys- tematic, practical agricultural education. These buildings all carry the names of prominent Americans, as "Washington School," "Lincoln School," "Penn School," "Jefferson School, " McKinley School," "Irving School," " Horace Mann School," etc. The American flag flies over every school while it is in session. The patriotism of these people is equal to that of our most advanced communities. A young man came forty miles afoot to the summer normal school, slept on a bare floor, begged his food, and studied so diligently that he received a rural certificate, and is now teaching in a shack schoolhouse under the palms on the mountain side. A boy in a school at Juncos had only the front of a shirt and trousers to cover his naked body. He pre- ferred coming to school half-clothed to growing up in ignorance. In a mountain school Mr. Wood, one of our supervisors, found a boy wearing his father's shirt, because the boy's shirt (the only one he had) was being washed. The father's shirt bore on its back the legend " Pillsbury's XXX." In the little coast town of Loiza the laborers in the cane-fields and the poor laborers in the streets are attending a night school. There is not a lamp in the town. These men bring candles, and in groups of three cluster around the candles and patiently spell out the beginnings of an education. The Porto Rican is anxious to learn. He can learn. 256 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The ambition of these people is to acquire a knowledge of American institutions, and thus hasten the day when the star of the island of the sea shall nestle in the folds of the flag they with us so fondly love. They have accepted the lesson a republic needs ever to impress : that the door of the public school is the door to statehood in the federal union. Finally and briefly then, with a system of elementary schools thoroly organized and in full operation ; with the new school law, prepared by the commissioner and enacted by the insular legislature, in full force and effect; with efficient supervision provided: with new school buildings in all towns and cities and in many rural places in daily use; with systematic agricultural education ; with a thoroly reorganized corps of teachers ; with a summer institute happily ended ; with a normal-school building at a cost of $40,000 completed and the normal school in successful operation ; with a model high school in San Juan ; with the annual budget for schools gaining annually from $400,000 to $500,000, and now to $600,000 ; with over 250 chosen pupils in schools in the states; with $100,000 donated for a library in San Juan by Hon. Andrew Carnegie and a foundation of 8,000 volumes already in daily use ; with a first-class departmental peda- gogical library ; with all the schools thoroly equipped with free books and supplies ; with a nine-months' term in all the schools ; with an average salary of over $40 per month ; with local school boards chosen by the people and managing the material phases of education ; and with a rapidly growing sentiment in favor of free, popular education — it is eminently fair to claim that education in Porto Rico has made, and will continue to make, most satisfactory progress. ALTRUISM AS A LAW OF EDUCATION ARNOLD TOMPKINS, PRINCIPAL OF CHICAGO NORMAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. Altruism and egoism are not antagonistic, as often implied in current speech, but are complementary aspects of the same truth. It would be as easy to affirm that egoism is the law of education as to affirm that altruism is such a law. In fact, it is easy to make it appear that egoism is the supreme law of education, for man's whole duty is to realize his possibilities. No criti- cism can be made on the conduct of a man who devotes the whole energy of his being to realizing within himself all the beauty and worth of human nature possible to him. Yet, in seeking the highest good of self, man must forget himself in some disinterested objective good. Man may conceive for himself a high ideal of personal qualities, but in the process of realizing these he him- self, as having these qualities, must pass out of thought in the process of Superintendence] ALTR UISM AS A LAW OF ED UCA TION 257 securing them. For instance, an individual may set up for himself as an ideal the attainment of a higher form of charity than he is now living up to; and, if in pursuance of this aim, he should take some gift to the needy, and be saying to himself all the time, "Now, this is good for me, for I am growing in charity," he would not be growing in charity, but in selfishness. He must lose his life in the other in order to find it there. No man ever rose in moral character or attained unto eloquent speech except thru self-forgetfulness in some disinterested objective good. In fact, genius itself is only the power of self-forgetfulness. The lives of great men, such as Lincoln or Herbert Spencer, are characterized by this power of losing the self in a great problem of life and thought. I use altruism in the broadest sense of losing the life in any object or problem, whether persons or things, animate or inanimate. The most striking instance of altruism is that of the love of the parent for the child. In this case the parent does completely lose himself or herself for the child. The only test of love is that of complete preference of the other to the self. The history of the human race is marked by the increasing power of the individual to feel kinship with another. As history has progressed, middle walls of partition have been broken down, and man more and more becomes sensitive to the life of another, whether of different blood, race, or country. But man has feeling of kinship with animals as well as with persons. Lincoln, on his way to a trial, passed by a wounded bird thrown from its nest, but he was so uncomfortable that he returned and placed it in its nest again. This was as true an act of altruism as John Howard per- formed in the prisons of England. Macaulay says that at an early period in the history of London horses were driven into that city, jaded, abused, and galled ; but that at a later period such treatment was prohibited by law. This was a clear case of growth in altruistic sentiment. There has been a marvelous change in farmers' treatment of their stock. While this may have been prompted by economic reasons, it certainly could be justified on the score of sympathy for dumb animals. Man waters a withering plant by the same kind of sympathy as he extends a cup of water to the famishing soldier on the battlefield. The story goes that Charney, the prisoner, bent over the little flower that grew up between the stones in the prison yard and received the hail on his own back to protect the flower. The engineer sympathizes with his engine, and thus, as the engineers say, secures better speed than a cold, heartless engineer. In short, man feels kinship with all the world about him. He cannot avoid the feeling, if he would, that everything about him has a nature akin to his own. All human life moves in this " primal sympathy " between the self and the objective world. Thus the altruistic spirit is as universal and as deep as life. The love of truth, as well as the love of people or animate things, is altruistic. 258 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago In fact, the law of altruism is the law of existence and life in the world everywhere. Everything has its being in and thru some other thing. Evolution has taught us the great truth that nothing can live unto itself alone. The finger lives in and thru the hand, and the hand in and thru the finger. The plant lives in and thru the soil, and the soil in and thru the plant. A thing is as essential to its environment as the environ- ment is to the thing. Even in competition and grasping monopolies the law of altruism still holds. Competing industries and organizations to thrive must come to terms dictated by those who patronize them. No greater kindness was ever done to man than that done by a heartless, grasping railroad cor- poration. If some charity organization had put itself to work to do the very best thing it could do for humanity, it could do no better than has been done by so-called heartless corporations. Suppose that mankind had waited for the church and benevolent institutions to have built up the industrial system by which man attains his physical and spiritual free- dom, we should still be in utter bondage. I am not claiming that it is the conscious purpose of a corporation to benefit others, but, to all intents and purposes, what is done under com^petition works to that end. God makes the wrath of man to praise him. There is a spirit that rules in these matters above the individual consciousness. There is such a thing as true and honest competition. It is the method by which civilization is worked out. In true competition both parties are benefited — both he who competes and the one whose patronage is sought. No case can be found in which altruistic and egoistic duties are in conflict. The young lady who misses school to take care of her invalid mother seems to be very self-sacrificing ; but what would she sacrifice if she deserted her mother ? Her duty to her mother is likewise a duty to herself. Man's duty is to be polite to his fellow-man, but it is a duty which he owes to himself. An obligation on one side is equally binding on the other. Man can love his neighbor as himself. Man's standard of self-love is this : he will do nothing to mar the jewel of the soul, and he will do everything possible to realize his highest manhood. This standard of self-love applied to one's neighbor proves that one can love his neighbor as himself. For man may say, " I will do nothing to harm my fellow-man, and I will do everything in my power to aid him in the pursuit of the highest good." Altruism does not require one who has earned a dollar to give it to another. If so, it would require the other who earned a dollar to give it to the first. In this case there would be shuffling of dollars to no purpose. In fact, if the law of altruism is one- sided in its requirements, the man who is offered the dollar would be compelled to refuse it. The whole movement of life is blocked on a one- sided altruism. SuperintendenceJ AL TRUISM AS A LAW OF EDUCA TION 259 Now, we shall come to the root of this whole matter if we examine into the nature of self. Self is the organic unity of this self and the other self. If at this moment I should say "myself," and then, after master- ing the struggle for American independence by the study of history, I should say "myself" again, I would include in myself the period of history which I had mastered. If this history is myself after its mastery, it was myself before. I read a poem and am flushed with a new life. The poem now is a part of myself, and it must have been my future, my pos- sible self before. No conception of self can be formed which does not include both subject and object. And here we have the gist of the whole matter. A child is prompted to study by its altruistic impulse. It craves the other world as another self. The child in thinking is striving to break down the distinction between subject and object. The teacher's chief work is to set up tension between subject and object, and to stimu- late such processes of thought as will release the tension. The value of a subject of study can only be estimated in terms of the breadth of outlook which it gives into the world about. Studies cannot be estimated in terms of discipline, but in terms of outlook, and therefore of increase of self. No one would undertake to compare the disciplinary values of Choctaw and Latin. But, in terms of outlook and of subjective increase, the comparative value is strikingly in favor of Latin. Latin opens the way out into laws of language in general, and reveals to us the thought and spirit of a marvelous people. It thus appears that no reason can be given for studying a thing except in terms of the life of the learner. It is often said that we teach history in order to make good citizens, but I think that no one ever studied history under such a motive. What he really craves is a larger life thru the touch of the spirit of the race. Man climbs the mountain and views the landscape under the rising sun ; he does it again and again, and can make no explanation other than the sense of the larger life thru his broader outlook. Man sits upon the seashore and looks out into the infinite surging sea, and finds no answer, except in terms of his infinite surging self. Teachers have too long been trying to explain and justify what they do in terms which do not ultimately explain. The objects of study and fields of thought mastered must be transformed into the life of the student. It is " more life and fuller that we want." The spirit of man longs for that which is not itself ; having mastered this, he is more of a self. Thus the two sides of egoism and altruism are inseparably linked in every life process. Man goes forth to realize himself, but there is no way of self-realization except thru self-sacrifice ; that is, losing the self in the truth and beauty of the world about, which is the other self which every individual strives to become. 2 6o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago THE HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE G. STANLEY HALL, PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS. Education may fit the youth to live in the past, the present, or the future ; and systems maybe distinguished according to the relative influ- ence of each. In the Renaissance, which was the golden dawn of secondary education, the past ruled. The literature and life of ancient Greece and Rome were revived. Sturm's goal was so to train his pupils that if they were suddenly transported to Rome or Athens they would be at home in the language, history, and customs. The vernacular was formed on the model of the ponderous Ciceronian sentence which set all the fashions in style. Latin was the language of the school and the play- ground. The games and the whole atmosphere harked back to antiquity. There was no contemporary literature, history, science deemed worth while. The fashion and the earmark of culture was to write a style inter- larded with classical quotations and allusions. Liberal education con- sisted in reviving the dead past, and the results were remarkable. The boys became young Greeks and Romans. How have we fallen away! Years of the study of Latin and Greek do not accomplish what months did then. Methods and results alike are degenerate. The baby Latin and Greek taught in our high schools is but a sanctified relic, the ghost of a ghost ; and we find today almost every degree of degeneration from the golden age of secondary classical training. This is confessed even by its representatives in the German Gymnasia, where the old ideal is still best maintained in the modern world. An informed writer says that this high-school fetich no more revives antique culture than the soil is fertilized by the smell of the dung-cart driven over it ; says that he has been incapacitated for his duties in modern life by the seductions of this phantom, and that his grandfather, the president of the United States, was injured by it, altho, pathetic to relate, he always praised it. The German emperor, in his famous rescript, declared it a shame to the modern youth to excel in Latin composition, and declared that he would have no more Gymnasia or Professor Hintzpeters. Norway forbids and Sweden has almost banished it from the secondary schools. The well-known Frankfurt method substi- tutes three years of modern languages for this, and finds at the end of five years pupils have more than made up. Mr. Reddie at Abbotsholme, Lietz at Ilsenburg, Demolins at L'ecole de Roche, have set back fires that are spreading in their respective countries. Booker T. Washington says the two chief desires of the colored youth during all the reconstruction period were to hold office and to study Latin, and that his life-work for his race has been directed against these two evils. I raise no question of the great value of these studies for those who Superintendence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 261 go deeply into them. I acknowledge an inestimable debt to antiquity. I believe in humanistic culture. But when I find that during the past ten years, in which our high-school population has more than doubled, Latin has increased from 34 per cent, in 1890 to about 50 per cent, in 1900, while the proportion of those who go to college has decreased from 14 to II per cent., I believe. the educational waste and devastation, in view of the growing claims and growing neglect of modern subjects, are calami- tous to the point of pathos. Despite vigorous denials, I am convinced that the general complaint of imperfect command of the mother-tongue by high-school youth is due largely to translation English, and I cite the report of the Harvard entrance committee which challenges comparison for slovenness and mutilation of good English style; and yet it is just at this stage, before the power to read without translating is acquired, that a recent writer says the chief benefit for the vernacular is acquired. Most high-school Latinists do not go on to college. Beginnings that leave abandoned tracks in the brain because there is no relation to after-life are evil. Moreover, it is a purely formal discipline with almost no content as now taught. Its practical relations to life, arts, literature, which are so magni- fied, are of the slightest. Thirty-four per cent, of those who drop out of the high school do so from loss of interest and enchantment, and this is true mainly with the classics. What keeps these studies alive ? First, their traditional respectability. The high school was the Latin school, and children and parents feel they have launched on a higher stage in development when they are known to be students of Latin and perhaps algebra ; especially is this true of Catholics. Moreover, Latin is often required in the first high-school year, still more often strongly advised. Again, it is probably the easiest and cheapest of all subjects to teach. I would undertake to hire a hundred female Latin teachers at shorter notice and for less cost than in any other topic. Again, college requirements and possibilities are an enormous bribe, and our secondary education is losing its independence by the excessive interference and dominance from ^bove ; and, finally, one can teach Latin and break in the youthful mind with more authority and ease than in any other topic. The voice of its defects is either hoarse or thin and piping with age. They are the rear guard in the retreat of what was once a great army; but the grasp of this dead hand from the tombs of culture must be relaxed. How different when we turn from the too exclusive dominance of the past, which has its stronghold in that most conservative of all institu- tions, perhaps the church not excepted, to the training that fits for modern life in the present ! Happily there is always a rapidly growing tendency in every modern race and nation to make its schools in its own image, and to measure their efficiency by how well they fit for the 2 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChic«eo domestic, social, political, industrial present. It is the burden of the German Kaiser's complaint that the schools do not give him good soldiers, well-trained civil servants, competent administrators, intelligent patriots. The ministry, and still more the law, show progressive inade- quacy to the demands laid upon them. Mr. Kidd would test schools by the maximal social efficiency. Our own Dr. Harris measures them by the thoroness with which they prepare for the life of state, church, school, and home. We often imagine the enormous stimulus which would follow if educational requirements were as thoroly enforced here for our 120,000 office-holders as they are in Germany, where, to fill the lowest office, one must have attained a certain state schooling, and each higher stage up thru secondary and university grades opens the possibility of higher and higher government appointments. Business and trades also have their requirements. To interpret "fitting for life" to mean fitting for the best service in existing institutions of the present, altho immeasurably better than fit- ting for the past, brings, along with all its inspiration, a growing danger of narrowness. It is a Roman postulate dear to organizers and to those who love to impart prepared knowledge, which the mature intellect selects as most useful. It tends to utilitarianism and is illiberal, whether one is fitting for a trade or for college. Standards are external, and the question is : Will it pay, whether in money or in passing examinations ? Those who thus conceive education place the social organism first and subordinate the individual to his place in it. Citizenship bulks large compared with manhood and womanhood. Their philosophy of educa- tion, if they have one, is clear and convenient. Napoleon organized French education on this plan that it might give him good officials. Three-fourths of the students of the iycees look forward to snug little berths, and those who fail, after weary years of eating their hearts out, turn to independent careers from necessity, a$ a last resort. An office, with badge, uniform, and permanence, is the French parent's ideal. The hopelessness of reforms in secondary education here is due to the excess- ive surveillance of the school to the needs of the social and political community. The French boy's spur to graduate early is that he may get in the line of promotion in office, which is always by seniority. Families have to be small, because every addition diminishes each child's share of the parents' property, and no girl and few boys can marry without a dowry. The French schoolboy thus foresees everything in his career at the start, save only the date of his death, unless he fails of appointment and remains a candidate for starvation. In China the evils of this system are more fully developed. Demolins well says : "That system of educa- tion which attempts to adapt the young to existing institutions is bad and must fail." It tends to make young graduates tuft-hunters and place- seekers, hoping to secure by influence soft berths, instead of launching SuperintendenceJ HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 263 forth and carving out a career for themselves. They are always fitting for something, accumulating learning for the highest market, and the aroma of the trade school penetrates academic halls and causes premature, undue specialization. But there is a third muse, the inspirations of which are now more and more felt, which teaches that the school should be the bud and nursery of the world that is to be ; that it should not be made in the image of the pres- ent, but should fit man for the next stage of development in the race and nation. In the present age of rapid transition and expansion of our race, the future and the ideal must be more dominant than ever before, or we are dwarfed as a nation. This is a good age to'be young in. It is the psychologic moment for new pedagogic aims, topics, and methods, when the pulses of the old are quickened as with a new adolescence. Our children must not be trained merely to defend the old fortresses of civilization, but to carry on offensive and defensive warfare in fields as yet unexplored. We must not only augment present, but projected, efficiency. Altho the method of fitting for the future is to overflow the needs of the present, just as outgrowing our old soul is the best way to molt a new one in an age of moving equilibrium, we must remember that very much that we praise is deciduous ; that the present is not a finality; is a germ and not a blossom, and still less a fruit; and that, unless we are to be jingoes and chauvinists, after knowing the spirit of the age, we must quite as often oppose as serve it. Youth is prophecy, for which its ideals are proverbially the best material. The battles of nations are sometimes won decades before on the school playgrounds. "As Oxford feels and thinks," runs the old slogan, "England thirty years later will act, for it is here that her history is preformed." Otherwise we turn out graduates like the man born just too late, who spent his after-life trying to make up for the last quarter of an hour. Thus we teachers must always, and especially today, be dual personalities : on the one hand, held to our primary organism, and careful that no good in the past be lost; but, on the other, smitten with a divine discontent with the present and its works and ways, trying to make our own lives* more honest and exemplary, and more hopeful and worth living, because we give life to others, and worshiping the god of the present but as an ex- or emeritus deity when the god of the future shows his face. What will the high school, as the people's college, be and do? I answer — if you will pardon summary phrases for the sake of brevity: First, it will teach English with the chief stress, not upon language or form, but upon content, literature, history, and science. It will not exclude the Bible — man's chief text-book in psychology, human nature, self- knowledge, self-reverence, and self-control ; its prophecies as the best school of the future; its appeal to faith as the substance of things hoped for ; its poetry of nature, of morals, aesthetics, and of the true piety of 264 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago the heart as that out of which are the issues of life; as that which fol- lows the order of the soul's unfoldment thru boyhood, adolescence, maturity, and old age, for which one American university already gives credits on admission. Second, the people's college will teach oratory. I have found four- teen widely used books on rhetoric which dilate on punctuation, para- graphing, the subtleties of style and good use, proofreading, correct and incorrect use of idioms, theories of poetic structure, narration, descrip- tion, and, above all, composition, which A. S. Hill's Rhetoric says is the "main business of the teacher of English." "Rhetoric is proper words in proper places, and the teacher must be all the time on the watch for errors," altho not one student in ten thousand has anything to say ; and rhetoric, it is said, does "not teach or imply thinking clearly." Now, the very word " rhetoric " means oratory. To Aristotle it meant giving truth the superiority which belongs to it by its nature. It means the art of influencing conduct with the truth sent home by the living man. Rome knew no other education, and only in her decadence did rhetoric of our type arise, with its trifling, artificial, sophistical way. Some of this the English of the people's college should. restore. Third, the drama at its best is an incomparable school of life. The characters stand out clear and distinct ; both they and the action are far easier to comprehend than in life, where all is more complex. Dramatic reading suits youth, and very much can be done in a single high-school year, even without a school theater, if we would only abandon our sense- less worship of notes. I visited a high-school class which had spent three weeks on Othello^ not one of whom yet knew how the story ended. The good drama is moral, because it rewards the good and punishes the vil- lains. The lid of conventionality is taken off human nature, which is seen in its pure types, and a wholesome carthasis against evil is applied. There is always conflict, collision, and passion, which suits youth and makes the theater often truer than history, teaching the power that makes for righteousness. The decay of the modern theater from its happy ideal is hardest on youth. Another content study in English work should be the great mediaeval epics. Quintilian said that such "contribute more to the unfoldment of students than all the treatises that all the rhetoricians ever wrote." High- school boys have passed the age of chief interest in Homer content, but it is the age of King Arthur, the Sangreal, Parsifal, Sir Galahad, Sieg- fried, and Lohengrin. This is the quarry where Chaucer, Shakespeare, Scott, Tennyson, Wagner, Ibsen, and scores of artists have found their inspiration. The theme of it all is chivalry and honor — the noblest thing in feudalism. It means reverence for womanhood, pity, valor, loy- alty, courtesy, munificence, justice, obedience, and heroism. Here grew the ideals of the gentleman, who was tender, generous, and helpful as well Superintendence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 265 as brave. Morals and aesthetics have never been blended in a way which better fits the nature and needs of youth. Thus the purpose of literature in the high school is supremely ethical, and the talk of art for art's sake here is degeneration. The receptive faculties are indefinitely ahead of the creative, hence to read, and, above all, see, should take great precedence over composition, which comes hard and late; unless we wish to teach youth fluency with nothing that burns or is worth saying. Next to English in the people's college should come science, which teaches love and knowledge of nature — the great mother of us all, and from which religion, art, and literature, as well as science, have sprung. The sciences chosen should be those that give largeness of view rather than precocious accuracy, and we should remember that man was a natu- ralist long before the laboratory. Youthful curiosity always strangely gravitates to frontier questions, where we are all children, and loves to play with great ideas — force, atoms, vast astronomic space, and geologi- cal time; is curious about remote lands, primitive people, strange ani- mals and plants, the origins of things, and perhaps their end and destiny. The high school has laid too great and early emphasis upon physics, which, in the last few years, owing to college forcing and bad methods, as I have elsewhere pointed out, has declined. First, high-school science should always include the elements of astronomy. Natural curiosity about the heavens is now almost at its strongest and best, and the result is reverence, for "the undevout astronomer is mad." Very little celestial mathematics is needed; that came late; little calculation of eclipses or tides, or minute work with noon marks, but a meaty body of facts about nebulae, the number of stars, the distances of those that are most remote, their motions in systems very different from our own ; collisions, comets, the dead planets ; the sun and moon, than which Plato and Aris- totle knew no higher gods; the hero-ology of astronomy, which has had its saints and martyrs ; its epochs, its culture-history, and astrology; and what the great astronomers are now doing. Again, geology should have a place. It takes little children out of doors, interests them in landscape, teaches them to understand it ; gla- ciers and the ice-age; the dynamic side of air, water, heat, and life from the palaeozoic age down ; a little structural geology, with the composition of rocks, ripple marks, beaches, and shores ; the history of the globe from its origin ; something of cartography, with knowledge as well as love of the face of nature ; large views of time, and how the ascending orders of plants and animals arose. This is far harder to teach than chemistry and physics, and the nose cannot be held to the grindstone so steadily and securely. It requires a larger body of information and more real teaching. Biology should certainly have a place. Not necessarily the technique of histology or the microscope; less about the cell, and more about 2 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago natural history than nomenclature or classification. The fertilization of plants by insects and flowers opens a great opportunity for the skillful teacher to instill great moral lessons at an age \yhen they are most needed, and with most unconsciousness. While migration, habitat, eco- nomic and human aspects; our knowledge of animal instinct; noxious and healthful plants, insects, and animals ; domestication ; nests and homes; laws of growth in man, and his general anatomy and physiology, should have place, with themes wisely chosen from anthropology. These three are real or substantial content studies, while all language work and even mathematics are relatively formal. I would by no means exclude mathematics or modern languages, but would give them a second- ary and more elective place in a high school that is to be truly American. The third group of topics in a secondary system that fits present nature and needs is distinctly motor or efferent, and involves the training of the muscles and the will, more or less inseparable at this age. I have no space here to describe how either the games or the manual training should be conducted in detail, but will only state its goal and ideal, which is efficiency. Here boys should be rated by what they can do. There must be the germs and educative extracts of just as many trades and industries as possible. On this practical side no better ideal can be conceived than that of fitting young men for success in the newer and more unsettled parts of the country or in our new colonies. Horace Greeley's " Go west, young man" fits for life in a way almost ideal at adolescence. The younger sons of British nobility and the middle classes are beginning thus to be best trained. If we do not fit our youths for the geographical frontier, we should inspire them with the idea of beginning at the bottom, so low they cannot sink lower, but where every change must be a rise. They should take their places between younger and less trained men, and trust to merit, with blood and iron enough in them to scorn sedentary ideals or the easiest way, and be, in Daudet's phrase, a struggleforlifeur. We must not forget that agriculture, mining, farming, trade, and commerce are the basis of all national life, and in a sense everything else is dependent on and parasitic to these. The mighty engine of business absorbs more and more of our best talent and requires ever greater energy, larger knowledge, breadth of view, and, especially, penetration into the future. It dominates statesmanship and the profes- sions ; its prizes are the greatest. Thus trained, our youths will plunge into strenuous life of achievement, and every man-Jack of them will want to bring his whole self to bear where he can compete and meet the ver- dict of his peers. If he is truly American, he will want to begin at the bottom, because he has a fundamental instinct of thoroness and funda- mentality, and the wise parent will at the critical moment cut the navel string and toss the young out into the current of life to sink or swim. The Abbotsholme boys found their school a rubbish heap, overgrown with Superintendence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 267 weeds, and took pleasure for years in cleaning it up. The man who means railroading will begin as a trackman; as a recent book says, will want to peasantize himself and fall in love with the soil, machine grease, coal, or cattle. If he is city-bred, he will plunge far into the country; and if a country larrikin, he will go into the city and strive to work to the top. If he is philanthropic, he will go into slum work and its squalor; if he is to teach, he will teach anywhere and anybody; or if he is to be a professor, he will fill half a dozen chairs at once in a mono- typic college, because he loves independence and the satisfaction of doing. How is this attained? In answer, I point to Hampton and some of the half or three-fourths industrial schools for the nation's Indian wards. Nowhere does education work such changes and improvements in so brief a space of time, and it is all because these youths touch life. Here we must find our norm ; this is part of the people's college which we must improve on if we can. Personally, I am sometimes proud that I know how to do every kind of old-fashioned farm work; that in my German student days I took lessons so that I can bind, gild, and cover a book ; make a shoe and a broom complete, do a little glass-blowing, plumbing, and gold-beating. But my pride is humbled when I see. young men who can also make harnesses and saddles ; are good blacksmiths ; can apply a bandage, and do various kinds of rope-splicing; are amateur wheel- wrights, carpenters, and coastguards ; can print and do onyx work ; under- stand ice-making, tinning, and electrical machines ; are at home in the dairy, poultry yard, and garden ; know the rudiments of forestry, bee- keeping, drainage, and photography — this is liberal motor education, and I bow to my masters. They are armed cap-a-pie and come down solidly on all fours, wherever life plants them. This is a part of the liberal education of the future. It gives character and makes men who will make our future social and political institutions in their own image and inspire them with their own soul. This kind of people's college, with these three elements — English, science, motor training — and others added ad libitum, will say to the conservative endowed cellege of the East which, as is the case with three in New England, still gives no credits whatever in entrance examinations for any degree of proficiency in any of these things save English alone: Here are our graduates ; we have done for them the best we could to realize all the possibilities of their golden age. We have given them a taste both of life and of learning; if our graduates can now do better with you than with us, you must take them. We high schools will now organize by ourselves; we know this stage of youth best; we will make our certificate and diploma system the best possible ; and if our gradu- ates are articled to you upon our word of honor, that must sufifice. We owe you a great debt for training our teachers and for stimulating us in 268 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago the past. That debt we will now pay, but you must no longer prescribe our work or define .our field any more than your own is prescribed. It may be a hard lesson at first, as was yours to us, but it will be no less wholesome; both in numbers and stimulus, your work will improve. Finally, I am more and more persuaded that in its highest sense teaching ought to be a universal vocation. Guyau says that it should be the only education for women, I would add, and for men as well. Statesmanship, religion, and science all become precious according as they tend to the ever higher development of man. Education involves all other topics, and is that in which the education of all should culmi- nate. The greatest of all reforms are educational reforms, and none others are complete without it. It is the best measure of progress. The philosophy of education is the highest and only philosophy. It is our chief obligation to the future. Its work consists in making an ideal environment for the development of the super-man that is to be ; and, while we must train the intellect, the will is far larger and the heart larger yet. Aristotle defined education as teaching men to fear aright ; for Jesus it was to teach them to love aright, to fix the affections on the highest and wean them from the lowest. Some have conceived it as teaching men to be angry aright; not to fret at trifles, but to generate torrents of consuming wrath at great abuses ; or to pity aright and shape the charity of the heart toward fit objects. In a single word, it is human evolution, and its goal is so to construct experience and knowledge as to advance growth. An age of growth like the present lays upon us new and larger opportunities and duties, and history waits to see if we can develop the wisdom and the vigor which our age demands. It wants not talk, but deeds ; not theories, but practical and in some respects radical reconstructions. DISCUSSION Irwen Leviston, superintendent of schools, St. Paul, Minn. — We who are thoroly acquainted with the present status of the modern high school are more than pleased by having such men as Dr. Hall turn their attention to this subject. And we are more or less pleased with what he has said upon this subject today — at times less, at most times more. The question whether we have degenerated since the time of Cicero, or, for that matter, since Adam, does not concern us ; but has the high school degenerated since Dr. Hall attended it ? The high school has not only needed, but deserves, more consideration than it has received in the past from our educators of national reputation. Of late the universities have been receiving endowments, heretofore unheard of, and thereby commanding the talent, experience, and genius of the great scholars and educators ; while the high schools have received only niggardly and grudging support from a protesting public, resulting in poor equipment in the matter of apparatus, libraries, and quantity if not quality of teachers. Again, the high schools have for years occupied a difficult position in the educational Superintendence] MIGM SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 269 system ; for, on the one hand, they have been compelled to accept pupils whose prepara- tion and qualifications have been determined without their consent, and, on the other hand, have been obliged to furnish pupils fitted for fixed and undebatable requirements on the part of the universities ; and the high school must give what the university demands or be rated as second-class. At the same time they have taken the teachers that the university sends to them, trained in special lines, but not in simplification of knowledge. Along with all this comes the demand for practical teaching in business courses, with commercial geography, industrial history, modern language speaking, domestic science, economics, etc., etc., until it is little to be wondered at that the mind attempting to formulate a course of study becomes befuddled and bewildered. Again, not a few parents are attempting to make the schools entirely responsible for the moral status of our pupils, compelling us seriously to consider what sort of a course in ethics applied thru the few school hours of the day will safely carry the boys and girls of the high-school age thru the dangers that surround them outside of school hours. Notwithstanding its difficult position and the demands made upon it, I believe the high school of today is a success, and worthy of the name which is applied to it in our subject ; that it is proving a rapid developer of intellect and teaching its pupils the enjoyment of mental excitement beyond all material pleasures ; that in character-building it today outranks every other department of education, not excepting our old well- mannered colleges and those fitting schools making special claims to high moral training ; that in its associations there is the most and best of preparation for any kind of future living. If I am right in these assumptions, the only true plan to pursue in merging the high school more completely into the people's college is to strengthen, adapt, and perfect what we already have. A hastily planned structure on poor foundation furnishes an excuse for pulling down to build better; but a steady natural growth cannot be treated in this manner. No variety of the tree of knowledge will be made to bear better fruit by tear- ing up its roots. Gradually and steadily the high school has been widening its field of work, to adapt itself to universal needs. Those who wish to assist it must help to popularize it, and feed \i funds, direct into it teachers of capacity, give it sympathetic suggestion rather than violent criticism. To show the worthiness of the high school, I should like to take time for details concerning the development that all the lines of study have undergone during the last decade, but that would be too great an abuse of your patience. Will you bear with me while I briefly outline some changes that have taken place and are being considered in one course ? I select the business course, because it is, perhaps, below the middle stage of development in most schools. It was at first, as you all know, forced into the curricu- lum to satisfy demands wholly and materially practical. It was then generally a short course, furnishing two years of so-called commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, stenogra- phy, and an early graduation. Those engaged to carry on the work had no claims as educators, and seldom any knowledge of the methods of teaching. This course invariably became a sort of waste- basket into which was conveniently dumped all the poor and unwilling pupils of the school, and it became simply unendurable and wholly incompatible with the good old- fashioned work that was being done in other departments. It was too bad to stand, and many schools rejected it entirely. Others combined with it the so-called regular studies thru four years. This plan was better, in that the pupil employed a smaller portion of his ime upon these subjects, but the commercial course itself was very little improved. It was, however, a right beginning, in that it insisted upon some education. A little later some dignity was added to the course by including at least one modern language as one of its regular studies. Commercial law was added, and now commercial geography and industrial history have a place, and the first benefit that the school as a whole is deriving 2 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LChicago from It is shown in a better teaching of civics. A few steps more and we shall have a fine course of correlated subjects, the graduate from vjrhich will not be fitted merely for clerkship, but will find himself introduced to the whole wide field of business effort in the world of today, and at least ready to make a decent bow to the authorities in it. He will be able to distinguish the controlling influence from the loud-toned wishes to control ; the solid from the speculative ; true economy from miserly scrimping ; capable, masterly handling of large productive powers from schemes for grasping what is already produced. He will have been made thoroly acquainted with a few important materials of commerce, the manner of their production, distribution, and consumption, not only in a historic way, but with an intimate knowledge that will discover the faults as well as the fashions of trade. With competent teaching he will be led, not only to an understanding of natural economic laws, but also to discern how the human factor enters into and disturbs every department of commerce ; how personal interest may, and does at times, interfere with all the laws of political economy. When we have brought our business course to this point, is there not opportunity for the application of psychology ? Cannot the idealist and materialism both find common cause for quarrel in this as well as any other course ? I do not know that 1 have been able to make this one line of development in the high school toward the general college clear. It in itself would furnish a subject that is worthy of much time and consideration. And in other courses the development has been just as evident to those in the work. I hope to show only good cause for continuing and perfecting the present plans in high-school work, and for strengthening the hands of those laying out these plans, and to head off any radical changes that might be proposed by those outside of the actual high school work. In short, I do not wish, to be asked to stand over the tomb of the high school while attending the christening of the people's college. Wm. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education. — I have listened many times, and always with the greatest pleasure and interest, to Dr. Hall's speeches. I read every line he writes. I do not always agree with him, but I find him always suggestive. I have never read a paper of his with which I find myself so thoroly in agreement as with the general thought of the address just delivered. I will, however, call attention to a few points in the paper from which I must dissent. The first point concerns the tendency toward the study of less Latin in Germany. I do not agree that this calls for change in America, because we give to the subject much less time than is given in Germany. 1 believe in the study of Latin. Yet we can have too much of a good thing, and it is not good to study Latin eight years. The movement in Germany means that they will give to this subject but five years, and I think that is almost too much. In his emphatic way Dr. Hall demands content, not form. We are taught by the highest philosophers of art that the content should make its form. If what he says, and what other earnest people with him say, can free us from namby-pamby composition, I will rejoice. I would not have the study of a masterpiece of literature carried on by parsing it, taking it to pieces, studying the allusions. What he said on that point is a splendid utterance, and what he said about drama is a magnificent utterance. Drama goes over into thought, and then becomes action, and therefore furnishes the greatest essons in life, whether gained in college or in lower school. I always remember with great pleasure that, in the earlier years of my life, we had in St. Louis a teacher who taught Shakespeare. It was taught there by a man who made some of the best Shake- spearean students in the world. I agree with the portion of the address which refers to the study of physics. I would have the pupils study physics in the high school, but not the kind of physics which requires calculus in order to appreciate it. I read Dr. Hall's debate in Massachusetts on that question, and I agreed with him in his position that, if you demand more accuracy in Superintendence] HIGH SCHOOL AS THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE 271 the high school, you may go too far in that direction ; you may dry up the soul by putting it at things too remote. I would have pupils begin to s'udy the phenomena of physics in the third grade. I was sorry to note that Dr. Hall omitted any allusion to history. It is one of the great fundamental branches, that should be begun early and carried on thru the high school. Instead of saying, as he does, that we do not want to fasten to the past, I would say: " Fasten our chains to the past in order to bring under tribute the good things of all time." The school is that instifution which says : " I will show you how to get the great things from the past." One of the great branches, showing the human race acting as a whole, is history, and nothing else can be a substitute. The past reaches back even to the lower animals. God did not begin with man, but back with lower animals, plants, and the inorganic world. In this matter of history, therefore, certain things have been contributed to the race that are so far below the horizon of the past that we have no record of them, but we know that the effects have impressed themselves on the human brain ; but when it begins to be unfolded in science, when this science yields its fruition, we can tell whether its history roots in the Greeks or in Siberia or in the isles of the sea. The great struggle of the Romans extended thru a thousand years, and they struggled to find out just how the individual acts could reinforce the whole people. After some eleven hundred years, in the time of Justinian, these acts were formulated into the common law, because the Roman was gifted in seeing how the deed fitted into the social whole, just as the Greek religion saw how freedom could fit into the pose of the body. Now, that is the reason why Latin has made for itself so great a place in the schools of modern times. It will not be pushed aside. I have always regretted that Dr. Hall in his grasp of modern science does not seem to see it in its true perspective with modern history. He should have said that Latin keeps this place because of its importance. The Roman invented a way so that the social whole should not crush the individual. The northern tribes, when they had been Romans two hundred years, recognized the impor- tance of Latin. Dr. Hall's technical terms are Latin. Sixteen thousand words sum up the Saxon in our vocabulary; seventy-five thousand in common use are from the Latin, storing up the fine distinctions in the minds of the people. If you can study Latin only one week, you will have new thoughts that you can never get rid of ; you will have new environment ; preaching from the pulpit will mean more. Therefore I do not agree that we must keep Latin for those only who can study it thoroly. I suppose Dr. Hall has in mind some old person who has taught for thirty years and can tell all the exceptions of Latin syntax. The word "recapitulation" is an important word ; it is a whole book in itself, in this active period of recapitulation in anthropology. This is the battle-ax with which Dr. Hall wins victories. I always wish to give three cheers for Dr. G. Stanley Hall. May he help us to think and to see once in a while how absurd some of his views are ! He puts these things in a way to arouse us; he does not wish us to become his disciples — he wishes to arouse us by saying something absurd. Dr. Hall. — It was somewhat of a surprise to me that when Dr. Harris entered this arena he grasped my hand, as pugilists shake hands before beginning a contest. My surprise was continued when he said that he in the main agreed with me. To kick at nothing gives one a feeling of a wrench. I thought I had attacked some things Dr. Harris has defended for years. I now feel as if I was wrenched. Dr. Harris and I have inherited every feature of our faces, every muscle, and every organ from the anthropoid apes. Must all therefore study monkeys ? Of course, we use Latin phraseology. When Dr. Harris says we all should study Latin a week, I agree. In regard to the study of Latin in Germany, I think Dr. Harris did not understand what I said. I am aware that Latin and Greek are more firmly intrenched there. The emperor said he wanted no more Gymnasia, no more Latin teachers, but instead a great 272 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago many Realschulen. When we come to that, I believe it may be said that a larger propor- tion of time in the preparatory schools is given to Latin in this country than in Germany, but I have not the statistics. The proportion is decreasing there and is increasing here. Dr. Harris thinks that absurd things must be said to arouse us. Perhaps under the direction and guidance of such a mentor, who has been for so many years such a correct pruner of my sentences, I may have become lax, because I knew Dr. Harris was on hand and all would be set right. I am, however, inclined to think men reach an age when the new seems absurd. When roots are so wrapped about ancient things that the past begins to loom up and the future to seem smaller, there is danger that we shall worship the past and live for it alone. I prefer the future, because all the best things are in the future, and I believe that the past should be subordinated to it. I had only one word in my paper about history. I said that the first of these subor- dinate topics should be history. I agree with what Dr. Harris says on history, and I am glad to close this discussion with the acknowledgment of agreement with him. COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS THOMAS M. BALLIET, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. If a visitor from western continental Europe, after inspecting our American educational system from the primary school to the university, were asked to compare it with that of his own country, he would in all probability express an opinion as to the relative merits of the various grades of schools which would in many respects be the direct opposite of that which is held among ourselves. He would no doubt say that the best American primary schools are not excelled, and are rarely equaled, in any other country in the world. He would note the absence of the dead formalism and mechanical routine which still prevail in his own country to a large extent in schools of similar grade, and he would especially note the sympathetic relations existing between teacher and pupils, the mild- ness of the methods of discipline, and the superior skill of the teacher in arousing the interest of his pupils and in stimulating thought and mental growth. He would probably say that the best American grammar schools compare on the whole not unfavorably with similar schools in his own country, but that they have certain defects which at first sight are not apparent, but which on closer inspection cannot escape the trained observer. He would probably say that the American high school excels in its superior equipments for the teaching of the sciences and in the flexibility of its courses of study, but that in other respects it does not compare favorably with similar schools in his own country. He would note the inferior training, both academic and professional, of the average American high-school teacher, and he would be impressed with the lack of forcefulness, clearness, and definiteness of much of the teaching. He would be surprised to find that between the secondary school and the I Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 273 university there comes an institution, called the ** college," which is not found in his own country, and which continues the work of the secondary school for two or three years and then attempts university work without the necessary equipment for such work. His verdict would probably be that much of the teaching of the lower classes of our colleges is inferior in quality to the teaching in the upper classes of the secondary schools in his own country, and that none of the attempts at university work in these colleges is equal to the university work with which he is familiar. He would probably say that of the many institutions known by the name of university in America not more than ten or twelve properly deserve the designation. He would recognize that our universities are only in process of evolution ; and he would have to admit that, while they have accomplished comparatively little as yet, the conditions exist for a bril- liant development in the near future. In a word, taking our educational system as it now exists and com- paring it part by part with that of his own country, this visitor would probably have to say that, speaking generally, it is relatively strongest at the bottom and grows weaker as you approach the top. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the question as to how much truth there may be in such a general verdict;, but it may be remarked in passing that, whatever truth it may contain, it is not wholly uncomplimentary to American education, for it implies that this country has placed the emphasis on the education of the masses, while less demo- cratic countries have placed it on the education of the classes. It may be said, furthermore, that indiscriminate praise of the schools of one's own country is not necessarily patriotism ; it may be blind provincialism, largely the result of ignorance of what other nations are doing. It behooves us, therefore, to view our educational system in the spirit of impartial and impersonal criticism, to discover its weak features, and to devise means for remedying them. I take it that the chairman, in assigning the subject of my paper, had in mind certain defects in our elementary schools which the introduction of the college graduate as teacher may possibly remedy. It is the discus- sion of this very limited subdivision of a large and very interesting ques- tion to which this paper must confine itself. The elementary schools have defects, some of them serious, which are due to causes that cannot be removed by appointing college graduates as teachers. The college graduate in the position of teacher cannot loosen the grip of the politician on our school systems, he cannot increase the appropriations for schools, he cannot build schoolhouses and relieve the overcrowded condition of our schools so as to make it possible to assign to each teacher no more pupils than he can become personally acquainted with within the limits of the school year. Evils which are due to the inferior character of the community, to antiquated organization of the 2 74 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC I A TION [Chicago school board and the school system, or to incompetent or inefficient administration, cannot be remedied by the appointment of the college graduate as teacher. As already stated, the teaching in our primary schools is, relatively speaking, more satisfactory than the teaching in either the grammar schools or the high schools. This is probably due, first, to the fact that the teachers in primary schools are women, are sympathetic with child- hood, and have great native skill in teaching little children. The quali- ties required in a good primary teacher are fortunately common in women. In the second place, it is due to the fact that the scientific study of children, in which our country leads today, has centered more on early childhood than on youth. We know more about the period up to the age of ten than we do of the period of adolescence and of the period immediately preceding it. In the third place, it is due to the fact that our normal schools, almost without exception, are training teachers better for the primary than for the grammar grades. In the section of the country with which I happen to be most familiar it is easier to secure a half-dozen good primary teachers than to find one superior teacher for the upper grammar grades. There are, however, problems in primary education which are altogether beyond the average primary teacher who may be exceedingly skillful and effective in her work as a class-room instructor. These are problems which require a much broader training, a wider outlook, not only upon the first of pedagogy, but also upon the various sciences which have so much to contribute to educational thought today. The academic training of the normal schools is generally neither extensive enough nor thoio enough to equip a teacher to meet these problems. There is need of the college-bred woman in our primary schools, especially in the positions of principal and supervisor, where effective training and direction of subordinates is essential. The teaching in our grammar schools is less satisfactory; indeed, the upper grammar grades are probably the weakest part of our system of elementary schools. Success in teaching in a primary school turns more on good pedagogical training, on sympathy, tact, and an instinctive insight into child nature, than on wide knowledge of the subjects taught, altho the latter is also essential to the highest type of such teaching ; but in the grammar school, especially in the upper classes, thoro scholarship becomes more and more an absolute necessity, and a preparation which might enable a teacher to obtain a fair degree of success in a primary school no longer suffices. Making allowance for marked exceptions here and there, I think it may be said without unfairness that teaching in the better class of gram- mar schools is weak because of a lack of broad scholarship on the part of the teacher. This is especially true of the teaching of such subjects as geography and history. The knowledge which the average grammar- Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 275 school teacher possesses of these subjects is very often limited to a mere text-book knowledge. To teach United States history as it should be taught, the teacher ought to have had, in the first place, careful training in the methods of historical study; he ought to have a clear conception of the social, political, and economic phases of the subject and the rela- tive emphasis that should be placed on each in the instruction in a given grade ; and he ought to have carefully read about all that Parkman, Fisk, and MacMaster have written on history, and be able to draw readily and with judgment on these sources in preparing his lessons from day to day. He should be familiar with English history, and should have at least a text-book knowledge of ancient and modern and European his- tory, not only in order that he may have a sense of proportion, but also in order that he may bring to bear upon American history the many side- lights of modern European history. To teachgeographysuccessfuUyintheupper grammar grades the teacher needs to have a general knowledge of geology, especially that subdivision of it which is commonly called dynamic geology; he must have a knowl- edge of physics and be trained how to apply its principles in the explana- tion of the phenomena of nature. He must have an elementary knowledge of chemistry and astronomy, and, indeed, also of botany and geology. In addition to this, he needs to be somewhat familiar with the social and political life of the most important countries of the present time, and to have a general knowledge of the important features of their commerce and trade. There is a 'rich, popular scientific literature bearing on geography which is entirely unknown to a large number of teachers in our grammar schools, and which some of them have not even the training to read with ease and with pleasure. Altho most of the material which this literature contains cannot be presented to pupils of the grammar-school grade, the teacher should be familiar with it in order that he may have a large reserve of scholarship on which he may draw in his daily class-room instruction. It is only the master that can simplify the elements of a sub- ject and write primers on science; the amateur and the novice fail. Teachers of inferior training live intellectually far too much from hand to mouth, and it is often difficult to interest them in lines of thought and of study which do not have an obvious and direct relation to their pro- fessional daily bread. It is the mark of a liberally trained mind to have many and broad sympathies, and to be interested in truth because it is true and not because it must be taught or can be made to minister to utilitarian ends. In a word, what the teachers in our higher grammar grades need is broader scholarship, broader intellectual interests, more scholarly habits of work, and the power of doing hard intellectual work with ease — a power which is partly the result of training and partly belongs to that inherited capital with which we start out in our intellectual 276 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago life. Someone has said that " stupidity is not acquired, but is an origi- nal endowment of the human mind." The same may be said of that form of genius which has been defined as the capacity for hard work. It may be said with confidence that much of the overwork on the part of teachers and the breaking down of health is due not to the amount of work required of them so much as to their lack of broad training which would have enabled them to do hard work with comparative ease. Now, the college graduate among teachers, as a rule to which there are indeed some marked exceptions, is a person of much broader academic training than the graduate of the normal school ; he is a person of more scholarly habits and is able to do hard intellectual work with greater ease. He is, moreover, a person of broader interests, and has a clearer and a firmer grasp on what he knows. There are several other elements of weakness in the teaching in our grammar schools which nothing but broader scholarship on the part of the teacher can remedy. The teacher in these schools is altogether too much at the mercy of his text-book ; he is the interpreter of a book rather than the teacher of a subject. This is so forcibly true that few superintendents find it practicable to introduce a new study into the cur- riculum unless a suitable text-book on the subject can be found, or to make a course of study which does not more or less have in view the text- books to be used. In many courses of study the text-book is named and the pages to be covered in a given grade indicated. There are, indeed, cities in which the course of study ignores the particular text-books used, but on close examination it will almost invariably be- found that the course is quietly ignored and the text-books are the guides. This lack of intellectual independence on the part of teachers is due to their limited general scholarship and to their limited mastery of the particular matter to be taught. Some of the teaching in our grammar schools lacks that forcefulness and effectiveness which both stimulate and demand work on the part of the pupil. Pupils in these schools could do considerably more work than they are now doing and accomplish it all within school hours, if the teaching were more forceful and energetic. We hear much complaint on the part of parents about overwork in school, but what is really meant by such complaints is not hard work within school hours, but too long hours of work, too many home tasks over which children must spend hours at home which ought to be given to recreation and sleep. Moreover, from an educational point of view the results would be vastly better. Mental growth is not promoted by long hours of dawdling, but by short periods of intense application followed by brief periods of rest and relaxation. If the teaching were what it should be, we could easily double the time now allowed for intermissions, not including the long noon recess, and still accomplish more than we now do and do a higher quality of work. But such teaching requires both native ability and good training. Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 277 Much of the teaching in the average schools is not clear because the teacher has never himself been trained to think clearly; much of it is not consecutive, and points are not clinched, even in cases where they have been made clear ; some of the teaching is aimless, and therefore wasteful of time and of power. Archbishop Whately once said : "If you aim at nothing, you will hit it." This is strikingly true of the teacher's work. The remedy for all this is better training, and perhaps in some cases a higher grade of native ability. The time has long since passed when our normal schools considered themselves the rivals of our colleges ; they have their own distinctive work to do. To say that a good normal school cannot give as thoro academic training as a good college is simply to say tTiat the normal school cannot do the impossible. The best normal schools of our coun- try are fully equal to the best normal schools of any other country, but they could be strengthened materially by the appointment on their corps of teachers of a much larger number of men and women who have had a thoro collegiate and, if possible, university education, in addition to pro- fessional training. In this matter the normal schools of the West are somewhat in advance of those of the East. If the normal schools wish to fit teachers for the higher grammar grades, they must do a somewhat dif- ferent kind of academic work from that which they are now doing. Instead of " reviewing " the so-called common branches " with a view to teaching," and then doing what is virtually high-school work, they must require graduation from a high school as a condition of admission, and then lay the emphasis on the group of sciences which contribute directly to a broad knowledge of grammar-school studies. In short, they must give their students a far more thoro mastery of the matter to be taught and of that related material which forms the necessary reserve scholarship. There is a movement under way in Wales to provide college gradu- ates for all the elementary schools, primary as well as grammar. In the larger cities in this country many college graduates have already found their way into the elementary schools. They have gone into these schools partly from choice and partly from necessity, inasmuch as the number of women graduates from our colleges who wish to teach far exceeds the number of vacant college and high-school positions from year to year. If we wish to demand higher scholarship and broader training of teachers for the grammar schools, especially for the three upper classes, there are a few very practical preliminary steps which we must take. In the first place, we must allow teachers of the upper grammar grades to specialize ; we must not require each teacher to teach all the studies of the curriculum, but rather assign to each a related group of studies which he is especially well qualified to teach. In short, departmental teaching in the upper grammar grades is a necessary condition of any marked 2 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago raising of the standard of teaching in these grades. In the second place, we must increase the salaries of teachers in these grades above those of the lower grammar and primary grades. At this step we shall probably be met by the abstract proposition that the children of the primary schools require as good teaching as those of the grammar schools, and that teachers who do good work in primary grades ought to be paid as much as teachers who do good work in the higher grammar grades. To this it may be replied that such a question cannot be settled on the basis merely of an abstract proposition ; that the law of supply and demand must govern teachers' salaries. The fact is that good primary teachers are far more numerous than good grammar-grade teachers, and, there- fore, on business principles, the larger salaries ought to be paid where there is the greater demand and the smaller supply. Furthermore, we must devise a way of avoiding the payment of uniform salaries in our schools to the teachers of the same grade, of paying the efficient and inefficient alike. In this way it will be possible to get some exceptionally efficient teachers into every grade with comparatively little additional expense, who will serve as a stimulus to the entire corps. The obvious difficulties of carrying out such a policy need not be pointed out to this audience; suffice it to say that they can be overcome in time, and have already been overcome in some of the smaller cities where schools are comparatively free from politics. If, however, we wish to appoint college graduates to positions in ele- mentary schools, we shall be disappointed if we do not insist on their taking at least a year of professional training at a good normal school or a course in pedagogy at a university where there are facilities for practice- teaching. A course in theoretical pedagogy alone will not answer. This is a point which it is somewhat difficult to impress on college professors and on fresh college graduates. There prevails still in the colleges the mistaken belief that a knowledge of the subject-matter is all that is required to enable one to teach it. Many college professors do not real- ize, and others positively deny, that there is or can be a science of educa- tion, and the courage with which fresh college graduates undertake to teach a roomful of boys and girls, who often know far better than such a teacher the difference between good teaching and poor, is both heroic and pathetic. A normal-school graduate, with much less scholarship and even with less native ability, but with good professional training, will do far better teaching at first than a college graduate with no such training. In spite, however, of all that has been said, it is well to bear in mind that a goodly number of the best teachers in our schools have never been either in a college or in a normal school. They are teachers of native ability; they are good students, and gained by practicing for years upon children that knowledge of the art of teaching which we nowadays get by professional study at a normal school. I Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 279 Moreover, there is a large number of graduates of normal schools who are men and women of exceptional ability, who have been close students, and who rank far above the majority of college graduates, both in point of ability and in point of scholarship. Some of these have adorned other professions besides that of teaching. Scholarship can be gained outside of college walls, and it is not wise to make hard and fast rules in regard to college graduates and those who are not college graduates in the appoint- ment of teachers. In a word, if college has gone thru a man, it is not abso- lutely essential that the man should go thru college. Franklin and Wash- ington and Jackson and Lincoln were not graduates of college, nor is Herbert Spencer, the prince of living philosophers: and yet all these have achieved greatness, while there are not a few college graduates who have not yet been heard from. Indeed, it is quite possible to take graduation from a college altogether too seriously, especially in the earlier years of one's graduate life, before one has discovered his specific gravity by con- tact with the world. After all, we must bear in mind that even college graduates belong to that large group of the human race of which the poet sings in plaintive note : Some men are born for great things, And some are born for small, And of some it isn't recorded Why they were born at all. DISCUSSION Superintendent A. B. Poland, Newark, N. J. — I have listened to the paper of Superintendent Balliet with more than usual pleasure and satisfaction. I heartily con- cur in all the views expressed by him as to the desirableness, nay of the necessity, of having more college graduates in our elementary schools. The subject is one of great interest to me. In the city of Newark we appoint college graduates to elementary-school positions, without experience and without examination, accepting the college diploma as a sufficient guarantee of qualifications. It should be said, however, that under our rules an appointee who is not successful can be dropped at any time by the superin- tendent without the formality of going to the board of education to have such action confirmed. Many have been dropped from time to time in this way. Despite this safety valve, however, our practice, I must admit, is open to many serious objec- tions. It makes the schools, that should be maintained solely for the good of the children, a field for trial and experiment. Our schools become practice schools without the saving features of a practice school when maintained, as is usually the case, in con- nection with a normal school. In the latter case the interests of the children are pro- tected by the presence of competent critic-teachers. Whatever let-down in discipline or teaching may result from the employment of unskilled teachers is made up by the superior qualifications of the critic-teachers. When college graduates, as with us, are put in charge of classes, and left to work out their own salvation, it happens, alas, that too many fall by the wayside. To say nothing of the discouragement and positive injury done to the college graduates themselves by being left alone to struggle with their environment, the children are the principal sufferers. I am of the opinion, therefore, 2 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago that, on the whole, our practice is wrong, and that we shall be compelled hereafter to license and appoint no college graduates without previous successful experience or ade- quate professional training. And this leads me to speak briefly on the question of what professional training ought to be required of college graduates. In his paper, read Tuesday morning. Professor Hanus, of Harvard, spoke of teach- ing as a profession. We are safe, then, in calling teaching a profession. Now, to enter any profession, a certain amount of professional training is always requisite. This train- ing can be acquired in two ways, namely, by experience and by education in a profes- sional school. There are a few colleges — I need not name them — that may fairly be considered professional schools for the training of teachers ; but the number is small. I think we made the mistake in Newark — and Dr. Balliet will bear me out on this statement — in not discriminating properly between those colleges that are and those that are not profes- sional training schools for elementary tea,chers. We should have accepted the graduates of some colleges and refused others. There are some colleges that make no claim to be institutions for professional training of any kind. Thus Smith College states in its cata- log : " The college is not intended to fit woman for a particular profession, but to per- fect her intellect so that she may be better qualified to do well her work in life, whatever that work may be." The broad, general culture that an institution such as Smith College gives its graduates is, without doubt, greatly needed in our elementary schools. But is that enough ? Is not something needed besides ? And how shall we get it ? A short time ago I prepared and sent out a letter to twenty graduates of colleges teaching in elementary-school positions in the city of Newark. The letter read : Be good enough to answer, with candor and fullness of detail, the following questions : 1. Did your college training, in anyway, fit you for an elementary teacher? 2. Did your college training fail, in any way, to fit you for an elementary teacher? 3. What can you suggest to improve existing conditions? These letters, as I have stated, were sent to twenty graduates, teachers under my charge, and from the replies received I have collated the following data : Number of replies received 20 Males 3; females 17. Number of colleges represented 14 Among these colleges were Harvard, Yale, Smith, Vassar, Wellesley, Mt. Holyoke, Oberlin, Woman's (Baltimore), etc. Average experience in teacher, 3 J^ years. Principal's record of efficiency, the same being confirmed by supervisors' reports, was as follows : Excellent, equivalent to 90 per cent, to 100 per cent 3 Good, equivalent to 80 per cent, to 90 per cent 6 Fair, equivalent to 70 per cent, to 80 per cent 4 Poor, equivalent to below 70 per cent 7 Total 20 I will read you one of these letters, which is a fair sample of the naivete and candor of them all. It is the letter of a Vassar girl who has the possibility of making an excel- lent teacher : My dear Mr. Poland: My opinions on the questions you put me are based upon the weak foundation of a short personal experience, unaided by discussions with college girls similarly placed, or by any systematic review of the sub- ject. My point of view was not that of fitting myself for a life-work of teaching. Like a great many other college graduates, I was simply trying to keep busy until I could decide upon the work to which I could put my best energy. I taught in the summer school because I am interested in settlement problems, and thought that a little immediate contact with the class involved would outweigh many theories. I asked for substitute work at the high school because some friends at college expressed an unlimited faith in my ability as an inspir- ing and really phenomenal teacher. I was interested in these supposed dormant gifts of mine. Finally I accepted a position in a low grade, because I am interested in little children and like to have them about me. You see my interest in teaching is hardly that of a professional. In answer to your first question, I should say that a college training certainly does not unfit a girl for teaching in elementary schools. The fulfilled aim of a college education, I take it, is so to fit and train the I Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 281 mind that it will be able to turn with quickened faculties to any kind of work, and so to fill the life with ideals that every task will be ennobled by the rays of infinite truth received from delving into academic studies. Of course, as to sending a graduate forth armed with the methods, principles, plans, and schedules for any special line of teaching, or any special school, the college makes no pretense at anything of that sort, I hope, for the sake of education, that it never will. My ignorance of teaching when I first started was supreme. Wordsworth in his " Ode on Immortality " best expresses what I took all children to be. " Trailing clouds of glory" with them, etc. I never dreamed of anything but kind words and sympathy. I was told on the morning of my arrival that I was to have such and such a class. Not another word of help did I have. Here I was without any supplies either mental or material, save filled ink wells and a piazza of cheering children across the alley. The result was a mob. I thought of my course in French Revolution, and in the afternoon I read some of Carlyle's explosives. I had, in my small way, come in contact with the turbulent masses. It was mine to control them for better or for worse. I would hold them with a grip of iron until I could make them love me. I never had any serious trouble with discipline after that morning. My ideals were not far from right after all. The course of study was equally novel to me. As for methods, I hunted about in the dark, and learned by my failures and mishaps. Here I should say, in answer to your second question, that I think it quite unlikely that a college girl will ever start as successfully as a trained hand, who has all the tools and implements ready for work. On the other hand, if you suspend judgment in the beginning, I think you will find that through her broader training, her larger common-sense, and her higher ideals, she can give a deeper insight and a more enduring enthusiasm to her work. She has a richer personality to bring to her children. She has all the varied interests of a per- son of culture. She lives the life of a free man, not the life of a slave to his profession. Don't try to change the broad and unhampered scope of the college program. Don't try to have a col- lege girl perfect from the start. Give her a fair chance. Give her a better chance than she has had. In the three schools in which I taught I was given only the name of the work I was to do, and a free hand to do it. This was not from lack of time on the part of the people above me, because socially they spent more time with me than would ever have been required for the plan I should suggest. Give the inexperienced and absolutely ignorant college beginner a plan of the work she is to do, and a good bibliography of suitable and profitable reading matter. Don't put her into a class without any specific knowledge of where she is to begin and how. Give her a few sample lessons, and earnestly criticise her work. Don't put her into the worst school in the city, and into the worst class there is in that school. Take a little trouble with her in the beginning. I am sure she will be worth it as her work progresses. She will at any rate bring fresh and larger points of view than are possible for a girl who has never left her native city, and has taken up a course in teaching with only a high-school education as the foundation of her intellectual life. It is here that I think a great part of the difficulty lies. Of course, up to this time college girls have not thought of teaching in the lower schools permanently, and have taken up the work only as a stepping-stone to a higher position. You have asked me to speak frankly, I have done so with pleasure. I know that you will understand that I am not speaking with any feeling about the way I was treated. I have always met with friendliness personally. I had to hide the fact of my being a college girl under a cloak, however, and that is not the right way. I am speaking with a special thought of the college girls who will succeed me, and especially of those to whom it means a living. Their ability ought to be properly valued. A fair and proper start means a great deal. Very sincerely yours, February 17, 1902. Coming now to the letters received : In reply to the first question, " Did your college training fit you in any way for an elementary teacher ? " the following replies were made : yes, 16 ; no, 4. By those who answered "Yes" the following specifications were made : Afforded me a broader general culture 8 Gave me a deeper insight into life, etc 4 Trained to greater versatility and adaptability 5 Developed originality of thought and action 2 Cultivated sense of proportion 2 Gave me power to grasp essential meaning of studies 2 Developed my judgment and reasoning powers 3 Enlarged the horizon of experience 5 Created higher ideals of aim and conduct 2 Produced a deeper and richer personality 2 Developed general resourcefulness for emergencies 3 Produced greater polish of manners i Inspired deeper purpose and joy in life i Granting, as I believe we may, that all the foregoing statements are true, they show conclusively that real benefits are derived from a college training. 282 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago As 1 have said, there were four who answered the foregoing question in the nega- tive. These specified as follows : Alienated me from children and children's interests 40 Developed a positive dislike for elementary teaching 3 Served, by bad models, to fix bad habits of teaching 3 Made me feel above teaching little children 3 In the answers above, brief as they are, we have, I think, the satisfactory explana- tion of the causes of failure of many college graduates when such graduates begin elementary teaching with neither experience nor professional training. In answer to the second question, " Did your college training fail in any way to fit you completely for an elementary teacher ?" the following replies were received : Did not help me to discipline .. 8 Left me ignorant of elementary-school studies 10 Afforded me no opportunity for child study 10 Gave me no knowledge of methods 9 Taught me no pedagogical principles 5 Developed tendency to soar above heads of children 5 Gave me no chance to specialize rightly 2 Failed in a practical way i Led me to expect too much of children ; 2 Emphasized "pouring in " process 4 Taught subjects, not pupils i Made me impatient of children's stupidity ... i Gave no knowledge of general details of teaching 2 I submit to you that the above is a pretty just estimate of the shortcomings of the average college as a professional training school for teachers. It is a judgment, at any rate, passed upon college training, not by a superintendent of schools, not by Mr. Balliet, for instance, nor myself, but by those who had enjoyed it and suffered from it. In reply to my inquiry, " What can you suggest to improve existing conditions ?" I got the following replies : A college training should be supplemented by college settlement or other similar experience. 5 Should offer elective courses in pedagogy, including methods 14 Should give opportunity for child study 5 Graduates should attend normal school at least one year 4 Colleges should give less lecture instruction with stereotyped form of questions 2 On the other hand, the elementary schools Should try college graduates in small classes at first 2 Should pay more attention to culture and less to mechanical work ; 2 Work in lower grades should be specialized 3 Fewer subjects should be required of college graduates 2 Should have less fussiness and less insistence on petty details 3 The foregoing is by no means a complete summary of the suggestions made, but will indicate the general trend. One thing, at least, stands out with great prominence as the result of this study, and that is the general realization on the part of these graduates of colleges that they had, upon graduation, something yet to learn in order to teach success- fully in our elementary schools. I have sometimes thought that the greatest difficulty of the college graduate, on beginning to teach in an elementary school, is "to find"' himself. His college training leaves him bewildered, confused, distracted, when put back again into the presence of children, and face to face with the problems of the elementary school. He finds his horizon has somehow grown marvelously smaller. Instead of the boundless horizon toward which he has been straining his eyes for four years or more, he is now required to limit his field of vision to immediate child interests and the definite ends of primary teach- ing. To reverse the telescope that has been trained so long upon the starry skies, and to fix the gaze upon the uninteresting surroundings of a primary schoolroom — alas, how distressful to the ambitious graduate ! In this bewildered and discouraged state of mind, I Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 283 the college graduate, teaching for the first time in an elementary school, turns somewhere for help. Naturally he first seeks to recall his own experiences as a pupil. But these experiences have been dimmed by the intervening years since he was a pupil of an elementary school. He finds little to help him there. Then he turns to the course of study; but this, as a rule, is too general to afford him much aid. He is too proud to ask assistance of his associate teachers — graduates, perhaps, of a normal school. Possibly the principal may come to his rescue, but this is not always the case. There are princi- pals who assist drowning teachers and others who do not. It is more than likely that the despairing college graduate will turn to his alma mater and to his more recent, and hence better-remembered, experiences for solace and guidance. But the lecture system so prevalent in colleges, the method of text-book study and memoriter recitations so generally in vogue, these are bad models for him to follow. The "pouring in" process is now begun, the graduate talks over the heads of his pupils, and the irrepressible conflict goes henceforth unhappily on. It is only after weeks and months, sometimes years, of the most painful experience that the college graduate at last " finds " himself and emerges from this chaos of bewilderment and defeat. He has been getting his normal-school training. How much better to have got it before he started to teach ! This is the point I wish especially to make. The teacher who began teaching without previous technical training is in exactly the same position as the graduate of medicine who begins his practice without any previous clinical experience. In the case of the medical graduate, however, he is not likely to have at the outset many patients to practice on. But the college graduate that becomes an elementary teacher is put at once into full practice, that is to say, into charge of a full- sized class of pupils to discipline and instruct. But what is the end of all this ? In my judgment superintendents should not be asked or expected to take college graduates into the elementary schools until after some preliminary training to fit them for elementary teaching. But where shall this prelimi- nary professional training be got — in the college or in the normal school ? That is for the colleges themselves to say. Unless the colleges, by postgraduate or other courses, furnish adequate and satisfactory professional training, both theoretical and practical, we must turn, much as I regret it, to the normal schools exclusively for our supply of properly trained elementary teachers. Superintendent Eugene Bouton, Pittsfield, Mass. — The plan of requiring college graduates to get practice before they enter the grades is a good one, but where the salaries are small these grades would be deprived of the services of college graduates. It seems to me that the presence of some college graduates in a corps of teachers is desirable, even if their technical training is not altogether perfect at the beginning. In the small town, special training was given to college graduates and normal graduates before they entered the regular work. The superintendent placed them in this special training class until vacancies might occur. Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb, Lowell, Mass. — The normal school is not the only possible place to get practice for teaching. In our own city we have such an apprentice school ; in the present class of that school one-third are college graduates. We pay these young ladies three hundred dollars a year while they are serving the apprenticeship. Under this training they have usually made very satisfactory teachers before the close of the year. Superintendent William F. Slaton, of Atlanta. — I have heard of no city managing as we manage in Atlanta. I believe we have a good plan. We have there supernumerary teachers. I have been superintendent there twenty-three years, and we have tried various plans. Occasionally we have made failures, but the plan of the last five years has been a success. We elect without pay for this list of supernumeraries. There is a special teacher for the eighth grade ; there is also a supernumerary teacher who 2«4 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fChicago is a graduate of a high school. We have twenty-three grammar schools. The super- numerary is required to teach two years before being eligible to election. If she has had two years' experience elsewhere or has taken two years in a normal school, or one year in a normal and has taken the professional examination, she may be elected. The ques- tion is asked why do we not pay her. I answer by asking : " Why do you not pay your students in the normal school ?" She is getting an education, as is the case of the college student. Last year I was in a town school, and one of the teachers said she wanted to come to Atlanta. She said that one of her recommendations was that she never went to a normal school. She said that the normal schools placed their students like cogs in a wheel, and she wanted to go to Atlanta instead and serve as a supernumerary. There she could have training given by twenty-two experienced teachers. Grade meetings are called by u.^ normal schools, and they meet every Saturday for discussions. State Superintendent Fall, of Michigan. — We have in our state a law which permits colleges to incorporate into their course a limited normal training course ; because of that fact they are authorized to grant a probationary certificate, good for four years, which after successful experience becomes a life certificate. The real reason for my speak- ing is that I see improvement coming to the teachers in the colleges. I have noticed in the colleges a lack of willingness to discuss pedagogical problems ; here in the presence of a large body of students preparing to teach, the college faculty must recognize the importance of training to ieach. H. R. Sanford, state institute conductor, New York. — I wish to answer for the state superintendent of New York, in his absence. We have sixteen cities in each of which is located a training school, admission to which is on a high-school or a college diploma. We have ninety smaller schools in the villages, where the admission is not so high. We have thirteen colleges whose diplomas lead to state certificates. I should like to hear from Principal Downing. A. S. Downing, principal of New York Training School for Teachers. — The sixteen cities mentioned by Dr. Sanford are not supported by the state, but are under the pro- visions of a state law, which says that no one shall be allowed to teach in a city employ- ing a superintendent unless he shall be a graduate from a high school, and subsequently have had three years' successful experience in teaching, and have graduated from a train- ing school with a course of not less then thirty-eight weeks. No city can employ any primary or grammar-grade teachers not having such qualifications. The state contributes a dollar per week per capita for each pupil during the thirty-eight weeks. The city of Buffalo pays for the support of its training school many times what it receives from the state, and the city of New York supports two training schools, one in Brooklyn and the other in New York, and pays very many times what the state contributes. The main proposition is one of the very greatest interest to us. The mistake is, it seems to me, in the lack of encouragement from the college men and women to the graduates who go into the elementary-school work ; and there has come into the mind of the college graduates the idea that it is discreditable to work in the elementary grades of either city or village schools. It seems to me that it should be pointed out to them that the field in which they can accomplish the most good is in the primary and grammar schools. In New York city a regulation now exists that to teach drawing, for instance, the person must be a college graduate. It is almost impossible to find a candidate for that position, because drawing has been a subject largely taught in the elementary schools, and it is almost impossible to find a woman who has thought it worth while to take her college course to prepare to teach drawing in the grades. When it comes to the question of methods in music, that is also an elementary-school subject, and you will find very few who have devoted their time to methods of teaching music to children. I regretted to hear the statement made that no college graduates could be employed in a certain city Superintendence] COLLEGE GRADUATES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS unless certain conditions be complied with. Take the college graduate without examina- tion ; select that graduate who appears to have the spirit of a teacher and assign her to a grade as a temporary teacher, or whatever you may please to call her, and require her to do work in the training class, and encourage her to come to that city. Say to her: " We do not expect you to be a good teacher at the beginning, but we will help you to become a good teacher." In a training school in New York city only three years old we have had and are now having graduates taking the full three-years' course. If they are able to do the work in theory in less than a year and a half, we will let them, at the end of a year, have two and a half dollars a day for ladies, three dollars for men, for substitute work. Until they have demonstrated to the satisfaction of the faculty after one and a ^half years of observation that they are endowed with the spirit of a teacher, and have the ability to maintain discipline while conducting their work, they can never get their names on the eligible list in the city of New York. I believe, on the main question, that it is really time that something be done, not to discourage, but to encourage, college graduates to take up the work of teaching in the elementary schools. Superintendent William J. M. Cox, Moline, III. — I should like to ask some of the superintendents who have had experience whether, in their judgment, it is wise for a city to support a training school of, say, one or two instructors, into which high-school graduates are taken, and where they have pure methods of teaching during a year or a year and a half, and then fill the places of grade teachers with these students, where col- lege graduates cannot be employed. E. O. SissoN, Bradley Institute, Peoria, 111. — A good deal has been said about dififi- culty in getting practice-teaching. We all got that, and the majority of us here never had normal training. The question is not so much of getting practice-teaching as observation and consultation. The opportunity to look upon a skillful teacher's work as the medical student looks upon the work of a skillful operator is what we need. Then, after the class is over, we need the opportunity to ask the skillful teacher why he did this, and thus come to an understanding of the processes he employed. Principal Downing. — The gentleman is right, but the difficulty is that the method to which he refers lacks educational value. By this method the work done by the critic- teacher resolves itself into mere criticism of a subject taught by the student-teacher. Students in our training schools are obliged to do systematic work in answering questions, etc., for an interval of one hundred hours during the period for the study of theory and practice. A number of questions are given them touching the construction of the course of study. The course of study is then taken up from the standpoint of the child. Stu- dents are led to discover what the child should know upon his entering the recitation. When student-teachers are prepared to answer questions touching the foregoing topics, they have some knowledge of how to proceed in the schoolroom. Dr. E. E- White, Columbus, O. — ^The questions put by several superintendents regarding the kind of work being done in a number of training schools have caused me to wonder whether or not the work of the real training school is as helpful as it ought to be. The training school should avoid making the teacher a mere follower. I know of some training schools in Ohio that are extremely mechanical — mere machine makers; but I am pleased to note that these are not in the majority. I have in mind a training school in Cincinnati that is not a mechanical school. Here methods are outlined, and teachers are not merely prepared to imitate their instructors, but are grounded in the principles underlying the best methods of school instruction. When a teacher has become thus indoctrinated, she will go into the schoolroom and work out her own views with soul and spirit in her work. I would not, if 1 could, prescribe a method for a teacher. The teacher must determine the method she can use most successfully. There is a tendency in some training schools to conform too much to patterns — mere copy work. No teacher who follows a pattern can touch a human soul. Teachers ^^6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago are not always to blame for doing this mechanical work. They are often discredited because the principal happens to be a pattern-man. The teacher who teaches her own ideas under proper limitations will grow and become strong; she will not fail to touch human souls — human lives. The college gives knowledge and technical principles of teaching. The college can not be a real training school. It may be a help to those who are seeking higher places. THE PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN WALTER B. HILL, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, ATHENS,'gA. A German philosopher has said : " Humor is the eudaemonological pessimism which includes within itself a teleological evolutionary opti- mism, which may cause a realistic, radical, and universal reconciliation to appear as possible." This quotation, encountered in some piece of fugitive literature, I have not attempted to trace or to identify, but it sounds suspiciously like Hegel. In this connection, and for a purpose which does not immedi- ately appear, but which, I trust, will be made apparent in the sequel, I here reproduce (without implying approval) Schopenhauer's estimate of Hegel : In our German philosophy intellectual intuition and absolute thinking have now taken the place of clear perceptions and honest investigations. To impose upon the reader, to bewilder and mystify him, and by all sorts of contrivances throw dust in his eyes — that is our method now; that, and not truth, is the expositor's leading aim. In consequence of this, philosophy, if we are still to call it so, could not but sink into ever lower depths, till at last the lowest stage of degradation was reached by Hegel, who, to stifle again the freedom of thought won by Kant, turned philosophy, the daughter of reason and future mother of truth, into an instrument of obscurantism and protestant Jesuitism, but in order to hide the disgrace, and at the same time stupefy men's brains to the utmost, drew over her a veil of the emptiest verbiage and most senseless hodge-podge ever heard out of Bedlam. Schopenhauer's account of our subject is more in accordance with the commonly received definitions than the one first above given. In Welt ah Wille (I, sec. 13) he says : Laughter never arises from anything else than a suddenly recognized incongruity between the conception and the real object that in some respect or other has been thought through it, and is in itself simply an expression of this incongruity. The greater, the more unexpected in the apprehension of the laugher this incongruity is, the more violent will be the laugh. WHY THE SUBJECT IS CHOSEN The fitness of this topic for the consideration of educators does not require to be vindicated. More trouble comes to those who are in charge of the training of youth, especially to those responsible for discipline, from what is called mischief or fun than from any other source. College presidents, school superintendents, and teachers would sleep sounder and SupcrintendenceJ PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 387 breathe easier if they could take out a policy of insurance against out- breaks of this nature. It is not reassuring to find in the replies to the questionnaire sent out by Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Mr. Arthur Allin that, among the things specified in the highest percentage as amusing, were these : a goose placed in a teacher's seat and pins stealthily inserted in teachers' chairs. There is this striking difference between the offenses with which the administrator of discipline has to deal : if they spring from fun, then, no matter how disorderly or troublesome be the case, it is considered by the culprit a complete defense to say that the act was done "just for a joke," while, for an act done otherwise, it would never occur to the offender to plead that the act was done "just for anger" or "just for spite." "Just for fun" seems to rule out of consideration all reference to the moral law. When a noted politician said some years ago that the Ten Commandments and the golden rule had no place in politics, he expressed about politics what is generally accepted as true, especially by the young, about whatever is done in the name or under the plea of mirth or mischief. Charles Lamb has suggested that the leading element in the enjoyment of certain forms of comedy consists in the fact that they free us from the burden of our habitual moral consciousness. Those whom Kipling calls "grown ups " are, in this respect, but children of larger growth. One purpose of the present paper is to draw attention to this claim of exemption on the part of fun from the moral law, and to point out some of its consequences. ORIGINS The topic must first be genetically treated. It is necessary to admit at the outset that the sources of this Nile remain undiscovered. So little is definitely known on the subject that in the ordinary manuals or text- books on psychology the topic is wholly ignored. Hall and Allin {^American Journal of Psychology , Vol. VIII, No. 40) say : "We are persuaded that all current theories [on the subject of the psychosis of laughter] are utterly inadequate and speculative, and that there are few more promising fields for psychological research." Of their own work, the first under- taken in accordance with modern methods, they say: "It is so inadequate to the vast and hitherto unsuspected complexity of the subject that it can hardly claim to be more than notes calling attention to the need for further detailed work." Accepting these statements as coming from high authority, the present paper, whatever may be its faults, will at least be free from that of dogmatism. Let the mind run over the list of words suggestive of this subject : banter, blithe, burlesque, caricature, chaff, comic, derision, drollery, frolic, fun, glee, grotesque, hilarity, humor, irony, jeer, jest, joke, jovial, ludi- crous, merriment, mirth, mockery, quip, quirk, pleasantry, raillery, rally, retort, repartee, ridicule, sarcasm, sardonic, satire, scoff, sncile, sneer. 288 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago sport, tease, taunt, travesty, wag, wit, whimsical. These words have set the consciousness traveling in brain-paths of very different directions, some pleasant, some painful. We find Sidney Smith saying in one place that wit and humor are "the oil of life," given to man to "charm his pained steps over the burning marl ; " in another place we find him saying : " I wish, after all I have said about wit and humor, that I could satisfy myself of their good effect upon the character and disposition, but I am convinced that the probable tendency of both is to corrupt the under- standing and the heart." Can the same fountain send forth waters both bitter and sweet ? Can philosophy penetrate thru this diversity to unity ? Or must we not seek diverse origins for effects so variant ? ANIMAL EXHILARATION Beginning with the animals, the better opinion seems to be that some- thing akin to human laughter may be observed in their antics, pranks, and capers. If the motion of the head has given us one of our names for the "wag," why may it not be true that the dog laughs with the wag of his tail ? A young colt driven out of a pasture, if not too closely pressed, will approach the gate as if about to dart thru it, when he will sud- denly wheel and scamper off to the remotest end of the field, and then return to the gate in a mad run, wheel again, repeating the sport until he is forced thru the gate or becomes tired of the frolic. This is pure animal spontaneity expressing itself in a way that is pleasurable and sug- gestive of glee. Children seem to possess an enormous over-provision of stored -up activity or innate animal spirits, and laughter is one vent or safety valve for this exuberance. In adults the same feeling is the physi- cal exhilaration of realizing existence as a joy, which comes to all healthy natures when out of doors. Now, one invariable characteristic of this exhilaration, especially when felt in a high degree of intensity, is the feel- ing of power, of exaltation, and (lacking a better word) expansiveness. It is physical megalomania. He is not to be envied who has not felt in such moods that He could vault over a mountain or leap the gorge at Niagara, or get the best of a mogul engine in a head-end collision. Now, if physical vitality supplies this enjoyment in "these degenerate days," how much more intense and thrilling must the same sensation have been in the "good old days" of animal development unhampered by civiliza- tion ; when the human foot, for instance, before it had been shut away from the fresh air for centuries in bandages of cloth and the strait- jacket of leather, might know the joy of the elastic spring in the dance or the leap, which was one of the natural manifestations of this physical ecstasy. Is not provision here made in this feeling of power, exhilara- tion, and expansiveness for association of ideas between merriment, on the one hand, and extravaganza and exaggeration, on the other ? May not the partial truth of Hobbes' theory lie at this point, that " laughter is a Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 289 sudden glory arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in our- selves," etc., which Bain interprets thus {^Mental Science, 316): "In other words, it is an expression of a pleasurable feeling of superior power." Is this, in part, the "freedom or caprice of subjectivity" which Dr. Baldwin gives as a summary of the theories of Schlegel, Schelling, and Hegel ? Burlesque is one of the earliest forms of the comic. Children relish Gulliver's Travels without a thought of the ulterior satire intended by the Brobdignags; and probably such scenes as those in which Pantagruel combs cannon balls out of his hair as he walks off the battlefield have afforded enjoyment to readers who never troubled themselves with the interpretation of Rabelais. It is said that the witticism which produced more laughter than any ever heard in the House of Commons was that of Sir William Windham, who exclaimed to an audience familiar with the slow movements of the English court of chancery: "Talk of taking Ant- werp with thirty thousand men and twenty ships of the line by a coup de main! Good God, sir, you might as well talk of a coup de main in the court of chancery!" The wit lies in the hyperbole. Exaggeration is said by so good an authority as the late S. S. Cox to be the chief characteristic of American humor. It is illustrated by the patriotic geographer who said that America is " bounded on the north by the aurora borealis ; bounded on the east by the history of the past ; bounded on the south by the torrid zone; and bounded on the west by the day of judgment." The explanation here attempted may be, and doubtless is, inadequate. The only suggestion is that the explanation finally accepted must have the merit of accounting thru a pleasurable association, amiable in its tend- ency, for those forms of wit and humor which in their origin could hardly be kindred to the sources of satire, sarcasm, irony, jeers, raillery, ridicule, and all those forms of the ludicrous which are impossible without a vic- tim. These types of wit and humor will now require attention. IS CRUELTY THE SOURCE ? George Eliot says in her essay on Heine that probably the enjoy- ment of the ludicrous is a development of the savage delight in witnessing torture inflicted on an enemy. She recognizes, however, the possibility that the pleasure thus derived may be refined and sublimated so as to lose all trace of its origin ; for in her Choir Invisible the prayer for impersonal immortality runs (in part): May I reach that purest Heaven, Enkindle generous ardor, feed pure love, Beget the smiles that have no cruelty, etc. While George Eliot's theory is inadequate as an explanation of the whole subject, it deserves consideration ; for George Eliot was a psychologist in the same sense that Shakespeare was a psychologist. In what, then, do savages delight that bears resemblance to the modern enjoyment of the ludicrous? 290 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The American Indian was a taciturn creature, but he relished taking the scalp of his foe, making his captive run the gauntlet, or writhe at the stake. The Roman populace enjoyed the humiliation of the enemy in the spectacle of the triumph, and reveled in the bloody gladiatorial com- bats. The Mexican and Spaniard of today are entertained by the bull- fight, and if a luckless toreador is landed on the horns of the infuriated bull, it is "great sport." How easy it is to translate these forms of sav- age or semi-civilized amusement into modern conceptions ! Beginning with the last illustration, what is it but a refinement of the same cruelty when we delight to see one disputant "impale another on the horns" of a dilemma ? What will so quickly crowd the galleries of the Senate as the announcement that there is to be a "tilt" between two sharp-tongued senators; and what is such a scene except a gladiatorial combat on an intellectual arena? When a mob jeers or taunts some unpopular person- age, what is the ordeal but his running a gauntlet where invective and sarcasm take the place of tomahawks ? When in repartee or retort the victor glows with satisfaction in beholding the confusion and shame of his conquered antagonist, what is this but a more refined gloating over the writhings of an enemy at the stake ? When on one occasion a small boy, under pretense of throwing a bouquet to an undergraduate speaker on the stage at commencement, aimed at the head of a pompous trustee and knocked off his wig, did there not dangle from his belt a veritable scalp ? What was the West Point hazing but modified barbarism ? What is a practical joke, in its roughest form, but unmitigated savagery ? As the former theory found some support in Hobbes' account of the subject, the present contention is sustained by the partial truth embodied in Bain's definition. He says: "The occasion of the ludicrous is the degradation of some person or interest possessing dignity in circum- stances that excite no other strong emotion." Bain cites in support of this Quintilian : " A saying that causes laughter .... is never honor- able to the subject of it." He does not cite a still more pointed para- graph in Cicero, De Oratore, as follows : As regards humor, there are five points to be examined : what it is ; whence it is ; whether it is the orator's part to wish to raise a laugh ; how far ; what are the classes of humor. And that first, what the laugh is, how it is aroused, where it is, how it starts and breaks out so suddenly that we cannot restrain it when we would, and how it seizes on the sides, the mouth, the face, the eyes, all at the same time — let Democritus see to it. For it has nothing to do with the discussion ; and if it did I should still not be ashamed not to know, because even those who profess to know do not. Now the ground and, so to say, the region of the ridiculous lies in some baseness or deformity. For the sole or principal things which are laughed at are those which mark and point out, but not in a base way, some baseness. A little negro bootblack picked up on the sidewalk the stump of a cigar and, walking into a store, politely said to the proprietor: "Mister, please gimme a match." " Get out; we don't give away matches to trash Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 291 like you," was the reply. The little gamin walked out, earned another nickel by a shine, returned to the store, bought a box of matches and lit his treasure trove. He then handed the box back to the proprietor with the remark : "Please put that box on the shelf, and next time a gen'l'man axes you for a match, give him one out of my box." We enjoy seeing the impolite adult degraded to his true position below the level of the street arab in the qualities of a gentleman. On one occasion Douglass Jerrold saw a pompous magnifico walking on the other side of the street. He walked over and said to the impersonation of importance and dig- nity: " Pray, sir, I would like to know if you are anybody in particular." J. L. Ford, as quoted by Hall and Allin, says : Careful study of the work turned out by professional joke-makers reveals the fact that fully nine-tenths of their humor is founded on the simple idea of disaster or misfor- tune. Nearly all primitive humor is founded on this simple idea. In the English panto- mime, in which many of the most ancient forms of jest are so firmly imbedded that they are in as fine a condition today as they were under the reign of the Merrie Monarch, all the fun depends upon indignities heaped upon the different characters. For a great many years nearly all our national humor had for its foundation the mother-in-law, the goat, the stove-pipe, and the banana-peel. Heine, lying on his "mattress grave" in a delirium of wit, transferred this conception of the enjoyment of suffering in true anthropomorphic fashion to the divine being : What avails it me that enthusiastic youths and maidens crown my marble bust with laurel when the withered hands of an aged nurse are pressing Spanish flies behind my ears ? What avails it me that all the roses of Shiraz glow and waft incense for me ? Alas ! Shiraz is two thousand miles from the Rue d'Amsterdam, where, in the weari- some loneliness of my sick-room, I get no scent, except it be, perhaps, the perfume of warmed towels. Alas ! God's satire weighs heavily on me. The great author of the universe, the Aristophanes of heaven, was bent on demonstrating with crushing force to me, the little, earthly, German Aristophanes, how my wittiest sarcasms are only pitiful attempts at jesting in comparison with his, and how miserably I am beneath him in humor, in colossal mockery. A kindly commentator says of this : It is not for us to condemn who have never had the same burden laid on us. It is- not for pigmies at their ease to criticise the writhings of the Titan chained to the rock. Since this paper is not scientific in aim, but has a practical purpose, it may be well to establish by further considerations the anti-social nature of the ludicrous, the ultimate object being to make an argument that our homiletics — in the pulpit, press, and schoolroom — should endeavor to bring about a moralization of wit and humor. MORALIZATION OF MIRTH I. The testimony of language. Talleyrand has said : " Language is the wisdom of everybody." Words are composite photographs of myriads of individual mental images. Whence, then, comes our vocabulary when we describe the various types of wit and humor ? Usually from the meta- phors of weapons, warfare, and combat. We say of wit that it is keen ; 292 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago that its blade is sharp or trenchant ; a jest is cutting ; if successful, it scores a hit ; and the one word to be applied in common to all the " thousand shapes wit wears " is point. Now, the function of a point is to stick into something, and the process of puncture is usually painful and most frequently malevolent. When we abandon the metaphors sug- gested by arrows, swords, and spears,. we resort to such terms as bitter, caustic, stinging, blistering, excoriating, etc. Arguments from etymology are peculiarly liable to error, but some suggestions of painful or cruel physical processes are probably indicated in the origin of various terms now in question. Dean Swift says of " banter " : " This polite word of theirs was first borrowed from the bul- lies in White Friars." Its local meaning in the United States is the chal- lenge to fight or race, and hence the contest itself. In " jeer " there is a suggestion of shearing the fool. In " rail " is a suggestion of scraping or grating. "Sarcasm " is from a-apKa^o), "to tear the flesh," then " to bite the lips," then " to speak bitterly or sneer." By popular etymology the idea of sarcasm as biting to others may have been thus derived. 2. All the phenomena of repartee and retort and (acrimonious) debate tend to show that wit is a species of warfare. In the freedom of invec- tive in the Irish House of Commons a century ago, Mr. Martin, of Galway, said of Mr. Ponsonboy, at a time when he knew that Ponsonboy's sister, one of the most beautiful women in Dublin, was in the gallery : " Mr. Speaker, these Ponsonboys are the plague of the nation. They are infamous personally and politically, from the toothless old hag now grinning in the gallery to the white-livered scoundrel that shivers on the floor." It is not a far cry from such brutality back to Sparticus on the bloody sands. For a modern instance, let Mr. Blaine's tilt with Mr. Conkling suffice. Someone had said that the mantle of Henry Winter Davis had fallen on Mr. Conkling. Mr. Blaine said the comparison was a profanation — " Thersites to Hercules, Hyperion to a satyr, mud to marble, a whining puppy to a roaring lion, a singed cat to a Bengal ' tiger." And to this very day a certain senatorial " pitchfork " is the chief attraction of the galleries and the prime favorite of sensational reporters. Of how few debaters possessing wit can it be said as of Canning : His wit in the combat as gentle as bright Ne'er carried a heart stain away on its blade. Schopenhauer's hot blast against Hegel was introduced in the begin- ning of this paper as a test. Was it amusing in its ferocity? If so, we are ready for the Q.E.D. A writer in the Cornhill Magazine, May, 1876, says : Of the current jests half owe their merit to their inhumanity. Look at any of the current stories of Douglass Jerrold, who passed for a humorist in these later days. Every recorded jest of his that 1 have seen is a gross incivility made palatable by a pun. The substance of each phrase is, " You are a fool ; " the art consists in so wrapping the inso- lence in a play of words that the hearers laugh, and the victim is deprived of sympathy. Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 293 " It was your father, then, who was not so handsome," is one of Talleyrand's brilliant retorts to a man who spoke of his mother's beauty. What is this but to say, " You are an ugly beast," and yet to evade the legitimate resentment of the sufferer ? Talleyrand, visiting at the bedside of someone quite ill, asked the patient how he was. " I am suffering," was the reply, ** the tortures of the damned." " What," said Talleyrand, " already ! " 3. Strong corroboration of the argument is found in the case of chil- dren. Hall and Allin state that the returns to their questionnaire abound in instances of childish glee over all sorts of deformity, suffering, and calamity. In perverted cases this normal mirth rises into the heartless- ness of the little girl who danced over a comrade's grave, and of two little boys, aged nine and eleven, who, after witnessing scenes of butch- ery one day, killed, dressed, and quartered their baby sister, imitating with great delight the details they had seen. The advanced proofs of the second volume of Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Pedagogy enable me to cite an opinion more charitable to human nature. Under the article " Malevolence," Professor Sorley says : It is interesting to ask whether there is not an sesthetic factor in malevolence, as there is in most benevolence and sympathy. There can be no doubt that many of the actions ordinarily ascribed to malice are better explained from the elements of play and of the comic involved in the production of grotesque and unusual situations It may be the writhings and not the pain of the pinned-down insect that interests. The present writer would prefer to believe this rather than what he does believe, but do not our recollections of experiments in infancy with pins and insects candidly force us into the position of the old lady who said that, no matter what other doctrines she gave up, she intended still to hold on to her original depravity? The difference of opinion suggests that kindergarten experts and all those interested in child study should pursue the investigation for which Hall and Allin's circular of inquiry blazes out the way. 4. The child of the preceding paragraph is but the father to the man in this. To laugh with those who weep is a gross perversion of scriptural teaching, but joy in the calamity of others {Schadenfreude) is one of the deep, dark secrets in the soul of man. There are secrets of this char- acter that remind us of the French saying : " But for sleep men would die of self-contempt." Why is it that grotesque and wanton images present themselves in the minds of holiest saints at the moment of intensest devotion ? Who has not confessed with shame his conscious- ness of the half-truth in Rochefoucauld's maxim: "There is something in the misfortunes of our best friends which does not more than half displease us"? Who has not witnessed the disappointment on the face of those who inquire about the condition of someone, long expected to die, when they learn that the denouement has not come ? Hall and Allin on this painful subject say : 394 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Not a few of our correspondents confess, with genuine abasement, that, interlinked with the strong feeling of grief at the sickness and death of their friends, there is an under- current of satisfaction and even joy, which sometimes makes them feel that their sorrow, though tearful, is superficial and hypocritical It is sad to reflect upon the results of honest introspection and careful self-analysis upon this subject. Milder phases of this Schadenfreude are perhaps to be found in the following groups : {a) Enjoyment of ludicrous epitaphs which bulk large in every collection of jokes, {b) The cruel wit of quietism, said to have been begun in 2 Chron. 16:12, 13: "And in the thirty and ninth year of his reign King Asa was diseased in his feet ; his disease was exceeding great ; yet, in his disease he sought not to the Lord, but to the physicians. And Asa slept with his fathers." In modern newspaper forms this species appears in such paragraphs as the following : "A ser- vant kindled a fire with naptha and has benzine no more." [c) Mirth at funerals. In this case the merriment need not be ascribed to any pleas- ure in the sorrow of the mourners, but it sufficiently illustrates the point to say that sympathy for grief is not strong enough to repress the risi- bilities. Perhaps the rebound, or relief from tension, may be a large factor in the true explanation. Whatever be the theory, the ghastly fact remains. One such instance occurred as follows: It is known in the local community as the comic funeral. It was the burial of a noted wag, whom we will call Mr. Yorick in order to disguise the setting of the story. The pallbearers, according to local custom, were walking beside the hearse. The first carriage was filled with the tearful wife and chil- dren of the deceased. Unfortunately one of the pallbearers raised the question what was the best joke the dead man had ever perpetrated. This called out several enlivening reminiscences, and soon, to their horror, the pallbearers found themselves in a shake. The electric cur- rent of wit passed down the procession, and soon dozens of men were laid out along the roadside in spasms of inextinguishable laughter. 5. Our estimate of the funny man may be adduced to support the preceding considerations. Woe to him who, combining wit and wisdom, suffers himself to acquire a reputation for the former ! Sidney Smith could not be a bishop. Thomas Corwin was a great man, but people refused to take him seriously. But the discount on the man of wit relates to character even more than intellect ; he is regarded as heartless. Those who laugh at his jokes upon others feel that when their backs are turned their turn will come. Southey says didactically: A man renowned for repartee Will seldom scruple to make free With friendship's finest feelings. Pascal flatly says: "Diseur de bons mots mauvais caractere." 6. Hitherto the argument has sought to illustrate the evolution of the ludicrous from the cruel, but the practical joker with his brutalities has undergone no development. He is a genuine, original, unadulterated Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 295 savage. Not infrequently we read in the press dispatches of persons frightened to death by such barbarism, and occasionally of some student who goes to his death in a mock initiation. Hall and Allin say: The cheap comedy shows us how the practical joke, banished from the cultivated classes where it formerly held sway, still prevails among the lowly as it does among sav- ages and children in a raw and more flaying form. The greater the discomfiture or even the pain, the madder and more furious the fun. Our survey of the subject up to this point has shown that there are some forms of wit and humor which are so amiable and harmless as to suggest that they spring from the pleasure of pure animal spontaneity; while others are so malevolent as to give plausibility to the theory that they are derived from savage delight in witnessing torture. This latter proposition it has been sought to make good by argument and clear by illustration, because of the practical corollaries to be deduced from it. If there are smiles that would not mar an angel's brow and others that befit only the faces of fiends, there is ample warrant for the proposition that ethical standards should be applied, and that the plea of "just for fun " should no longer be permitted to cover a multitude of sins. Chil- dren learn at an early age the principle of the limitation of individual liberty. It can usually be fixed in the mind by the epigrammatic state- ment, "My right to swing my arm ends where your nose begins." The beautiful simplicity of the golden rule commends itself to their intelli- gence ; but it would fall upon them with a showerbath of surprise if they were told that the golden rule applies to mirth and merriment. Yet this is precisely the inculcation needed. Since fact is worth more than theory, the present writer can say that in a critical period of administration the day was saved for good order by an expostulation which insisted on the moralization of fun, and which rested the plea on George Eliot's theory of its origin. The inculcation may take this general direction : After considering all that may be claimed for mirth as a part of human happiness, we may submit that it is bounded by certain higher laws, {a) It is bounded by the law of kindness. Whether we would willingly be the victim of a proposed jest or practical joke is an easy test of its compatibility with this law. Conventionally it is assumed that we enjoy hearing our friends tell a " good thing " on us. But who really enjoys the ordeal ? {p) It is bounded by the law of purity. In the Cornhill Magazine article already quoted it is said : " How much that passes for humorous is simply profane, or indecent, or brutal ? Half of the humorous stories that pass current in the world are unfit for publication." This limitation may be stressed by an anecdote of General Grant. A young officer, being about to tell a salacious story, said: "I believe there are no ladies present." "No," said General Grant, "but there are gentlemen present." No young officer would have dared to think of telling a shady story in the 296 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago presence of General Lee. Quaint old Thomas Fuller said : ''Almost twenty years since I heard a profane jest and still remember it. How many pious passages of far later date I have forgotten! It seems my soul is like a filthy pond, wherein the fish soon die and the frogs live long." (<:) It is bounded by the law of reverence. " I wonder, Mr. Spurgeon," said one of his auditors, "that you use so many witticisms in the pulpit." " You would not wonder," was the reply, " if you knew how many I sup- press." CAN WIT BE CULTIVATED ? Of wit at its best estate George Eliot has given the best definition ; it is "wisdom raised to a higher power." Its swift insight is of great intellectual value. In debate it economizes time. Argument must be met with argument ; but to meet sophistry and absurdity with reasoning is to pay them undeserved respect. They should be "speared with a jest," " routed with all the rash dexterity of wit." Tennyson seems to have had in mind this utility of wit when in the "Ode to Maurice" he wrote : Not martyr flames nor trenchant swords Can do away with that ancient lie ; A gentler death shall falsehood die, Shot through and through with cunning words. That wit is not capable of cultivation is a notion universally held. It is presumptuous to question an opinion so widely accepted, but it may be that the pure spontaneity of wit belongs to the same sort of myth as the " fine frenzy" of the poet. It is doubtless true that the wit, like the poet, like the orator, is born, not made, and yet labor may play as great a part in the development of the one as of the other. Sheridan's notebooks, when examined by his literary executor, revealed the unsuspected truth that many of his brilliant witticisms were the fruits of laborious cultivation. For instance, one of his epigrams can be traced thru the successive stages of its evolution. In its first form it appeared thus : " He employs his fancy in his narrative and keeps his recollection for his wit." At a later period it appeared thus: "When he makes his jokes you applaud the accuracy of his memory, and it is only when he states his facts that you admire his flights of imagination." Sheridan would not fire off the witti- cism in either of these forms, because, they were not satisfactory to him. He reserved the final explosion for the time when the epigram took this shape: "The right honorable gentleman is indebted to his memory for his jokes and to his imagination for his facts." Curran, who was the author of more bon mots perhaps than any man that ever lived, even in Ireland, the land of wit, told his friend and biographer, Charles Phillips, that all the good things he ever said were thought of beforehand, and that he had laid awake many a night chuckling over his jokes as he invented them, and thrumping the headboard of the bed in his glee, to the infinite annoyance of the other inmates of the house. Washington Superintendence] PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHICS OF FUN 297 Irving tells us "the elaboration of humor is often a most serious task; I have never witnessed a more perfect picture of mental misery than was presented to me by a popular dramatic writer whom I found in the agonies of producing a farce which subsequently set the theaters in a roar." The familiar fact that most of us are able to manufacture a desired witticism when it is too late — as Mr. Lowell said that all his best after-dinner speeches were made in a cab as he rode home after the banquet — suggests that cultivation might quicken the capacity for wit. If the powers of reasoning and of the imagination can be trained thru the study of logic and poetry, as everybody believes, why may not the power of wit be like- wise aided by study? At any rate, it is fortunate that this suggestion, so contrary to the general notion, may be subjected to careful test. Hall and Allin say that we need, among other things, for the psychology of the future "a very careful collection of thousands of the very best ancient and modern jests on cards such as has been begun for ready sorting, until genera and species for some classification on a purely inductive basis shall appear;" also "a very exhaustive review of humorous literature, proverbs, etc., with analytic intent." In other words, they propose a scientific dissection of the joke. There is something inexpressibly droll in this idea of a man of science treating a jest as he would treat a fossil, or endeavoring to discover the protoplasm of wit and humor. Can the point of a jest be investigated under the microscope ? Will it be possible to illustrate a witticism on the blackboard ? Can a retort be put in a retort and analyzed ? It may be doubted whether wit and humor will yield to this treatment ; whether we can have an anatomy of pleasantry as old Richard Burton has given us an anatomy of melancholy. May it not be possible that the joke when analyzed may be like a soap bubble when broken — one moment beautiful with all the hues of the rainbow, the next a drop of dirty water? Every touch that woos its stay May brush its brightest hues away. It is always pleasant to end with optimism. Hall and Allin say: Some mothers and kindergartners have a little game of laugh because they rejoice in life and to teach gratitude to God, making it thus a form of devotion or prayer In wit and fancy, present man is practicing for the higher man that is to be, just as some of children's games are preparatory to the duties and realities of adult life. We must not deem the pleasures of imagination, therefore, or the wider range of possibilities opened by wit, both of which so enrich the hard, stern world of present fact, as entirely without symbolic value as ptophecy. These bid us hope. 298 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Minneapolis SPECIAL MEETING HELD AT MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., JULY 10, 1902 SECRETARY'S MINUTES Thursday, July 10, 1902 The Department of Superintendence met in tlie Lecture Room of the Law Building of the State University at 2 : 30 o'clock p. M., and was called to order by President Charles M. Jordan, of Minneapolis. President Jordan announced that a letter from Superintendent Easton, of New Orleans, conveyed the information of conflict between the Mardi Gras and the regular date for the meeting of this department as announced to be held in that city, and of the difficulty of securing guarantees of satisfactory entertainment for the department at that time. The question was raised whether there should be a change of the date or of the place of meeting. By vote the president was directed to appoint three persons, who with himself and Secretary Shepard should constitute a committee with power to act on the question of time and place for the next meeting, and with authority to change either the time or place, as the interests of the department might direct. The president announced the names of President F!dwin A. Alderman, of Louisiana ; Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois ; and Superintendent Charles R. Skinner, of New York, as members of the committee. An invitation was presented for the city of Baltimore by the state superintendent, M. Bates Stephens, and the city superintendent, J. H. Van Sickle ; an invitation from Hot Springs, Ark., was presented by George B. Cook, superintendent of schools of that city; an invitation from Cincinnati, O., was presented by Hon. L. D. Bonebrake, state commissioner of schools of Ohio; and from St. Louis, Mo., by Ben Blewett, assist- ant superintendent of schools, of St. Louis. All of these invitations were presented sub- ject to the withdrawal of New Orleans from the candidacy for this meeting. J. R. Coniff, assistant superintendent of schools of New Orleans, urged that the meeting there be fixed for March or April, so as not to come into conflict with the crowds in New Orleans at the time of the Mardi Gras festival. There bemg no other business, the business session of the department adjourned. ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE After the adjournment of the business session. Superintendent Helen L. Grenfell, of Colorado, leader of the Round Table Conference of State and City Superintendents, took charge of the meeting. " The Value of Nature Study in Public Schools " was discussed by President Z. X. Snyder, of the State Normal School at Greeley, Colo., and Hon. L. D. Bonebrake, state school commissioner of Ohio. Hon. Richard C. Barrett, state superintendent of public instruction of Iowa, read a paper on " Reciprocity in Licensing Teachers." Hon. Charles R. Skinner, state superintendent of public instruction of New York, presented a paper on " School Maintenance : How Best Provide For." After a general discussion the conference adjourned. Richard C. Barrett, Secretary of Round Table of State and County Superintendents. J. N. Wilkinson, Secretary of Department of Superintendence. Superintendence] RECIPROCITY IN LICENSING TEACHERS 299 The committee to whom was referred the question of place and date of the next meeting of the department in February, 1903, met at the West Hotel, Friday, July 11, and was called to order by President Charles M. Jordan. After an informal discussion, the following resolutions were presented and carried without dissent : Resolved, That the New Orleans authorities extending the invitation to the Department of Superin- tendence to hold its meeting in February, 1903, in that city, be given one month from the receipt of notice of this action to secure guarantees of satisfactory railroad rates and hotel accommodations for a meeting of said department to be held in that city at dates not earlier than P'ebruary 20 and not later than March 9, 1903. Resolved, That in case the New Orleans authorities are unable to furnish satisfactory guarantees, the next meeting of the department be held in Cincinnati, O., providing the usual guarantees of local accommo- dations and satisfactory railroad and hotel rates are secured. ' The committee then adjourned with the understanding that the adjustment of the questions involved in the above resolutions be left to President Jordan and Secretary Shepard, acting as a subcommittee. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. ROUND TABLE PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS RECIPROCITY IN LICENSING TEACHERS RICHARD C. BARRETT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION FOR IOWA This paper will deal with facts rather than with theories. In order to ascertain existing conditions in reference to reciprocal relations between states in licensing teachers, a circular letter was addressed to each state and territorial superintendent, asking for information relating to the subject. Replies were received from thirty-five states and territories. In reply to the question, " Does the law of your state authorize the superintendent of public instruction or the state board of educational examiners, as the case may be, to certificate applicants from other states without examination upon presentation of state licenses granted elsewhere?" the following gave affirmative answers : California, District of Columbia, Idaho, Indiana, Michigan, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Vir- ginia, and Wisconsin. Total, 1 1. The following gave negative answers : Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Vermont. Total, 19. In reply to the question, " Does the law of your state authorize the superintendent of public instruction or the state board of educational examiners, as the case may be, to certificate applicants from other states without examination upon presentation of diplomas of graduation from state universities or other institutions of high rank ? " affirmative answers were received as follows : District of Columbia, Indiana, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, New Jersey, Texas, Vermont, and Missouri. Total, 10. Negative replies were received from Alabama, Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, and Oklahoma. Total, 9. In reply to the question, " Is reciprocity in licensing teachers to be desired between states ? " affirmative replies were received as follows : Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin, Total, 18. Negative replies were received as follows : Arkansas, Arizona, California, Connecti- cut, Florida, and North Carolina. Total, 6. 300 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Minneapolis A few superintendents submitted replies expressing doubt as to the desirability of reciprocity. Their replies are as follows : Alabama : " Unless there could be fixed some uniform standard of qualifications, I think not." Kansas : " Yes, if a fair basis can be secured. It will be difficult to enforce reci- procity, because the requirements are so different in the different states." Maine : " Perhaps, under certain limitations." Nevada: "The standards required in the different states and the difference in grading papers vary so much that I do not know as reciprocity in licensing teachers would be advisable." North Dakota : " I question the wisdom of reciprocity in licensing teachers, as between states, below that of graduates of colleges and normal schools." New York : " Not by an inflexible rule. Authorities should make thoro investiga- tions in each case. The spirit of the teacher and the experience period are often of more importance than the kind of diploma held." Texas: "If it caused a leveling up, 'yes;' but doubt advisability as a practical question." Among the reasons given as against reciprocity in licensing teachers are the fol- lowing : Arizona : " The greatest * educational ' frauds we have in Arizona are the highly certificated teachers from the states. They are probably failures at home, and obtain licenses here under our laws by reason of their holding diplomas, etc., issued under some form of state authority. All ought to be examined ; and if after a year's trial are fail- ures, the licenses should be canceled." California : " Not under the present loose way of granting certificates in many of the states." Florida : " Not until some standard can be adopted among the states which will give a uniform value to certificates. Teachers should not be afraid of an examination at any time, and the few migratory teachers are not sufficiently important to let down the bars of the profession to them." North Carolina : " Do not favor it for the reason it may give opportunity to immoral or otherwise objectionable persons who may have gotten a license in one state to impose on the authorities in other states. A teacher conscious of his ability does not object to being examined in another state." The following extracts from the laws of some of the different states, together with rules adopted by the state boards of education, are given for information and comparison : District of Columbia : In the District of Columbia no person shall be appointed teacher who is less than twenty years of age, and who is not a graduate of a Washington city normal school or other approved normal school. " Graduates of other approved normal schools shall stand upon an equal footing with certificate holders, and may be nominated, instead of the highest certificate holders, at the discretion of the board of education." Indiana : State board of education having power to grant state certificates has adopted the following rule : "All graduates of higher institutions of learning in Indiana, or other institutions of equal rank in other states, approved by this board, which require graduation from commissioned high schools, or the equivalent of the same, as a condition of entrance, which maintain standard courses of study of at least four years, and whose work, as to scope and quality, is approved by the state board of education, shall, on com- plying with the conditions enumerated below, be entitled to life state licenses to teach in Indiana : provided, however, that graduation by the applicant shall have been accom- plished by not less than three years' resident study, and thoro, extended examinations in all subjects pursued privately and for which credit has been given by the institution." Michigan : " The state board of education is authorized to recognize and indorse state certificates upon similar examinations to those upon which state certificates in Superintendence] RECIPROCITY IN LICENSING TEACHERS 301 Michigan are granted and which are valid for life ; also, certificates granted from normal schools in other states having an equal course and leading to the same class of certificate as those granted by the normal schools of Michigan. No other classes of certificates granted in other states can be recognized. Formal application must be made under affidavit accompanied vi^ith proper testimonials and the certificate of the person." Hon. Delos Fall, superintendent of public instruction, says : " It is my opinion that certificates granted in any state by the same authority and upon the same prepara- tion as is required in Michigan should be recognized here, and vice versa. This matter would need to be guarded vv'ith great care, and there should be a distinct understanding between the state authorities of the several states as to what certificates could and what could not be recognized. This, it seems to me, is fair to both patrons and teachers of our public schools." The statute says: "That the state board of education may, in its dis- cretion, indorse state teachers' certificates or normal-school diplomas granted in other states, if it be shown to the satisfaction of such board that the examination required or courses of study pursued are fully equal to the requirements of this state." Minnesota : " No person shall be counted a qualified teacher, within the meaning of the school law, who has not a certificate in force, from a county superintendent, at the time of making a contract for services as a teacher, or a certificate or diploma from a state normal school of Minnesota, a certificate from the state superintendent of public instruction, or a diploma from a state normal school of another state, approved by the state superintendent of this state." Graduates from state normal schools outside of Minnesota of equal rank with the normal schools of this state may have their diplomas indorsed for a limited time as certi- ficates to teach in any public schools in Minnesota below the rank of high schools, upon application to the superintendent of public instruction. Montana : State or life diplomas may be granted to any graduate of the state normal school of Montana, or the state university of Montana, or to graduates of other educational institutions within or without the state, upon conditions established by the state board of education. Rule 2 of the board provides : " That an applicant for a state or life diploma basing his application on a state or territorial certificate or diploma from any other state or terri- tory shall file with the state board of education an affidavit enumerating the branches in which he has been examined in obtaining the certificate or diploma upon which his appli- cation is based, unless these branches are enumerated in said certificate or diploma, and, where possible, give percentages obtained in the different branches ; and that any appli- cant basing his application upon a diploma from any state normal school, or who is a graduate from the classical, scientific, philosophical, or literary courses of any university, college, or institution of learning whose requirements for entrance and graduation are equal to those of the University of Montana, which is legally authorized to issue diplomas, shall file with the board an affidavit specifying the branches embraced in the course of study pursued by said applicant in said school, with a statement of the length of time occupied in the completion of the said course of study, together with the stand- ings as above ; provided, that all applicants for state diplomas must file satisfactory evi- dence of having taught successfully thirty-five months, at least twenty-one of which must have been in the public schools of the state of Montana; provided, further, that all appli- cants for life diplomas must file satisfactory evidence of having taught successfully seventy months, at least twenty-one of which must have been in the public schools of this state." Nebraska : "When any college, university, or normal school shall have a course of study equal in extent and similar in subjects to the elementary course of the state normal school, and shall have full and ample equipment and a faculty of instructors fully compe- tent to give satisfactory instruction in the branches contained in said course, any graduate from such course shall be granted by the state superintendent a state certificate of the 302 NATIONAL EDUCATIOMAL ASSOCIATION [Minneapolis same tenor and effect as the certificate to teach issued to the graduates from the elemen- tary course of the state normal school." A diploma from a state normal school in another state, when approved by the state superintendent of Nebraska, secures to its holder the same rights and privileges in Nebraska as are guaranteed under it in the state in vv^hich it was issued. Nevada : "Upon presentation to them [state board of education] of a life certificate of any state or of the diploma of any state normal school, the board may grant a state certificate of equivalent grade without examination, valid for three years or less ; provided that since the issuing of such certificate or diploma the applicant has been continuously or successfully engaged in teaching." New Jersey : In New Jersey the rules for examination for teachers' certificates pre- scribed by the state board of education provide: "The state board of examiners may indorse the diploma of any normal school or teachers' college, or a permanent certificate to teach in another state and valid as a certificate therein, when the course of study of such normal school or teachers' college or the requirements of such certificate shall be, in the judgment of said board, equivalent to those required for a state certificate to teach in this state ; provided, that such other state shall grant reciprocal privileges to those holding diplomas or certificates from this state. When so indorsed, such diplomas or certificates shall have the same force and effect as if issued in this state. Normal diplomas and permanent certificates issued in states not having a state system of certifi- cation, and which are, therefore, unable to grant said reciprocal privileges, may be indorsed by the state board of examiners as is herein above provided." North Dakota : The superintendent of public instruction " may issue a state certificate, to be valid for a term of five years, unless sooner revoked, to be known as a normal certificate. Such certificate shall be issued only to those persons, of good moral character, who have completed the prescribed course of study in one of the normal schools of the state, or in a normal school elsewhere having an established reputation for thoroness, but the superintendent of public instruction may examine any such applicant in his discretion." Texas : Teachers holding a diploma from the Peabody Normal School at Nash- ville, Tenn., " may teach in the public schools of the state during good behavior, and such diplomas shall rank as permanent state certificates; and such teachers shall not be sub- ject to examination by any board of examiners." Graduates from any college or univer- sity of the first class, with a degree of bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, bachelor of letters, or any higher academic degree, who have taught not less than three years in Texas, may receive from the state superintendent of public instruction a permanent certificate. Virginia : Graduates of colleges and universities outside of the state who have taught successfully for three years in the schools of Virginia on first-grade certificates may be certificated to teach without further examination. Wisconsin: "Section 458c of the school code of 1901 provides that upon the recommendation of the board of examiners, the state superintendent may issue the unlimited state certificate to the holders of the diplomas of state normal schools, outside of Wisconsin, whose courses of study are fully and fairly equivalent to the courses of study in the Wisconsin normal schools, and the diplomas of colleges and universities other than the University of Wisconsin, whose courses of study are fully and fairly equivalent to corresponding courses in the University of Wisconsin. Graduates of colleges and universities must present to the state superintendent of public instruction, with their diplomas, satisfactory evidence of having given psychology and pedagogy at least as much study as is required in this state of candidates for a life certificate." Arizona: Territorial certificates will be granted to holders of life diplomas and state normal school diplomas issued in any one of the United States, without examina- tion, when such diplomas authorize the holder to teach in the public schools of the state in which they were granted, but not otherwise. Superintendence] RECIPROCITY IN LICENSING TEACHERS 303 New York : " He [superintendent of public instruction] may also, in his discretion, indorse a diploma issued by a state superintendent or a state board of education in any other state, which indorsement shall confer upon the holder thereof the same privileges conferred by law upon the holders of diplomas or certificates issued by state normal schools or by the state superintendent in this stale!" Oregon: "The state board of education may, at its discretion, grant without examination state certificates and state diplomas to persons presenting authenticated papers from other states of grade and kind like those granted by the state board of education ; provided, that the state board of education is satisfied that said papers were secured by passing an examination equivalent to that given by the state board of educa- tion of this state for state papers ; provided, that the state board of education may, at its discretion, grant a permit for one year to persons who hold papers of the grade and kind equivalent to the state certificate, but have not had the requisite amount of teaching experience in Oregon to secure a state certificate." Rhode Island : The state superintendent writes : " No definite rules have yet been formulated in regard to exchange of certificates, but the policy of reciprocity is adopted. With the limited number of applications from without the state it has so far been deemed better to judge each case on its merits. The board always accepts a certificate from another state or other normal schools upon as just and correct a basis as can be deter- mined. We believe in extending to other states and all reputable institutions the fullest courtesy compatible with the maintenance of our standards." AS TO COUNTY RECIPROCITY In response to the question, " Are county superintendents or school commissioners in your state authorized to enter into reciprocal relations with each other?" affirmative replies were received from California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Vermont, and Virginia. Negative replies were received from Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, North Carolina, New Mexico, New Hampshire, and South Dakota. As to the desirability of having reciprocity in licensing teachers between counties, superintendents in the following states were favorable to the plan : Alabama, California, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Superintendents from Arkansas, Arizona, Indiana, and North Carolina do not consider it desirable. The following are a few of the opinions expressed in reference to the matter : Alabama: "All certificates in Alabama are issued upon examination, and are valid in any county in the state. In the case of county examinations, I should think the ques- tion of reciprocity would depend upon uniformity in the county examinations." "It is desirable, if a uniform standard of qualifications can be arranged." Arizona : "No, unless the state is a very small one, and teachers and school officers are in touch with one another. County certificates have been discontinued by legislative enactment. All certificates now issued are territorial [state] certificates." Arkansas : "I do not consider it desirable. It seems to me, however, that if county superintendents were required to file the examination papers of the applicant, and to keep them on file for one year, then, when a teacher desires a license to teach in another county, his papers might be forwarded from the county in which his examination was held to the county in which he wishes license to teach, in order that the examiner of the latter may grade the work for himself, and yet the applicant not be forced to a re-exami- nation." Colorado : "Superintendents may recognize first-grade certificates issued in other counties by what is called a ' like-grade ' certificate, good for the same length of time for which the original certificate was issued. In case of an emergency the law states that * county certificates issued iiAhis and other states may be recognized by indorsement 304 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Minneapolis good until the next regular examination. Such endorsement cannot be repeated or extended.' " "Some form of county reciprocity seems necessary, but there should be uniform examinations thruout a state when such reciprocity is made legal." Florida : "All county certificates are issued upon questions uniform for the state. All except the third lowest grade may be transferred by mere indorsement of the county superintendent. While this is quite necessary it breaks badly into the standards, because the grading is much more rigid in some counties than in others." " I favor a state grading committee, issuing certificates good thruout the state." Indiana : " No reciprocal relations between counties. Each teacher may send his manuscript to the department for examination. A license issued thereon is valid thruout the state." Iowa : In Iowa the attorney general recently rendered an opinion in which he held : " It was clearly the intention of the legislature in framing the school law that every appli- cant for a certificate should appear in person before the county superintendent to whom application is made for a certificate and submit to an examination by him and in his presence. It is not, in my opinion, a compliance with the law to permit the applicant to write out an examination in the presence of the county superintendent of one county and forward the same to the county superintendent of another county for examination, with the request that a certificate be issued to the applicant if entitled thereto. There are many reasons which will readily suggest themselves why an applicant should appear in person before the county superintendent from whom a certificate to teach a public school is asked ; and this was contemplated by the legislature in prescribing the examinations to which applicants are required to submit before receiving a certificate to teach." Maine: "We have no 'town system' in Maine, and each town has its school board, consisting of a committee of three and a superintendent who is ex-officio secretary of the board. All applicants must be examined by the town school board, except that a diploma from a Maine normal school or a state certificate signed by the superintendent of the schools of Maine may be accepted in lieu of examination." Massachusetts : "We have a Massachusetts law that has never been executed for lack of office force and money. Consequently, Massachusetts has nothing of interest for you. We are pressing for a stronger law and an ample appropriation. We have super- intendents now for all our towns and cities, who generally have the power to nominate teachers. They are toning up our quality ; and our ten normal schools are trying to meet the demand from the superintendents. While perfecting these two agencies, we have been postponing action on our state examination plans." Nevada : "The standards required in the different states and the difference in grad- ing papers vary so much that I do not know as reciprocity in licensing teachers would be advisable." "In Nevada teachers' certificates can be made valid in all the counties of the state by applying to the state board of education and the sending of the examination papers to be examined by them." "The same difficulty exists between the counties of the state that exists between different states. The county boards vary greatly in their gradings." New Hampshire: "The town is the unit. We have no county superintendents. Each town is independent; no reciprocity." Vermont : " First- and second-grade certificates good thruout the state. Third- grade good by indorsement of county examiners." Texas : " Certificate issued by any county may be valid in every county by a state board of examiners to whom the papers maybe forwarded for re grading." " Provisions for forwarding to state board the papers of such applicants in county examinations as desire state certificates in lieu of the county certificates seems prefer- able to county reciprocity." Superintendence] RECIPROCITY IN LICENSING TEACHERS 305 Of the laws that are reported to be satisfactory in their workings, only a few may be quoted : Michigan : Three grades of certificates are granted : first-grade, which, if indorsed by the superintendent of public instruction, is valid in the state for four years ; second- grade, valid in the county where granted for three years ; third-grade, valid in the county where granted for one year. The law now provides that third-grade certificates cannot be transferred from one county to another, but that the papers written for a second-grade certificate may be sent by the county commissioner of the county where the applicant has written to the examining board of another county, and if said papers are approved by said board of examiners they may issue a duplicate second-grade certifi- cate valid in their county. Second-grade certificates are not transferable in any other manner. Minnesota : " The state teacher's first-grade certificate is valid to teach in any pub- lic school in the state below the rank of high school. The second-grade state teacher's certificate is likewise valid in the county for which it is issued, but may be made valid by indorsement of the county superintendent of any other county in the state." " A complete first-grade certificate certifying to scholastic requirements by the state superintendent, and to professional requirements, skill in teaching, and moral character by the county superintendent in whose county the examination is held, shall be valid in any county of the state. A complete second-grade certificate for both scholastic and professional requirements, signed by the state superintendent and the county superin- tendent, as indicated above for a first-grade certificate, shall be valid in the county in which the examination is held, and may be made valid in any county by the indorsement of the county superintendent of said county." Wisconsin : " If any person holding a certificate desires to teach in any county or superintendent district other than the one for which his certificate was issued, the county superintendent of that county or district may request the county superintendent who issued the certificate to transfer to him the papers in his possession upon which the cer- tificate was issued, whereupon it shall be the duty of the county superintendent so requested to transfer the papers, if any. If these papers and standings are found satis- factory by the county superintendent to whom they were transferred, he may issue a cer- tificate upon them of the same grade as the original certificate and coterminous with it, or one of a lower grade to be in force a shorter time, and he shall preserve the papers on file in his office. If the papers are found unsatisfactory and the certificate is denied, he shall return the papers to the county superintendent from whom he received them." Missouri: "Certificates issued in one county cannot be indorsed in another county, but one county may accept papers or grades made in regular examination in another county on which to issue a certificate." This brief and somewhat hasty examination of this subject leads to the conclusion : 1. That reciprocity in licensing teachers between states is desirable, and that a united effort should be made to bring about uniformity of requirements and reciprocal relations. The American teacher should be so in fact as well as name. The crossing of the boundary line of any state should no longer be assumed to nullify the qualifications of the skilled teacher, the successful disciplinarian, the expert supervisor, or the scholastic fitness of men and women whose energies are devoted to the cause of education. 2. Under proper and wise regulations, teachers having obtained excellent certificates from any county superintendent or board of education should be permitted to teach in other counties in the same state, either by having manuscripts forwarded and again graded, or by the indorsement of the certificate by the county superintendent, county board of examiners, or superintendent of public instruction, or the state board of edu- cational examiners. I NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION CONSTITUTION PREAMBLE The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the presentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educa- tional questions ; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discus- sions. Any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part of the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees, representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public. ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP 1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from the membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the Associa- tion identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after the first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter pro- vided. 2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members for six years, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight members — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (section 5), to serve six years, or until his successor is elected. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any reason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council. ■ 306 Council] CONSTITUTION 307 4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first election shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions. No state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members. ARTICLE II— QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP All'members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National Educational Association. ARTICLE III— MEETINGS There shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as the meeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to this meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the Executive committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular or called ; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article. ARTICLE IV— THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL The Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the thoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council ; also to conduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association, or any of its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds. ARTICLE V— THE APPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES AND EXPERTS In the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers, it shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether mem- bers of the Council or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations. ARTICLE VI— THE PROGRAM It shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the asssistance and approval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall realize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and ARTICLE VII— STANDING COMMITTEES *i. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee on Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investiga- tions and Appropriations. 2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and of three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member may be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899. 3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by selecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to conduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry out the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers. *As amended at the Minneapolis Meeting, July ii, 1902 ("see minutes]. 3o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Nationa It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for the report on any investigation which may by ordered by the National Educational Associa- tion or its departments. 4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council and six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may by filled every year, beginning with 1899. 5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next meet- ing, a report on "Educational Progress During the Past Year," in which a survey of the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This committee need not be selected from the members of the Council. "f'6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine members whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each year, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educa- tional investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the Association for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal has been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, for report. ARTICLE VIII— THE DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL 1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general. 2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the, most part, of a "round table" character. ARTICLE IX— AMENDMENTS This constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular meeting by unanimous consent. By-laws not in violation of this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Council. OFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS OFFICERS FOR 1901-1902 J.H.PHILLIPS Birmingham, Ala President Miss MARY E. NICHOLSON Indianapolis, Ind Vice-President J. F. MILLSPAUGH Winona, Minn Secretary EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The President, ex officio Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y Term expires in 1902 Joseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind Term expires in 1903 Richard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O Term expires in 1904 OFFICERS FOR 1902-1903 WILLIAM R. HARPER Chicago, 111 President W. H. BARTHOLOMEW Louisville, Ky Vice-President J. F. MILLSPAUGH Winona, Minn Secretary EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The President, ex officio Joseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind Term expires in 1903 Richard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O Term expires in 1904 Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y Term expires in 1905 jSec. 6 was added by amendment at the Minneapolis meeting, July 11, 1902 [see minutes]. Council] MEMBERS 309 OFFICERS FOR 1^02 -\^q>2>— continued COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C Term expires in 1903 Emerson E. White, Columbus, O Term expires in 1903 Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y Term expires in 1904 Lorenzo D. Harvey, Madison, Wis Term expires in 1904 James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo Term expires in 1905 James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md Term expires in 1905 COMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS James M. Greenwood, Chairman^ Kansas City, Mo Term expires in 1903 Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass Term expires in 1903 Vacancy by reason of non-election Term expires in 1903 Edwin A. Alderman, New Orleans, La Term expires in 1904 Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y Term expires in 1904 Lorenzo D. Harvey, Madison, Wis Term expires in 1904 Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y Term expires in 1905 Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111 Term expires in 1905 Vacancy by reason of non-election Term expires in 1905 MEMBERS Note : The letter " A " following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the Asso- ciation ; the letter " C," by the Council. Term expires *W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C A 1903 *C. B. Gilbert, Rochester, N. Y A 1903 ♦William R, Harper, Chicago, 111 A 1903 George J. Ramsey, Richmond, Va A 1903 •Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y A 1903 Alexander Graham Bell, Wash. , D. C . . . . C 1903 L. H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich C 1903 Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal. C 1903 *W. H. Black, Marshall, Mo C 1903 ♦Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y. C 1903 Richard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O A 1904 F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo A 1904 Lorenzo D. Harvey, Madison, Wis A 1904 *L. H. Halsey, Oshkosh, Wis A 1904 *Carroll G. Pearse, Omaha. Neb A 1904 Anna Tolman Smith, Washington, D. C. C 1904 Mrs. Josephine Heermans, Kans. City, Mo. C 1904 ♦James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md C 1904 ♦John Dewey, Chicago, 111 C 1904 ♦Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111 C 1904 ♦W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky A 1905 ♦Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass A 1905 ♦I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis A 1905 ♦E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa A 1905 ♦J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo A 1905 Reuben S. Bingham, Tacoma, Wash C 1905 ♦Joseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind C 1905 ♦Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa C 1905 ♦Louis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo C 1905 *Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo C 1905 ♦James A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal. J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala ♦Emerson E. White, Columbus, O . . . James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo Robert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn. . Lucia Stickney, Cleveland, O ♦Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn ♦Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo ♦J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind Frank A. Hill, Boston, Ma»s James M. Green, Trenton, N.J ♦Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y. A. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111 ♦Charles D. Mclver, Greensboro, N. C. . . R. B. Fulton, University, Miss J. L. Spaulding, Peoria, 111 *Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O , ♦Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn ♦Edward R. Shaw, New York, N. Y . . . . ♦William F. King, Mt. Vernon, la , Charles F. Thwing, Cleveland, O ♦Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111 ♦Edwin A. Alderman, New Orleans, La. ♦Charles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn. ♦J. F. Millspaugh, Winona, Minn ♦W. M. Davidson, Topeka, Kan E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O ♦O. T. Corson, Columbus, O James E. Russell, New York, N. Y. . . . ♦Oliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111 Term expires A 1906 A 1906 A 1906 A 1906 A 1906 C 1906 C 1906 C 1906 C 1906 C 1906 A 1907 A 1907 A 1907 A 1907 A 1907 C 1907 C 1907 C 1907 C 1907 C 1907 A 1908 A 1908 A 1908 A 1908 A 1908 C 1908 C 1908 C 1908 C 1908 C 1908 ♦Present at the Council sessions at Minneapolis, 1902. 3IO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National HONORARY MEMBERS Earl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa. William N. Barringer, Newark, N, J. Newton Bateman, Galesburg, 111. D. Bemis, Spokane, Wash, Thomas W. Bicknell, Providence. R. I. Albert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass. Anna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y. John E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass. Edward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa. George P. Brown, Bloomington, 111. William L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind. John T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y. Matthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt. David N. Camp, New Britain, Conn. James H. Canfield, New York, N. Y. Clara Conway, Memphis, Tenn. John W. Cook, De Kalb, 111. Oscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex. William J. Corthell, Gorham, Me. J. L. M. Curry, Washington, D. C. Charles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y. V. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C. John W. Dickinson, Newtonville, Mass. Andrew S. Draper, Champaign, 111. John Eaton, Washington, D. C. Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass. William W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn. W. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn. Daniel C. Gilman, Washington, D. C. James C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass. W. N. Hailmann, Dayton, O. G. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass. Paul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass. Walter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y. Edwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111. J. George Hodgins, Toronto, Canada. Ira G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal. Jiames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal. George W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal. James L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada. Thomas Hunter, New York, N. Y. Ellen Hyde, Farmington, Mass. Edmund J. James, Evanston, 111. E. S. Joynes, Columbia, S, C. David L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn. Thomas Kirkland, Toronto, Canada. Henry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y. James MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa. Albert P. Marble, New York, N. Y. Francis A. March, Easton, Pa. Lillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal. William H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y. Charles A. McMurry, De Kalb, 111. Lemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn. William A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass. Mary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind. John M. Ordway, New Orleans, La. Warren D. Parker, Madison, Wis. W. H. Payne, Ann Arbor, Mich. Selim H. Peabody, Chicago, 111. John B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, O. William F. Phelps, Duluth, Minn. Josiah L. Pickard, Brunswick, Me. Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal. William B. Powell, New York, N. Y. J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss. John T. Prince, Boston, Mass. Frank Rigler, Portland, Ore. William H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va. Ellen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis. Henry Sabin, Des Moines, la. J. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y. H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la. H. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md. Edgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa. Euler B. Smith, Athens, Ga. Homer B. Sprague, East Orange, N. J. J. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis. Thomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I. Grace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb. John Swett, Martinez, Cal. H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I. W. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga. H. S. Thompson, New York, N. Y. L. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J. Arnold Tompkins, Chicago, 111. Julia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala. Delia L. Williams, Delaware, O. J. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C. Lightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa. H. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb. C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. Robert Allyn 1894 Israel W, Andrews 1888 Joseph Baldwin 1899 Henry Barnard 1900 Norman A. Calkins 1895 Aaron L. Chapin ..1892 N. R. H. Dawson 1895 Larkin Dunton 1899 Samuel S. Greene 1883 John M. Gregory 1898 George T. Fairchild 1901 Daniel B. Hagar 1896 John Hancock 1891 William D. Henkle 1882 DECEASED MEMBERS Elnathan E. Higbee 1889 Burke A. Hinsdale igoo George Howland 1892 John S. Irwin 1901 Henry N. James 1901 H, S. Jones 1900 Merrick Lyon 1888 James McCosh 1894 Thomas J. Morgan 1902 M. A. Newell 1893 Birdsey G. Northrop 1898 Edward Olney 1886 Gustavus J. Orr 1888 Francis.W. Parker 1902 S. S. Parr 1900 John D. Philbrick 1885 Matilda S. Cooper Poucher. . . 1900 Zalmon Richards 1899 Andrew J. Rickoff 1899 Charles C. Rounds 1901 James A. Smart 1900 R. W. Stevenson 1893 Eli T. Tappan 1888 Charles O. Thompson 1885 James P. Wickersham 1891 S. G. Williams 1900 Council J SECRE TAR Y 'S MINUTES 3 1 SECRETARY'S MINUTES I FIRST SESSION. — Monday, July 7, 9:30 a. m. • The Council met in the Unitarian Church, and, in the absence of President J. H. Phillips, was at the appointed hour called to order by Vice-President Mary E. Nicholson. The meeting was opened with prayer by Rev. J. E. Bushnell, of the Westminster Presbyterian Church. Following prayer, the subject of the session, *' Revenues for School Purposes," was opened by State Superintendent N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, with a paper on " Taxa- tion as it Relates to School Maintenance," and continued by District Superintendent Albert G. Lane, of Chicago, with a paper on "Taxation and Teachers' Salaries." Discussion of these papers was opened by J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, and continued by Aaron Gove, of Denver, N. C. Dougherty, of Peoria, and Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York. SECOND SESSION.— Monday, July 7, 2:30 p. m. The Council was called to order for the second session by the Vice-President at the appointed hour. After a vocal solo, "A Song of Thanksgiving," by Mr. F. H, Forssell, the chair named as members of the Committee on Nominations : W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C. Edwin A. Alderman, of Louisiana. E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania. Charles B. Gilbert, of Rochester, N. Y., presented a paper on " The Function of Knowledge in Education," and was followed by W. T. Harris, of Washington, who spoke on " The Difference Between Efficient Causes and Final Causes in Controling Human Freedom." Discussion of these papers was introduced by John W. Cook, of Illinois, and con- tinued by J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri. THIRD SESSION.— Monday, July 7, 8 p. m. The Council was called to order by Vice-President Mary E. Nicholson. After a vocal solo, *' The Two Grenadiers," by Mr. John Ravenscroft, William R. Harper, President of the University of Chicago, addressed the Council upon "The Edu- cational Progress of the Year." FOURTH SESSION.— Tuesday, July 8, 9 : 30 a. m. The Council was called to order at the appointed hour by Joseph Swain, of the Execu- tive Committee. A vocal selection entitled " Until Dawn " was given by the Arion Quartette, of Min- neapolis, which responded to an encore. After the singing, prayer was offered by Rev. H. M. Simmons, of the First Unita- rian Church of Minneapolis. The chair recognized J. W. Carr, of Indiana, who offered the following resolution, which was seconded by J. M. Greenwood : In view of the importance of taxation as it relates to public education, and in order that a more compre- hensive report may be made on this subject than it is possible to obtain otherwise, Resolved, i. That a Committee of Nine be appointed by this body whose duty it shall be to investigate the subject of taxation as it relates to public education, and to make a printed report to the National Council of Education not later than the year 1904, unless otherwise directed by this body. 312 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TION [National 2. That the membership of this committee shall be composed as follows : The Commissioner of Educa- tion of the United States, and at least one state superintendent, one superintendent of a large city, one super- intendent of a small city or town, one representative of rural schools ; the remainder of the committee to be persons chosen for their special fitness for such work without regard to the interests they may represent. Mr. Greenwood moved that a Committee of Three be appointed by the chair to pre- sent Mr. Carr's resolution to the Board of Directors for consideration at its meeting on Friday. In the absence, because of illness in his family, of D. E. McClure, of Michigan, who had prepared a paper on " The School as a Culture Center in the Light of the ' Hes- peria Movement,'" Miss Nicholson explained to the Council the cause of Mr. McClure's absence and stated that, in obedience to the rule of the Association governing such cases, the paper could not be read. She then gave a brief statement of the thought of the paper, and was followed by Ossian H. Lang, of New York, in a discussion of the subject based upon Miss Nicholson's statement. After this discussion, papers were presented by John Dewey, of Chicago, on " The Social Aspect of Education," and by Miss Anna Tolman Smith, of Washington, D. C, on "The Recent French Reaction against Rousseau's Doctrine and in Favor of Social Education." Discussion of these papers was opened by C. B. Gilbert, and continued by J. M. Greenwood, W. H. Black, John W. Cook, and W. T. Harris. The chair named the following Committee to present the request of the Council for an appropriation to defray the expenses of preparing the proposed report on taxation : J. W. Carr, of Indiana. J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri. Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut. MEMORIAL SESSION. — Wednesday, July 9, 3 p.m. After the Council was called to order by Vice-President Nicholson, and before open- ing the special program of the session, J. W. Carr called attention to a violation of the by-laws in the appointment of the committee to present the Council's request for an appro- priation to the Board of Directors, instead of referring the matter to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations. - After a motion to reconsider this action was made and carried, the subject was duly referred to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations. The memorial services appointed for the session were opened with a vocal solo, "The Holy City," by Master Eugene Pauley. Memorial addresses were made by Henry Sabin, of Iowa, on Dr. Charles C. Rounds, and by Wilbur S. Jackman, of Chicago, on Colonel Francis Wayland Parker. Following the addresses named, W. T. Harris, E. E. White, John W. Cook, Miss Bettie A. Dutton, and Miss Nicholson spoke feelingly of the character and services of the distinguished members whose loss the Council mourns. At the close of the memorial services, J. M. Greenwood presented the Report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations as follows : The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations submits the following in reference to the resolu- tions on " Taxation as it Relates to Public Education," introduced by J. W, Carr, and recommends that the Council request the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to appropriate the sum of $1,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to defray the clerical and such other expenses as may be incurred in the preparation of the report, as contemplated in the resolution. (Signed) J. M. Greenwood, N. C. Dougherty, Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Augustus S. Downing. Dr. Harris moved that Mr. Greenwood, chairman of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, present the report of that committee to the Board of Directors. Car- ried. Council] SECRE TAR Y 'S MINUTES 3 r 3 The Committee on Membership reported vacancies in the Council and nominated persons to fill such vacancies as follows : W. M. Davidson, Topeka, Kan., to succeed himself. E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O., to succeed himself. O. T. Corson, Columbus, O., to succeed himself. James E. Russell, New York, to succeed himself. Oliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111., to succeed himself. All of the above for the full term of six years. J. L. Spaulding, Peoria, 111., to succeed George P. Brown, Bloomington, 111., term to expire in 1907. AnnaTolman Smith, Washington, D. C. to succeed the late Francis W. Parker, of Chicago, 111., term to expire in 1904. Alexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C, to succeed the late Charles C. Rounds, New York, term to expire in 1903. (Signed) E. E. White, W. T. Harris. J. M. Greenwood. The Committee on Nominations, thru its chairman. Dr. W. T. Harris, reported as follows : To fill vacancies in the Committee on Membership : Augustus S. Downing, New York, to fill vacancy caused by non-election last year. Term expires 1904. J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, and J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md., to succeed themselves. Terms expire 1905. To serve as officers of the Council for 1902-1903 : President— yNWYxixa. R. Harper, Chicago, 111. Vice-President— y) " At Night ;" (c) " The Swing." Miss C. Geraldine O'Grady, president of the Kindergarten Section of the National Educational Association, and Mrs. A. H. Putnam, president of the International Kinder- garten Association, were invited to the platform. At the request of President Ogg, a motion was made and carried to appoint a com- mittee on nominations. The following committee was named : J, W. Carr, of Indiana. Miss Sarah C, Brooks, of Minnesota. David E. Cloyd, of New York. The program of the session was as follows : " Practical Value of Teaching Agriculture in the Public Schools," Joseph Carter, superintendent of schools. Champaign, 111. Discussion by Jesse D. Burks, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York ; Miss Corinne Marcellus, director of kindergarten, Hartigan School,, Chicago ; Miss Elizabeth Harrison, principal of Chicago Kindergarten College, Chicago. The Adams School, grades six to eight, D. H. Painter, director, sang : {a) "Soldiers' Chorus from Faust," Gounod; {b) "Up, Sailor Boy, 'Tis Day," Bullard: {c) "The Star Spangled Banner." In the last number the great audience joined. "Myth and History — The Use and Limits of Each," Miss May H. Prentice, teacher of history of education. Normal Training School, Cleveland, O. Discussion by Miss Stella L. Wood, superintendent of the Kindergarten Normal School, Minneapolis, Minn. The department adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— FRIDAY, July ii The meeting was called to order at 2 : 45 p. M. by President Ogg, and was opened by a song, " Friihlingsstimen (Waljer) " — Strauss, by Miss Harriet Hiscock. The president announced the intended shortening of the program to one paper and its discussions, as follows : "The Use and Abuse of Method " — W. A. Millis, superintendent of schools. Craw- fordsville, Ind. Discussion by W. H. Hatch, superintendent of schools, Oak Park, 111. ; D. B. Park- inson, president of Southern Illinois State Normal School, Carbondale ; A. W. Rankin, inspector of graded schools, Minneapolis, Minn. ; Miss M. Adelaide Holton, Minneapo- lis, Minn. ; Miss Adda P. Wertz, Carbondale, 111. ; Superintendent John E. Richeson, 430 Department] PRACTICAL VALUE OF TEACHING AGRICULTURE 43 1 East St. Louis, 111.; Superintendent E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.; Miss Folger, Minne- apolis, Minn. ; Miss Mosely, Ann Arbor, Mich. ; Superintendent J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind. ; A. E. Brown, Sioux City, la. The discussion was summarized by President Ogg. The report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows : President — Miss M. Adelaide Holton, Minneapolis, Minn. Vice-President — Frederick Treudley, Athens, O. Secretary — Miss Adda P. Wertz, Carbondale, 111. Upon motion the report as read was received and adopted and the nominees declared duly elected as officers for the ensuing year. The department then adjourned. Adda P. Wertz, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE PRACTICAL VALUE OF TEACHING AGRICULTURE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS JOSEPH CARTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHAMPAIGN, ILL. • In discussing this topic, only the rural schools and the schools of those villages and towns whose people were farm-reared, and whose inter- ests are still largely agricultural, are considered. In these schools, contain- ing about 70 percent, of the public-school children of our country, it is believed the teaching of agriculture would be of great practical value. Perhaps to a considerable part of the remainder agricultural teaching, correlated with nature study, would add to the educational value of nature study by giving it greater definiteness of purpose, but no con- sideration is given in this paper to that phase of the subject. AGRICULTURE DEFINED Agriculture is the art of raising products from the land. Its chief contribution to the wealth and welfare of the world is the production of food — corn and wheat and rice and potatoes from the farm ; grapes and berries and melons and beans and radishes, and apples and peaches and pears, from the garden and the orchard ; cattle and sheep and swine from the pastures ; milk, butter, and cheese from the dairy ; eggs and fowls from the poultry yard. Besides food, clothing is a product of agricul- ture— leather and wool and cotton and silk.. To agriculture belongs forestry — the raising of trees to build our houses, make our furniture, adorn our parks, and beautify our homes. To agriculture also belongs floriculture — the growing of plants for their flowers. Agriculture in its wider sense means not only the production of all these things, but their preparation for the market and the marketing of them. It is both an art and a business. As an art it is probably closely related to a greater number of sciences than any other vocation. 432 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary It deals with physics on a hundred lines. Its foundations rest on geology. It depends upon many branches of biology — botany, zoology, ento- mology, and physiology, both of animals and plants. Chemistry does it mighty service. For it climatology must be understood, and bacteriology .seems to be at its origin. IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE But is agriculture of enough importance to entitle it to a position on our school program? It would be a waste of time to tell this department of the vast importance of agriculture, for all know that thru agriculture the world is fed and clothed. "This is the foundation of all prosperity. When the agriculturist prospers, men laugh as they toil, women sing as they work, and happy children grow into robust manhood and woman- hood; long railroad trains cross the continent loaded with the products of his labor, and mighty ships plow the brrny deep as they carry these products to other lands ; when he is prosperous thousands of factories give employment to millions of men whose wages build happy homes and opulent cities. Nor do you need to be told that were our agriculture to fail, were the earth and" the air and the sky and the plant and the animals to fail to respond to the skill of the husbandman, the myriad streams of commerce would stop their beneficent flow, ships would rot at their docks, locomotives would rust in their roundhouses, the walls of cities would crumble, and the land become a desert or a wilderness. You know that the world empires have risen only where food and clothing were abundant, and that when these have failed desolation and barbarism have returned to the land. You have heard that the shipment to foreign countries of a thousand millions of dollars worth of agricultural products annually is giving this United States a foremost position among the nations of the earth. This has changed the balance of trade and is giving this nation wealth beyond the dreams of avarice. The greatness of America is in her agriculture. AGRICULTURAL TEACHING NEEDED Do you ask, "If we are doing so well, why try to do better? Why teach agriculture in the schools?" History admonishes us to do this. The valley of the Euphrates was once as fertile as any of our lands, but for 2,000 years it has been a desert. The corn of Egypt fed the con- querors of the world, but neglect and ignorance of agriculture brought its husbandmen to the verge of starvation centuries ago. The history of the Aryan race admonishes us to do this. The root of the word "Aryan" is the same as the root of the word "arable" — plowable. We are the race that plows. We soon exhausted the fertility of our Asiatic home and also the soil of the Mediterranean peninsulas — Greece, Italy, and Spain. A few hundred years were ample time for us to make the life of the agri- Department] PRACTICAL VALUE OF TEACHING AGRICULTURE 433 culturist stale and unprofitable in the British Isles. We thrust our plow- shares into the rich soil of the valleys of Virginia and the name "planter" became a synonym for "opulence"; but now these lands are too sterile to repay cultivation. In spite of all his thrift and industry the land of the Yankee has its abandoned farms. In many other states of this, the great- est of all agricultural lands, there are vast areas that yield to the husband- man constantly diminishing returns for his toil. It appears that this Aryan race during the centuries crossed the continents, like a mighty swarm of locusts, alighting on fruitful fields, from which it extracted the fertility, and passed on, leaving poverty and barrenness in its track; or as if it had trod with hot feet across the continents, burning out the fertility of the soil. If the teaching of agriculture can lessen this blight- ing effect, who can doubt that it should be given in the public schools? SOIL STERILITY NOT A NECESSARY RESULT OF CULTIVATION Do you ask, "Is not sterility the inevitable result of cultivation, and of the dwelling of great numbers of people on any land?" Not at all. The plains of China from the early dawn of history have maintained more than one-fourth of all the human beings who dwell upon this globe. And all their food has been produced by the ground upon which they live. Besides this great example it has also been demonstrated that an ideal system of agriculture maintains itself; that it is able to thrive forever upon the same land, and from its own resources. The land becomes more productive with time, and this without the aid of any fer- tilizing material except that produced by the land, or with comparatively little else. What could be of greater practical value than to teach to those who are to become the farmers of America this ideal system of agriculture? . All over this country, with rare exceptions, agricultural work is carried on in a more or less wasteful, neglectful, and destruc- tive manner. The fertility of the soil, the accumulations of vast periods of time, is being recklessly exhausted — in some places has already been exhausted — by destructive methods. Fungous parasites, through igno- rance, are permitted to greatly reduce the yields of our cereals. Insects destructive to fruits and berries are permitted to multiply till those necessities to health which should be for all are only within the reach of the few. Forests that held a rich soil upon the hillsides are destroyed and the soil washed away never to be replaced. Native grasses valuable for grazing are destroyed, and no others can be found to take their places. A few years ago it was not known how to remedy these and other errors, but recently there have been vast additions to human knowledge along all lines pertaining to agriculture. Probably in no other field of man's endeavor has there been as great progress as here. Experts and students at the various state and United States agricultural experiment 434 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary Stations and in similar institutions in other countries, and thoughtful, patient, and careful men and women in their orchards, dairies, gardens, and homes, have made many discoveries and established many facts which in the aggregate constitute an immense mass of valuable, useful, and interesting knowledge. These facts relate to nearly everything pertaining to household and farm life — the cultivation of various crops, the feeding and care of animals, the destruction of insect enemies, the preserva- tion of insect friends, and the like. These facts are accessible and should be carried to the people. What other or better or more suitable means are there than the public schools? For instance: It is said that the codling moth and the curculio damage our apple crop to the extent of millions and millions of dollars annually, and that, taken at the right time, all this loss can easily be prevented. What could be more practical than to teach the children to destroy these pests? Near by nearly every schoolhouse is an orchard, and a spraying apparatus would cost less and would be quite as educative and as easily manipulated as many of the gimcracks found in some schools. HIGH PEDAGOGICAL VALUE No Other teaching squares more nicely with accepted pedagogical ideas. It deals with those things with which the farm-reared child is already familiar. It is largely a training of the senses. It enters con- sciousness by every avenue to the soul — hearing, seeing, tasting, smell- ing, feeling. It deals with things and not with words alone. It relates to what is near and not to that which is afar. Its lessons are on the lawn, in the treetop, in the shower, and by the roadside. It does not deal with abstractions, but with concrete, living, growing things ; with the flowers and plants, and colts, and lambs, and birds that are growing with the child ; for growing together is the meaning of the word co?icrete. Agriculture is pre-eminently the study that cultivates the habit of observation, that keeps the pupil on the lookout with his senses wide awake and keen for whatever is presented. It teaches him to see what is worth observing, and not to overvalue what is simply odd or curious. It teaches him that effect follows cause ; that we live under a reign of law ; that all phenomena have a natural cause ; that all things exist for a purpose; and that *' Nothing vain nor useless is." It prevents the growth of superstition, and gives freedom from groundless fears and baseless hopes. When studied in garden and field and forest, as of course it should be, agriculture gives full play to all the motor activities. WILL IMPROVE THE FARMERS The teaching of agriculture in the rural schools would have its high- est value in its effect upon the farmer; for, while it is important to improve the farm, it is more important to improve the farmer. Farmers Departmeral PRACTICAL VALUE OF TEACHING AGRICULTURE 435 are more than farms — souls than soils. A fuller knowledge of agricul- ture would greatly change the farmer. It would broaden his mind and deepen his way of thinking. His vocation would appear to him in a new aspect. Instead of walking blindly among the great forces of nature, as he now too often does — instead of looking upon nature as a great puzzle, that only perplexes, or bewilders, or discourages him — he would see order and beauty and law that would clarify his thinking and encour- age and guide him to more successful doing. Teach the children the lessons of the soil. Tell them the wonderful story of its origin, or, better still, let them tell you what they have seen in the field and by the brook, and then give them the charming expla- nation. Tell them why men plow and what are the reasons for cultivat- ing the soil, and what methods of cultivation are beneficial and what are decidedly injurious. Tell them how the physical condition of the soil may affect its fertility ; and tell them what elements have been taken from the soil when it is worn out, and how to replace them. Tell them the marvelous story of the most important discovery of modern times — a discovery which places in the hands of every farmer a means, com- pletely under his control, of drawing from the atmosphere the free nitro- gen of the air, and of fixing it in any field he may wish to enrich. It is a story of minute organisms which are in the soil — or if they are .not there the farmer can put them there — which locate themselves upon the roots of certain plants and give these plants power to store up in their roots, to be left in the soil, its most valuable constituent of plant food, nitrogen. Tell them what the tassel and the silk of the corn are, and why one is at the top of the stalk and the other very much below it. Tell them why the blossoms of corn, oats, rice, and wheat are colorless and odorless, and why the blossoms of cotton and the clovers are so beautifully colored, and why they have such exquisite perfume. Tell them what the bees and the bumblebees are doing, and of what superlative importance they are to the existence of many plants, and how they are most industriously serving man, a little by the honey they make, but vastly more in other ways; for they not only increase his apple, peach, and pear crop, but they also aid in adding fertility to the soil. In the school garden — for there should be a garden near every school — teach many of those devices by which fruits are propagated, and by which a new and desirable variety is multiplied and distributed. Very few of our most valuable fruits are propagated by seeds ; in fact, some are without fertile seeds. There was never but one Brother Jonathan apple tree or Sudduth pear tree growing on its own roots. Explain to the children why the seedsman sells no strawberry seeds. Let the larger pupils understand plant breeding, as of corn, in their garden, and tell them about the efforts being made to produce better — better from a 436 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary dietary point of view — varieties of cereals, and also more hardy and more fruitful. The possibilities in plant-breeding are just dawning upon the farmer, and are as fascinating to him as are Marconi's discoveries to the telegrapher. Yet there is nothing here that a bright pupil might not apprehend. Nothing at any rate so difficult as the inverted divisor in arithmetic or the passive voice in grammar. Let the children observe how the young things of the farm gain knowledge. The young chick, and the colt, and the lamb, begin with minds all blank, and very rapidly they learn, so that shortly they are quite wise. Let children observe the means by which they gain this wisdom. A setting hen in the schoolroom to hatch her chicks and train them to eat, and to come at her bidding, and to scuttle away and hide when danger comes, would not be a bad beginning for the study of psychology. The successful management of farm animals requires an understanding of this law of their intellectual growth. " Intellect is the outgrowth from the simple reflex response to exter- nal conditions T Let the children observe that all young animals upon the farm are at first without fear, and that the emotion of fear comes only to preserve from harm, and that if the young things meet no harm, and early receive kind usage, they will always be without fear. The application of this to the rearing of animals upon the farm will soon make a " happy family " of all. And the resulting kindliness of treatment which will be given to all farm animals will greatly enhance their value — increase the working years of the horse, the richness and the quality of milk from the cow, the rapidity with which weight on the fatting animals accumulates, and add greatly to the pleasure and the profit of those engaged in animal hus- bandry. Who can doubt the practical value of teaching these things to those who are to be the future farmer^ of this land ? Think how it would brighten the dull monotony of the lonesome little country school to teach the children to understand the things about them — the weeds by the road- side and the harm they do ; the birds in the hedge and the good they do; the honey bee and the white clover, the bumblebee and the red clover, and the great value of the work they accomplish ; the angleworm in the field and its work. These things for the child, and more complex things for the young man and the young woman of the farm, how they would change the mental and spiritual attitude of the future farmer toward his vocation ! Instead of being either the discontented drudge longing to get to town, as he so often is, or of being the hard-fisted, grasping land- grabber, which some, alas, are, he would be a student working joyously and happily and successfully in that greatest of all laboratories — a well- kept farm. Department] PRACTICAL VALUE OF TEACHING AGRICULTURE 437 DISCUSSION Jesse D. Burks, assistant, department of Elementary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. — The paper that has just been read may be summarized under four propositions: First, agriculture as avocation is of fundamental importance in our national economy ; second, there is pressing need for improved methods in agriculture ; third, the subject-matter of agriculture may be organized on educational principles ; fourth, there is a richness of subject-matter adapted to the increase of culture among the farming population. The point of view here is that of the vocation. The thought is focused on a distinct industrial class. The practical value of the teaching of agriculture is said to lie in the economic betterment of the country and in the intellectual enlightenment of the farmers. There is much soundness in this argument for the practical value of teaching agri- culture in the public elementary schools, tho it is doubtful whether technical instruc- tion in agricultural methods can be carried as far as proposed in the paper. I shall not attempt a discussion of this phase of the question, but shall pass immediately to the consideration of a far more significant problem, namely, what is the most fundamental and permanent value of teaching this subject in the public schools ? The answer to this' question will vary according to the standard by which we measure the practical value. Mr, Carter has found his standard in the economic and intellectual welfare of the farming class, and has made his answer to accord with his standard. We might make an estimate of value upon a standard primarily financial, or strictly disciplinary, or upon a standard involving moral developme'nt in a narrow sense. Each of these standards has rightful claim to consideration, but each is inadequate. Evidently, we are compelled to face the problem of an ultimate educational standard before we can make an estimate of value that shall be full and final. We find such a standard by considering what is most characteristically and truly human, and therefore most vitally and permanently valuable. It is a truism as old at least as Aristotle that man is by nature a social being. In our educational thought and practice we have, in a large measure, forgotten this important fact, and have gone far toward desociahzing the school. The subjects of our curricula are far too commonly treated as if they were independent of human life. Geography and history and nature study are taught, not because they reveal significant aspects of social life, but because they are, for some mysterious reason, considered from our adult point of view as necessary for the mental training of children. There is, however, a distinct turn in the tide. The truism above referred to, expanded and vitalized, embodies the best educational thought of the past twenty years. Thus amplified, the phrase means that the chief business of education is to lead children into a sympathetic understanding of the great body of social relations that constitute the significant part of human life, and to develop capacity to control these relations. The affairs of family and neighborhood life; of commercial activity; of city, state, and national politics; the moral, economic, and political relations of man to man ; the finer social relations expressed in literature and art — these are the realities with which education is properly concerned. Geography is valuable, from this point of view, only so far as it enables us to understand and to control the physical background of social life. A geographical fact has social value when it determines to some extent social relations, such as habitation, industry, or political unity. Arithmetic possesses value, in a social sense, only when it enables us to gain a clearer vision of human relations, or to control more readily the affairs of social life. Just so any other subject must establish its right to a place in the public schools by showing that it can clarify the social understanding, stimulate the social sympathy, and increase the social vitality of the pupils. The final measure of educational value, then, is social power, which embraces social sense, or the capacity to 438 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary comprehend social situations ; social sympathy, or the capacity to feel social situations ; and social efficiency, or the capacity to control these situations. Let us apply this standard to such nature study as we commonly find in our elementary schools. This consists of a somewhat orderly arrangement of facts concerning the physical world, without much regard to their relative importance — facts about plants and animals and the inorganic world, brought together with little thought of their human setting. The germination of seeds, the growth of plants, the habits of animals, the effects of soil, temperature, and moisture upon plant life, are taught, and collections of various kinds are made without reference to the part these things play in determining human relations. There may be interest in such work, but there is not social interest. We have only a sort of educational solitaire, in which the characteristically human touch is lacking. Social power cannot be developed by such processes. Agriculture properly taught furnishes a social background for much that is going on under the name of nature study. The germination of seeds, the growth of plants, the collection of specimens, the observation and classification of plants and animals, lose their isolation and assume a vital social value. Nature study thus becomes less theoretic and abstract ; more practical and concrete. The facts regarding plants and animals, soil and climate, form parts of a story that has meaning and motive, and the interest centers itself upon large, rich thoughts rather than upon details, in themselves unimportant. Mr. Carter has presented a suggestive body of matter appropriate to such study, which I need not dwell upon at further length. Judged by our social standard, the educational importance of facts depends upon the extent to which social relations are determined by those facts. The final thought that I shall advance is that agriculture, as the largest single industry of our economic system, is one of the most powerful factors in determining human relations. The leader in this discussion has brought out, in many of its details, the social bearing of the subject, but has failed to carry out the thought to its conclusion. The field for the teaching of agriculture must not be limited to the rural schools, but must be extended to all schools, city and rural alike. The subject has a practical value, if the standard I have suggested be accepted, far more fundamental than that advanced in the leading paper. The teaching of agriculture is not only practically valuable, but is practically necessary in a school that aims to bring its pupils to a vivid comprehension of their social background and to develop in them an habitual attitude that prompts them to measure their individual powers by the standard of social efficiency. The requirements of enlightened citizenship, then, are the highest justification of the teaching of agriculture in the public schools. Miss Corinne Marcellus, director of the kindergarten, Ilartigan School, Chicago, 111. — I think we shall all agree that gardening has great educational value even for the very young children, but I am sure we shall be unanimous in saying that it presents huge difficulties in most of our school environments ; so, rather than theorize, I will tell you a little of what has been accomplished in some Chicago schools. That a practical and successful garden can be planned and cultivated in connection with a public school kindergarten seems to have been fully demonstrated by the teachers and children of the D. S. Wentworth School, furnishing at the same time a very remark- able example of " where there's a will there's a way." To begin with, they felt strongly the value of gardening, and having once made up their minds that a garden was the thing to have, they compelled circumstances to shape themselves to that end. Of course the first requisite, and also the first difficulty which confronted them, was to get a piece of old mother earth large enough for their purpose. For a time this was so serious a problem that it seemed as tho their hopes must be abandoned, and then I think they reasoned that the lack of anything so plentiful as dirt in a Chicago kindergarten district should not deter them. There was no school yard, and a vacant lot near by which might have been secured had no fence, so they set to work investigating the cost of fences. By strict economy and good management they found they could fence Department] PRACTICAL VALUE OF TEACHING AGRICULTURE 439 in that lot for $150, but as this seemed to necessitate a cut in salaries it was deemed unadvisable. Then they appealed to the mothers, with the result that one mother, the fortunate possessor of some ground, loaned them a garden 25 x 50 feet. Next came the thoro preparation of the teacher herself for the work, and this was accomplished by consulting all the garden lore of the Chicago Public Library and by the giving up of many afternoons in study. Then began the actual work, which was done entirely by the children. They were divided into two groups of about twenty-five each, each group working a while every day. The ground had to be cleaned of all rubbish and cornstalks left from last year, and a glorious bonfire celebrated its completion. The children all accompanied the director to engage a plowman, who gave his services for one dollar, and such fun as it was to follow the plow, and such mysteries of squirming worms, bugs, and stones as it unearthed. It was then platted into beds, the children using strings to make the paths straight. At last the garden was ready for planting. The children brought many kinds of seeds. Of the flowers the nasturtiums were found the most successful. The pansies were not a success, but no fault could be found with the morning-glory vine which covered an unsightly fence. Radishes, lettuce, cabbage, onions, and potatoes were planted in other beds, and the children were very much surprised at the cutting up of the potatoes in planting. Sweet corn and popcorn were planted, and as no cornfield was ever complete without big, yellow pumpkins, these were not omitted. In due time the tiny plants appeared and the results in the child garden were no less apparent ; never once had the children been told to keep off the grass in the surrounding yard or reminded in their care of the garden. They marched from the school to the gar- den in an orderly line, but then were allowed to work informally, and the question of dis- cipline solved itself. Many were the surprises for those whose experience had never gone beyond the barrel in the grocery store. The radishes and lettuce matured before the close of school, and a party celebrated the occasion. The next unique feature was a sale. Dainty invitations made by the children were sent to the mothers, and no regrets were received. On the auspicious day many little storekeepers with their check-books stood behind tables filled with bright radishes and green lettuce, and sufficient money was taken in to buy a beautiful picture for the kindergarten. During the summer the garden was cared for by the director and neighboring children, and in the fall they reaped a glorious harvest. There were six perfect ears of popcorn which decorated the Christmas tree ; a long sunflower stalk for a flagstaff; another sale of vegetables; a Thanksgiving party in which another kinder- garten participated ; gourds for decorations ; and many seeds put away for next season. It was an abundant harvest in more ways than one, and I think those who planned and directed and made possible this harvest must have also received their full share. In the next instance, the Burr School, the whole school participated. A vacant lot 348 X 158 feet was loaned, divided into beds, and each room in the primary given a bed. Vegetables and grains only were planted, and the children worked half an hour each day under the supervision of a teacher. The grammer grades were given seeds with instruc- tions for home window-boxes and flower-beds, and prizes were offered for the best results in the fall. In the interest of this subject, I visited many schools which have done successful gardening, and in each case I found success due to personal effort on the part of the teacher. If our system of education can be said to be superficial, is it not due to our inability to show the child the connection between cause and effect ? He learns about things, but does he come in contact with the process of their creation ? Can we develop logical thought without showing him this process, especially with our younger children ? And what more beautiful or natural way can we find than thru nature herself ? Is it not worth a strenuous effort on our part ? I believe we can overcome all the difficulties of environment and methods if we are earnest and willing to work, and I know the harvest 44° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary will not be alone that which the earth yields, for there will be harvests of mind and spirit. There is no study in our curriculum which cannot be correlated with this subject, and the principles of evolution drawn from this experience and applied to other subject- matter will put new life into the school routine, and education will become a more natural -process. Miss Elizabeth Harrison, principal of the Chicago Kindergarten College. — If the steaddy increasing demand for gardens in connection with schools is any evidence of their value, we have but to turn to that most convincing of all arguments, namely, the statistics of the subject. In Europe there are over 100,000 school gardens, not including the more or less extensive patch of ground that is a part of every kindergarten on the continent. I have not been able to obtain the exact statistics concerning the number of Ameri- can schools that have gardens as part of their scheme of work ; but they are far behind Europe in this respect. Our kindergartens, on the one hand, and our state agricultural schools on the other, are doing much to increase interest in this important subject. The former, the kindergartens, aim only at teaching the love of plant life and a tender protecting care of the same, the names and the general characteristics of the special plants cultivated being incidental to the awakening of the right interest in nature and the development of the right will power in the treatment of plants, shrubs, and trees. The latter, the state agricultural schools, train their students into a scientific knowledge of agriculture, together with practical experience in gardening, farming, horticulture, and to a certain extent forestry. Between these two extremes lie the elementary schools, the secondary schools, the high schools, and the normal schools, w.here the work is as yet largely in the experimental stage, with a few brilliant exceptions. It is not in my province, in the brief time alloted to me, to speak of the common- sense argument for a knowledge of gardening as an important part of each child's educa- tion, inasmuch as the earth is not only his home, but the producer of all of the food that he eats and of much of the clothing that he wears, not to speak of the practical economy that arises from knowing how to make a few feet of earth bring forth a suffi- cient living for two or three people, with a small addition of meat, butter, milk, etc. I am personally acquainted with a man who by the scientific gardening of fifteen acres has maintained a family of five and saved money enough to give a college education to each of his four boys. This is but one illustration of the economical value of a knowledge of gardening. Nor have I time to discuss the moral influence which is created by teaching boys to love to work in a garden rather than to loaf on the streets or congregate in the back alleys. I have an intimate friend whose life work has been the tutoring of boys preparatory to their entrance to college. His home is in one of the finest suburbs of Chicago, and upon his grounds are beautiful trees and shrubs and well laid out gardens. He states that with- out exception he has had to teach each city boy who has come to him a respect for nature ; that invariably they begin by pulling the branches off of the shrubs, whittling the trunks of the trees, and ruthlessly tramping down the gardens in their heedless play ; that in each case he has cured this vandalism by giving the boy a plot of ground of his own to cultivate, and leadmg him little by little to see the wonder, and then the beauty, of the great world about him. The boys were not "the roughs" of our city, but came from cultivated homes. The fact that they had had little or no direct contact with nature had left them still in the savage attitude toward nature, namely, that of mastering her by destroying her. This brings us to the practical value of gardening as it is used by the kindergarten. The young child who comes to our kindergarten is largely in the emotional stage of development. Therefore, it can readily be seen that it is an important thing to educate his affection for plant life, to lead him to feel that it is a part of the same divine, mys- Department J THE USE AND DANGER OF METHOD 44 1 terious creation of which he is a part, in order that reverence, that deepest of all emotions may be stirred within him. No one who has ever watched the glow on a child's face when he first discovers the cotyledons that have mysteriously appeared where he planted the seed, or who has seen the light that shines in his eyes when he carefully plucks for the first time a blossom from his plant, can doubt the soul stirring which such an experi- ence gives. But the garden of a kindergarten does much more than this. The children are taught that it is part of their daily life to water and care for the plants of their schoolroom, or school garden. Thus a sense of loving responsibility is awakened and strengthened as the year goes forwards Surely the Lord knew best when he placed man and woman in a garden for their development, and, having failed to profit by their envi- ronment, condemned them to till the soil. The race instinct which created this great world-enduring mythus was a true one, and we will do well to follow it. THE USE AND DANGER OF METHOD W. A. MILLIS, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, CRAWFORDSVILLE, IND. Education is a process. There are several agencies employed in bring- ing about this process. One of these is inspiration, or suggestion. Thru this channel the spirit of a people is communicated from generation to generation. The hopes, aspirations, ambitions, viewpoints, and insights of an individual or a nation are largely received thru "the hem of the garment." What are known as the spirit of the age, the genius of a peo- ple, the atmosphere of a school, are communicated chiefly thru the sugges- tions that come out of personal contact. The inspiration of the ancient prophets was not an exceptional phenomenon, but a notable instance of a prominent universal element in the educational movement. A second factor is imitation. While the individual acquires the inner content of life from those about him thru suggestion or inspiration, he secures the forms of life for the clothing and expression of spirit by appropriation of the forms and usages in vogue in his environment. By means of this appropriation, or imitation, he acquires his dress, manners, language, institutions, and the character of his occupation. Infrequently sugges- tion and imitation combine to make him inventive, of a new form or institution. These elements, suggestion, imitation, and invention, proceed out of the constitution of the individual and his reaction upon the environment with which he comes into contact. These processes are elemental and constitute the chief factors in the educational process, but if the individ- ual were left to the development coming solely from the experience growing out of associations which his own impulses would secure, the results would be uncertain. There would be a large margin of chance, his development would be both slow and imperfect, and inadequate to the demands made upon his adult life. Society, therefore, supplements the native educational process by bringing to bear an institutional agency, teaching. 442 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education is a process, a movement in the life of an individual. Teach- ing is an art employed in facilitating and directing this process or move- ment along lines believed to be most wholesome. This process is according to certain laws, a part of which are inherent in the nature of human life, and a part of which are inherent in the nature of human environment. If the individual is to experience the educational movement, he must pass thru certain activities determined in his own nature. He must also pass thru a certain order or sequence of activities determined by the nature of the environment with which he seeks to come into adjustment. These activities required of him as a means of growth, these conditions imposed upon him, constitute what we call the " principles of education." They are also referred to^is as the " method of education," as distinguished from the " art of teaching." The nature and sequence of activity determined by the nature of the individual are sometimes referred to as " subjective method," while the sequence imposed by the object of mastery or appro- priation constitutes "objective method." Another phrasing connoting the same distinctions is the method in the individual and the method in the subject. Now, teaching is an art or practice, in the sense in which we speak of the practice of law or the practice of medicine, and has for its pur- pose to facilitate the educational activities of the child. To be effective it must conform to the principles or laws of the process which we denomi- nate " method of education." It must keep within the limits which these principles impose. In so far as it goes beyond these limits or fails to conform to these principles the practice becomes ineffective and futile. But the art of teaching may have great liberty within the limits set by the principles of education. A principle of action does not define the whole of the practice pursued in conformity therewith. It merely defines cer- tain conditions which the practice must satisfy as the price of success. It is a common divisor rather than a multiple.. Art deals with a particu- lar set of conditions. Principle has to do with a general characteristic " applicable to all situations. Educational method sets up the general course, the guiding lines of practice. After satisfying these conditions the art of teaching is subject to a law of its own, and, practically, this is the law of efficiency. It is evident that the school as an institution for teaching must have a definite methodology if it(«)is to accomplish the end it has in view, and if it {f) is to accomplish this end with economy of time and effort, both of which are important considerations. The school must have both a clear working conception of educational principles and a definite code of practice. The teacher must have an adequate grounding in the laws which govern her profession, and at the same time possess definite methods of teaching — a definite plan of procedure. What use shall the teacher make of method? In the first place she Department] THE USE AND DANGER OF METHOD 443 must understand and keep constantly in mind the nature and sequence of experiences made necessary in the nature of child life thru which the educational movement takes place. She must understand subjective method. She must also understand the sequence of these experiences made necessary in the organization of the subjects of study and practice upon which the child is put to work. She must understand the objec- tive method. She must grasp the principles involved in these condi- tions in order to know what her practice must conform to; to know what her limits are; to have a guiding line for the definition of her pro- cedure in the class-room. The teacher must understand the fundamental principles of education in order to be independent, in order to be help- fully self-critical. However efficient she may be, however great her experience, or fortunate her instinct for the right thing to do, she is dependent upon the insight of a supervisor to know, whether she is doing the right thing, or doing it in the right way, if she is not grounded in correct pedagogical insight. Without at least an elementary pedagogy she has no compass. Her art is chartless. She is navigating the sea of school-room problems hit or miss, unable to know for herself just where she is or the worth of what she is doing, except as she hails a passing friend equipped with both chart and compass. Her teaching must be blind, hesitating, faltering, feeling its way, unless she is prepared to measure the worth of what she is doing, find her distance, take her sound- ings, and locate the channel thru which she may safely approach. The efficient teacher will not, does not, and cannot develop her art of teach- ing out of the body of principles by which she is governed. Teaching is not applied pedagogy. Art grows; science is elaborated. Art is subordi- nate to science only in the sense that it must conform to the standards set up by science. Each rests upon its own foundation and has its par- ticular field and law. Art has generally preceded science in time of development. There was an art of teaching before there was a psychology, or a science of education, just as there was a literary art before there was a science of discourse. Art is born and is " long." The function of science is, not to give birth to art, but rather to determine whether it is well born and to shorten it. The admonition of Professor James in discus- sing the relation of psychology to teaching in his "Talk to Teachers," is timely and in point. I quote the following: I say, moreover, that you make a great, a very great, mistake, if you think that psychology, being the science of the mind's laws, is something from which you can deduce definite programs, and schemes, and methods of instruction for immediate school- room use. Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art ; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediary inventive mind must make the appli- cation, by using its originality. The science of logic never made a man reason rightly, and the science of ethics (if there be such a thing) never made a man behave rightly. The most such sciences can do is to help us to catch ourselves up and check ourselves, if we start to reason and behave 444 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary wrongly, and to criticise ourselves more articulately after we have made mistakes. A science only lays down lines within which the rules of art must fall — laws which the fol- lower of the art must not transgress ; but what particular thing he shall positively do within those lines is left exclusively to his own genius. One genius will do his work well and succeed in one way, while another succeeds as well quite differently ; yet neither will transgress the lines. The teacher, therefore, will understand the principles of subjective and objective method, not as something out of which she may deduce rules of practice, but as a means of better defining her methods of ■procedure and of testing the worth of her teaching. It is necessary also that the teacher have a definite method or code of practice, and that she understand the nature and relation of the elements with which she must work. There are at least four : The end to be accomplished ; the condition of the particular child or children to be dealt with ; the instrumentalities, subjects, and devices with which they are to be dealt ; and the particular teacher, with her own personality, equipment, resources, gifts, and limitations, who is to deal with the children. The thing to do is to be determined from these conditions. Given the conditions, the teacher, keeping in mind the essentials of method, must determine for herself and the particular time and place the plan or practice to be pursued. This plan must be thought out each time. Variation of any element requires a corresponding modification of plan. There is not one method of teaching reading, or number, or science, but as many methods as there are lessons to present. Each lesson requires its own method ; each teacher, her method ; each child, its method. The actual problem of the teacher is to move the child from where he is found to where he is wanted to be. In the movement the teacher must enjoy and exercise entire liberty in the selection and employment of ways and means, instrumentalities and devices, keeping all the time within the limits fixed by the principles involved in the process. The teacher is given a set of factors with which to work, certain limits within which to keep, and a result to obtain ; otherwise she is free. She may be allopathic, homoepathic, eclectic, old school, or new school, always free to do the thing set out to be done in the way which for her is best, always remembering that she herself is the vital factor. But I am to speak especially of the dangers of method. These have been suggested already in the foregoing. First of all is the danger in our pedagogical thought and practice of confusing method of education with method of teaching. This error occurs in two forms : [a) In attempting to deduce the art of teaching directly from the principles of education, putting under the ban all practices of the schoolroom which do not show direct lineage ; {B) in setting up a particular teacher's art as possessing universal validity, and therefore serving as a criterion by which all teaching shall be measured. The former of these errors is quite common with teachers trained in one variety of normal school, and is one I Department] THE USE AND DANGER OF METHOD 445 to which professors of pedagogy, normal-school instructors, and super- visors are particularly liable in directing and criticising the practical work of the schoolroom. Examples of this error are the so-called psychologies of language, number, and certain phases of kindergarten work ; the attempt to deduce working rules from more or less crudely elaborated generalizations from child study ; the attempt to develop finished writers of English prose by a study of the philosophy of style ; the organization of certain normal schools in which the training course consists of a few sample lessons given to exploit further the principles dictated in the lecture room. Another instance of this error is the frequent impatience of the critic with the practice of the class-room because he observes there appeals, devices, and methods which are not written down in his philoso- phy. Quoting again from James : The art of teaching grew up in the schoolroom, out of inventiveness and sympathetic concrete observation. Even where (as in the case of Herbart) the advancer of the art was also a psychologist, the pedagogics and psychology ran side by side, and the former was not derived in any sense from the latter. The two were congruent, but neither was subordinate. And so everywhere the teaching must agree with the psychology, but need not necessarily be the only kind of teaching that would so agree ; for many diverse methods of teaching may equally well agree with psychological laws. The second error is quite common with the teacher who is not equipped with a correct philosophy of teaching, or who is enamored with her own success. Examples of this error may be found in many text- books compiled by teachers who have met with personal success in the use of certain methods of teaching reading, or language, or number, and who assume therefrom that their plans and programs have equal validity for all children and all teachers in all times and places. The same mis- take is made by the critic who would or could not follow the program he is criticising. Another danger in the matter of method, akin to the foregoing, is the very prevalent desire for uniformity of practice. In the state system it takes the form of uniform courses of study and state adoption of text- books. The error consists in ignoring the variation of communities in character of population, cultural conditions, and school enconomy. In the local system it is quite likely to take the form of uniform methods of government, presentation of lessons, and assignment of instruction. The error here consists in ignoring the variations in the character of the sev- eral districts of the city, and especially variation in personality, resources, and equipment of teachers. Each school has the right to do for its pupils that which they most need to have done, and each teacher has the right to do the things to be done in the way which she can best do them. There is always danger in prescribing programs for teachers of veiling their personality and obstructing their recourse to common-sense. After all, the best which the teacher can give the pupil is herself — her own better insight ; her truer aspiration ; her juster appreciation ; her superior 446 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary point of view ; her personality. It is thru the world dwelling in Christ and Christ dwelling in the world that the gift of redemption is obtained. It is the fertilizing contact of mature with immature spirit that communi- cates the better life of the one to the other, that lifts the lower to the plane of the higher. The teacher is seen in her truest relation when, like our Savior, with down-stretched hand she projects her own noble and exalted spirit into the being of little children and raises them to her side. This is her greatest contribution, and any hedging the teacher about with fine and exacting prescription of method that hinders or prevents this touch of life upon life is hurtful and to be deplored. In the effort to make teaching scientific rather than artistic there is also danger of getting in the way of the child. The teacher is not con- cerned with an inert, formless mass which she is to push and pull and batter into shape. The child is a living, organized being, filled thru and thru with a method of education implanted by a keener insight than man's. He is surcharged with impulses sufficient for his development if proper relations are provided. There is grave danger in minute defini- tion of plans and procedures of thwarting his spontaneity, of outraging his native activities, and converting him into a passive instrument to be operated on. Overexactness causes an arrest of growth often more serious in its consequences than neglect; and overemphasis of method is quite sure to fasten the interest of the teacher upon the tools of her pro- fession rather than on the accomplishment of her mission to the child. Teaching does not exist for its own sake. It is always an agency, of value only in facilitating a process. Function is more important than agent. In critical attention to details of method there is danger of destroying the teacher's perspective and of fixing her affection upon the art itself rather than upon the giving of growth by means of the art. DISCUSSION Superintendent W. H. Hatch, Oak Park, 111. — Method which results from a full and careful study of the child or from inherent genius may be the highest type of art, and is apparently accomplished by a fullness of knowledge in some phase. Such method will arouse a hunger for more knowledge, satisfied only by more skill. Why do we seek normal-trained teachers ? Because of the inspiration of their train- ing, their knowledge of their relations to the child and their relations to education. This knowledge usually keeps them from failure, and directs them how to start, and finally how to work out the ideal that they have gained from their training. They can build on the foundations there given them, and method saves them while they study their work, the child, and the community. D. B. Parkinson, president of the Southern Illinois State Normal School. — We seem to consider the subject of method similarly, but differ in the significance we give to the term. Genius alone will not do the work ; it must be coupled with knowledge of the end to be attained. Tact is a quality that will adapt the method to the end. Mr. Millis in his paper referred to (i) inspiration, (2) suggestion, and (3) imitation, Department] MYTH AND HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 447 as the factors in method ; but these are not always to be relied upon. Activity needs direction, physical energies need control, and the teacher needs to be the directive force. We are unjust to young teachers in regarding them as capable only of imitation. Their originality should be valued and encouraged, tho we are all to some extent imitative. A. W. Rankin, inspector of graded schools for Minnesota. — Normal graduates suc- ceed most readily because of the start given them in methodical habits, the respect for their profession, and the practice given under direction. While method avails most in primary grades, the intermediate grades need it too, and need it badly. We are not in great danger of overdoing our method work ; this is the peculiar field of the normal. Miss M. Adelaide Holton, supervisor of primary grades, Minneapolis, Minn. — My first question to an applicant used to be, " From what Normal are you a graduate ? " I now reserve my question until I satisfy myself as to the woman herself, and then ask her training. No method can be broader than the personality of the woman using it. Rigidly following a fixed line of procedure makes trouble. The greatest strength of a teacher is in her own personality, if she is to be a character builder. To sacrifice interest to some cut-and-dried plans is altogether too narrow a view. Miss Adda P. Wertz, Carbondale, 111.— 1 deplore conditions which keep a teacher's eyes upon mode of procedure rather than upon the condition of the child, and agree with Miss Holton in her estimate of the value of the teacher's personality ; but the habit of methodical procedure prevents chaos in the schoolroom, and with increase of culture and progress in the point of view it results in growth to the teacher. Superintendent John E. Richeson, East St. Louis, 111. — As a superintendent, I notice the use and the abuse of method and its especial need in the intermediate grades. Love for the children will evidence itself in a knowledge of their needs. Sympathy sug- gests means, such as awaken interest, and if not found in the school for good it will likely be received from the street for evil. I would distinguish between method in educa- tion and method in teaching, as was done in the paper read. Superintendent E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. — A teacher is judged first by her success, second by her method. Too great reliance on a fixed metnod means disregard of condition and neglect of opportunity. MYTH AND HISTORY [N THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS: THE USE AND LIMITS OF EACH MISS MAY H. PRENTICE, INSTRUCTOR IN THE CITY NORMAL SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, O. The myth, so far as it has found its way into the elementary schools, has come usually as the handmaiden of nature study. The myths oftenest used are those which are accepted as poetical interpretations of certain natural phenomena. For this use, quite frequently an illumina- tive one merely, and also to point a moral — sometimes a forced one — the myth has been quite generally accepted. When the myth-story is judi- ciously chosen and its relation to the principal subject of thought is clear, these are real uses. History has been firmly established in the schools of civilization since civilization reached the stage of self-consciousness, and particularly since the doctrine of evolution with all its vast implications has caused men to 448 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary try to solve the problems of the future by a study of the past — not that they may imitate that past, but that they may read its prophecy of the future. In recent years we have believed that history may be so presented as to have a great value and an ever-increasing interest in every year of the child's school life. Is it possible that the province of myth is a larger one than it is usually considered ; that it has a value all its own ; a field lying along- side that of history but not trenching upon it ; and correlated but not subordinated to nature study and moral instruction ? The use, or uses, of history are so delightfully definite that we find it a pleasure to recount them and to remind ourselves on what solid ground we stand. One of the most valuable services which the study of history renders to the child is to bring the child into a rational and ordered world. The sequence of events is not a mere time sequence, he finds. He comes, so, to recognize the law of development : nothing comes from nothing. Thus he comes to question whither, whence, and to be satisfied only when he sees clearly the relation of cause and effect. No better medium than history can be found thru which to teach the essentials of truthful statement. The value of this knowledge is difficult to overrate. Some thoughtful people have feared to destroy the trust of the child in parent, teacher, or text-book by too early knowledge of the fallibility of these. But the child who is brought up to stoutly support his own text-book against another in matters of detail is being trained to set up authority as truth instead of truth as authority. Moreover, a knowledge of the human tendency to error is likely to make the individual strive humbly to be accurate, and in so doing learn charity, whereas the belief that all error is willful and wicked breeds sensitiveness and false pride as well as intolerance. Further, finding brave, devoted, sincere, and thoughtful people on both sides of any great question, the pupil should learn a large and gen- erous tolerance, respect, courtesy, toward those people whose views differ from his own. The study of history exercises the imagination of the pupil within given and definite limits. The imagination wears bit and bridle and serves its master to a given end-. The ability to put oneself in another's place is needed to establish right relations between man and man. In the biographical form in which the child largely studies history he finds what we may call practical ideals — ideals which individual men have realized and therefore made to seem possible to the struggling soul which sees its own ideal self realized in them. The child's knowledge of history does not consist alone in the accuracy of his information. To really know he must feel. Mrs. Hemans' Department] MYTH AND HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 449 " Landing of the Pilgrims" is somewhat inaccurate, yet I doubt if it does not contain more history than a page of the " Classified Cyclopczdia of Dates,'' valuable as that work is. The larger patriotism which scorns the sentiment, " My country, right or wrong," the patriotism to which life or reputation is counted nothing worth so that country or party may be stayed in evil and turned to the right, is best taught thru history ; and thru it actual volitional unity with the ideal home, school, city, state, is established. The judgment is trained in this study. Even in the elementary grades the beginning should be made of a careful, critical weighing of values in human testimony ; of balancing probabilities as to results ; of making sure of one's data before arriving at a conclusion ; of finding, merely as a cold intellectual fact, that character and burning enthusiasm and grim determination are factors which cannot be left out of the prob- lem without causing the " answer " to come out wrong. The study of history does and should cultivate the memory. And this is no slight thing. There is something tonic in the effort required to accomplish a reasonable amount of memorizing, and something very pleasant in the feeling of sure possession which follows. But the memory which the study of history trains is largely of the higher type, and tho the pupil may well commit to memory the preamble to the Constitution, or the Gettysburg speech, yet the important thing is that the organiza- tion of his knowledge should be such that, in his mind, a fact can no more be separated from its relations than could the footprint on his island in the mind of Robinson Crusoe. History, I think, quite easily proves its right to a place in the school curriculum. It can as easily prove its right to a place in every grade, from the home school in which the child begs the parent, " Tell me about when you were little," to the highest grammar grade in which the child gets one breathless glimpse of the significance of the slow and stately procession of the centuries. The myth is not on so assured a footing as history. In our discussion of the myth we are liable to fall into platitudes, vagueness, or imaginary parallelisms. The realm of myth, which history trenches upon not at all, is that of free poetic fancy and imagination. It is but a brief, brief time that the happiest little child tarries in that Garden of Eden in which man has dominion over all things. From the time when he first cries for the unattainable he is without its gate, and the sense of his own impotence is the angel with the flaming sword which bars the way against him. But forever on the skies of his banishment floats a splendid mirage of the native home of his soul, which could not exist but for the reality of which it is the distorted image. In other words, the young soul very early discovers and chafes at its limitations, but it possesses also a sure 45° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary sense of its oneness with that power and intelligence which is displayed in the universe. Looking out upon the world about him, the mythmaker saw in the ordered workings of nature the manifestations of spirit akin to his own. Recognizing the kinship, he felt — the child feels — that within himself dwells power, somehow fettered, that shall some day break its bonds and be free. The myth hero is the personification of the human soul so freed, joyous, power wielding. It doth not yet appear what man shall be, but in the myth child-man dreams a child's dream of the future. In myth and fairy story the child's spirit is at home ; but this distinc- tion between the mental attitude of the child and that of the man of the child race must be kept constantly in mind : to myth-accepting man the myth was fact, was his history, his science, his religion. To the modern child it is none of these things. In his self-made explanations of the world and its phenomena the child tends to the animism of the savage, but as to the stories and explanations presented by his elders he questions relentlessly, " Is it true ? " by which he means, "Is it a fact?" Mrs. Jameson, quoted by Tyler in his Primitive Culture, says: "I remember that when I once tried to explain to a good old woman the meaning of the word ' parable,' and that the story of the Prodigal Son was not a fact, she was scandalized — she was quite sure that Jesus would never have told his disciples anything that was not true." The study of the myth furnishes the basis for the intellectual percep- tion— or apperception — of later years that truth is greater than fact. It can hardly be necessary to say here that any teaching of myths which emphasizes the idea of superstition or heathenism in their origin must fail to find the value here suggested. Greater than any intellectual value is the power- giving and spirit-freeing effect of dwelling in that realm of feeling and potential being to which the myth is one of the great gateways. It was Froebel's great discovery that in play the child most freely expresses itself, that in free play every power stretches itself to the utmost as it can never do in the most conscientious work. In the free play of the imagination, bounded by no unyielding barrier of facts, in images and situations unreal, fanciful, often grotesque, the child finds a keen joy akin to that physical delight found in the abandon of play. In the free play of the imagination the mind stretches itself to the utmost. It was at the age of ten years that the inventor of one of the successful submarine boats, inspired by reading the " Twenty Thou- sand Leagues under the Sea " of Jules Verne, determined upon the under- taking which many years later he brought to a successful termination. This is the kind of illustration of the value of the creative imagination which the practical world loves and will listen to. But when shall we Department] MYTH AND HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 45 ' learn that the body is more than raiment, that the thought is more than the material form in which it embodies itself ? You remember him, the Singer, who dwelt where level hands lay low and drear, Long stretches of waste meadow pale and sere, With dull seas languid tiding up and down. The pale horizon walled them in, and still No lifted peak, no slope nor even mound. Daily he gazed seaward : " There must be hills, " he said, " I know they stand at evening rosy-red And purple in the dewy-shadow morn." So gazing, at last, Sudden he saw Far out to seaward mountain peaks appear Slow-rising from the water pale and clear. Purple and azure, there they were as he Had faithful learning vision they must be. In vain he called his fellows to see. They saw not, not even when he brought his argosies thence. Yet of them who for the gladness in the Singer's face set sail to the unseen hills, some returned madmen like him- self, rich in a wealth which the world could not see nor measure : No man's scorn Could hurt nor hinder them. No pity born Of it could make them blush or once make less Their joy's estate ; and as for loneliness They knew it not. Forever better and more blessed is that child who has caught even one fleeting glimpse of the Singer's hills. The breezy out of door non-morality of many of the classic myths makes them especially valuable literature for little children. It is not necessary that these little ones should all the time have their teeth set on edge by that fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil of which their forbears ate. There is serious danger in a child's too early consciousness of good and evil in himself. Conscience, as is well illustrated in the case of poor little Betty Sewall, and other God-fearing — or was it devil-fearing — colonial children, may sometimes be transformed from the cheerful guide and friend of childhood to a tormenting demon, breeding morbid- ness, unrest, and irresolution in his little victim's breast. Nevertheless some of the beautiful myths which do teach deep ethical truths, like that of King Midas and the Golden Touch, may well become a part of the "invisible world of the child," ''the fire-mist heaven," "the chaos that precedes the spiritual life," as Colonel Parker calls the world of the child's imagination. Let the story be told and told and told again, if the children care for it. In the fullness of time, when from het 452 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary "fire-mist heaven " an ordered world is evolved, the soul of the story will draw its own body of thought and conduct to itself. Only let it be remem- bered the story will do its work better unspoiled by a sermon. Other myths, like the story of the whispering reeds which told the secret of King Midas' ears, teach prosaic virtues, such as prudence, although often these are better taught by the folklore stories, which are to the myth as Poor Richard's Almanac to Emerson's Essays. The answer which would be promptly given in many teachers' assem- blies as to the value of the study of the myth would be "That the children may understand allusions in literature." There is here a curious reversal of values. The proposition is hardly more tenable than it would be when made in regard to history. We do not study the stories of Valley Forge and Bunker Hill in order that we may understand allusions to them. We study them for the spiritual values which are in them. In like manner we study the Hebraic and Hellenic myths out of which so much of our poetry, so much of our deepest thought, have sprung, that we too, all unskilled in the art of verse as we are, may be poets ; that our brains may be afire with the beauty of the myth-images ; our hearts stirred with their interplay of feeling. We shall undertand the allusions, yes ; but that will be incidental. And if to us Orpheus and Psyche and Perseus are but names to ornament a rhyme, we have seen neither into the heart of the myth nor into the heart of the poet. In the upper grammar grades the study of the myth would naturally change its form, becoming to some extent the study of mythology. The following pages, the first from Tyler's Primitive Culture^ the second from Froude, are suggestive of what might be gained from this phase of study : The treatment of similar myths from different regions, by arranging them in large compared groups, makes it possible to trace in mythology the operation of imaginative processes recurring with the evident regularity of mental law; and these stories, of which a single instance would have been a mere isolated curiosity, take their place among well- marked and consistent structures of the human mind Myth may be more uniform than history. We, with the glorious present which is opening before us, we shall never enter into it, we shall never understand it, until we have learnt to see in that past, not error, but installment of truth, hard-fought-for truth, wrung out with painful and heroic effort. Mythology, from this point of view, is a study of the scientific, ethical, and religious development of the human race. I am not suggesting a formal study of comparative mythology for children in the elementary schools, but surely a child of thirteen may easily see the similarities in the myth products of different peoples in like stages of development. We can only — a phrase we use much oftener for the primary classes than for the grammar grades — "establish an apperceptive center." But the grammar- grade pupil may gain possession of the germ of the idea that human development along religious and ethical lines follows fixed laws, that the Department J MYTH AND HISTOR Y IN ELEMEN TAR Y SCHOOLS 453 truth of today is only the blossom of the truth of yesterday, and that the truth of tomorrow will be only the fruit of the truth of today. With this once understood his study of the truth of yesterday becomes more reverent; and he is not dismayed when he beholds, as he must, the truth of today changing its form. These are the points which I have tried to make in regard to myth study: (i) The myth expresses a great reality in man's experience; (2) in the exercise of the free imagination the mind's powers grow ; (3) the fine play about non-moral ideas fostered by some of the myths is whole- some ; (4) rightly chosen, some of the myths become in the fullness of time, since we think by analogy, a moral force ; (5) the value of the knowledge of mythology consists, not in our ability to find the meaning of allusions, but in the fact that our mental and spiritual condition is such that the meaning of the allusions must inevitably find us; (6) thru myth study a basis for true knowledge of the laws of spiritual and mental development is gained. Myth, then, as I see it, is not preparatory to history nor supple- mentary to it, but each is complementary to the other. History deals with the outer, myth with the inner, man — because, as Tylor truly says, " Myth is the history, not of its subjects, but of its authors." Hence, paradoxical as it seems, in history man tries to tell the truth, in myth he quite certainly tells the truth to him who listens aright. It is only as we think of myth so, as the history of the human soul, that it ceases to be to us childish fable, and we know that truly Theseus slew the Minotaur and Perseus the Gorgon, and that the tragic end of the fatal hunt of Calydon was inevitable. I have said nothing of the use of either myth or history as language material, and for this reason : If given an opportunity the child will express what is in his soul. If the myth and history taught are worthy to become a part of the child's soul stuff he will express what they have brought him when the opportunity offers. DISCUSSION Miss Stella L. Wood, superintendent of Kindergarten Normal School, Minne- apolis.— At the closing of a sewing-school, not long ago, each class repeated verses which during the weekly work hour had been committed to memory from the Bible. One group of serious-faced little girls arose and in the most impressive manner recited the following verses : Make thee an ark of gopher wood, rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch. And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of : the length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height of it thirty cubits. The fact that these verses came from the best of books led to the belief that even if bereft of context and utterly foreign to the interest and understanding of the children, nevertheless, somehow, in some unexplainable manner, they would be instructive and uplifting. It sometimes appears to the unprejudiced onlooker that this same feeling which led 454 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Elementary to the choice of the dimensions of the ark for a " memory gem " often directs the choice of myths for use in kindergartens and primary schools. The awe-inspiring fact that this myth material has been handed down thru countless generations seems to so impress us that we apparently leave behind us our common-sense and discriminating taste when we approach this particular kind of story material. We open a volume of carefully selected myths, which the preface declares has been used by the compiler with great success upon all occasions, and we are so blinded by the fact that these are myths that we fail to use the tests which we apply to all other literature in our search for stories, and are betrayed into choosing something for our children which we never would have chosen had it not been found among the classics. And the most lamentable fact of all seems to be that probably in that self -same volume of carefully selected myths might be found just the needed story — fine, dramatic, and yet simple enough to be used for the joy and edification and entertainment of the children in that part of the elementary school known as the kindergarten. It would seem that this is an age of many temptations designed to lure the kinder- gartner from the path of simplicity. The charms of basketry and rug weaving with- out, and within the desire to be considered progressive, have played havoc with many of us, and the battle once fought and apparently won in favor of simple work, within the child's scope and of his own doing, seems about to be fought over again with new foes. We need much courage to maintain simplicity in song, story, and handwork when the educational world is so fascinatingly full of good things which we long to give to our kindergarten children. It is hard to keep in mind the fact that strong meat, although we may cut it into very small pieces, cannot be digested and assimilated by organs prepared to deal with milk. A story whose meaning and symbolism is adult cannot be successfully imparted to young children, even by means of words of one syllable. We need the courage to reject much that is beautiful and fine because it is suitable for the older children, and not for the youngest in the school family. We must firmly keep to that which is simple and within the child's grasp. It is possible to "cram" even in the kindergarten. The aver- age child is so eager for stories that he will appear interested in most unprofitable ones, if they have a vestige of action and things happen in them. One should look carefully at the seemingly interested child during the telling of a story. Sometimes he is like the ordinary mortal who listens intently to a Wagner overture. He is sure it must mean something, and sometimes it almost does. The expression on the child's face often tells the observer that he hopes something is going to happen in that story soon, and he holds on as long as frail human flesh will allow. And yet the world is full of good stories for little children. Often we might enrich both ourselves and the children by replacing an ordinary tale with a classic embodying the same truth or imaginative fancy in more enduring form — a story which we may meet again on canvas, in marble, or in song. But great wisdom is needed in the choosing. In the use of historical stories for very young children a wiser choice seems to be exercised, perhaps because the story side of history contains a more intimate appeal ; there are so many simple yet glowing stories of " people who do things ; " of Columbus, the Pilgrim fathers, of Paul Revere and his midnight ride, of Washington, and the lives of many who, with the simplicity of the truly great, have so much in common with little children. Even here we use many stories because they are history which, if judged merely as stories, would be rejected as too involved or remote. But bringing to the choosing of myth and history all the discrimination we possess, often rejecting much, there still remain stories full of fire and life and glorious action, simple, primitive enough to find and meet the kindergarten child just where he is. To see children listening to such stories, told in a manner to bring the picture before them, is to witness the satisfaction of those who feast at a full table, rise refreshed, and go on their way rejoicing. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 9, 1902 The first session of this department was called to order in the assembly room of the East High School at 9: 45 A. M. by the president, J. Remsen Bishop, of the Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O., who delivered the opening address. At its close, Miss Mynn Stoddard, of Minneapolis, favored the section with a vocal solo, " Oh, for a Burst of Song," Allitsen, which was heartily encored, when she responded with "When I Awake." In the absence of Superintendent R. G. Boone, of Cincinnati, Principal Reuben Post Halleck, of the Boys' High School, Louisville, Ky., addressed the meeting upon " The Social Side of High School Life." The president then appointed the following Committee upon Nominations : George B. Aiton, state inspector of high schools for Minnesota. W. J. S. Bryan, principal high school, St. Louis, Mo. E. W. Lyttle, inspector for University of New York, Albany, N. Y. The meeting then adjourned to the different conferences, as follows : Room A, Classics. Leader, Superintendent Lafayette Bliss, Waseca, Minn. Room B, Mathematics. Leader, Charles W. Newhall, department of mathematics, Shattuck School, Faribault, Minn. Room C, Biology. J. Remsen Bishop, Walnut Hills High School, presiding officer. At 4: 30 p. M., in the chemical laboratory of the State University, the subject of physics was discussed in connection with the Department of Science Instruction, with Wilbur A. Fiske, instructor in physics, high school, Richmond, Ind., as leader. SECOND SESSION.— Thursday, July id The meeting was called to order in the assembly hall of the East High School by President Bishop, at 2 : 30 o'clock P. M. Mrs. E. W. French then favored the audience with the following songs : {a) "Thy Beaming Y.yts" MacDowell; {b) " Madrigal," /i'owflwj/ {c) "The Kos&vy, '' Nevins. In the absence of Professor John William Perrin, Western Reserve University Cleveland, O., President Charles D. Mclver, of the State Normal and Industrial Col- lege, Greensboro, N. C, addressed the meeting upon "Cost of Education." At the close of his address, the Committee on Nominations reported as follows : For President— Inspector Charles F. Wheelock, Albany, N. Y. For Vice-President — Principal Reuben Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky. For Secretary — Piinc'ipal Wilbur F. Gordy, Hartford, Conn. And they also reported the following resolution : Resolved: That the officers of this Association be instructed to act as a committee to seek a federation of the secondary associations in the various states and to secure the establishment of such associations in states where they do not exist. 455 456 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary On motion of William Schuyler, of the St. Louis High School, the report of the Com- mittee and the resolution were adopted. After a resolution of thanks to the local committee and to the singers for their aid and entertainment the meeting adjourned to the several conferences : Room A, History. Leader, Superintendent Charles R. Frazier, Little Falls, Minn. Room B, English. Leader, Professor Thomas C. Trueblood, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Room C, Principals' Conference. Topic, " School Athletics." Leader, W. J. S.Bryan, principal of the high school, St. Louis, Mo. Charles Alden Smith, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS— CALL OUT THE LEADERS J. REMSEN BISHOP, PRINCIPAL OF WALNUT HILLS HIGH SCHOOL, CINCIN- NATI, O. "To avoid dealing with facts, always have your speech in your pocket," is the moral Mr. George Ade appends to his whimsical account of the " tough trustee's " address to high-school graduates. The converse of the humorist's advice has been followed on this occasion, and an attempt will be made to deal with a few facts concerning the present condition of our public-school system. Everywhere thruout this progressive republic the year has been marked by extraordinary activity in all departments of human endeavor. The schools have not stepped aside from this mighty current, but have forged well to the front of the great stream of American progress. Kin- dergarten work, nature study, commercial branches, all the newer ele- ments in the educational scheme have been taught with better insight into their educational value than ever before. Practical ends and cultural ends, if indeed there ever has been any real difference between them, have now apparently been reconciled. It has been found that thd cultural aim is best attained when the practical aim is never lost sight of at least in the mind of teacher and pupil. The practical aim is to live hon- orably and independently ; the cultural aim, to live in the noblest atmos- phere. The one certainly does not preclude the other. Naturally the interested observer, the doctor philosophus reviewing the situation, looks for the means that might have produced even a better result than that which has been attained. In the matter of public-school progress and improvement the defect easily suggests itself. Professor Paul H. Hanus in a recent address pointed out the fact that the great com- mittees whose labors have glorified the National Educational Association and'benefited American public schools in a measure not easily computed Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 457 have neglected in a curious fashion the work of one another and the his- tory of our institutions. Each committee seemed to feel that it had the whole scheme to reconstruct, so far as its field extended, instead of the seem- ingly obvious duty of studying the entire educational field, and in all its own work never failing to consider the demands and limitations of other school periods and departments. On this basis only, as Professor Hanus points out, can final work be accomplished. Whence, then, this fragmentariness and overlapping exemplified in the work of our committees and observable thruout the system ? May they not be traced to lack of scope in school supervision ? At any rate a plea for better general supervision of our school system has not seemed out of place at the present juncture. There are various methods of school supervision in this country, but the prevailing method is very limited in scope. City and county superin- tendents practically do the supervising of our public schools, and the prac- tice is thoroly in accord with the American idea of local self-government. Occasionally we find a state superintendent or school commissioner attempting to supervise the schools of the state. In some instances avast system of examinations has been devised to direct the schools. Occa- sionally we find both systems in use. On the whole, the state appears to be the convenient and sufficiently large unit. Let us dwell a moment upon the examination system. No one knows better than the teacher of long experience that the examination is at best a necessary evil. Beyond such necessary tests as a teacher must give to steady his pupils, the examination is a delusion and a snare — a device of some evil power that would destroy all mental activity except that of the memory, which it would gorge to suffocation with unpalatable and indi- gestible food. Nothing short of omniscience could devise the set of examination questions that would properly test the results of the teacher's work, if that teacher were the best of teachers with liberty to teach. Any dunderhead can devise questions that, if they loom ahead of the teacher, who knows the examiner's idiosyncrasies and former performances, can kill individuality and initiative on his part. The teaching of botany is growing in several directions : if the teacher grows in one of these direc- tions we should be abundantly satisfied with him. Shall each teacher be tested in all lines of development, or all teachers in one line of devel- opment ? A murmur comes from across the water that the English are not sat- isfied with the material that has dominated their civil service thru the examination system. A United States engineer stated a short time ago in a private conversation that his most efficient men entered the service low down and came up ; they are better civil servants than those who came in thru brilliant examination passing. A system of cramming persistently persevered in can land any normally constituted youth well up in the list 458 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary of examined. It takes more than a temporarily well-stored memory to make an efficient civil servant. Let examinations be kept as a necessary means to exclude the flagrantly incompetent, and to keep the door open for the irregularly trained but competent men, but let every nerve be strained to furnish institutions that train for service, and in the course of training discover and eliminate incompetents. Mistrust of one another was the vice of the Greeks. To some extent it is the vice of Americans. We do not like to say: "So and so is a thoroly well educuted man. He is also an educator of catholic sympa- thies and long experience. This broad-minded and well-trained man shall be our supervisor of education in this state. We will give him power to choose assistants and expect him to lead us to greater efficiency and greater economy in our public-school system." No, rather we shall either erect a mechanical and cramping system of examinations — with grave danger of tyranny over the educational institutions of the state, or let things slide, as they have been sliding, in the good old happy go lucky way. Once indeed we trusted a man and made him school commissioner of the United States. This National Educational Association, it seems, advocated the creation of the office and the choice of the man. Who will tell how great has been the benefit to American schools directly due to the work of Dr. William T. Harris ? We ought to have a Dr. Harris in every state capitol. Why then should not the next move in the progress of American public schools be the institution of state systems of super- vision developed out of the present underpaid and underofficered state bureaus ? If the proper legislation were had, state educational organiza- tions could greatly influence choice, if, as it should be, the choice were left to the governor with the consent of the legislature. In England Matthew Arnold was for many years a school supervisor. The people of Minnesota have an object lesson in the fine record of their inspectorship of high schools. Under such a system we should at least know the condition of courses and methods thruout our state, and could direct our own endeavors by the experience of others. Might not this lead to that degree of uni- formity which is indispensible to the success of any educational system, without cramping initiative and individuality, the two most valuable ele- ments in the work of the true teacher ? We teachers constitute not the least patriotic body of American workers. When we know the best we seek the best. Ought not every facility be afforded us, by wise criticism of our methods and information concerning the methods of others, to keep abreast of the grand move- ment of American educational progress ? Department] THE SOCIAL SIDE OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIFE 459 THE SOCIAL SIDE OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIFE REUBEN POST HALLECK, PRINCIPAL OF THE BOYS' HIGH SCHOOL, LOUISVILLE, KY. Asked as I was yesterday to make an address this morning in place of Superintendent Boone, of Cincinnati, who has been unavoidably detained, I accepted, because I wish to emphasize some points at which I can merely hint in my paper to be read on Friday afternoon before the Child-Study section. The fact that the subject of Superintendent Boone's paper before this body, and of mine before the Child-Study section, are practically the same, is my excuse for addressing you at this short notice. This talk must be considered as amplifying and supplementing that paper. I desire to emphasize this morning the social side of high-school education. There is more in education than books and correlation, necessary as they are. They will develop and bear best fruit only in a social atmosphere. I have often wondered how, in a well-built house, with the windows tightly closed, the barometer immediately registered any change in atmospheric pressure on the outside. I have also won- dered how any little jealousy between teachers, any friction whatever in the faculty, immediately made itself felt in the school. We cannot expect to develop a social atmosphere in the school unless we teachers are our- selves social, unless we turn the blind spot in our eye on each others' faults, and the rest of the retina on each others' excellencies. The pupils will instinctively catch and reflect our attitude toward each other and toward them. One of the most important questions to ask about a school is : " Is it pervaded by a feeling of good fellowship for all — of teacher for teacher, of teacher for pupil, of pupil for pupil, and of pupil for teacher ? " The unsocial school acts like frost on tender vegetation. The social type of school is like the genial spring sun developing the buds. I firmly believe that at the present time there is but one subject in the majority of high schools, if the term "subject" be not a misnomer, which meets fairly and squarely the conditions of outside life. This so-called subject has the strenuous aggressiveness of outside life, but it further calls for a certain type of group activity which is almost neces- sarily social. I refer to athletics. Here is God's plenty of life. Foot- ball is group activity. The eleven is a social unit. One member of the team does not like to have another member smoke, stay up half the night, or do anything to impair the football body politic. Watch them on the field. Out of the struggling mass a boy leaps with the ball and starts for the goal. The crowd cheers, but perhaps it does not realize the act of self-abnegation which allowed the runner to emerge. A member of his team, now at the bottom of the human pile, threw himself in front of his opponent, who was about to grasp the boy with the ball. As a result. 46o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary that boy is free to make his run for the goal. See ! that boy is followed by friend and foe. The foe is on the point of seizing him, when a friend interposes his shoulder, and the runner escapes to cross the goal line. The cheers of the multitude are for him ; but without that group activity, without those acts of self-abnegation on the part of the members of his team, that young hero could never have dashed across the goal line. It is the same way in baseball. The batter signals that he will make a sacri- fice hit, so that the man on third can come in and score. Although he yearns to knock the cover off the ball, he taps it gently, starts for first base, is thrown out, but the runner comes home from third base. The pre-adolescent does not readily respond to these calls for altru- istic group activity. He loves to make a fine individual record, no matter what its effect on the team. High school teachers are fortunate in deal- ing with a being in whom those germs of altruistic activity are rapidly developing. At this critical time high-school education must not nip them in the bud. Too many adolescents have already suffered from the frost of unsocial education, which has given the altruistic activities no chance for free play. This love for games involving varied and energetic group activity is a more marked characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon than of any other race. Games like football, baseball, and cricket are not popular in France, Germany, Italy, or Spain. The English, and, in a greater degree, the Americans, are fond of such games. It is probable that such a liking will always be a characteristic of the dominant races, for the world can never be both won and permanently retained except on a social, co-operating, altruistic plan. This republic is an example of the voluntary group acti- vity of a number of states. The adolescent's social feelings can be developed by giving him some- thing to do for someone else. Always do things for him and he will grow up selfish and unsocial. Adults are more interested in those people whom they have helped than in those who have done them favors. Lay burdens on adolescents and by so doing you will develop their social and moral growth. They love to bear burdens, partly because your imposing them shows your confidence in their ability to surmount difficulty. Whenever possible, studies should be made to serve a social end. Pupils are too often urged to acquire knowledge because it will enable them to surpass the other fellow. This is an absolutely wrong point of view. They should be taught to know things in order to help the other fellow. It is even true that in the majority of cases we help ourselves best by helping other people. The individual or the corporation that finds out what others want and tries to minister to that want in the most efficient way is traveling the surest road to success. A love for good reading may be more easily taught if the social stimulus is invoked. Have your pupils read books, not entirely for their mere selfish gratification or knowledge, Department] THE SOCIAL SIDE OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIFE 461 but in order to tell the most instructive or interesting parts to others — to the class, to some member of the home circle, friend, or teacher. Such books will be better read. In order to improve the social life of the high school, teachers need to cultivate their imagination. Varied ways of developing the social activities must be devised. Do not expect adolescents to be more easily interested than adults. They love a change as much as adults do. You must intro- duce into the high school world as much variety as you can. For instance, at my school, which is attended only by boys, we wished a reading room stocked with the best periodicals and books. We had to earn the money. After a conference, we decided to present the opera Pinafore in the largest auditorium in the city, and to have the boys take the girls' parts. Here was group activity made to converge toward a given end. A large part of the school served either as business managers or performers, and all were intensely interested in doing the best they could. An audience of twenty-five hundred came to hear them, and as a result the reading room was magnificently stocked with periodicals and books. A number of different departments were added to the high-school paper, and differ- ent boys put in charge of those. If you make your high school more social, you will find that fewer pupils will drop out. The social life is developed in connection with action. If you make these activities interesting, pupils will strain a point to return, for there is something to look forward to in the school world. But neither principals nor teachers need look for high social development in their school unless they are first social themselves — unless they are the fountain head whence flow the social waters. THE THREE ELEMENTS IN THE COST OF EDUCATION PRESIDENT CHARLES D. McIVER, THE NORTH CAROLINA STATE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, GREENSBORO, N. C. [an abstract] Sectionalism has passed, but individualism cannot be changed. Each section has its own particular needs and must be allowed to interpret them for itself. Great friction will be prevented and harmony promoted by each section's setting forth its own situation and needs for itself, and not having them proclaimed by others. I speak of the cost of education from a southern standpoint, and the first element in cost is the money cost. This means more in the South than in the North, not only on account of the loss of property due to the war, but also on account of the loss of producers of property. North Carolina furnished one-fifth of the soldiers of the Confederate Army, and left on the battle- field one-third of all she sent. Think what this means to a country! What 462 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary would it mean to Minnesota if one-third of its men from sixteen to s;xty were wiped out of existence? It has taken us forty years to get back to where we were before the war. According to the United States census, there is now on the tax books of our southern states about the same assess- ment of property that there was in i860. While the North has been going on in multiplying wealth, we have been recuperating, and are now pecuni- arily where we were forty years ago. I call this the forty years' wilderness of poverty through which we have passed. But we are better off today than we were forty years ago, because we have no slaves, because we are individual producers, and are in sight of commercial independence. The money cost of education is therefore a serious matter for us of the South, though neither there nor elsewhere is it so great or so rare as the second or third elements of cost of real education. The second element of cost is the wear and tear on the life of the teacher. There is no escape from this. Every successful teacher must give himself diXiA believe in the ultimate success of his work. There should be no such word as can't. Can is the only word for the teacher, even if it takes his last drop of energy to succeed. An ambitious example is worth more than precepts on perseverence. He must have faith in the future and hold up before girls and boys the highest ideals of womanhood and man- hood. Let the girls have before them the pictures and the lives and work of such women as Dorothy Dix and Frances Willard. The teacher must lead the children, must work and fight and strive. There is no other way. The third element of cost is the drudgery of the pupil. It is the only absolutely essential element, and is rare. There is no escape from the drudgery and grind of the pupil's life. There is no royal road to anything in this world worth getting to. The habit of work is more important than the acquirement of knowledge. Indeed, knowledge may come, but it lingers as wisdom only among the workers. Let us teach children the glorious gospel of toil and service, train them to become masters, and imbue them with such a spirit as will send them into the world, not to see how much they can get out of it, but how much they can give to it. ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES ANCIENT CLASSICS LEADER, LAFAYETTE BLISS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASECA, MINN. The conference of classics held in room A of the East High School, with Superintend- ent Lafayette Bliss, Waseca, Minn., as leader, was well attended, and a lively discussion was had as to the utility of classical study and its continuance in the high schools of the country. The discussions were wholly impromptu, no previous appointments having been Department! ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 463 made or papers written. Nearly every teacher present favored the continuance of Latin and Greek in the secondary schools. In opening the discussion, Mr. Bliss asked several pertinent questions and gave some important statistics with reference to classical study in Minnesota and the value of such discipline in producing leaders. He said : Taking into account the present extent of human knowledge, and the large number of subjects clamoring for a place in our courses of study, what place, if any, should be assigned to that body of knowledge known as the •' ancient classics " ? How much consideration should be given to the opinions of such men as Andrew Carnegie and Charles M. Schwab, typical business men, with regard to college education, and par- ticularly classical studies ? Mr. Carnegie says, in his new book, The Empire of Business: Look out for the boy who has to plunge into work direct from the common school, and who begins by sweeping out the office. He is the probable dark horse that you had better watch The prize takers have too many years the start of the graduate ; they have entered the race invariably in their teens, in the most valuable of all the years for learning — from fourteen to twenty. While the classical student has been learning a little about the barbarous and petty squabbles of a far- distant past, or trying to master languages which are dead — such knowledge as seems adapted for life upon another planet than this, as far as business affairs are concerned — the future captain of industry is hotly engaged in the school of experience, obtaining the very knowledge required for his future triumphs. The schools are supported by the people. What attention should be paid to the widespread popular opposition to classical studies in the high school, as shown by maga- zine articles and newspaper editorials? Has any body of knowledge other than the classics yet been found that so effectively unites the " effort and task " system of the ancients and the " natural interest " system of the moderns as to produce a scholar and to train the feelings to react in sympathy with civilization, i. e., culture, character, citizenship? Should Greek and Latin be required for the degree of bachelor of arts? There have been two general lines of study: (i) linguistic; (2) scientific. The one studies the literary monuments of the world, and its workshops are the libraries ; the other studies scientific processes, and its workshops are the laboratories. The A. B. degree all thru history has stood for the linguistic studies. To confer this degree upon those who have followed other lines of study than the classics is to break the continuity of history and some think to usurp the rights of those who have done the work for this degree. The classics are studied more in the eastern and middle states than in the West, according to the reports of the United States Commissioner of Education. The West puts a premium upon short courses of study. The number of students of Greek has nearly doubled, take the country over, in the last decade, and in the percentage of increase it ranks among the first of studies. Take the country over, Latin seems to be a popular study, as shown by the reports of the United States Commissioner of Education. In Minnesota, however, the study of Greek is not in a flourishing condition, and there are some indications that in this state Latin will eventually go the way Greek has gone. At the risk of being accused of lacking in state patriotism, I wish to make a few observations on the study of Greek in Minnesota and the attitude of the people toward the classics. The number of students of Greek has increased 95 per cent., take the country at large into consideration, during the last ten years. During the same time the number of students of Greek in the public high schools of Minnesota has decreased 25 per cent. If we take the public high schools of the whole country into consideration — not private academies and parochial schools, which were included in my first item — we find the increase in the number of students studying the Greek language to be 135 per cent, during the last ten years. The falling off in Minnesota has been during the last five years, and has been in the public high schools ; not in the private academies, for they show the normal increase. This falling off comes from the hostile attitude of the people, and their demands are 464 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary yielded to by superintendents and boards of education ; otherwise Minnesota would show the normal increase in this study and be up with the most progressive states, as we are in other branches. Minnesota is surpassed in the study of Greek from three to six times by Georgia, Missouri, Colorado, and California. New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania show an increase in the last ten years of from three to five fold. Leaving out Minnesota, the states in our immediate neighborhood — the north cen- tral division — show an increase of nearly 240 per cent. Minnesota, Florida, and Texas alone show a decrease in the number of students tak- ing Greek during the last decade. The attack made upon the study of Greek in Minnesota is comprehended in these words: "That Greek is not needed for its disciplinary value; that it is giving little cul- ture ; that if theologians, philologians, and dilettante idlers will have it, they must go out of the state to get it." It looks now as tho this condition of things will soon be ours as far as the state university is concerned, for in 1 891, 22 per cent, of the freshmen at the state university were students of Greek, but in 1900 the number had dropped to less than 7 per cent., and these were not supplied by the high schools as a rule. At Harvard, with the same conditions as the University of Minnesota, in 189 1, 91 per cent, of the freshmen entering were prepared in Greek, and in 1900,89 per cent, had two full years of preparation, and 70 per cent, three years' preparation in this subject. The conditions of entering Harvard and the University of Minnesota are about the same, yet about the same per cent, of students enter Harvard with Greek preparation as enter the University of Minnesota without it. At Yale and other leading eastern univer- sities Greek is required of all who enter. With the decline of the Greek courses in this state, we find an astonishing growth in the English and civic courses, which are easy and popular in both the university and in the high schools. These courses are generally known as " snaps," and their general effect, in the high schools at least, has been to lower the standard of scholarship and to put a premium upon that which is easy and inferior. In a nation of money-makers, where the dollar is too apt to be placed above the man, is it not the part of wisdom that a large number of our young men, in preparing for life, study the language and literature of a people who stood for high ideals in the home, in the school, and in the state ? If it be admitted that a part of culture is concerned with taste, feeling, and emotion, then the classics are culture subjects in a pre-eminent degree. President D. C. Gilman once said {Cosmopolitan Magazine, May, 1897) : Notwithstanding the long experience of the human race, it is surprising to see how many people despise the classically bred man, how few college graduates are to be found in the halls of legislation, etc. Let us look into this startling statement. Let us take the scales of commercialism and weigh this question that is so often asked : "Does college education pay ?" I am indebted for these facts mainly to Professor J. C. Jones, of Missouri university. In Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography there are in round numbers fifteen thousand names of men who have done something in the world sufficiently important to have their names thus recorded. Of that number more than five thousand are college graduates, and less than ten thousand are not college graduates. It is estimated that there have been 150,000 college graduates who have lived in our country since the beginning of our history in 1776; that is, one man in thirty who has graduated from college has reached some distinction. As the male population of our country grows up and passes thru the age of col- lege education, a few more than i per cent, graduates from college. Count the gradu- ates 150,000; then the non-graduates would be fifteen million. These fifteen millions Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 465 have furnished the ten thousand names in the cyclopedia. The ratio stands for college graduates i to 30; the ratio stands for non-graduates i to 1,500. Thus we see that measured in this way a boy who educates himself in college increases his chances of success fifty fold. Let us look into the influence in our national life of each of these classes, the gradu- ates and the non-graduates. Bear in mind the fact that the graduates are represented by I per cent, of the male population and the non-graduates by 99 per cent. The I per cent, of graduates have furnished about 36 per cent, of the House of Representatives, and more than 36 per cent, of the Senate. This is thirty-two times their share of seats. There should be now only one senator and four representatives, but there are thirty-two senators who are graduates, and ] 28 representatives. Forty-seven per cent, of the speakers of the House have been graduates, and since 184 1, 55 per cent, of the speakers have been graduates, of colleges. Of the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence — Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Robert R. Livingston, Benjamin Franklin, and Roger Sherman — three were college graduates, that is, 60 per cent., and the men who wrote it — Thomas Jefferson and John Adams — were both college graduates. Of the fifty-six men who signed the Declaration of Independence, twenty, or 35^^ per cent., were college graduates. The men who submitted the four plans from which our Constitution was framed — the Virginia plan (James Madison); the South Carolina plan (Charles Pinckney) ; the New Jersey plan (William Patterson); and the Hamilton plan (Alexander Hamilton) — were all college graduates, with the exception of Charles Pinckney. Of the Constitutional convention that adopted the Constitution there were fifty-four men. Twenty-three of these were college graduates, that is, 42^%^ per cent., and just half of the entire number were college-bred men. The three men who did most to secure the ratification of the Constitution by writing the articles of the "Federalist" — Madison, Jay, and Hamilton — were college graduates. The I per cent, of college graduates in our male population of graduate age is fur- nishing : 36 per cent, of the members of Congress ; 56 per cent, of the presidents ; 54- 16 per cent. of the vice-presidents; 55 per cent, of the cabinet officers; 69 per cent, of the justices of the supreme court ; 86 per cent, of the chief justices. The proportion of graduates increases with the importance of the office, considering elective and appointive offices separately. More college graduates than at first are being chosen to the presidency, to House of Representatives, cabinet, and supreme bench. The vast majority of these leaders were classically bred men. The college graduate is a leader in whatever he engages. I believe this same showing can be made in the com- mercial field as to real leaders, Mr. Carnegie to the contrary notwithstanding. William Schuyler, assistant principal St. Louis High School, said he believed that the classics should be retained in the course, on the ground of public utility. The great need of the present time was a higher idealism, a more spiritual outlook. The majority were given over to mere materialism ; men lacked the finer appreciation ; mere size consti- tuted greatness. To them a building twenty-four stories high was more important than the Parthenon — that little miracle of perfect proportion in architecture. It was only thru the study of the classics — especially of Greek — that this finer sestheticism could be nurtured. A boy who had read some Homer in the original obtained what he could get in no other way, for the finest aroma of poetry was lost even in the best translations? as every one knew who had studied the world's masterpieces in their original form. Our entire artistic life was derived from the Greeks, as our institutional life was largely from the Romans, and first-hand contact with the literary remains of those ancient peoples was needed for the fullest, completest modern life, and for a knowledge of our own civ- ilization. And the production of men who could lead such lives was of the greatest public utility. Referring to the statement made by Mr. Bliss, that in Minnesota pupils had 466 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary abandoned Greek for easier courses which they called " snaps," Mr. Schuyler held that one of the greatest benefits of the Greek course came from the fact that it was no " snap," and never could be made one. It required the keenest application, even extreme " ag- gressiveness " of character, to master the study ; but the results more than paid for the exertion, not only in the aesthetic line, but in the strength of character produced. It was the speaker's experience in his school that in the senior class the most solid and capable boys and girls were always to be found among those taking the classical course. Whether this was because the brightest pupils chose this course, or because this course developed the brightest pupils, he left it to his audience to decide. These, however, were the facts, and he considered it of the greatest public utility to encourage the production of such characters rather than the multiplication of those who followed the merely mechanical law of following the "line of least resistance." It was the duty of teachers, not only to work for the retention of the classics, but to do all in their power to induce pupils to undertake their study. Charles S. Hartwell, teacher of English in the Boys' High School of Brooklyn, N. Y.,said, in substance: One reason for the decline of interest in the study of the ancient classics in certain sections is the fact that their true relations to the mastery of English are not widely enough understood. Certain facts, like these, should be held before the people, both parents and pupils : Fifty-six per cent, of the words in our dictionaries are Latin and lo per cent. Greek, so that two-thirds of the English vocabulary is classical in its origin. How is a student who plans to enter any line involving speaking or writing — as the law, the ministry, or public life — to enrich his vocabulary, except by the study of the classical element, from which development since the Norman conquest, in 1066, has been drawn ? It is true that in our principal writings from 80 to 97 per cent, of all the words as they appear on the page are of Saxon origin, but this is due to the start of six centuries which the Saxon conquest of 449 A. D. gave to that element. The common activities are well expressed in Saxon, but the enrichment of our language comes from the Latin and Greek. Even the scientist, who decries classical study in his demand for more time in our courses for the new forms of knowledge, goes to the Greek for the names to express his discoveries and inventions. Another fact which should be held before the public is the vitality and spread of the English language. In Brander Matthews' American Literature are some interesting sta- tistics which illustrate this. In 1800, those who spoke French as their native tongue num- bered thirty-one millions; in 1900 the number was fifty millions — a gain of about 60 per cent. In 1800, those who naturally spoke German were thirty millions; in 1900, seventy millions — a gain of 133 per cent., or twice the French gain. In 1800, only twenty millions spoke English, while a century later there are one hundred and twenty-five mil- lions, a gain in one century of 525 per cent., or four times that of the German and eight times that of the French. Please at least remember that, while a hundred years ago French or German was the native tongue of 50 per cent, more people than spoke the English, now English is the native tongue of more people than both French and German peoples combined. While French is the diplomatic language of the world, English is the commercial language of the world, and no less an authority than Mr. Sadler, of London, who is to address us tonight, told me in conversation that, just as Latin has been the dip- lomatic language of the past and French that of the present, the diplomatic as well as the commercial language of the future, in his judgment, will be the English. Is not so vital, so widespread, a language worthy to be known in its historical relations ? President Butler, of Columbia University, last evening called our attention to the importance of not allowing the English Bible to fade from our literature, because it is the basis of allusions in literature from Chaucer to Browning; and by the same analogy the basis of two-thirds of our native language should not be allowed to slip from our education. To the gentleman who suggests French and German as a substitute for Latin and Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 467 Greek, I would say that they do not produce the results and discipline which are derived from the ancient classics. An electric spark between points separated by feet indicates a more powerful current than when the separation is measured by inches. So with transla- tions. It requires greater effort to bridge the difference between the ancient languages and English in an accurate and elegant translation than it does to bridge the difference between the modern languages and our vernacular. If, as has been charged, improper helps are used by pupils, it is largely the fault of the teacher. The work required to learn Latin and Greek has its beneficial effect. Again, I regret to say, the average teacher of French or German, especially if he is himself P>ench or German, does not secure the results with pupils which our teachers of Latin and Greek obtain. It is more difficult to get real work out of pupils with modern languages, and it is the work that tells. Tho an English teacher, I wish to bear my testimony to the dependence of English upon the study of the Greek and Latin classics. Alexander Strachan, superintendent of schools, Deadwood, S. D, said, in sub- stance, that the student is aided in mastering language by the study of the classics, but gets little value as far as literature is concerned. He could get more literary training from reading good translations of the classics. German and French should be substituted for Greek. Students do not need to study Latin and Greek to become proficient in Eng- lish. The basis of our civilization is Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Why not put Hebrew into our courses of study, as well as the other two? If they are necessary, then is Hebrew necessary. Our civilization is Greek in spirit, Roman in law, and Hebrew in our religious life. We now get the spirit of all these thru translations. P.M. Hughes, of the high school, Washington, D.C., said, in substance, that nothing in the whole high-school course does so much for the spiritual side of life as the classics. We should round out our courses so that no student will get a " snap," and give each that course that will make the best man or woman. Greek seems to be running out, but the Latin is becoming more popular. Horace Goodhue, dean of Carleton College, Northfield, Minn., said, in substance, that courses of study are known by their fruit. The classically trained have shaped the life of the country. The leaders in politics and commerce have been for the most part classically bred men. This is true of the House of Representatives, of the Senate, and Supreme Court of the United States. I fear for the future results of this falling away from classical study. H. F. Cutler, principal of Mt. Herman Boys' School, Mt. Herman, Mass., said, in substance, that the great Dr. Arnold used to tell men who asked him what benefit the study of Latin would be to a boy that the question is not what your boy will do with Latin, but what will Latin do for your boy? Edwin Twitmyer, principal of the High School, Seattle, Wash., said, in substance, that colleges and universities are responsible for eliminating Greek, because they accept modern languages in lieu for entrance. There is no tendency to eliminate Latin in the far West. There will be no action in favor of Greek as long as colleges accept the modern languages. J.J. Dow, superintendent of School for the Blind, Faribault, Minn., said, in substance, that higher institutions are responsible for high-school standards. The A. B, degree should not stand for any course which does not include Greek and Latin. It is unfortunate that many leading institutions are granting the A. B. degree for all courses. It is a mistaken policy, and will lower the standard of scholarship. I hope other colleges will not follow the lead of the university in this respect. 468 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary BIOLOGICAL CONFERENCE ^ LEADER, J. REMSEN BISHOP, PRINCIPAL OF WALNUT HILLS HIGH SCHOOL, CINCINNATI, O. TOPIC BIOLOGY AS A MEANS OF INDUCING THE PUPIL TO THINK [reported by C. D, baker, east high school, MINNEAPOLIS] Arthur G. Clement, inspector of the University of the State of New York. — It seems to me that this subject of biology is one of the very best subjects that can be brought before a student to lead him to think. Now, thinking consists in observing and comparing and arriving at a general conclusion. Biology necessarily deals with the subject-matter of botany, zoology, and physiology. I have found that students learn to compare and observe by studying insects. I think it a better way to induce the high- school student to think than to have him begin in the logical way of commencing with the very lowest forms. I would therefore first introduce the high-school student, or even the grammar-school student, to insects, giving him two or three, and having him compare their structure. He can also study the homologies between different insects, like the homology between the tongue of a butterfly and the maxilla of some other insect, which he will find extremely interesting to do. The other way has also been tried in the state of New York — of beginning with the very lowest forms of amoeba and going on up in the grade of life until we arrive at the higher orders. If the pupil continues his study long enough, of course he must necessarily arrive at some ideas of the evolution of organic life, and that brings him at once to the study of evolution in general. We all know that the principal of evolution is most thoroly taught and best taught in zoology. John V. Crone, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.— -I like the idea brought out by the last speaker with regard to teaching biology by beginning with the lowest forms of life, but I do not agree that we should begin with insects. I wish to say a word for the birds. Thru the study of their habits we can teach the fundamental facts of the theory of evolution. I think we ought to begin the subject of biology with the study of the birds, their habits, the nest and eggs, and then, perhaps, their structure. Oliver S. Wescott, principal of Robert A. Waller High School, Chicago, 111.— I wish to say a word for the bugs. I think these two gentlemen are both on the right track. I think the teacher in zoology, or any of these subjects, should take for the starting point the material that he is most familiar with, and that, no doubt, is what these two gentlemen are doing. By that means they run no risks and make the subject altogether the more interesting. It seems to me that this is exactly the channel in which we should all work. My present teacher in biology begins with the bugs, but he at the same time makes use of the birds. Last year in Lincoln Park, in Chicago, the pupils in the second year of the high school over which I have the honor to preside identified 152 species of wild birds, a number almost incredible in the midst of a busy, bustling city. But I do not think it is quite fair to the bugs to say they are uninteresting — that they are less attractive than the birds. It simply indicates a sort of feminine phobia of some kind in regard to things that have not been so extensively or thoroly investigated. I have not found it difficult to interest children in insects of any order or condition. Miss Gertrude Gibbs, High School, Everett, Wash. — I think that the subjects for the study of out-of-door biology depend entirely upon where one lives. When I taught in North Dakota I thought the boys and girls ought to study gophers, and when in the Minne- sota lake region there were the lakes and the ponds. Since going to Everett, Wash., we have Puget Sound, and the boys and girls bring in plenty of starfish and other salt-water animals. This spring I had the rare pleasure of taking fifty of my boys and girls to Sun- set Falls, forty miles up into the mountains, and the things they saw and noted were well Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 469 worth seeing. They got a great deal out of it. I feel that our work in the secondary schools is to get the pupils out of doors and to notice the haunts and habits of animals. In the woods, have them turn over the logs and stumps for subjects, and, if teaching on the prairies of North Dakota, study the gophers ; if at the seaside, the various forms of sea life. W. D. Grove, Ferguson, Mo. — I like the idea of beginning with the forms of life which are near at hand. If we live in the land of crocodiles, let us study the crocodiles. If we live in the land of grasshoppers, let us take up grasshoppers, and make the most of them. Education, it seems to me, is that which enables one to become familiar with the things in every-day life. Last fall my class began on the grasshopper, because the grasshoppers were plentiful at the time. We put in about a week or so on the grass- hopper. One day a terrapin happened to cross our school yard, and the boys captured him and brought him in, and we immediately left the subject we were on and took up the subject of terrapins and turtles, and in a little while there was something like a dozen brought in from all over the country, until we had plenty of terrapins and tortoises and turtles. We have taken up the earthworm, which the girls do not regard with such abhorrence after we have studied it awhile. If the study of biology does not do anything else, it teaches the boys and girls at least to open their eyes and observe some of the peculiarities and beauties of nature. Julia B. Clifford, East High School, Minneapolis, Minn. — The biology and science teachers who are here now, I think, consider themselves as pioneers in the work of teaching biology, both botany and zoology, as a science. We think if we give up the study of structure that we are certainly going backwards, and so we are trying to carry on the study of structure at the same time that we carry on the study of ecology. We do not know yet just what we are going to do ; but we certainly are not going to give up the study of structure. As far as my own experience goes, the trouble has not been in getting the pupils interested. What I have had trouble with is leading the board of education and the principal and the people to recognize that I am teaching a science that is valuable to the pupils. Just how a subject strikes the pupil at the beginning is not the main thing. I do not pay very much attention to whether the girls are going to be squeamish over the bugs or whether they are going to get over it; I know they will. If I feel that the time is favor- able to begin with insects I begin with insects. But I am all the time trying to teach the pupils the principles of evolution ; all the time I have in mind that that is what I am doing rather than giving the pupils a knowledge of the special parts. I do not think it makes very much difference whether they know the length of a bird's primaries or secondaries or the length of the bill, but it does make a great deal of difference whether they see that all these things have a very deep meaning, and that everything they study has a deep meaning for them. As has been said before, I think we take their general knowledge of evolution too much for granted. If you go thru any community you will find that with the majority of people evolution means that man has descended from a monkey, and it does not mean anything else to them. In my work we are trying to counteract that, and to lead our pupils to understand that evolution touches every phase of science. This coming year our course of study is to be changed to a certain extent. Botany is to have a much more dignified place than it ever has had. We have made a strong fight for both zoology and botany. We have gained something for botany, and we hope in a few years that we will secure a place for zoology. Physics is the one science that has always had a dignified position in these schools until this year. You may not all agree with me that this is right, but this is what is to be done : botany and physics are to be optional (one required) in our course of study for the coming year. 47° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary Physics has been well taught as a rule in all our high schools. Every pupil has been required to take physics, and it has been a good deal of a bugbear to most pupils. Now we expect this year that the weaklings and culls, because they have the privilege, are going to swing around to botany, and we are going to present such a strong course in botany that that will not happen again. For a good many pupils a course in botany can be made just as good training as a course in physics; but ought we simply to entertain and interest, or shall we go on with the idea that we are going to teach botany as a science, that we are going to teach it in such a way that the pupils will feel that there is good, solid hard work there for them every school day in the year, and that they have something every school day to accomplish — not something set before them to be looked at, but something which they must work out for themselves ? If it is experimental work, ought it not to be just as hard and trying, the data to be taken and the results recorded just as carefully, as in similar work in physics ? Can we, by giving up the study of structure, teach the scientific principles which we know are back of that? Ought we not to keep up that part of the work as well ? We give a year to botany, but the time which we get in the different high schools is not the same. We have simply assumed in the high school where I teach that we must have eight periods a week for the subject. I have simply taken the ground that nothing else will do. I think teachers can get at least that much time, and as I see my way clear, where I think it can be done, I am going to take ten periods. Mr. Bishop. — I do not see why one subject should be regarded as less dignified than another. What is there in a subject which would make it more dignified than any other? We used to think Latin and Greek had certain dignity, because they were so old, but otherwise I think this idea, which has sprung up for some unknown cause, ought to be discarded everywhere. I think probably the most dignified subject in my school is botany, because if there is any question of dignity it would apply to the magnificent trees. Miss Clifford.-^— I do not mean to say that I consider a subject lacking in dignity, but I do say I want it to have a dignified place in the course of study ; and by that 1 mean it should be recognized — have just as much value as one of the mathematical W. D. Grove, Ferguson, Mo. — I will tell you what is wrong here. The trouble is due to the fact that the departments are competing with each other. Now, we measure the value of botany by these terms : Can I, as a teacher of botany, demand and secure as much work from my pupils as the teacher of mathematics or the teacher of physics, or the teacher of Latin and Greek ? We should base our claim upon the amount of interest we arouse in our pupils, and try to lead them to realize the value of the work to them, rather than that other kind of thing which we call class-room pressure. We say we feel better when the principal of the school is in sympathy with the work, but that, in some cases, would be an unfortunate condition, because he might be too much interested, or think he knows too much about it. The great essential in teaching botany or zoology is being left alone, so let us be thankful that we are as free as we are. Mr. Wescott, of Chicago. — I arise to ask the lady (Miss Clifford) a question. I would really like to know whether the arrangement of the courses in Minneapolis is such that physics and botany, being optional studies, may both be neglected by pupils who are graduated from the schools. Miss Clifford. — No sir, they cannot. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 471 PHYSICAL-SCIENCE CONFERENCE LEADER, W. A. FISKE, INSTRUCTOR IN PHYSICS, HIGH SCHOOL, RICHMOND, IND. TOPIC PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL Mr. Fiske, the leader, introduced the topic as follows : Physical science as we find it today in secondary schools is the result of a steady evo- lution. A quarter of a century ago it was taught mostly in a didactic manner, with no thought of a laboratory, and with but little experimental work in the lecture room. The illustrations of the text were examined and carefully discussed. Later, when apparatus became cheaper and was more accessible to the average school, experimental work for illustrative purposes was made a part of the daily recitation. Finally, the laboratory was introduced, which added a decided interest to the work and made it much more valuable to the pupil. All experimental work was at first qualitative in its nature, and inductive methods of presentation were largely employed by those having the work in charge. Recently inductive text-books have been considered out of date, and, to maintain their place in the field, of necessity have undergone a careful revision. Thus we see that the methods of presenting these subjects, and even the tools with which the work is done, are not fixed, but are subject to wide variations upon the incep- tion of new ideas. That is why we meet here today for the purpose of discussing these subjects in their various phases and obtaining for all the best that each one has to bring. The relation which the physical sciences bear to certain other subjects of the curri- culum is one of extreme interest. As the most important of these, mathematics, English, and drawing may be named. There was a time when physics and chemistry, instead of being mathematical, as at present, were more philosophical. The problem in physics was but little known, while much time was spent in reasoning upon obvious natural phenomena. It is not so now. The text-book on these subjects, especially physics, that is not rigidly mathematical is looked upon with some doubt as to its being the proper one for use in the upper classes of our secondary schools. In view of this condition of things, it is of advantage that the department of mathe- matics recognize the needs of pupils beginning the subject of physics. The hare and hound style of problems in algebra is in a measure being displaced by those of a more practical value — by instruction and drill upon principles that will be of far more advan- tage further on in the course. It frequently happens that a pupil having three terms of algebra and one or more of geometry is tripped up on the solution of a simple equation in the subject of physics. This, however, is not a fault of the teacher of mathematics any more than of the teacher of physics. The fault, we believe, lies in the fact that the pupil is permitted to regard the subjects of mathematics and physics as two separate and distinct things, with no relation whatever existing between them. The pupil has finished his mathematics, as he thinks, and begins the subject of physics, to him a new field, little thinking he can use the old knowledge to continue his work. The same close relation should exist with the departments of English and drawing, because of the great value of each to the work in physics, while the latter may be made most helpful to the work of these two departments. There seems to be a growing tendency in some schools to make the work easy, as it is called. A teacher the other day said : " I have one child, and if she passes in her work and has a good time while doing it I shall be satisfied." If " a good time " means a thoro entering into the spirit of the work, a high appreciation of all the school is able to give, and a proper bearing under its rules and regulations, the statement may be 47 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary an appropriate one; but if the ordinary meaning of "a good time " is understood, this is certainly not the proper attitude to take. It vitiates the school and inculcates in the mind of the child improper notions of life. The school is not the place to have " a good time," but a place where one may come up against difficult things. The work should have enough of severity about it to command the highest respect of the pupil, and at the same time should be made so interesting and attractive by the teacher that it will be a pleasant rather than an irksome task. A few, it is true, do fall by the wayside, but such results, upon investigation, are nearly always found to be due to outside disturbances, rather than to good, wholesome, and well-regulated study. The work of physics and chemistry, then, should be made serious. It should mean something. The laboratory should be made a place for working out good, substantial results, and not a place of amusement. To this end the work, especially in physics, should be purely quantitative in its nature, in which case the pupil will have greater respect for what he is doing, and will find greater pleasure in it because of the definite results he is able to obtain. The voluminous condition of the majority of text-books is a problem with which the teacher has to deal, and unless a judicious pruning is resorted to the work cannot be efficiently done. This is especially true where one-third to one-half of the time is devoted to laboratory work. An attempt to cover too much ground in one year, either in the laboratory or class-room, is, we believe, a serious fault, and one which results in many bad habits on the part of the pupil. The work is poorly done ; much of it is unfinished and unmastered ; the pupil fails to appreciate the importance of the subject, and falls far short of one of its prime purposes — the development of a scientific attitude of mind. The aim, we believe, should be to spend the time allotted to a given subjegt upon the most important parts of the text, and then use all possible means to have the pupil appreciate and master the work assigned him. What these most important parts are is involved in the first question for discussion this afternoon — the proportional amount of time in a one- year's course in physics to be given to the following subjects : Mechanics, heat, sound, light, magnetism, and electricity. There was a time when I felt that the greater portion of the school year should be spent upon electricity, but I do not think so now. I do not know what others think, but it seems to me from my own observation that the best results are obtained from a careful study of mechanics and heat ; therefore, it might be well to spend at least half of the time upon these two subjects — a fourth of the time given to a thoro consideration of the general principles of sound and light, and perhaps about as much time on electricity as upon the last two. Willis E. Tower, instructor in physics, Englewood High School, Chicago. — I agree with our chairman that mechanics and heat should occupy half the time, but I am not quite ready, however, to give electricity any less time than is given to sound and light. I cannot discuss this outline as I should like to, since I am sure it would interfere with what others have to say. I should like, therefore, instead of discussing it, to make an announcement that there was formed last month a Central Association of Physics Teachers, along the line of the Western Association of Physics Teachers. Many of you doubtless know of this, and perhaps some of you were present at its formation. And some of you are familiar with the new publication, School of Science. The editor of School of Science is the secretary of the association, whose president is Chas, H. Smith, of Hyde Park High School. Its first regular meeting is to be held next Thanksgiving vacation at the Mining Institute, Chicago, and among the speakers will be Professor Carhart, of Michigan. I believe this Central Association of Physics Teachers will be of great assist- ance to physics teachers in secondary schools and colleges in getting together along the right lines of physics teaching. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 473 F. L. Barker, teacher of chemistry, Duluth, Minn. — I would like to raise a protest against teaching qualitative analysis in chemistry in the high school. It seems to me it is entirely out of place. In the first place we cannot teach very much of it, and in the second place, to those who are going to college it will be of no advantage, for they will immediately have to take the same work over again, and those who are not going to college cannot get enough to amount to anything. In many of our states we have large mining interests. The development of these, and the chemical problems that confront the mining engineer or the pupil who has any interest whatever in mining work, are of prime importance ; and that teacher who is so situated that he can teach pupils in a mining country has an opportunity not to be neglected for practical work along the lines that are of great importance to the pupils. On the other hand, if one is teaching in a manufacturing country, there is a great field open for manufacturing chemistry and the practical application of chemicals to everyday life. Enough work can be given to cover two or three years of general chemistry, with all of the practical applications one might make. We hear a great deal of industrial education, but it seems to me that the man who is teaching chemistry has the best chance in the world to give industrial applications to his work. Miss Jessie F. Caplin, teacher of chemistry, Minneapolis, Minn. — There is one state- ment about qualitative analysis made by the last speaker to which I must object. You say the pupils must take the work over if they go to college. My experience has been, and I send from go to 150 of my pupils to the state university, that the general chemistry in the university is a great deal stronger because they have had qualitative analysis before. Of course we cannot take anything but the simplest reactions, but that makes the subse- quent work that much easier when they reach the university ; and therefore they can expend that much more strength on the more difficult reactions. Mr. Fiske (in reply to a question). — The nature of laboratory experiments, in physics, I am convinced from experience should be quantitative. There may be a few qualitative experiments introduced, but there is not that opportunity for thought on the part of the pupil obtained from qualitative experiments in the laboratory. The time in the class-room, according to my notion of the matter, should be partly taken up with qualitative experiments to illustrate the work. The number of laboratory experiments required should perhaps be as many as thirty-five or forty during the year. If this number of good quantitative experiments is worked by the pupil in the laboratory during the year, he is doing pretty fair work in that subject. Some people do not believe very much in reviews. That may be true with older pupils, but with younger pupils it is well to review ofteni, As far as examinations are concerned, I hardly ever give any. I try to impress upon the pupil's mind that his inter- est and enthusiasm in the work are the main factors upon which I depend, occasionally giving a test on some particular phase of the subject. But what we call real old-fashioned examinations I haven't much sympathy with. Question: You say you give no tests or examinations. Do you attach any impor- tance whatever to the mathematical problems in connection with these different subjects? Answer: Yes, very much. The subject is very nearly all mathematical. As I stated in my opening remarks, modern text-books, or at least the best ones, are mathe- mathical, and that is the kind of text-book I believe in. But to set aside a certain time at the end of the month, or at the end of six months, or at the end of the year, for a good, long, stiff examination to cover the whole subject is in my opinion not altogether the best plan. H. A. Britzius, teacher of physics, Central High School, Minneapolis, Minn. — I should like to have a little more information as to the time that should be given, respec- tively, to laboratory and recitation work ; and to bring up the subject I am willing to 474 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary state about the time given in the Minneapolis high schools. We try to divide equally the laboratory and recitation work. While I believe in reviews, I find that my time is so limited that I cannot give much of it to reviews, but I believe in taking tests in which the student is obliged to cover a specific part of the work we have gone over and be pre- pared on anything that may come up under that part of the subject. I do not believe in giving them credit on tests alone. I generally aim to have the recitation count for about half and the test for half, as my experience is that, while some students seem to be bright in daily recitation, their memory is weaker than that of others, and so when the test comes, unless they have very thoroly prepared, I find they have forgotten some things. Some are good talkers and others are good writers, and vice versa. F. E. GooDELL, teacher in high school, Des Moines, la. — In this connection I should like to ask just what the tests should be, whether in the nature of questions or problems ? My own practice is to include a large number of problems in these tests. I believe problems bring out principles and prevent memory work, which is the same in all science work. • If the pupil can get the problem, he is almost sure to have mastered the principle involved in that problem ; he cannot solve it unless he has. So that I, in testing pupils' ability, seek, as far as I can, to select such problems as will cover the subject most thoroly, and which will bring out their grasp of the principles involved. Question: Where should the qualitative work of physics come in ? Mr. Fiske (in reply). — The place for qualitative experiments is certainly in the class- room. Occasionally it is advisable, it seems to me, to work a quantitative experiment in the class-room, but that cannot be done very extensively, because of the lack of time ; but to illustrate the subject-matter of the text, it is essential that this be the place for quali- tative experiments. It is true that the number of qualitative experiments cannot be very great, because of the lack of time. It takes a long time in the class-room to work very many experiments, and the average text-book is so full of them that it is almost impos- sible to work all that are given; but the chief experiments in the text-book, and many that are not, can be introduced to illustrate the subject under discussion. Question: Did I understand you to say that the qualitative experiments should be worked chiefly in the class-room, and the laboratory experiments should be quantitative? Mr. Fiske (in reply). — That, I think, is the proper way. Miss Kate Wyman, Northfield, Minn. — If mechanics and heat occupy about half the time devoted to the subject, and electricity the other half, what is to become of the rest of the work ? On account of the size of the subject, it would be impossible, per- haps, to omit one of these topics given under physics. P. S. Berg, teacher of science, Larimore, N. D. — I think the leader is correct in stating that half the time should be given to mechanics and heat and the other half to the study of electricity, sound, and light. We all know that magnetism does not occupy a very large part of the text-book commonly used in the public schools. We further know, upon careful inquiry, that physics is a unit, and not an aggregation of many disas- sociated subjects. When the pupil gets the proper conception of motion, conservation of energy, correlation of energy, electricity, and a few other things, he has physics ; in fact, conservation and correlation of energy are at the basis of the entire subject. Now when the pupil has thoroly learned mechanics, has not that pupil the basic knowledge for working out sound and light, and in good part electricity ? When a pupil gets a good grasp of these things the others are easily mastered. There are a few things not mentioned in the outline ; for instance, the time at which physics should be offered. I find in my experience that it would probably be best if physics were not offered until the last year in the high school. I get from the drift of Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 475 remarks made here this afternoon that a great many problems should be given. I heartily agree with that. No pupil can ever get into real physics unless he. is more or less the master of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry ; so these subjects, I think, should precede physics ; and if they do, physics probably ought to come the last year in the high-school. How can the pupil ever master specific heat and latent heat and perform the quantitative experiments and solve the problems which underlie them unless he has a well grounded knowledge of algebra ? On the other hand, how can the pupil illustrate the principles in connection with light unless he has some knowlenge of plane geometry? So I hold that after geometry, algebra, and a thoro knowledge of arithmetic, physics can be made much more interesting and profitable. Another thing that has been touched upon this afternoon is the order in which the experimental, laboratory, and theoretical work and problems should come. This is my order: The theory first, after that the experiment to illustrate the theory; after the experiment, the problems to illustrate the experiments and the theory, or to strengthen what has been learned before. I hope to hear from others, both upon the time that physics should be offered and what we shall give first. Shall we first give the theory of the subject, and then follow that with experiments, and then with problems ? C. D. Barker, teacher of science, high school, Duluth, Minn. — I have been requested to speak on the first topic in chemistry, " Theoretical Chemistry, When Pre- sented, How Much, etc." If I were essentially a teacher of physics, I presume I could agree with the last speaker and feel that physics should be given in the senior year ; but as my subject is essentially chemistry, I believe chemistry should be given in the last year and for the entire year. I am perfectly willing that those who wish to give qualita- tive work the latter part of the year should do so, but for myself I give the pupils so much more in theoretical chemistry and the applications of it that I have no time to give to the qualitative work. I should by all means give the experiment first. In teaching chemistry I believe we ought to approach the subject in the theoretical way in which chemistry has been developed. For my own part I should first present oxygen, and when that one subject as an ele- ment is thoroly mastered I should stop and develop a certain number of laws from that. Then I should take hydrogen and the union of oxygen and hydrogen, and more laws sandwiched in between. The first half of the year I should not attempt to get any farther than the four subjects of oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, and nitrogen, at the same time bringing out almost all of the principles of theoretical chemistry. If there is anything new on the subject let the pupil have it ; give him the latest and the best, always guard- ing the point that it may be simply a theory ; that there is nothing absolutely certa'in about it ; that the facts may bear out this theory, but that it still is theory, nothing more. The recent theories I believe can be presented to a class with a reasonable degree of safety, if there is a reasonable degree of care. Mr. Fiske. — One of the recent theories that I believe is referred to here is the ioni- zation theory. In correspondence with some of the teachers of the east, I learn that they do not think very much of that theory, and it was stated that the pupils were not able to get much out of it ; but in correspondence and conversation with some of the western teachers, especially some of the Chicago teachers, I find that they think a great deal of the ionization theory, and feel that they see more in it. W. E. Tower. — I want to emphasize that I believe the ionization theory is one that can be presented with a great deal of profit by high-school teachers. I have found it so, and thoroly believe in presenting it. However, that as well as other theories I should present at least in the last half of the year, and, better still, the last third, rather than before. It is all right to present laws in the first half of the year. I would put those in just as has been stated, but when it comes to theory I would emphasize that in the last third 476 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary rather than before. Then you have the facts based upon quantitative experiments, which ought to be included in every high-school course. Mr. Fiske. — While I believe that physics is distinctly a mathematical subject, yet I further believe that some history should be worked in as well. Physics deals with Boyle's law and the laws of Newton, and to teach about these laws, and not about the men who formulated them, seems to me to leave out something that is important. Almost any history of science will give us a great deal of information on these biographical sub- jects. And I believe it is well to present just as much as we have time to present. This work can be assigned at the time of the recitation, and the matter worked out at the pupils' leisure. Question: I would like to ask how much time you devote to laboratory work in the week, and how much to recitation work? Mr. Fiske (in answer). — I have five hours a week in physics. I am allowed that much time — five periods a week of forty-five minutes each. That is not enough, but three of those periods are spent in the class-room and two consecutive periods in the laboratory. Question: Do you not consider that enough? Mr. Fiske. —I do not believe five periods a week is enough for a class of juniors in physics. Question: May I ask you then if three periods of recitation and two double periods a week in the laboratory would be sufficient? Mr. Fiske. — That would be better, yet 1 would prefer a little more class-room work. If I had seven periods I believe I should take four of them for class-room work and three for laboratory work, taking perhaps one period of the four for a special discussion of the work done in the laboratory. Question: What would you do with the other three days? Mr. Fiske. — They might be spent upon recitation work and lecture work. Question: Where do problems come in ? Mr. Fiske. — I do not think it advisable in secondary schools to take a whole period for lecture purposes, but a portion for lecture purposes and the remainder for recitation and problems. Question: Will you have more problem work with electricity or mechanics? Mr. Fiske. — I find in my experience that I obtain better results in giving the greater number of problems from mechanics and heat, tho there is a great field for that kind of work in the subject of electricity. Question: Now, as to one of your questions here in the third division (physics and chemistry — supervision of laboratory work, relation of teacher to pupil during working period), what advice have you to offer? Mr. Fiske. — I think the teacher during the working period should be right there with the pupil ; at least where he can know positively what the pupil is doing, and where he can be at the pupil's command. I do not make it a business, when I am in the lab- oratory, of passing around from pupil to pupil all the time. It is not necessary to do so. You can tell what they are doing and not be right where they are. If I see somebody in trouble, who is apparently not doing what he should do, then I am where he is ; and if he gets along all right with his experiment, and finishes it, he comes to me, and we look it over together. If it is satisfactorily done it is accepted and he is given another problem ; and if it is not, the mistake is pointed out to him and he cheerfully goes back and corrects it — offers to do that in a great many cases, the majority of cases, without being asked to do so. ■ Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 477 Question: Do you give out problems for pupils to take home and solve, outside of the laboratory problems? Mr. Fiske. — I very often do so. Question: How^ many do you take charge of in the laboratory ? Mr. Fiske. — I think fifteen is a large enough class for anybody in the laboratory. I have had some difficulty in holding it down to that point, but I have been able to do it so far. I won't have more than fifteen in the laboratory unless I have to. Mr. Goodell. — Now, in connection with the laboratory notebook, the most impor- tant point with me is the time and place of making the record, and just how much of a record it should be — whether just the data taken in the laboratory, or the results which are worked out from these data, or, still more, a discussion of the experiment. Whether the laboratory notebook should be only one book, or whether it should be first an original book or report handed in, and finally a finished book written in ink and carefully pre- pared. I know there is a great difference of opinion on that point, which is one well worthy of discussion. Mr. Tower. — In physics, during the last two years, I have had the pupils write in ink permanent notes at the time the experiment is performed, and find that while there is perhaps the disadvantage of a thoro review outside of the experiment in writing it up in permanent form at home, yet there is not only a great saving of time, but also a train- ing in accuracy in putting down in proper form at the time the observations are made the exact results of experiments. Many pupils have to make two or three trials before getting a thing right, but if we can get them to do it right at first it will be very helpful to them. I find that making notes in permanent form in the laboratory has brought about this result to a certain extent. F. F. Farrar, White Bear, Minn. — If the theory precedes the practice, then in writing notes under your plan do you have the theory thoroly explained before letting the pupil try the experiment, or do you believe in the inductive method to a certain extent ? Mr. Tower. — I use no one method for all experiments. It depends also on the experiments. Some require explanation at the beginning, and some the pupils under- stand well enough themselves. They need a little help, of course, in a certain way, at the time the experiments are performed. Mr. Farrar. — It seems to me that if permanent notes are made at the time, they should have the subject quite thoroly mastered before taking them. Mr. Fiske. — The place, it seems to me, to write notes is in the laboratory, just when the whole matter is red-hot. I have had a little experience in allowing pupils to take notes out of the laboratory. They get behind on their notes three or four experiments ; and then, more than that, after those notes have (as I have sometimes called it) become cold, they cannot do justice to the experiment. The time to write notes, it seems to me, is at the time the experiment is performed. There is some objection to that, which need not prevent us from having it that way, however, and that is that it takes a little more time. It is hardly just to make a few notes and then write up the experiment afterward. I would prefer not to have so many experiments worked, and have them finish them before they leave them, because I believe better results can be obtained. William E. Andrews, Taylorville, 111.— I believe I have detected something of the craft of the college professor here this afternoon, because it seems to me there is a disposi- tion to keep the notebook in good form. That is proved in the discussion when one says the pupil's work should be well wrought out before he writes it down, if the notebook is to be made permanent at thc'time. Now, in my opinion, we should pay no attention to the statement in the university catalog that the pupil's notebook will be required. We should not, at least, pay so much attention to that as to lead us to try to get up a fine- 478 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary looking, errorless notebook that will be damaging, highly damaging, to the work we need to do. In my opinion, it would be better to have the pupils write out in the laboratory, to the best of their ability, the work which they have done. Then have those notes care- fully examined and errors indicated, and record made, of course, if you care to keep a record. Let those leaves as they have passed thru the teacher's hands, with the errors indicated, be the permanent notebook of the pupil. The place where the notebook is to be prepared should be in the laboratory. There is only one reason for making a notebook, and that is to keep the pupil thinking, and he needs to do this when he is with the appa- ratus and can get answers to questions that the note taking will cause to arise in his mind. So I think this plan is a good one : Do not try to get a fine-looking notebook so that you may be rated high by the college professors, for if you undertake to get a notebook that is a creditable looking one you are going to defeat the purpose of the work. You know that the bore of the science teacher's life is reading the same old stuff in the pupils' notebooks year after year and sheet after sheet, until it is perfectly nauseat- ing. Dr. G. Stanley Hall has said that if we would stay up more in the daytime to pre- vent errors we need not stay up so much at night to correct them. Now, the thing that bothers me most in science work is this awful question of being deluged with papers — what to do with them. How can we get the very best effort of the pupil on the papers so as not to have to spend all the very best time of our lives correcting them ? Mr. Fiske. — I should like to emphasize the point brought out about saving the teacher's energy and strength, and not having so many notebooks to look over. I believe we owe it to ourselves and to our pupils to be more than mere machines in this matter. I think if we spend our time in the evenings on anything, and we certainly should, it should not be notebooks or papers in relation to our school work, but it should be some- thing we can take to our class next day that will give them food for thought and put them on a higher plane than they were the day before. There are teachers who are killing themselves — dragging out their lives looking over notes and papers, especially teach- ers in English and the languages ; and sometimes I feel sorry for them, carrying home whole loads and stacks of papers to be examined that individual night. It must be done before the next morning, and the teacher ought to be free. He cannot afford to do these things. Something must be done to economize the time and get the matter in a nutshell, so that we will have more time for freedom and thought along different lines than those we are grinding over in the daytime. I never take a notebook home. I look them over, as I said a moment ago, just as soon as they are done, and then I am thru with them. HISTORY CONFERENCE LEADER, CHARLES R. FRAZIER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LITTLE FALLS, MINN. TOPIC SHALL COURSES IN EUROPEAN HISTORY BE GIVEN PRECEDENCE OVER COURSE IN ENGLISH HISTORY ? [reported by superintendent H. S. HILLEBOE, BENSON, MINN.] The leader introduced the topic as follows : There is in my own mind a tendency to think upon the how of teaching history, rather than the what. The pedagogy of the what is here, however, as it is to a greater or less degree in all subjects, very important. Our new books on pedagogy are going to deal more and more largely with the subject-matter of instruction. It is as far wrong to say, " it does not matter what one studies, but how he studies it," as it would be to say, " it does not matter what one eats, but how he eats it." The problem of selecting from the " thick book of personal experiences " of which history is composed what shall be taught is a double one : First, it must be decided what periods of the world's history shall be studied ; and, secondly, within these periods what I I Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 479 few fibres may best be selected from the intricate mesh of truth in order that they may be woven into a profitable fabric. To the first of these only would I direct your attention ; nor shall I undertake this except perhaps to make a plea for a better recognition of the value of courses in the mediae- val and modern periods of European history. Since, in harmony with the best thought upon the subject, we have split up our general history into natural periods and divisions to which we devote a more exhaustive study than had been possible, there has been a tendency to jump from the history of Rome to that of England, and thence to the history of America. This leaves almost untouched practically all the history of continental Europe for fourteen hundred years. No one questions the wisdom of studying the Greek and Roman civili- zations, and there are few schools but give a course in American history late in the high- school course. My plea is that Europeon history shall be given a place in the high school somewhere preceding the course in United States history. Why ? In the first place the past of Europe is infinitely richer and more varied than that of our own country. It affords an opportunity to study the human spirit on a larger scale. And further, this period is rich in incidents and movements which aid directly in the interpretation of our own history. Tracing back the history of our own people into their earlier European environment, we soon come into the atmosphere of political revolu- tion ; divine right of kings ; the free city with its local as distinguished from national patriotism ; feudalism and ecclesiastical domination, which route, traversed in reverse order, serves as an excellent approach to our civilization. One who has once seen the connec- tion between the serfdom of the Middle Ages and the slums of our modern cities will not think to deal with the slum problem without considering the long story of " the man with the hoe." The local patriotism developed in the free cities of southern Europe as they emerged from feudalism led the way to that higher and better form, national patriotism, making possible a France, a Germany, an England, and an Italy. This throws light upon the two stages of progress illustrated by the states-rights South and the nationalized North during the time when there was a Mason and Dixon's line in this country. So, too, as the divine right of kings to accumulate a dangerous amount of political power was over- thrown by the divine might of the people, we are able to see that the divine right to accumulate a dangerous amount of that power which money gives may have to be over- thrown by the people in self-defense. It is difficult to see how the analogy between the struggle to limit the political power of kings and the struggle to limit the dangerous accumulation of money power under one irresponsible management can be missed. Nor do I see where in all history can be found a more potent argument for wise dealings with corporations, trusts, and mergers than is found in that series of supreme struggles which characterized the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, by which the masses taught the classes that their rights must be respected. And so, instances might be cited at great length to justify the statement that Euro- pean history is rich in the power to throw light upon the interpretation of our own history. It is not meant that the facts of history gleaned from the past form a basis for infallible predictions for the future, but rather that, as cause and effect, defect and remedy, bear similar relations to each other at all times, a proper and a scholarly interpretation of our own American history can be obtained only thru a knowledge of the past of Europe, this knowledge not to make of us pedants or prophets, but to contribute to wisdom and understanding. One more reason, and the best one, for giving European history a place somewhere preceding the last course in American history in the high school : With the purpose of giving young people a good appreciation of our own history, the teacher is apt to think the most direct way the best way. Should we immerse ourselves and our pupils in American history to the exclusion of European history, we would be guilty of the grave error condemned by Paul : " They 48o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary measuring themselves by themselves and comparing themselves among themselves are not wise." Our federal system can hardly be understood without a knowledge of the Swiss and German federal systems. Our Protestantism cannot well be understood without a sympathetic study of Catholicism at its best. The political, social, aesthetic, and religious movements must of necessity be interpreted in the light of contemporaneous European history. The pupil must come to see that we are not a peculiar people. This lesson of cosmopolitan sympathy is probably the most important one which comes from a study of mediaeval and modern history. I will borrow and condense a paragraph from Professor James Robinson, of Columbia University. He says : The most valuable thing in European history for us Americans is " the judgment which forms itself insensibly in a fair mind along with fresh knowledge," and this judgment almost any one with a fair mind, even the school child, if properly taught, may hope to attain to ; for this judgment comes almost of itself, and what it displaces it displaces easily and naturally. Our whole place and mission in the universe come to look different to us as we view ourselves in the light of Europe's moral and intellectual achievements during two thousand years before the United States came into existence. It may be urged that the study of English history will be a sufficient approach and background for the study of American history. This I cannot bring myself to see. In my opinion the purposes I have tried to set forth briefly are best accomplished by a course in mediaeval, followed by a course in modern, history, in both of which emphasis is laid upon English history, rather than omitting either of these for the course in English history. Stories from English history may well find a place in the grades. This, with the course suggested above, best satisfies my sense of educational values, where less than a three-year course in history can be given. DISCUSSION Professor Willis M. West, University of Minnesota, agreed with the writer of the paper, and expressed the belief that we are going to have American history in our high schools ; also that English history would be introduced into the high schools, and that we shall finally have European history as a regular subject. History will never be well taught as long as it is a side issue. If we can secure the necessary time for European history, and get better instruction, the results will be more satisfactory. There are periods needlessly neglected — the period of Alexander and the period of the Roman empire. Teach those periods that have a direct bearing upon our civilization. We teach the Roman republic. Why not give the empire more considera- tion ? We give the republic first place, not on account of its merits, but because we are introduced to it thru classical literature. Suppose we should treat English history the same way; we would then study the Elizabethan period only, and omit the nineteenth cen- tury history, which is of greater importance. Later periods seem more complex than the earlier, especially the way we teach the earlier period. Give more attention to the two periods of Alexander and the Roman empire, as a basis for European history. Superintendent J. A. Vandyke, Fergus Falls, Minn. — There is no better field for outside reading than history. We do not make enough use of biography. More reference books should be secured. Use historical fiction, modem, mediaeval, and also ancient. Take up a certain line of thought, work it out, as, for instance, the slavery question in American history. So the subject of Christianity could be treated in general history. Too little attention is paid to history. We have special teachers for science, for languages, for mathematics ; but history is passed around to any teacher that happens to have a vacant period in the program. Let us have better reference books, better text-books, and better teachers. Superintendent J. Richeson, of East St. Louis, 111. — The strongest teacher ought to be the teacher of history. Then arrange a sensible course. The first year should be given to English history; second year to general history; third year to American history. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 481 The reason for beginning with English history is that it is a complete unit. History as taught now is too often merely polite gossip. The students show no grasp of civiliza- tion. A great many pupils take history who ought not to be in the class at all. General history might even be omitted and as good results be obtained by putting two years on English history and two years on American history. Professor E. V. Robinson, of St. Paul. — The speaker has wrestled with this question a number of years . He has defended the idea that instruction in history should begin with that of general history. This, in theory, is sound. History is a process of evolution, and in that process we must take all, or else the process will not be complete. The speaker then cited several examples to show that persons might know the special histories of some countries and yet not be able to connect them and make a uniform whole. But there are some practical difficulties in making general history the foundation for historical instruction. It ought to be taken in the first-year class, but when put there in the course it proved to be a slaughter of innocence, a plunge into cold water. Teach- ers who had adopted the plan found the results far from satisfactory. Better results were obtained when general history was placed in the second year and no history in the first. The change in the pupils from the first year to the second year was great. Second-year students were much more capable of mastering the difficult subject of history. The speaker next called attention to the fact that nearly all the text-books now on the market were not satisfactory. Original source-books and reference works were too often unsatis- factory. Source-books contained too short extracts, and taught the pupils to jump at con- clusions from inadequate premises. The speaker preferred a few reference books, having a great number of copies on hand, so that all pupils could use them at practically the same time. H. W. Caldwell, University of Nebraska. — The high school is called the people's college. It gives a four years' course. It is desirable that it should increase the quantity of historical instruction ; but what should be studied ? What should the subjects be ? The main object of all historical instruction should be to get the unity and continuity of history. General history should be used to furnish this connection. We need better teachers and better methods. Emphasize unity, and show the progressive development of civilization and national life. The speaker took for granted that all pupils had finished American history in the eighth grade, and were ready to do further work in the high school. Begin with Greek history and civilization, and put half a year to that work ; then a half a year on Roman history; half a year on mediaeval history; one-half year on English history; and devote the fourth year to American history. In the grades the instruction ought to proceed from the known to the unknown, from American history back- ward. In the high schools the process should be reversed. Beginning with ancient history the instruction should be brought down to the present day. In Latin a teacher was supposed to have six years' preparation, in science at least four years' preparation, but in history any one who had gone thru a small text-book was supposed to be a competent teacher of that subject, and the result was that the teaching of history too often became merely hearing recitations. Keep source material on hand ; study the Declaration of Independence itself, and not what men say may be found in the declaration. Professor George Wells Knight, of the University of Ohio. — The general experience of all teachers is that they have difficulties in teaching general history, and yet we all think that it ought to be taught. How about trying to teach it to immature pupils? No one is satisfied with the result. Must there not be something "the matter with our efforts to give the pupils too large a quantity of history? Are we not in danger of spoil- ing their digestion ? Teach well one period of history, rather than a faint glimmering of all civilization. The speaker believed there was a place for general history, but that place was after the pupil knows well the specific histories of two or three countries. For instance, Greece and Rome and England. Suppose a pupil leaves school having taken 482 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary only these histories. The pupil would not stop learning. Those who go to college would get mediaeval history there; the others would have to do without, or they would acquire it of their own accord. Teaching mediaeval history or general history had been a failure in his state, and he understood it had been a failure in other states. Now, what were the reasons .' First, the subject was too intricate in itself ; second, the teachers were too weak. Boards require them to teach so many subjects that there would be some that they did not know ; and general history was, as a rule, sure to be the subject that they did not know. Professor George M. Smith, University of South Dakota. — The Germans have solved the problem of teaching history better than any other people. Their plan embraces, first, acquiring facts ; second, the interpretation of the facts. The two must go hand in hand. We need to keep the historical facts in mind, but lay a special stress on the interpretation of historical phenomena. Learn essential facts only, and let the pupils try to interpret these. Professor Pettinger, of Anderson, Ind. — The teachers had found trouble in Indiana. Specialists were clamoring for more time each for their own subjects. There was no general plan followed in history. The result was that no two high schools in the state of Indiana have the same course in history. The speaker thought that the main object in the study of history was to try to develop a historic sense, a sort of time rela- tion. The speaker laid more stress upon the attitude of the pupils toward the study of history than upon the number of facts acquired. If the pupils were made to love history the results would be better, and this liking for history should be the main object in our teaching. Professor Robinson, of St. Paul, expl^iined his former remarks more fully. The speaker wanted to state definitely that sources and their use in the high schools were not derogatory to good study, but he objected strenuously to teaching history solely from sources. It would teach pupils to make unwarranted conclusions. High school pupils could not specialize. Professor Dunn, of South Dakota. — The speaker had found lamentable ignorance of American history. One year ought to be given to English history before American history is taken up in the high schools. We are trying to deal with difficult problems in our own country, and unless we have the historical connection we fail to understand the questions. The building of reformed bridges can be done only when the bridges rest on solid historical foundation, at least with one end. Some reformers try to build bridges resting with both ends in air. We must have English history as a foundation for our American history. Miss Spears, of British Columbia. — In British Columbia we eliminate about two- thirds of the matter in ordinary histories. We study some main parts, beginning with Alfred the Great, then the Norman Conquest, the Magna Charta, the Rights of English- men, the Hundred Years' War, the Wars of the Roses, the Rights of the Sovereigns, Charles II., Oliver Cromwell, and the Commonwealth. We try to take the high points in history and master them thoroly. When the pupils know these well they are able to fill in what other information may be necessary. Professor W. F. Gordy, of Hartford, Conn. — The object of the study of history is unity and continuity. The main effort should be to have historical information illumi- nate the life of the student. Correlate biography and the life of the student. The main point for the pupil is : *' Is it worth the while for me to know these historical facts ? " Some knowledge is worth jthe while acquiring and some is not. Know a few things, so that the pupil can make these few a part of himself. We teach too many periods and too much in each period. The object of the study of history is to know one's relations Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 483 to his surroundings. Never forget that the boy is going to be a social being, and that we fit him for society thru the study of history. Superintendent A. S. Kingsford, of Litchfield, Minn. — Logical sequence ought to be the main thing in the study of history. Make English history the basis of information. The reason is that history is an evolution. Then take history of Greece and Rome, and in those three histories we have the essential elements of all history. They represent democracy, republic, and empire. We ought to study creative periods, instead of retro- gressive, and that is the reason why we should emphasize the study of the democracy of Greece and the republic of Rome. After that we could take up mediaeval history, if we have time. Only a limited time can, under ordinary circumstances, be given to history. Other subjects demand attention. Citizenship is, of course, the main object, and we teach that thru history; but other subjects must also have due attention. ENGLISH CONFERENCE LEADER, THOMAS C. TRUEBLOOD, PROFFESSOR OF ORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN [reported by professor GEORGE W. SAUNDERSON, SEATTLE, WASH.] In the English section the discussion was directed toward the spoken English, and the subject was divided into three parts : (i) Pronunciation, its purity, and the effort to establish reasonable uniformity in America. (2) Training of the speaking voice ; the underlying principles of emphasis and expression ; expressive reading as an aid to the teaching of literature. (3) Rhetorical work, the declamation, the oration, the debate; contests. As to the first of these divisions, Mr. Trueblood urged that a universal English pro- nunciation be sought ; that localisms and provincialisms be rooted out as far as possible ; that the teachers of the high school be carefully drilled in a common-sense, eco- nomic, authorized pronunciation ; and that every teacher, whether in English, Latin, or mathematics, should note and correct mispronunciations in the class-room. In this way there would be less for the colleges and universities to correct. Some of the agencies suggested as means of polish in pronunciation were the asso- ciation of peoples of the various sections in commercial relations ; intermingling in great cities ; meeting in conventions and conferences ; travel and observation ; observing and following the pronunciation of speakers of culture and refinement ; receiving direct instruction from those well prepared to teach spoken English. Mr. Trueblood called attention to a few special provincialisms, among which were the following : a, arm, far, is often pronounced as a, call, law, and vice versa ; ou, sought, nought, becomes 0, sot, not. There is a tendency to make all short o's alike, e. g., the 0 of sot and song is not the same ; u, tup.e, duty is wrongly pronounced as long 00. There is a tendency to slight the r in the South and parts of the East, and to exaggerate it in parts of the North and West. A modified and softened sound is preferable to either. Miss Violet Jayne, associate professor of English in the University of Illinois, said she would be sorry to lose the edge of some provincialisms that she was fond of hearing. She deplored the overexactness of some in their pronunciation, which called attention away from the thought to their manner. She was much interested in spoken English from the standpoint of literary interpretation. Dr. E. E. White, of Columbus, O., spoke of the importance of not overaccenting unaccented syllables, and used as an illustration the word trespass, the last syllable of which is often given too positive a sound of short a. He ur^ed the cultivation of the voice, because the uncultivated voice cannot express the finer distinctions of sound. But let your voice be your servant, not your master. It is a form of pedantry to display pro- nunciation. 484 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary Principal Oliver S. Wescott, of Chicago, advocated accuracy even to the point of overexactness, that the pupil may leave his slovenly mumbling far behind. Mr. Trueblood then took up the second of the topics set apart for discussion, "The Training of the Speaking Voice for Expressive Reading." Before vigorous training for the speaking voice should begin the average student should be advanced to at least the third year of the high school, for then the voice will have become reasonably well settled. But expressive reading should begin as soon as the child gets over the act of naming words. Question him as to the meanirig, and he will often give it in the words of the book, and with far more expression than when reading. This gives the qualities of direct- ness and naturalness so much to be desired. Then as the child advances give him hints as to sense emphasis. Show that emphatic words are those necessary to the thought — the key words ; such, for example, as you could least afford to cut out of a telegraphic message. In the last two years of high school attention should be paid to the simple princi- ples of vocal expression — pitch, force, time, and quality in utterance. There should be frequent reading from the English classics, not for grammatical construction, etymology, or philology, but to catch the spirit of the author. English literature shoUld not be slighted vocally. Teachers should be able to interpret, not that students should imitate, but that they should be led by suggestive hints of expression to gather the full force and effect of the lines. It was suggested that a good way to teach Shakespeare.after critically studying the lines is to assign characters in the principal scenes of the play under consideration to members of the class, and require them to commit and present the scenes in the class-room with such force and effect as is consistent with propriety. Dr. a. F. Nightingale, of Chicago, urged very strenuously that teachers train the speaking voice, and bewailed the fact that so few are really expressive readers. "I have examined hundreds of teachers for the Chicago schools and found hardly one I would wish to put before children to teach reading." C. S. Hartwell, of Brooklyn, N. Y., spoke of the very great natural expressiveness of the language of Milton, Shakespeare, Scott, and Tennyson. Their language is attract- ive, because it fits their ideas. It takes a better teacher to teach English than a foreign language, because students having a knowledge of the practical use of English are more critical than with teachers of other languages. Professor George W. Saunderson, of Seattle, Wash., spoke of the value of oral reading as a means of intellectual and literary training, of the analysis of the sentence, the paragraph, and the whole composition, and then of vocal synthesis as a means of mentally and spiritually transporting the ideas and feelings to others. Mr. West, of Wisconsin, made the point that in grade teaching if selections different from those found in the text be given to pupils to read in the class they give better expression to the thought, because the matter is new to the audience. They gain direct- ness by trying to entertain and instruct. Mr. Trueblood then directed the discussion to the third of the topics for discussion, "Rhetorical Work." He commended original work in writing and speaking in the last two years of the high school. Some simple hints on planning and constructing speeches should be given by the teacher, corrections should be made, and then the papers should be rewritten, so that full benefit may be derived from the criticisms. Opportunities for more formal orations are offered in the oratorical contests which lead to district and state contests, such as many of the states have already organized. As interscholastic debates are also occupying a prominent place, it was suggested that a few hints on argumentation and parliamentary usage might contribute much toward properly utilizing the competitive spirit of debate. Questions of live interest should be Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 485 proposed under faculty direction, and so worded as to give opportunity for good argu- ment on both sides of the question. These questions, because of their vital interest to students, make it much easier for them to express themselves with force and effect. Mr. West and Mr. Hartwell spoke of the great value of these debates. The latter suggested three grades of oratorical work in the schools: (l) the declamation, valuable as a means of crystalizing one's manner ; (2) the oration as a means of crystalizing one's . thought ; and (3) the debate, useful as a means of putting thought into action — a prac- tical form of public speaking, developing ability to cope with emergencies. General discussion followed as to methods of arousing general interest in debate, methods of preparation, schemes for securing satisfactory decisions, points on which decisions should be made, the conduct of debates, and other points of vital interest to teachers of English and oratory. PRINCIPALS' CONFERENCE LEADER, W. J. S. BRYAN, PRINCIPAL OF HIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO. [reported by forest c. ensign, principal of high school, council bluffs, ia.] The Leader : In the selection of topics tor consideration at this conference, I have been guided by the desire to have the discussions fruitful of results in that they may call forth an expression of opinion about matters of real concern to those who are engaged in the management of secondary schools. I have named, and very imperfectly outlined, several topics, not with the idea that all could be considered, but that those may be discussed in which there is the greatest interest. Having noted the very general interest manifested in the first topic sketched, " School Athletics," I shall occupy a few moments in its elaboration before opening the meeting to such discussion as may be pleasing to those in attendance. At a meeting of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the subject of school athletics called forth a most animated discussion, which resulted in the appointment of a committee to consider the whole subject and to report at the next meeting the result of its deliberations. This action, taken last March in Cleveland, cer- tainly warrants the conclusion that the subject is of pressing importance and may well engage our thoughts at least a portion of the time set apart for this conference. It is a question of practical importance, because it has not been called up from the realm of the imagination, but has arisen in the life of nearly every secondary school. It is a practical question, because athletic sports are natural to the adolescent period of life. The exuberance of vitality finds in them a healthy field for its pleasurable exercise. Hav- ing had their earliest development in the colleges of the country, it may be because in them young men lived together and were thrown upon their own resources for social pleasure, and so naturally gave some time to physical exercise, or because gymnasia were provided by the colleges for the physical well-being of students, athletics of late years have permeated the secondary schools, in many of which physical culture is now receiv- ing the systematic attention it surely deserves, which is rendered possible by the wise provision of properly equipped gymnasia. The existence of athletics and their forceful if not forcible entrance into the life of secondary schools has been regretted by some, because they seemed likely to disturb the calm serenity of the school, and often did prove a disquieting influence. It has taken the world, or at least some portions of it, long years to learn that the natural tendency of children and youth, and indeed of mature men and women, to indulge in sport and amusement is not sinful or subversive of good, when properly restricted and wisely directed by reason, but is a means of refreshing, conservative of energy and preservative of life itself. 486 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary Because athletics were viewed with distrust and disfavor, they were for some time left severely alone, if they were not openly discountenanced and discouraged. Left to themselves, the youth displayed a lack of judgment which older heads and mature years might have contributed had there been proper sympathy with youth and a right appre- ciation of the opportunity afforded for helpful suggestion and wise direction. Unfortunately those who. give themselves wholly to athletics are often — possibly as a necessary result of such perversion — neither intellectual nor moral. It is therefore not strange or inexplicable that, left to themselves and the example of such persons, the youth should run to excess and turn to evil that which by nature was capable of the best uses. Athletics unregulated have been harmful ; regulated, they may be made to exert a whole- some disciplinary influence. Men ought to have learned the lesson of the age — that forces which are destructive when not understood or not brought under control may become the most efficient servants of him who has learned how to take advantage of the laws of their being. Teachers, of all men, need to know this fact and profit by its teaching in dealing with the souls they are to guide and make efficient in righteousness. If time permitted, I should dwell at some length upon the potential influence of ath- letics as a means of education ; but it must suffice to briefly state the effects that may be and have been produced by their proper use. Both in individual events and team playing, the powers of observation are called into the keenest activity, as upon the accurate noting of conditions and circumstances success or failure depends. The alertness, the quick perception, and prompt action of a pupil on the athletic field are often in strong contrast to the dreamy indifference of the same pupil in the recitation room. No movement escapes the notice, no irregularity goes unchallenged. In the daily practice and on the field of contest, during all the period of training, what self-control and restraint of desires is observable ! In the hour of trial no hardship, no physical discomfort or pain, is regarded as of moment if thru it the touchdown may be scored, or the home plate crossed, or the hurdle cleared, or the goal reached. The players smile at exhaustion, make light of pain, bravely dare anything, cheerfully do anything that seems to promise victory. One of the most striking effects of athletics is the prompt and unquestioning recog- nition of authority as vested in coach or captain, which results in absolute and immediate obedience to the one temporarily clothed with the right to command. The yielding of implicit obedience in such cases, based upon the perception that in this way alone victory is possible, may become a revelation of duty to those who have been slow to recognize their obligations to home and school. At least it is a very effective analogy for the teacher to draw, and discloses the falseness of the position of the pupil who fails to yield a like cheerful obedience to school authority. In the management of field-day, or football contest, or baseball game, in the conduct of the affairs of the athletic association, pupils learn many a practical lesson in organi- zation. I recall a complete transformation that was made in an athletic pupil by his induction into office. Careless, noisy, disorderly he had been before he was raised to the dignity of president of the athletic association, but on taking the chair there was appar- ently a complete change in his conception of the value of order and regulation, and from that time an appeal along lines of the necessity and value of organization never failed of a ready response. In more than one instance just appreciation of organization has been developed by participation in athletic affairs. But a more obvious effect is the creation of school spirit, or a sense of loyalty to the institution whose colors are defended on the gridiron or the diamond, on the track or the rowing course. Even those who merely shout for the school on the bleachers have kin- dled within them a sense of loyalty which may be used in other connections as well, if the teachers of the school sympathize with athletic sports and do not withhold their pres- ence and approval and by sentiments of disfavor make the natural expression of loyalty Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 487 appear to be an act of hostility to good order and of disrespect to regulation. I do not mean that the thoughtlessness and impulsiveness and intensity of youth may not overstep he line of propriety. Excessive jubilation and noisy demonstration in the hour of victory are hard to prevent or repress. Indiscretion is not treason, and ebullition of spirit is not rebellion; but the wise teacher will be quick to note the danger and carefully plan to utilize the tremendous force displayed, directing the flow of the current while confining it to a definite channel lest it should sweep over the banks in a destructive flood. There is conservation of energy in spiritual forces as well as in natural forces. The conditions of the transformation of the energy of adolescence from one form to another are the secret of the secondary teacher's power. Co-operation on the part of pupils is to be wooed and won by thoughtful attention and considerate, loving service on the teacher's part. He who cannot enter into the innocent, natural pleasures of youth has no rightful place in the schoolroom. Sympathy, to be effective, must be genuine and spontaneous. Athletics afford the teacher an opportunity to co-operate with pupils by sympathy and helpful suggestion, and by actual presence and service in a way that will bring return of co-operation on the part of the pupil in the serious work of the schoolroom. The dreaded deleterious effect of athletics upon scholarship may be prevented by foresight and wise regulation. It is due to an injudicious distribution of energy on the part of pupils and want of system in the use of time. Scholarship qualifications carefully enforced should be made the prime conditions of participation in athletic events of all kinds. Such qualifications the pupils themselves will be ready to adopt if they are sug- gested before the opportunity to comply with them is past. Retroactive measures do not meet the approval of young or old. Without such qualifications scholarship will suffer ; with them, the love of athletics will be an effective motive to effort on the part of other- wise indifferent pupils — not always a sufficient motive, it is true, but in many cases enough to produce satisfactory scholarship in those who would otherwise have been deficient. If there were no athletics there would be indifferent pupils, lacking in force and determination. Wise regulations with reference to athletics may make them a means of stimulation and prevent them from being an excuse for neglect. I may be pardoned if I cite from my own school instances in proof of the proposition that athletics are not of necessity injurious to scholarship. Three years ago there went from the St. Louis high school to Williams College a young man who had taken the prize as the best all- round athlete This young man has continued his interest in athletics, was made class president, and has taken the same high grade in scholarship that he maintained from the first in the high school. Two years ago there went to Princeton a member of the football team, who will complete his course with honor next year, and has sus- tained himself in college entirely by his own efforts, without a dollar of expense to his mother. Last year there entered Harvard a young man who, I am informed by the secretary, has taken excellent rank in his class, and has been the only freshman in many years to make the 'varsity baseball team. It is natural and desirable that there should be displays of the various manifesta- tions of vigor and skill, but all such contests, whether between pupils of the same school or interscholastic, should not be unregulated contests of strength, subject to the tempta- tion to unfairness, which, like lying, is the refuge of weakness. They should be mani- festations of strength and agility and courage and judgment resulting from deliberate training and persistent practice. The desire to achieve the best results by training and temperance in all things should be encouraged, but should be subordinated to the readi- ness to recognize in others like or superior excellence, in scorn of deception or guile. To cultivate this spirit there is no more effectual way than to bring about the voluntary adoption of carefully formulated rules for the purpose of securing such inspection and control of all contests as will reduce to a minimum the possibility of unfairness, the deadly foe of manly competition. The time to fortify against temptation is when free from the stress and strain of trial. It is possible for individuals and schools to so foster 488 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary and cultivate a love of honor that contestants will scorn to stoop to indirection, and will generously and sincerely applaud the evidence of the possession of desired power by another. Few would advocate or approve anything else than fair play when they were not under the pressure of strong excitement, warping their judgment as the lens is made to distort an image when subjected to pressure. The idea must be fixed in the minds of pupils that defeat is not disgrace, tho victory be glorious, and that no honor lies in success unless achieved by merit and as the result of courage and determined effort. In the individual school it is not difficult to secure a right spirit of generous rivalry. When more than one school is involved, concerted action is required, and the conscious cultivation of the true sportsman's spirit. In school organizations and inter- scholastic leagues, faculty, pupils, and alumni should act in conjunction, if the best results are to be secured. The desire of the school authorities must be to contribute maturity of judgment and knowledge of affairs, which pupils may not possess on account of inex- perience. Pupils will not be found intractable, and where sympathy is evident will be glad to accept suggestion. They must be made to feel that, while the management of athletics is laid largely upon them, the very existence of school organizations is depend- ent upon the favor and approval of the principal, who is responsible for the successful conduct of the whole, and deeply interested in the vigor and growth of every part. In my own school, so important have I deemed the conduct of athletics that I have given it in charge of the assistant principal, who devotes to it whatever time and atten- tion may be required. While we have not accomplished all that we desire, so much has been done that I may confidently affirm that with forethought and attention athletics may be made to yield abundantly, and physical, mental, and moral development result. DISCUSSION The discussion which followed was full of life and interest, and was carried on freely for an hour and a half, both ladies and gentlemen participating. It was the general opinion of those present, who represented more than twenty states and territories, that the real boy and girl can be reached most effectively thru prop- erly regulated athletics. Many helpful suggestions v/ere made by men from various localities. The Iowa plan of regulating school athletics was explained, and also the plans of Illinois, Wiscon- sin, Minnesota, and St. Louis, Mo. The possible usefulness of a federation of state organizations in this connection as well as others was suggested. The salutary influence of well-regulated school athletics upon college athletics and U{)on those likely to engage in them was clearly shown. The theme of the paper proved so fruitful of discussion that there was not time to consider the other questions selected by those present. MATHEMATICAL CONFERENCE LEADER — CHARLES W. NEWHALL, SHATTUCK SCHOOL, FARIBAULT, MINN. TOPIC : CORRELATION OF MATHEMATICAL STUDIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS The Leader : Mathematical instruction in our educational system is divided into the three large classes : elementary instruction, secondary instruction, and higher instruc- tion. In attempting to secure correlation of the various branches of mathematics into one homogeneous whole, we should first seek to find this unity extending thru all these Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 489 divisions of educational activity. By a careful adjustment of the work of these three divisions much of the waste in mathematical instruction may be avoided. If the secondary schools and the grade schools can agree that certain parts of arith- metic be omitted from the courses of the grade schools, and elementary algebra and geometry be introduced in their places, we will find that the pressure in the secondary schools will be much relieved and the student will enter the high school much better equipped for his work. Then if, on the other hand, the schools and the colleges can agree as to just what part of the work in mathematics shall be done before entering college, our first great work of harmony and unity is effected. Fortunately this bids fair to be soon accomplished. The Committee of Ten of this Association, and more recently the Committee on College Entrance Requirements, have made specific recommendations looking to exactly this end. The Committee on College Entrance Requirements has made a long step forward in defining the units of work and the character of the instruction that shall be required in mathematics as a preparation for college. The Examining Board of the Middle States and Maryland has tended to crystallize sentiment in the matter by the prompt adoption of their recommendations. Whether or not all colleges accept the plan of this board, and whether the entrance to college may better be by certificate than by examination, the fact still remains that the work of this committee has practically made definite and uniform the amount of mathe- matical training a candidate for college must acquire. So we may consider that the waste and friction at the point of division between the secondary and higher schools are in a way to be satisfactorily eliminated. On the other hand, educators are equally unanimous as to the best way of securing harmony between the work in mathematics in the grades and in the secondary schools. We all agree, I am sure, as an academic proposition, that geometry and algebra in elementary form should be begun in the grade schools. When the fortunate time comes when we shall have six years in our high-school course, we can then arrange these matters to suit ourselves ; but at the present time we are presuming to have the same right to require from the grade schools certain preparation for our work that the colleges exact from us in preparation for their work. I believe the grade-school teacher and the superintendent feel the necessity and the advantage of these mathematical studies in the grades as much as the secondary teacher does, and the reason the idea has not been more generally adopted is on account of the practical difficulties involved. In the Chicago public schools the experiment of teaching algebra in the grade schools was tried and abandoned, partly, I believe, on account of the inexperience of the grade teachers. In other places it has been found impossible to introduce any new studies into the already crowded curriculum of the grammar schools, or to require any new work of teachers already teaching too great a variety of subjects. In some places there exists a prejudice against displacing such a practical study as that of arithmetic to make room for the study of geometry and algebra. But these prejudices and practical difficulties have been overcome in many places, and the wisdom of intro- ducing the study of elementary geometry and algebra in place of certain special subjects in arithmetic has been conclusively demonstrated. It will not be long before all schools will find it necessary to readjust their curricula so as to conform to these recommenda- tions. When this time does come, the teacher of mathematics will be fortunate beyond most of his fellows, except perhaps the teacher of English. He will then have a course in mathematics beginning in the kindergarten, extending thru the primary schools, the secondary school, and at least the first two years of college. If the students from the kindergarten to the college are to be turned over to us a certain number of hours each week of every year for mathematical instruction, why can we not map out a broad and comprehensive scheme for the study of mathematics, which shall call for a gradual development and a constantly broadening view of the whole field of 490 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary mathematics and which shall not be limited by such artificial boundaries as are at present set to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, etc. ? In many schools algebra is studied, say, in the first year of the high school, then dis- continued while plane geometry is taken up; this is completed, and then perhaps higher algebra is studied, or solid geometry, and, where the school offers it, the student continues with trigonometry and the use of the logarithm table. Is there any necessity for these artificial breaks ? Is it best to complete ont. subject and then lay it aside on a shelf to rust while we take up another, even if we may find time later to take down the first to brighten it up a bit, to pass the inspection for college ? The Committee on College Entrance Requirements is very clear in recommending that the study of geometry and algebra should be carried on in the same year, perhaps geometry two days a week and algebra three, or geometry the first half-year and algebra the second, but at any rate the two studies in the same year. But can we not do better than this ? Are not the subjects intimately enough related so that we can teach them both the same day and every day ? We can thus carry the study of geometry and algebra along together thru several years, introducing also the simple ideas of trigonometry early and developing that subject alongside of the others. We may even introduce a few ele- mentary ideas from the analytic geometry at places where they will elucidate other matters. Such an arrangement of subjects would call for no more time than we at present devote to them all separately. We could teach the same matter in four years, or six, but the arrangement would be different ; in fact, there would be a great saving of time and of effort in conquering a difficulty once instead of two or three times in slightly different aspects as it presents itself in the different studies. We could make the study of a geometric figure throw light on the solution of an algebraic equation, we will say, or, conversely, we could use the tools of algebra to help us out of some geometrical difficulty. Some of us do that now. Yes, but the scheme is capable of a much wider development. It has been found successful in Germany. There the various lines of mathematical study are carried along side by side and interwoven into one. Each subject is studied thru several years with constant reference to its bearing upon and connection with each of the others. The result attained by their system seems to be better than the result attained by ours, and it is accomplished in a shorter time. This correlation of the mathematical studies begins very easily in the elementary schools. In the kindergarten the child begins to acquire his ideas of number and of form at the same time. Thru the elementary school a skillful teacher can combine the study of drawing, arithmetic, and mensuration so as to leave a well-rounded and definite impres- sion in the child's mind as a result of this training. The equation can be introduced very early. If the problem to be solved by the use of the equation is a numerical problem the introduction of x will cause no difficulty. The child will soon see that the x is merely an abbreviated form of writing " the tail of the fish," or whatever may be the subject of the problem. After algebra has been begun arithmetic should not be discontinued. The study of the operations with fractions in algebra can be illustrated by similar operations with arithmetical fractions. An algebraic problem can be verified and made concrete by sub- stituting numerical values. Or the general nature of an algebraic formula may be shown, by applying it to a great many special arithmetical cases. Or we may study the answers to a general problem in which the known numbers are represented by letters, and discover how each one of them enters into the result. Then we may solve the same problem where the given quantities are numbers and find that the various known elements of the problem are all merged into one number and lose their identity. By the use of a little skill, the teacher can show that a literal problem is much more interesting and instructive than a special numerical case of the same problem, inasmuch as we are able to trace every given quantity thru the work of the solution and find how it affects the result. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 491 Students are not slow to see that algebra is merely a generalized arithmetic ; that the operations are the same, and that the forms of the results are different only because in algebraic solutions we can often only indicate our operations, and cannot actually per- form them so as to merge several quantities into one, as with arithmetical numbers. I am sure every teacher of geometry has felt hampered at times because the student does not understand a simple algebraic manipulation that becomes necessary in connection with some geometrical proof. He may have forgotten the algebraic principles involved, or he may not feel quite sure of his ground in applying his algebra to such an unfamiliar problem. If the study of algebra and geometry were carried on together, neither of these difficulties would occur. Many problems in computation in geometry are quite easily worked out by the use of equations, or certain proofs involve a little algebraic manipula- tion. The student should feel perfectly sure of his algebra, so that the geometrical truth should not be obscured by any haziness about the algebra involved. Geometry and algebra are entirely different, of course, in their subject-matter. The one deals with number as expressed by various symbols and the other deals with form. But they touch at many points. For example: Take the formula {a -\- bY =■ a"^ -\- 2ab -\- b'^ zx^di. interpret it geomet- rically into " The square of the sum of two lines is equivalent to the sum of their squares plus twice their rectangle." Similarly we can show geometrically the truth of the alge- braic formula {a — by = a"^— 2ab -\- b"^ and (a — b) {a-{-b) = a'^ — b". If the same results are arrived at in two ways, by an algebraic and a geometric consideration, how much light one method will throw upon the other ! Again, would it not be a good plan to introduce the notion of a graph in connection, with the solution of quadratic equations ? If the student can see that the straight line cuts the parabola in two places, and then learns that these two places give the values of x andy found by solving the equations of the two curves considered as a pair of simultaneous equations, I am sure he will have a clearer idea of the fact that altho either of our given equations, alone, may be satisfied by an infinite number of values for x and y, there are only two pairs of values for x and y that will satisfy both equations at the same time. The meaning of simultaneous equa- tions becomes apparent. And again, I am sure he will readily see by a study of graphs that a system of two equations, one of the second degree and one of the first degree, will give two values for x and two ior y, while a pair of quadratic equations will in general give rise to four values for each. And if he plots various curves at the same time that he is solving for the roots of their equations it cannot help but be instructive to examine the cases where a given equation has negative roots, equal roots, or imaginary roots. To illustrate these algebraic facts by the use of graphs would require only very elementary ideas of analytical geometry. When we are considering similar triangles and proportional lines, why can we not learn the names of the trigonometric functions ? The pupil learns that in all similar right triangles the ratio of one leg to the hypotenuse is always the same. Why not define this ratio at once as the sine of the angle A, and similarly define the other trigonometric functions ? There can be no better place to introduce these ideas. And again, when the student is learning, as in Book III of most of the geometries, the relations that exist between certain lines of certain triangles, why not initiate him at once into the relations which exist between the sides and angles of any triangle ? A bright student will almost always raise the question whether the sides of a triangle are not connected by some rela- tion with the angles of the triangle. The introduction of these fundamental notions would not call for much trigonometry at this point. Why not follow up the chapter on exponents in algebra by a study of the simpler properties of logarithms ? A logarithm is but an exponent, and the mystery and diffi- culty surrounding the operations with logarithms would disappear if the student could be made to see this fact clearly and to recognize that the familiar laws for exponents govern 492 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LSecondary the work with logarithms. The student will grasp eagerly the notion of the practical value of a logarithm table. A few calculations with logarithms would give practice in arithmetic and an excellent review of decimals, and perhaps accustom the student to the use of a table of logarithms in other subjects besides that of trigonometry. As taught at present, there is almost always in the student's mind a confused idea that logarithms have some intimate relation with trigonometry. They are never quite sure of the difference between the tables of natural functions and the tables of logarithmic functions. I have suggested but a few places in which the studies of arithmetic, algebra, geom- etry, and trigonometry may be brought together. Any teacher can think of many other ways in which the various subjects can be made to help one another. I have said nothing about an attempt to correlate the sciences with the mathematical studies. The study of physics and mathematics, for example, are so inter-related and interdependent that it is hardly possible to separate them. Geometrical and arithmetical progressions are illustrated from physics. Physics contributes many interesting problems to geometry and algebra, and geometry and algebra are often called in to help develop the laws of physics. Of course a broad application of the principle of correlation would call for a corre- lation of physics, astronomy, and other of the sciences with mathematical studies, which broad acceptance of the term would be an excellent thing, and in every way to be encouraged. It would be well, for example, if mathematics and physics could be taught by the same teacher, so he could elaborate a complete correlation between them. I have not attempted to consider here the broader view of the correlation of mathe- matical studies with other subjects, but rather the more definite and limited question of the correlation of the various branches of mathematical study with one another. The possibility of merging the subjects of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry into the one broad subject of mathematics, and teaching it as such thru all the years of the elementary and secondary schools, is the question I want to propose for your considera- tion and discussion. Of course the attempt to follow out this plan in its full and ideal extent would involve the working out of a new system of instruction, a new allotment of subjects to the various years, new text-books perhaps. If the plan is a wise one, a good teacher can meet these difficulties. If the idea is too visionary for a full materialization, may we not gain some- thing by a partial application of the principle ? I am putting the question for your consideration, then, we will say, in two parts : (i) Is the plan as suggested here, in its full and ideal development, a sound one, and (2) To what extent is it practical, at this time, to work it out ? DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July g, 1902 The first session of the department was called to order in Room 1 1 of the Univer- sity library building by President Cyrus Northrop of the University of Minnesota, at 2:30 p. M. on Wednesday, July 9. About 165 persons were present. In the absence of the president, vice-president, and secretary of the department (President W. H. P. Faunce, of Brown University, Providence, R. I.; President C. W. Dabney, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.; Professor John W. Perrin, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, O., respectively), President Northrop nominated Dr. William W. Folwell, of the University of Minnesota, as acting president. Professor Folwell was duly elected and took the chair. Mr. F. P. Keppel, of Columbia University, was elected acting secretary. Mendelssohn's " Lift Thine Eyes" and "Cradle Song" by Brahms were sung by the Lorelei Ladies' Trio. Professor R. H. Thurston, of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., was absent from the meeting, and his paper entitled " Education for Professional Life and Work" was there- fore omitted. Professor Edwin G. Dexter, University of Illinois, Champaign, 111., read a paper entitled "Should Entrance to College Be thru Examination of the School or of the Pupil ?" George N. Carman, director of Lewis Institute, Chicago, presented the report of the Commission of Accredited Schools, of which he is secretary. Upon the resumption of order, after the short recess which followed the reading of these papers, the chair, upon motion, appointed a committee of three to report at the next session for the nomination of officers for the ensuing year, as follows : President William L. Prather of the University of Texas, Austin, Tex. Director George N, Carman of the Lewis Institute, Chicago, 111. President William H. Black of Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Mo. The chair then introduced Dr. H. M. Lane, of San Paulo, Brazil, who gave an extemporaneous account of his many years' experience in the organization of Brazilian education. A general discussion of Professor Dexter's and Director Carman's papers, and upon the general question of the articulation between the secondary schools and the colleges, followed, in which the following gentlemen took part: Director Carman (in reference to Professor Dexter's paper); Professor John C. Hutchinson of the University of Minne- sota; Principal E. V. Robinson of St. Paul, Minn.; Mr. F. P. Keppel, of Columbia Uni- versity, New York city; Professor G. W. Knight of the Ohio State University, Columbus, O.; President Cyrus Northrop of the University of Minnesota ; Professor Snyder of the University of Michigan ; Professor Dexter (in reference to Director Carman's paper); Principal L. H. Ford, of Webster City, la.; Professor Folwell, the acting president of the department; Charles Alden Smith, principal of the high school, Duluth, Minn.; Professor Hale, of Michigan; Inspector John F. Brown of the State University of Iowa; and Pro- fessor Thomas Nicholson of Cornell College, Iowa. Upon motion, the session adjourned at 5 P. M., to meet at the same place on Friday, July II, at 2 130 P. M. 49^ 494 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July ii After the session had been given an opportunity, in another room, to hear the piece of music on the program, " The Holy City," Adams, sung by Master Henry Pauly, the meeting was called to order at 3 p. M. by Acting-President Folwell. About no per- sons were present. Professor J. Irving Manatt, of Brown University, Providence, R. I., presented the first paper of the session, " The Future of Greek in American Schools." This was followed by the second paper, ** Education in the Appreciation of Art," by Chancellor William Bayard Craig of Drake University, Des Moines, la. Under the head of "Miscellaneous Business," President Prather presented the fol- lowing report for the Committee on Nominations, which was accepted and adopted by the Department, and the nominees declared duly elected : Minneapolis, July ii. Your Committee on Nominations of Officers for the Department of Higher Education nominate the following named gentlemen : For President — Benjamin Ide Wheeler, of California. For Vice-President — William H. Smiley, of Colorado. For Secretary — John H, McCracken, of Missouri. Respectfully submitted, William L. Prather, Chairman, George N. Carman, William H. Black, Committee. With reference to the communication from the secretary of the National Educational Association regarding the appointment of a committee to confer with a committee of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, President William L. Prather offered the following resolution, which was adopted by the department : Resolved, That a committee be appointed by the Department of Higher Education with authority from the Board of Directors to participate in the conference with the committee from the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education in the formulation of entrance requirements in mathematics, chemistry, physics, and drawing, and that the committee be as follows : President Henry S. Pritchett, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chairman. Professor William Hallock, of Columbia University. President Winfield S. Stone of Purdue University. Professor H. E. Eddy, of the University of Minnesota. Principal E. V. Robinson of the Central High School, St. Paul, Minn. There was no discussion upon the papers presented. Professor Folwell, the acting president, expressed, on behalf of the University of Minnesota, the pleasure which the university had felt in having the department as its guests in 1902. The meeting then adjourned at 4:45 P. M. F. P. Keppel, Acting Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SHOULD ENTRANCE TO COLLEGE BE THRU THE EXAM- LN ALTON OF THE SCHOOL OR OF THE PUPIL ? EDWIN GRANT DEXTER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Biologists tell us that specialization in the animal kingdom is brought about only thru variation ; that an organism is what its great great grand- father was — no better and no more — until it begins to show divergen- cies from the ancestral type. What is true of the organic evolution of Department] EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL OR OF PUPIL? 495 the animal world is equally so in the institutional development of the world educational. The American school system is as much the result of the survival of the fittest among a multiplicity of variations as is anything which nature presents, and its advancement to a more perfect stage is as fully dependent upon the tendency to vary. That we are living in an era of tremendous educational mutability is a fact, and a fact, moreover, upon which future generations will have reason to congratulate themselves, even if we have not. Today's uncertainty makes tomorrow's certainty, and no small bequest to our children's children will be the solution of some of the crying educational problems of today. Sports in the educational organism have made their appearance from the kindergarten to the university. Wherever increasing complexity has demanded more exact adjustment of parts, we find them. The problems of individual instruction ; of semi-annual promotions ; of electives ; of the six-year high-school course ; of the whole swarm of so-called "fads ;" of entrance to college by other means than that of the examination of the pupil — these and many other somewhat radical departures from the ances- tral type must be included within the category. In discussing any one of these variations we must at the outset free our minds of any a priori con- clusions as to the universal goodness or badness of educational sports — as such. It is true that not all revolution is evolution, and that newness and goodness are not synonymous terms. It is, however, equally true that oldness and goodness are fully as far from being equivalent, and that if what has been is best simply because it is what has been, we have stagnation. The only valid criterion which we can have for judging the fitness either of the type or its variation for survival is the exactness with which it ful- fils the demands made upon it by present conditions. In the problem before us at this time for discussion, the type form is the entrance to college by means of the personal examination of the applicant for admission by officers delegated by the college, this examination to be the sole means of determining the fitness of the applicant for college work. The variation is the entrance to college by candidates without subjec- tion to such an examination, and solely because they have successfully completed a course of study in some secondary school, which school has been examined by an officer delegated by the college, and its course of study approved. I would here call attention to the fact that our subject is not that of the relative merits of the entrance examination and the certificate plan, which has been so fully discussed before the Eastern Asso- ciation of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, since with them the examina- tion of the school does not figure. I quote from President Eliot's remarks before the conference held in Boston in October, 1900: In the first place, in New England we have no system of really examining the condi- tion of the secondary schools ; therefore the experiment of certificate is tried under the most disadvantageous possible circumstances. When it was first introduced into this 496 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher country an argument was made in favor of it from the German practice, secondary schools in Germany giving an outgoing certificate valid at the university. A fatal defect in the argument was that the German secondary schools are supervised by competent govern- ment educational authorities — ours by none. In New England we have nothing more than an occasional friendly visit to some schools by some college officer. That is an extremely weak and imperfect method, though perhaps better than nothing. Do not, then, confuse our problem with that of examination versus certificate as its solution has been attempted in New England, since we include another factor of no small pedagogical and administrative impor- tance, namely, this very examination of the school the absence of which, there. President Eliot so much deplores. The question of the superiority of either one of the two plans for the best co-ordination of secondary with college work must be settled by the criterion of pedagogical fitness. Institutions of learning are for the youth, and not the youth for the institution of learning, in spite of what may seem to be evidences to the contrary in the minds of some. We may, however, for purposes of analysis perhaps be justified in assuming that two criteria are subsumed by that given above, viz., the pedagogical criterion and the administrative criterion. Theoretically, the former should always be supreme, yet not infrequently the exigencies of our edu- cational conditions are such that, temporarily *at least, in the process of feeling one's way it must be made subservient to the latter. Let us then apply to the two methods of entrance to college covered by our subject each of these criteria in turn, and see what the effect of each is upon the pupil, the secondary school, and the college. This comparison can per- haps best be brought out by means of the direct question. I. What is the pedagogical effect of the college entrance examina- tion, as at present administered, upon the pupil ? Let me at this point ask you to distinguish carefully between this — i. e.,the entrance examina- tion— and the examination as an occasional test of power and proficiency in regular school work. Whatever may be my own opinion with regard to the former, I am in hearty accord with much that President Hadley has recently written on the question of the latter. The two are, however, radically different in these two respects : First, the college examination is set by those who know nothing of the personal peculiarities of the applicant and can make no legitimate allowance for such peculiarities, while the other is not ; and, second, in it the student knows that previous school suc- cesses, except as they are indicated by the present test, count for nothing. Both of these peculiarities make the college entrance examination open to criticism from the standpoint of our present criterion. My objection on the ground of the first is that the ordinary college entrance examina- tion presents conditions to the youth the like of which he will seldom or never meet in after life, and to which we have no right to subject him. The aim of our education is the adaptation of the individual to an envi- ronment in which he is likely to find himself, and I would confidently Department] EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL OR OF PUPIL? 497 assert that not one person in one hundred will in his whole after life find himself in a situation the outcome of which he can predict with so little certainty as the one in which he faces his examiner. Pedagogically this is wrong. The youth is not stronger than the man, and no part of our educational machinery has a right to subject him to greater stress than he is likely to meet in subsequent years. I disagree as fully with those who hold that the entrance examination to college is valuable because it enables him to rise to similar emergencies which he is likely to meet in after life as I should with those who might urge the introduction into the public schools of a fire drill which included a jump from the fifth-story window into a net held on the sidewalk below. Proficiency in this feat might come in handy to one in a million ; but what of the nervous strain on the others ? On the second ground, that too much depends upon the entrance examination, I would base the argument that it is conducive to cramming. At whatever stage in the educational career it is understood by the pupil that promo- tion depends solely and entirely upon success in passing a given test, at that stage you will find that pernicious form of so-called study. As long as the student is practically told : no matter whether your previous work has been good or bad, no matter how you have prepared yourself for this examination, if you answer these questions you succeed, if you don't you fail, — the cram system with all its evils is destined to remain. (Edgar H. Nichols, Educational Review, May, 1900.) President Butler, in an address before this Association not many years ago, said : It is bad psychology and bad education to suppose there is an obstacle at the pupil's sixteenth year which can be surmounted only by an examination, I am sure this should be done away with. 2. But to the next question : What is the effect of the entrance exam- ination upon the secondary school ? Here we shall find a more marked difference of opinion than upon that just discussed, or perhaps, if we may judge from the data presented by Principal Ramsay of Fall River, a much greater difficulty in having any opinion at all. Time prevents my making any considerable reference to his extensive report, which contains a tabu- lation of answers to twelve questions bearing upon the relative merits of the examination and certificate plans of college entrance, from twenty- nine head masters of secondary schools and the corps of college prepara- tory teachers in one public high school. Mr. Ramsay's conclusions are adverse to the certificate plan, altho it seems to me those conclusions are not supported by the data presented. The answer to what may be considered his crucial question, *'Do you on the whole think it wise to vest with the head master and his assistants the responsibility of determining the fitness of pupils ta enter college ?" was thirteen **yes" to thirteen "no," on the part of the masters, and four " yes " to three " no ", by the instructors. That somebody's judgment, too, was bad is shown by the fact that a given question, viz., " How do your examination candidates compare with your certificate candidates in mental 498 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher ability, physical health and strength ? " when put to the preparatory schoolmaster, receives the answer, '* Examinations better eight ; certificates better one." To the chairman of the admission committees of seventeen colleges, " Examinations better one ; certificates, five." Some one should be appointed to look after the physical and mental health of the examina- tion candidate between the time he leaves school and enters college. Such a sudden decline is dangerous. Aside, however, from the questions discussed in Mr. Ramsay's report comes that of the effect of the examinations upon the secondary school curriculum. So much has already been said and written upon this phase of the question that I need only mention it here. Few men of experience in preparatory work can deny that they have at times made sacrifice to the personal whims of an examiner who is mainly interested in and familiar with the more advanced stages of his subject. He feels that to do justice to the pupil who is looking forward to the trial by questions he must keep him primed on small technicalities, as well as forge him ahead in his subject, and his ideals are in danger of being upset ; the integrity of course and curriculum of being shattered. 3. But for our third question. What is the effect of all this upon the college ? The higher institution wants well-prepared students, and its principal interest is in getting them. What do the college men themselves think of the relative perfection of preparation of students under the two plans ? Mr. Ramsay shows us that of the definite answers from the seven- teen colleges, the certificates lead in matter of scholarship three to one, of general mental ability three to one, and in general performance of college duties five to one. In explanation of this to him unwelcome disclosure he says : " When a college admits on certificate, all but the very poorest pupils in the school from which certificates are accepted will accept these certifi- cates." Hence he argues that the comparison is not valid. Is it not, however, also true that the most brilliant and best-prepared pupils from these schools, led on by the hope of entrance honors, prizes, and scholar- ship, will refuse the certificate, thus equalizing matters at least partially in this respect ? An attempt on my part to ascertain the relative class standing of the freshmdn entering by the two plans at the large eastern colleges was not eminently successful, because of the labor involved by officers of those institutions in securing the data; but the following figures from perhaps the largest offering both plans are interesting and to the point. STANDING OF FRESHMEN AT THE END OF THE FIRST TERM, FEBRUARY, 1902 No. admitted No. con- ditioned Per cent, condi- tioned No. uncondi- tioned Per cent, uncondi- tioned No. of conditions imposed Average condition per student By examination. ........ Without examination . . . 112 101 55 30 49.1 29.7 57 71 50.9 70.3 168 106 1.5 1.05 Department] EXAMINATION OF SCHOOL OR OF PUPIL? 499 Another comparison which I was able to make between the percent- age of failures in first-year subjects by the freshmen in one of the large Atlantic coast universities, which admitted only by examination, and those of five of the large state universities of the Middle West, where 80 per cent, of the students enter without examination, shows very plainly either that the criterion for grading is very different for the two regions, or that the western institutions get much better prepared pupils. The figures are as follows : EAST WEST Failed, Algebra - - 25 per cent. Failed, Algebra - - 15 per cent. Failed, Trigonometry - - 34 per cent. Failed, Trigonometry - - 1 1 per cent. These western institutions covered stand as high in the educational world as do the eastern ; but since we cannot be sure of their criteria we cannot perhaps base upon the figures an argument in favor of the certificated freshmen. They are, however, very suggestive. From the standpoint of administration the entrance examination is not open to very wide criticism, at least on the part of the higher insti- tution. It is inexpensive, except to the pupil who has to make a jour- ney to some examining center, and it works, on the whole, with very little friction ; in fact on this score, and on this score only, does it show any points of advantage. It costs some money to examine the schools properly, tho, as will perhaps be shown by the next speaker on this pro- gram, the expense may be reduced to a minimum thru organization. The sport, if I may return to my biological figure, of the examination of the school to determine the qualifications of the pupils for college entrance made its appearance at the University of Michigan in 1871. It has had its principal growth in the West. Till within a very few years, however, the examination was not strictly of schools, but of departments of schools, if I may make a distinction — and it is an important one to my mind — instructors from the colleges examining the teaching in their special subjects in the preparatory schools. Its latest modification is, however, the examination of the school as a whole by a special university officer whose sole duty it is to perform this function and to report to a committee of the college faculty which makes the final recommendations. It is precisely this form of examination of schools which I wish to con- trast with the type form of the examination of the pupil. In applying our pedagogical criterion, we find that such examination has not the slightest effect upon the pupil, and that it lacks all the unpeda- gogical features of the college entrance examination. The examiner never announces — or should not — the exact date of his visit, and the pupils need not know that he is present. From the pedagogical stand- point, too, the college is not the sufferer so long as the examiner does his duty and keeps up the standard, and we have already shown that the non-examined freshmen do not suffer in comparison with the examined. 500 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher It is in its effect upon the school that we find the principal arguments in favor of the plan ; first, because in doing away with the entrance exami- nation it does away with its narrowing effect upon the curriculum, and, second, because it furnishes the school authorities, master and board, with an efficient and sympathetic advisor of the widest experience, whose salutary influence in the states within my observation can hardly be overestimated. The higher institution has other obligations to the lower than simply to set a mark for them and see them jump ; it must act as trainer as well as marker, and in the inspecting officer we have these two functions combined. Questions of the course of study, of the pro- gram, of equipment, both as to buildings and laboratories, of teachers, and the many other problems which are puzzling the principal, who, under the atomistic conditions of our secondary school system, has heretofore had no one to consult, are helped to a solution by the broader experience of the high-school visitor. He is the concrete personification of the college influence — the present positive element which brings the influ- ence into activity and effectiveness. Could it be shown, even, that the entrance examination to college is a real boon to the secondary school, it could, in my opinion, be sacrificed ten times over, in return for no other benefit than the invigorating stimulus which the college gives thru its official examiner. It is true that his influence would be greatest in parts of our country where, because of lack of previous development, secondary school growth is most rapid; but conditions have not yet reached such a stage anywhere as to make him a supernumerary, and I see no more hopeful thing in our educational development than this sport of high-school examination. REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON ACCREDITED SCHOOLS GEORGE N. CARMAN, DIRECTOR OF LEWIS INSTITUTE, CHICAGO, ILL. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools was organized in 1895 for the purpose of establishing closer relations between the colleges and secondary schools of the north central states. At the sixth annual meeting held in Chicago last year, Dean Forbes, of the University of Illinois, read a paper in which he urged that the time had come when the association should attempt a practical solution of the problem of "so connecting a widely various and freely elective high school with a still more widely various and more liberally elective college that it shall be but a single unobstructed step from any part of the one to any part of the other." He proposed that we build with grateful confidence upon the foundation laid by the Committee on College Entrance Require- ments of the National Educational Association in its report of 1899, by establishing a commission that should : Department] COMMISSION REPORT ON ACCREDITED SCHOOLS ^o\ 1. Define and describe courses of work in the various subjects of the high-school program which can be accepted by high school and college men alike as practically unvarying units of instruction, from which uni- form current units the curriculum of the pupil, the graduation requirement of the high school, and the entrance requirement of the college may everywhere be made up. 2. Determine upon a certain number of constants, subjects which should be taught in every secondary school, and required for entrance to every college. 3. Make a list of high schools whose graduates are entitled to admission to college, and a list of colleges accepting and maintaining the uniform standard of entrance, and acting together on all related matters. 4. Make a list of high-school subjects, and the amount of work in each, for which the colleges will give advanced standing when offered in excess of the entrance requirement, toge4:her with a scale of values according to which such accepted high-school work may be translated into college credits. As an outcome of the discussion of Dean Forbes' paper, the association established the Commission on Accredited Schools. It was made the duty of the commission : 1. To define and describe unit courses of study in the various subjects of the high-school program, taking for the point of departure the recom- mendations of the National Committee of Thirteen. 2. To serve as a standing committee on uniformity of admission requirements for the colleges and universities of the association. 3. To take steps to secure uniformity in the standards and methods and economy of labor and expense in the work of high-school inspection. 4. To prepare a list of high schools within the territory of the associa- tion which are entitled to the accredited relationship. 5. To formulate and report methods and standards for the assignment of college credit for good high-school work done in advance of the col- lege entrance requirement. The commission was duly organized in the course of the year, and its first report was adopted at the meeting of the association held in Cleve- land in March of the present year. The action taken as to unit courses of study in general is as follows : 1. A unit course of study is defined as a course covering a school year of not less than thirty-five weeks, with four or five periods of at least forty- five minutes each per week. 2. The graduation requirement of the high school and the entrance requirement of the college shall include fifteen units as above defined. 3. All high-school curricula and all requirements for college entrance shall include as constants three units of English and two units of mathe- matics. 502 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher The following is an outline of definitions of unit courses of study in particular subjects : The three units in English are those recommended by the Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. The four units in mathematics are: (i) elementary algebra, (2) plane geometry, (3) algebra and solid geometry, (4) algebra and trigonometry — as defined by the College Entrance Examination Board. The four units in history are: (i) ancient history, (2) mediaeval and modern European history, (3) English history, (4) American history, or American history and civil government — in accordance with the recom- mendations of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Asso- ciation. In Latin the commission adopts the first two units as defined by the American Philological Association, and the third and fourth units as defined by the College Entrance Examination Board. In Greek the definitions of the three units of the philological associa- tion are adopted. The definitions of the four units in French and the four units in Ger- man are those recommended by the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association. In Spanish the commission adopts the definitions of the two units of the College Entrance Examination Board, which are in close harmony with the definitions of French and German of the Modern Language Association. One unit each is defined in physical geography, botany, physics, chem- istry, biology, and zoology. The definitions in the sciences are based on the recommendations of the committees of the Department of Science of the National Educational Association. As to secondary school inspection it is enacted : 1. That the minimum scholastic attainment of all high-school teachers should be the equivalent of graduation from a college belonging to the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, including special training in the subjects to be taught, altho such requirements should not be retroactive. 2. That in the opinion of the commission the number of daily periods of class-room instruction given by any one teacher should not exceed five, each to extend over a period of forty-five minutes. 3. That high schools should be adequately equipped with library and laboratory facilities. 4. That a board of inspectors should be appointed by the commission to ascertain the schools within the territory of the North Central Association which are entitled to accredited relationship under the above limitations. 5. That the commission cause to be printed and distributed to the several inspectors for the use of high schools and academies certain uni- Department] COMMISSION REPORT ON ACCREDITED SCHOOLS 503 form blanks, with the intent to secure uniformity and to avoid duplication of work. 6. That it shall be the duty of the board of inspectors to submit to the commission the list of schools recommended by them not later than June I of each year. 7. That it shall be the duty of the commission to publish the list sub- mitted to it by the board of inspectors not later than June 10 of each year, and to cause the same to be distributed to the members of the North Central Association. The board of inspectors as now constituted consists of Inspectors Whitney of Michigan, Brown of Iowa, Alton of Minnesota, Brooks of Illinois, and Hoge of Missouri. As to college credit for certain work done in secondary schools : 1. The commission favors the general principle that colleges should give advanced credit for secondary school work, sufficient in amount and quality, done in addition to the fifteen units required for admission. 2. In the opinion of the commission no advanced college credit should be given for less than one full year of secondary school work in any subject, except so far as half units are specified in the definitions of unit courses, or for any study that is not pursued later than the second year of the high -school course. 3. The amount of advanced credit to be awarded in any subject should be determined by the college which the student enters. In closing I quote from Professor H. P. Judson, chairman of the commission : "It is understood that the plans herein outlined will form a basis on which work may begin. It is not supposed that practical expe- rience will justify every point in detail, but as fast as the commission learns that modifications are needed, they can readily be adopted. In making the tentative list of secondary schools, it is the plan of the com- mission to select only those which, beyond question, would be approved by all colleges in the association. It seems wiser to make, at the outset, a list which can be extended gradually, rather than a list which will need cutting down later." DISCUSSION Director George N. Carman, of Lewis Institute, Chicago, in discussion of Professor Dexter's paper, gave an instance of the embarrassment due to a lack of correla- tion between the secondary schools and one of the larger eastern universities. Professor John C. Hutchinson, of the University of Minnesota, spoke in favor of the examination of the school, rather than of the pupil, and explained in detail the organization of the high-school board of the state of Minnesota. Principal E. V. Robinson, of the high school of St. Paul, Minn., called attention to the importance of provision by the colleges for credit to the students of the larger high schools who have done more than the college requirement in certain subjects. He spoke 504 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher of the demoralizing effect upon the pupil of being forced to duplicate such work in the college. Very careful inspection of the schools would of course be necessary, but that would be welcomed by schools competent to do advanced work. Director Carman replied that such a scheme was perfectly feasible, and expressed his regret for the prevalence of the idea that the universities are ipso facto infallible, and the schools ipso facto fallible. F. P. Keppel, of Columbia University, New York, raised the question of the neces- sity, in the case of technical schools, for a strict system of entrance requirements, with comparatively little elasticity, and consequently frequent embarrassment to students. He believed that it was impossible to allow the same leeway in the case of these schools as in the case of the " old-fashioned " college, with its elective courses. Professor G. W. Knight, of the Ohio State University, emphasized this distinction between liberal and technical courses, and the necessity for a different policy with regard to their entrance requirements. In reference to Professor Dexter's paper. Professor Knight said, further, that in his experience there was difficulty in obtaining at the colleges a really honest certification from certain secondary schools, and that, mainly on this account, a doubt had arisen in his mind within the last few years as to the efficacy of the certificate system as a whole. President Northrop raised the point that it was most difficult to provide efficient checks for moral dishonesty in any stage of the pupil's education. Professor Knight replied that, if some official supervising body, independent both of the colleges and the schools, could be devised, most of his objections to the certification system would be removed. President J. L. Snyder, of the State Agricultural College of Michigan, spoke of the danger to the schools of laying their emphasis on the one pupil who is planning to go to college, instead of on the nine who will be unable to do so. Professor Dexter called attention to the great elasticity of the entrance requirements of the universities of the Middle West, and stated that there was no reason why the high schools should suffer in the way that Professor Snyder suggested. Professor Dexter stated also, as an evidence of the growth of an organized system of advanced credits at the University of Illinois, that, altho the requirements for admission prescribed only thirty-six- units, the average number of units offered by entering students was no less than forty-two (forty-four?). Principal L. H. Ford, of Webster City, la., brought to the attention of the Depart- ment the difficulty which the smaller high schools, with limited resources, and frequently under illiberal boards of education, found in meeting the requirements of the colleges, and made a plea for a policy on the part of the colleges liberal enough to make it possible for any graduate of one of these smaller high schools to enter the col- leges. Mr. Ford raised a question, also, in reference to Professor Knight's experience as to the dishonesty of certificates from secondary schools, as to the universal honesty of the certificates issued by the universities to the teachers whom they send out to work in the high schools. In answer to inquiries, Acting President Folwell explained the_make-up of the Minnesota high-school board, and the manner in which the examiners of the schools are, indirectly at any rate, under the authority of the university. He explained also the system of bonuses for such schools as prepare students for one or more of the courses of the university and are willing to submit themselves to examination by the high-school board. He stated also, as an interesting development of the system, that the scheme of bonuses had now extended down into the district schools and graded schools. Principal Charles Alden Smith, of the high school, Duluth, Minn., in a discus- sion of Director Carman's report, emphasized the value of a uniform and definite statement I Department] COMMISSION REPORT ON ACCREDITED SCHOOLS 5^5 of entrance requirements to ambitious schools. He said, also, that the results of the inspec- tion of schools worked most happily for the uplifting and inspiration of the latter. He mentioned, with approval, the development of the crediting system now in practice at Cornell University and other institutions, whereby the college sends back a report to the school regarding the work done by its graduates. Professor John F. Brown, high-school inspector for the State University of Iowa, speaking from the standpoint of the high schools, showed the advantage to the schools which comes from the inspection system, and cited instances where the recommendations of the inspector, altho without official authority, frequently brought about reforms in the schools which the principal, unaided, had been unable to get thru the board of edu- cation. Professor Thomas Nicholson, of Cornell College, Iowa, called attention to the movement in Iowa, which had been very successful and valuable. There the state university and the other degree-conferring institutions had united, thru the college department of the State Teachers' Association. They had first agreed upon certain minimum conditions in number and scholastic ability of professors, equipment, etc., with- out which an institution should not be recognized as " a college." The fifteen institu- tions in the state which fulfilled, or more than fulfilled, these requirements had organized a state board, composed of representatives of the colleges and the high schools, the object of which was to improve the educational conditions by voluntary co-operation. The result had been very gratifying. The best of feeling prevailed ; the reduction of the recognized degree-granting institutions from twenty-three to fifteen had dignified the college degree in the state and had tended to stop cheap institutions from competing for students by lowering requirements and deceiving the ignorant. This board had made an accredited list, uniform for all the colleges, had secured uniform entrance requirements for the colleges of the state, had agreed on certain allowances for subjects not in the regular entrance scheme, but which certain high schools were compelled to teach. It had been able to prescribe kind and quality of work and to materially aid the high schools to better courses and to more efficient work. They had issued a high-school manual, which was approved by the general association of the state and the state superintendents, and which was doing much good, and had also developed a uniform system of blanks, used by all the colleges and containing a place for the entry of the student's record in every subject legally taught in the Iowa high schools. The principal certifies to this detailed statement, and not merely to the fact that the student has graduated from the high school. A complete copy of the scholastic record of each applicant is, therefore, on file in the college to which he goes, and it affords a means of checking up any accredited school where there are deficiencies or where poor work is being done. Professor Hutch- inson explained that much the same ^stem in this last particular was in successful operation at the University of Minnesota. Professor Folwell, the acting president, closed the discussion by stating as his opinion that the contest between colleges and fitting schools will never be composed until the secondary schools are given their full scope. The colleges must at length yield to these schools about two years of work. The schools will then complete the instruction of youth and turn them over to the university to proceed with advanced studies. So long as colleges and universities are engaged in part in conflicting secondary education there will be contests over the division line between themselves and the high schools. When the whole secondary education is committed to the secondary schools there wall be nothing left over which to contend. This question was discussed in an address by the speaker before the Association in 1875. 5o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL HORACE M. LANE, M.D., LL.D., MACKENZIE COLLEGE, SAN PAULO, BRAZIL, S. A. When some eighteen years ago I was called upon to return to Brazil, to take up the educational work in which I had been engaged in the late 50's and early 6o's, for the purpose of reorganizing a small American school and developing from it a system of education which should be distinctly American in spirit and purpose, the first thing I found it neces- sary to do was to discover if possible what our American system was. I very soon found that American institutions differed very widely among themselves, and also from those of the Old World ; that the American college and university was at once something more and something less than the institutions of Europe bearing the same name; that we had not yet any clear and well-defined limit or scope of action either in university, college, or school ; that our college had no exact analogue in European systems; and that, while the older institutions of the East had fairly stable, and in some cases stereotyped, processes, those in the middle and western states were irregular, erratic, and partook of the progressive and expansive nature of life in those regions. I found that the attempts to take over into Brazil en bloc any of the European systems had retarded rather than advanced the development of a distinctly American system. Unfortunately, names did not then and do not now stand for much in our educational parlance ; they seem to have drifted away from their etymo- logical moorings and lost their historical connection. (They are begin- ning to recover them again.) I was much perplexed. I had set about to adapt to and ingraft upon a Latin-American society, whose social condi- tion, political aspirations, and future importance in the history of America were somewhat analogous to those of this, our Anglo-Saxon America. I set about resolutely to learn what we were really doing and to infer from it what we wanted to do. I sought a solution of the question in the official organization of courses of stud/, which usually covers the whole domain of knowledge, and in the voluminous reports of state superintend- ents and college presidents. I attended the great educational conven- tions, studied the varied literature of the subject, and made extensive personal inspection of work actually done in college and school. In some places there was genuine education, in others simple instruction and drill for examinations, (not a whit better than the Chinese.) There was such a lack of uniformity of thought in organization, methods, and even in principles, as to raise a doubt about our having any distinctively Ameri- can system of education. Yet the products of this olla podrida were so characteristically American that I felt there must be something among the essentials that was common to all these varied institutions. I made an Department] ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL 5° 7 extended inspection of European institutions, for a comparative study, and found many special processes and devices that could be appropriated, and, singularly enough, found that some of the German methods had their best development in the United States, but that no complete system could be profitably taken over as a whole. The great problem of how best to influence the heterogenous masses which flock to the shores of both Americas, and transform them into good citizens, is not touched by European systems. It is not exactly how to teach this Or that special branch, but how to co-ordinate the work and relate all branches to the rapidly changing conditions of American society, respecting the rights of the pupil, of the parent, and of society at large ; to make the most efficient men and women who can do and be as well as know something, and also to prevent, as far as possible, waste of time and energy. We found it difficult to follow the vertiginous activity of American educators along all lines, or to wade thru the voluminous literature which accompanies it, brought from the ends of the earth ; but, believing that there was a truly American system in process of development, we tried to catch the trend of thought and anticipate the results. Entirely free, unhampered by politics or precedent, with no fads or need of seeking favor from governments or patrons, but at liberty to select what was best from all sources, it will be readily conceded that we had a decided advan- tage over the educational reformer of our own country. The following, in very brief outline, has been in operation for fourteen years at San Paulo, Brazil, as the result of our study, and has been emi- nently satisfactory ; so much so that it has been applied to the public schools of the state. I. K primary school of five years with a minimum of one hundred school days of five hours each per annum for the ungraded country school, and 210 (a full school year) for the graded city schools. This course has for its spinal column reading, writing, and the four operations of arithmetic. Arithmetic is made the test of advancement, but great attention is also paid to expression and language, and very early are intro- duced small vocabularies of the two modern languages that later are to be studied systematically, using the natural method — French and English by French and English teachers. This is done with pleasure and profit to the pupil. Thus in the very beginning of school life the habit of com- paring modes of expression is cultivated, which later will be applied to processes of thought. Thru geography the study of nature is begun, and our relations to the world in which we live are studied ; thru manual training and the drawing preliminary to it, things and their relations are studied, and the child is taught to see and do as well as to think. This is that part of education which society, for its own safety, must demand for every girl and boy in the land. It is all that can be given to the children of the masses, the very poor, the wage earner, who must go to 5o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher work early in life. This is the five years of compulsory education. Very bright pupils with intellectual surroundings may complete this course easily in four years, as many have done far better than others in five. 2. A secondary course of four or five years. This is an expansion of the primary, extending mathematics and other branches to meet all requirements of practical life ; cultivating carefully the mother tongue ; giving systematic instruction in two modern languages ; thoro training in Brazilian geography and history, with outlines of general history and geography ; manual training, mechanical drawing, etc. This section embraces that part of a tax-supported education essential to good citizen- ship, within the reach of all, but not compulsory — a combined grammar- and high-school course. It is a preparation for college, without, however, special reference to a college course. In it the two modern languages are finished, so that in subsequent work text-books in English and French may be used ; algebra and geometry are studied, Latin begun, etc. — going about a year beyond the best grammar-school course of the United States. This completes the common-school system and prepares the pupil for the higher duties of citizenship. The bright pupil who has finished the pri- mary course in four years may complete this in five. It has frequently been done, and is the rule for those preparing for college. The student who does it is ready for our gymnasium course at fifteen years of age. We thought that in the great rush of utilitarian ideas in education we perceived a tendency to return somewhat to the humanities, and enrich the secondary school with studies heretofore included in the advanced courses, and thus shorten the higher course. This is the language period of life, and experience has shown us that two modern languages can be easily carried parallel to the mother tongue with benefit to the pupil. It furnishes excellent mental discipline, and has the advantage of awakening the habit of comparison earlier in life. There is a slight sacrifice on the mathematical or scientific side, which is pushed into the next division, where it logically belongs. 3. This step embraces three years of a culture course for that com- paratively small class who desire to take a profession, or wish a liberal education in literature, art, and the sciences, as a stepping-stone to still more advanced studies. Entrance to this class ought to be guarded by severe tests in order to exclude the weak- brained who want a degree sim- ply as an ornament, and because they can pay for it. The brainy poor young man or woman can always find means, if worthy. This is the col- lege, properly speaking, reduced to three years — a gymnasium or maturity course. It lies between the public school tax-supported system and the specialized university courses — not absolutely necessary, but highly advisable. It is where the student is thrown into the larger current, and takes on certain responsibilities, and enjoys certain of the privileges of manhood, either to prepare for entrance into higher spheres of life or to Department] ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL 509 pursue other studies. This gives us, in briefest outline, a minimum of school life at public expense of four or five years and a maximum of eight or nine years. 4. We have not yet been able to carry out fully our ideas in the development of higher courses, but have a beginning of university work. At the end of the maturity, culture, gymnasium, or college course, which- ever you may choose to call it, we have three courses, entrance to which may be elected and specially prepared for at the end of the first year of the gymnasium course : (i) a course of general science; (2) a course of specialized engineering ; (3) a course of letters — all pursued on the free university plan. Up to the end of the gymnasium course we take charge of the individual, studying his peculiarities, developing his powers, molding and cultivating the intellect and the character, adjust- ing the work to the individual. In university courses we leave the student entirely to himself, laying great stress on the subject-matters, which are cultivated to the fullest extent our equipment will permit. The student must take what he can. If he cannot take enough to carry him thru, he drops out by the way. Education will, therefore, under this plan, be finished at these ages : the large class of the very poor, who go under compulsion, at ten or eleven years ; another class will go out at the en9^of the secondary, and enter society fairly well equipped for the ordinary pursuits of life, at fourteen or fifteen ; a still smaller class completes the liberal course — the gym- nasium, culture, or maturity course — at seventeen or eighteen ; while the winnowing of all classes produces a comparatively small group of scholars and professionals who are able to enter life fully equipped with such for- mulated knowledge as can be obtained from books and lectures, at twenty-one or twenty-two. The student who skips the gymnasium course and short-circuits from the secondary to the university may, in excep- tional cases, graduate from his professional course at nineteen or twenty, but will always lack that something which enables the man with brighter culture and severer discipline to win in the race of life. The points in which the foregoing differs from the plan commonly adopted in the United States are : The introduction of two modern lan- guages at the language period of life, for their own value, to improve the study of the mother tongue, and to develop earlier the comparative processes of thought, as mental discipline ; the shortening of the college course to three years and reducing the sum of school life by at least two and possibly three years, leaving some of the enthusiasm of youth for the first years of independent self-supporting life, and also shortening the period of parental support. The young man is divorced from the dry process of digesting knowledge formulated by others, and left free to evolve his own formulas and adjust them to his environment. The kindergarten was introduced into our work, tho we do not Sro NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher consider it a necessary part of a tax-supported system of schools. It has, however, taken root, and is a part of the public school system of San Paulo. Manual training was introduced, as an essential element, from the third-year primary work to the end of the secondary course. It too has been ingrafted upon the public-school system. The teaching of science in the laboratory with less dependence upon text-books has also become an important feature. Athletics, as a most useful and agreeable adjunct, have been introduced and have spread thruout the land. The devel- opment of power thruout the whole system, instead of the cultivation of verbal memory, and cramming for examinations ; the stimulating of the sense of personal responsibility on the part of the educator to society, and on the part of the student to himself ; and the furnishing of a sound ethical basis, from a biblical standpoint — are distinguishing features of our work. Coeducation for the first time in any Latin country is successfully carried on from the kindergarten to the university course. This, too, is becoming a part of the public-school system. No attempt has been made here to indicate the exact organization of the various courses, the plan of correlation, or the specific methods employed; the purpose and logical distribution is what is sought to show. We have been able to see the finished product of the system and feel sure it is an improvement upon the old plan. This is the system of schools known as " Mackenzie College " and the ** Eschola Americana," at San Paulo, Brazil, and is intended to serve in a modest way as a model of American education in Brazil. As to whether it is good or bad as com- pared with the very good, or simply good as compared with an effete system, atrophied by centuries of obscurantism, we cannot decide. The results are good in the sense of producing good men and women, of attracting the flower of the youth of the land, many of whom would otherwise go abroad for their education, and of keeping us constantly at high tension to provide for those who knock at our doors — the number being always in excess of our accommodations. One of the problems that confront the people of North America is to decide what they are going to do for the people of the rest of America. When they have done with the Philippines, annexed the West Indies and educated their people, finished with Africa, China, and India, their atten- tion may be attracted to the needs and possibilities of their next-door neighbors on the south. I am inclined to believe that in the not very remote future there will be but one America, if we do our duty faithfully and promptly — one at least in aspirations, high ideals, civic courage, and largeness of life, all their attributes growing in some measure out of the grandeur of nature and the broadness of the land. The Americans of the South, will not they differ from those of the North much more than in our own country the inhabitants of the different states differ from each other ? I believe that our fellow- Americans on the south have a iust Department] THE FUTURE OF GREEK STUDIES 51 A claim upon us for help ; they are handicapped in the race by three or four centuries of wrong teaching and wrong thinking, and have naturally reacted from the despotism of such teaching into a state of unbelief and inability to evolve for themselves any new plan of national regeneration. They are willing and ready to receive what we offer that is good. I was glad to hear from a very prominent educator, at the general ses- sions last evening, a strong plea for the reintroduction of th6 Bible into the schools, not for the teaching of formulated religion, but as the groundwork for a code of ethics, as history, and as pure literature. We felt flattered by this part of the address, because we have held it in- our work in exactly this way for the past fourteen years. THE FUTURE OF GREEK STUDIES BY J. IRVING MANATT, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF GREEK LITERATURE AND HISTORY IN BROWN UNIVERSITY It is hazardous to name a baby before it is born or a paper before it is written. Your Jack may turn out a Jill ; your prophecy only a preach- ment. Something of the sort, I fear, has befallen me. I thought to discuss in a constructive way the Greek program of the future ; but I found myself confronted with the thesis that Greek is already dead, or, at best, unfit to live. And so my plea to set aside the coroner's verdict and to esta*blish the fact and the right of survival has left me but scant time to outline the program I had hoped to discuss. The paper as it is aims to show : (i) That our civilization is so rooted and grounded in the Greek that we cannot scuttle out of Greek without risk of a reversion to barbarism ; (2) that Greek studies are not waning, but waxing in practical as well as in ideal value ; and (3) how these studies may be made yet more fruitful in our national life and culture. To begin with, this is more than an academic question. It is in the last analysis an issue of civilization. Our most precious inheritance as an Aryan or Indo-European people comes to us from Greece — our elder sister, firstborn daughter of the west, whose matin song (the Iliad) is the real overture to modern history. Indeed, Shelley was more than half right when he said: "We are all Greeks. Our laws, our literature, our religion, our arts — have their roots in Greece." And John Stuart Mill, after indorsing the doctrine that *'The true ancestors of the European nations are not those from whose blood they are sprung, but those from whom they derive the richest portion of their inheritance," goes on to say: The battle of Marathon, even as an event in English history, is more important than the battle of Hastings. If the issue of that day had been different, the Britons and the Saxons might still have been wandering in the woods. 512 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher Bold as they seem, these are words of truth and soberness. If our freedom was won potentially at Marathon, so was our civilization ; for that day made Athens, not the school of Hellas only, but the school of the world and the ages. It was the inspiration of deliverance, the new wine of lib- erty, that made that fifth century the high-water mark of the human spirit at its flood tide of reason and beauty. That sunburst of human genius is to this day the light of the world in the whole range of reason and imagi- nation, of civil and spiritual liberty, and — in a far higher degree than we realize — in the realm of the conduct of life. 'F ^jv ^ yf: ^ ^ y^ ^ ^ But, it may be asked, does the conservation of the Hellenic element in our civilization, the maintenance of the Hellenic idea in modern life, depend upon the study of Greek ? That is a question to be answered without prejudice; and I may call a witness who cannot be charged with the Greek bias. Chancellor Andrews, of Nebraska, has more than once handled the Greeks without gloves ; but in a recent address on " The Social Need of Greek" — a massive and masterly statement of what we owe to Greece — he concludes : Even this passing look into the rock whence we were intellectually hewn and to the hole of the pit whence we were digged must, it seems to me, impress every thoughtful man that no modern community can, as a community, dispense with Greek studies unless it elects to be barbaric. That is sound doctrine. And yet Dr. Andrews' own community now elects to be barbaric by banishing Greek from its high school because only thirteen (unlucky number!) elect to continue the study; and my own college has just disestablished Greek — relegating it to the same shelf with Sanskrit and Assyrian — on the plea that the sacred right of election must have freer course. (I may remark in passing that, after disestab- lishing Greek, my modern colleagues at once proceeded to establish their several studies, so that the last state of election among us is far more straitened than the first.) The social need of Greek can be met only by the individual study of Greek ; neither religion nor culture can be got by proxy. The war on Greek is therefore a social war ; or, to put it bluntly, a war on society. And it has been fought largely on false pretenses. When Charles Francis Adams flung the gauntlet to the college fetich — that man of straw that he had sat up o' nights to fabricate — his challenge ran: Not only is Greek a dead language, but it bears no immediate relation to any living speech or literature of value ; ergo, Greek must go ! Now, note the bed- rock evidence on which the case is rested. Mr. Adams himself had read the whole of Homer in Greek and then forgotten the Greek alphabet. John Adams had read the whote of Plato (not in Greek), and confessed that Plato had taught him but two things, the more important one being that sneezing is a cure for hiccough. And the evidence swells to damning Department] THE FUTURE OF GREEK STUDIES 513 proof as our fetich flayer traces thru five generations the tribulations of the Adams family — all along of Greek. It was his profound knowl- edge of Plato that tongue-tied John Adams in French when he was our envoy at Paris ; and it was the forgotten alphabet of Homer that played the deuce with the Union Pacific under Charles Francis Adams' management. And this is not a circumstance to the mountains of obstruction piled upon the might-have-beens of Adams' greatness — by Greek ! Now, it may have been Greek; but somehow the Adams family has managed to make a living in spite of it. Indeed, Professor Peabody has remarked that about the only thing the Adamses can complain of is ** their failure to become a race of hereditary monarchs." And who knows but that Greek has thus acted as a brake against derailing, or at least sidetracking, our democ- racy ? As an old fogy, grown gray in coddling the college fetich, I can hardly claim a hearing on this subject from people with red blood in their veins and heads full of hard facts ; but even the hardheads may have ears to hear the judgment of one who, as man of letters and man of affairs, has hardly had his peer among the moderns. In his great secular oration at Harvard, James Russell Lowell does not flinch from the Adams chal- lenge : I know (he says) that I am approaching treacherous ashes which cover burning coals, but I must on lam familiar with the arguments for making the study of Greek especially a matter of choice or chance. If the classical languages are dead, they yet speak to us, and with a clearer voice than any living tongue. If the Greek language is dead, yet the literature it enshrines is crammed with life as perhaps no other writing, except Shakespeare's, ever was or will be. It is as contemporary with today as with the ears it first enraptured, for it appeals, not to the man of then or now, but to the entire round of human nature itself. ...» The most justly balanced, the most serene, and the most fecundating minds since the revival of learning have been steeped in and saturated with Greek literature. We know not whither other studies will lead : we do know to what summits, far above our lower region of turmoil, this has lead, and what the many- sided outlook thence. Over against Mr. Adams' bald assertion that Greek has nothing to do with any living literature of value, let me set the deliberate judgment of one of the choicest English scholars of our times^Francis Palgrave, long professor of poetry at Oxford : The thorough study of English literature is hopeless, unless based upon an equally thorough study of the literature of Greece and Rome. To know Shakespeare and Milton is the pleasant and crowning consummation of knowing Homer and ^Eschylus, Catullus and Virgil. And upon no other terms can we obtain it. • But the head and front of its offending is that Greek is a dead lan- guage, a nasty college fetich which not all the science of the age can dis- infect and sweeten. On this point let us hear the foremost English historion of our time — the historian of the Norman conquest and of Sicily, a man as much at home on the Acropolis of Athens, where he 514 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher thinks the world's political history begins, as is Mr. Adams on his farm at Lincoln. Says Edward A. Freeman : I claim for the Greek tongue its place .... because it is not dead, but living ; because, if it is ancient, it is medieval and modern no less. If it is the tongue of those who of old beat back the Persian, it is no less the tongue of those who in later times beat back the Saracen, and who won back the soil of Hellas in one age from the Slav, and in another from the Turk. Verily, we are compassed about with a cloud of witnesses ; and their witness is true. If there be any college fetich in the sense of an outworn discipline or a superannuated culture, it is not Greek. Among the pro- gressive sciences of our day not one has made more marvelous progress in the last quarter century than what, for want of a better name, I may call Hellenics. I do not mean that pinpoint on which Mr. Adams essayed to rear his pyramid, namely, Greek grammar with its forgotten alphabet. Our Hellenics is a mountain range which makes him who scales it the spectator of all time and all existence. It is the volume of the best thought and deed of the most gifted race the world has yet seen — a race that fixed the great types of literature and art in such absolute perfection that milleniums have passed without approaching them. The world knows but one Iliad, but one Parthenon, but one Olympian Hermes ; and it will know none other save as we turn from burying Greek to unburying Greece. That way lies treasure yet untold. Open your eyes for a moment to the light that has already broken forth in our own day. There is Homer, the oldest, vividest, completest transcript of the civilization which is our heritage. What science of the laboratory can today put into student hands raw material comparable to the Homeric texts, the prime source of European history and culture? Instead of faring afield for fossils to set up in a museum, the student of Hellenics can buy for a dollar and carry in his pockets these great original sources in a more perfect text than Pericles could command. And we are in a far better position to study them critically than were the men of Pericles' time, or of any other time between Pericles and Schliemann ; for, thanks to Schliemann's simple faith and tireless spade, seconded by the sound science of Dorpfeld and Tsountas and Evans, we can now confront the poet with the actual objective realities that entered into the life of which he sang. We can walk round the walls of Mycenae and Troy and count their towers ; we can enter the palaces where Proitos and Agamemnon and Idomeneus and Priam dwelt; we can handle the swords and scepters, the signet rings and diadems, wielded and worn by monarchs who were dust before the king of men passed out of the Lions' Gate to win back Helen from Troy. We have recovered the very goblets and tankards that went round the festal company as they quaffed the honey-hearted wine or made libations to their gods. ********* Department! THE FUTURE OF GREEK STUDIES 515 Thus we had recovered the real background of Homer. Yet, with all its wealth of art, it appeared to be an age without an alphabet — to have left no written record of itself. But that is no longer the case. In October, 1899, I stood in a rough-plowed field in Crete, where I knew Minos had reigned before Moses took down the law on Sinai. It was the most unpromising ancient site I ever examined ; but a few months later Arthur Evans, whose house I occupied at Candia, near by, put in the spade there and laid bare the Palace of Knossos, which was perhaps two cen- turies old when Idomeneus went out from it to the siege of Troy. In that palace he found, for one thing, a wall painting of a young lady in full colors, now certainly the oldest girl in Europe. But what is epoch- making in Evans' find is a whole series of inscribed tablets, probably the palace archives. These inscriptions are in a native alphabet, indefinitely older than that which the Hellenes borrowed from the Phoenicians and handed down to us ; and the key to that alphabet is yet to be found. It took fifty years to decipher the cuneiform records of Assyria, over twenty to make out the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and the problem presented at Knossos may well prove tougher than either of these. But when these records are read, as read they will be, we shall have pushed authentic first-hand European history a thousand years or more back, of Herodotus; It was here in Crete Zeus wedded Europa, and their son Minos was, strictly, the first European. Thus the cult of the college fetich carries us back to the cradle of European history. Nor is this the sole Cretan contribution of this dismal cult to our knowledge of ourselves, for all this is of our family record. From old Knossos I rode over the bare mountains — relieved mainly by ruined vil- lages which mark the retreat of the unspeakable Turk — a long day's journey to Gortyn ; and there, a stone's throw from the church in which Titus ministered, in the inner wall of a circular building (doubtless the town hall), I studied the oldest autograph code of European law. It covers 150 square feet of stone, in 12 columns of over 600 lines, and the printed text of it is longer than the Constitution of the United States. Minos, you remember, was not only a mighty monarch, but the first European lawgiver. Every nine years he went home to his father, Zeus, to receive the law from the Olympian lips, as did Moses from Jehovoh in the mount. Possibly the old palace may yield up the original tables ; but meantime we have in the twelve tables of Gortyn a code of law humanely safeguarding the rights of women, children, and slaves, which was chis- eled down before Plato wrote his laws, possibly as far back as Solon. Is not the great inscription found and read by our Hellenists since some of you were born as well worth knowing as any fossil from the Bad Lands ? And even the tombs are giving up again the masterpieces of that mar- velous literature. In my house in the Lyceum, where Aristotle wrote it, I had the felicity to read eleven years ago his " Constitution of Athens," 5 1 6 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Higher then just come to light after being lost to the world a thousand years and more. Ten years ago, when I made a pilgrimage to the native island of Bacchylides, we had, all told, but a hundred fragmentary lines of that poet. For six years now the poems of Bacchylides, since recovered from an Egyptian tomb, have been among the choicest courses in our curriculum at Brown. And these are but the earnest of greater things to come. The barbarians have taken Athens. Germany, France, England, America have there planted their schools for the study and restoration of classical antiquity. Already the Germans have restored to us Olympia, with the priceless Hermes ot Praxiteles ; the French, Delos and Delphi ; the Eng- lish, Megalopolis ; while our own countrymen — after uncovering Ikaria, Thorikos, Sikyon, and Eretria — are now delving away at Corinth. Thus they are not only accumulating the raw material of Hellenics, but they are training Hellenists — men and women steeped in the atmosphere and saturated with the sweetness and light of old Greek life. As they return to radiate in our schools and colleges and universities, even the author of The College Fetich must regret the forgotten alphabet of Homer. And he might find it no easy task to convince them that Greek is a very dead language. One who has lived among the most wide-awake people on the planet — a people who light their cigars as well as their streets by electricity ; who turn down their ministry and make a clean sweep of the offices once every ten months on an average ; who run more daily newspapers in their little metropolis than New York and Boston combined can boast ; who print and read more books in a year than any other community of equal numbers in the world ; who carry on a system of free public education from the primary school thru all the grades to a university as large and twice as troublesome as any of our own — well, one who was lived among these Greeks will hardly class them with extinct species. And what of the vehicle of the marvelous intellectual movement one beholds at Athens? Books by the myriad, newspapers by the ton, schools at every crossroad, a people thinking and working out this complex civilization that might have confounded an Aristotle — these are not dumb, but speaking. And their speech is just the most wonderful thing about them. From the dawn of history Greeks have dwelt here and played their illustrious role on this tiny stage. The crowning credential of the fact is their language : if it were a crime to be Greek they would be convicted of it out of their own mouths, their tongues betraying them. From the Canterbury Tales to the Merry Wives of Windsor it was only two centuries ; from the Iliad to this morning's Acropolis it must be twenty-eight. Yet Chaucer might have been more puzzled by Shake- speare's English than Homer by our newspaper Greek. Talk of dead languages! In the whole "family of human speech there never was a more lively and prolific shoot than this dead Greek. I Department! THE FUTURE OF GREEK STUDIES 5 1 7 How its grafts have enriched our own brave English ! And are we not all steeped in Attic sunlight? Is not our literature shot thru with it as with thread of gold, and our language so saturated with it that we can neither enjoy the one nor comprehend the other save as we are in a measure Hellenized ourselves? Take up your bread and butter ologies and every blessed one of them bristles with Greek. Without Greek you cannot name a flower, nor classify a pebble, nor analyze a drop of dew, to say nothing of telling the stars or sounding the deeps of divine philoso- phy. Every new thought of man finds in it the fitting word, and science takes no step forward that it does not stop to register in Greek. And what continuity of life ! Look at the books we have just been reading at Brown : Homer, who was chanting the deeds of heroes heaven knows when and where in the gray morning of the world ; Hesiod, who was singing the generatious of the gods and what he knew about farming almost as long ago ; Pindar and ^schylus, who were building the lofty rhyme at Thebes and Athens; Herodotus, who was writing his great history in the fifth century B. C. ; Theocritus, who was piping his sweet pastorals two centuries later; St. Paul and Lucian, who were, the one heralding a new faith and the other flouting an old one, in the early centuries of our own era ; and along with these, Bikelas, with whom I was hobnobbing in Athens not three years ago ! Ah, this dead language of ours is full of sap and quivering with life. It might have served the morning stars in their first matinee, yet the nightingales still sing in its branches and its leaves are for the healing of the nations. When Sophocles was on trial for senility, he asked leave to rehearse a chorus he had just written, whereupon the court concluded that the poet was quite able to mind his own business. And, by the same token, the educational reformers who are now swearing out letters of guardian- ship or of administration on the person and estate of Greek may prove a little too previous. It is always inexpedient to call the coroner before you are sure of your corpse, or to send for the undertaker when the sub- ject is at the top of his condition. And that is the present state of Greek, both as a social factor and as an educational discipline. It was never before so rich in performance as well as in promise and potency as it is today. If education is to make men, it must be thru man-making studies; and, if you ask me what these are, I would answer : Whatever best disciplines faculty, widens vision, and ennobles character. In other words, education is to yield discipline, enlightenment, inspiration; and the value of any study is to be tested by the completeness of its response to one or more of these ends. The studies that respond to them all in harmonious and happy combination must hold the supremacy until we are prepared for a new eclipse of civilization. Central in such studies is the study of man as he utters himself in language and literature, in history, philosophy, religion 5 1 8 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Higher — the humanities in the widest and noblest sense, fragrant with heroic memories, with lofty ideals, with holy aspirations. The schools that leave this range of mind to choice or chance, to be taken or left at the pupil's whim or caprice, are false to the very idea of culture. And in the humanistic group Greek still holds the center. In the memorial of the Philosophical Faculty of Berlin asking the government to reconsider its action in opening the universities to graduates of the Realschulen, pro- fessors of mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, zoology, economics, phi- losophy, English, and German — each speaking from the standpoint of his own specialty — pronounced the non-classical men inferior to the classical when it came to university work in the very subjects emphasized in the Realschule training. And the judgment of the faculty is summed up by Rector Hofman (a chemist) in these strong words : That all efforts to find a substit-ute for the classical languages, whether in mathe- matics, in the modern languages, or in the natural sciences, have been thus far unsuc- cessful ; that after long and vain search we must always come back finally to the result of centuries of experience ; that the surest instrument that can be used in the training of youth is given us in the study of the languages, the literature, and the works of art of classical antiquity. In this verdict we may with full warrant read the specific vindication of Greek, for the Realschiiler, as such, bring to the university a seven- years' training in Latin. But as an accomplished Latinist — Professor West, of Princeton — has recently urged {^Atlantic Monthly^ December, 1899, P- 827), Latin can never be taught in its full attractiveness without Greek, It may be taught with advantage, with great advantage, but without Greek it cannot be taught to the best advantage, because it is cut off from a large range of important illustration and support Classes studying Greek and Latin' regularly surpass classes studying Latin alone. And this for a very plain reason : Greek is in Latin, but Latin is not in Greek. And Palgrave's claim for the study of classical literature as the only road to mastery of English is yet more valid for Greek as the indispensable key to Latin. The young Grecian finds himself at home with Cicero and Virgil ; the young Roman has a wcM-ld of things to learn before he can breathe the atmosphere of Plato and Sophocles. And so, as Mr. West tells us, to get the best Latin you must study Greek. And he adds : The two are one study, after all, and the one is Greek Greek is today the schoolmaster of studies as truly as ancient Greece was the teacher of the young western world. As an ideal discipline, then, Greek holds a unique position ; but we are told that as actually taught it is dust and ashes, dry bones, unrelated scraps, gerund-grinding, et id omne. And yet the great apostle of modern studies among us holds up " the training given by the classical sides of high schools in Latin and Greek" as the standard of merit to Department] THE FUTURE OF GREEK STUDIES 5_i_9 be aimed at in the teaching of " modern languages, science, and history." (President Eliot in the Atlantic Monthly for October, 1899, p. 144.) And Dr. Andrews favors the teaching of Greek in the high schools because it is taught more fruitfully and economically than the sciences. But how stands the case in college? That there is unfruitful teaching in all lines goes without saying — Greek not excepted ; but that Greek enjoys a bad pre-eminence in barrenness I cannot for a moment admit. On the contrary, even an average teacher is quite as likely to find inspiration in it, to say the least, as in any modern study; and, once inspired him- self, he has the most inspiring of all subjects wherewith to work upon the mind of youth. Professor Miinsterberg blesses the dispensation that steeped him in Greek as a German gymnasium boy, tho it brought him to his chair at Harvard without ever having spoken a word of English, because in Greek he found his inspiration as a psychologist, and so had something worth saying in English when he got to it. And, on a rather large and varied experience in the calling, I make bold to say that Greek as taught in our colleges is as fruitful as any subject in the curriculum. Other things being equal, including that vital factor of the teacher's personality, I believe it the most fruitful study we have. It opens wider and higher horizons, it admits to nobler society, it yields a larger return in fresh ideas and grand ideals than any modern subject. The ethical value of Greek study has been called in question ; but no open-minded student who approaches Greek literature in a teachable spirit can fail to find in it a means of grace as well as an instrument of culture. The great Greek writers are ethical to the core, as clean and wholesome in their tone and tendency as they are matchless in their art. As moral teachers the Greek tragedians are hardly second to the Hebrew prophets ; and they appeal to us the more because they are our kinsmen. And what is Plato but a library of ethics — not simply in the abstract, but applied and hammered in? The platonic Socrates is a preacher of righteousness, who leaves us no ease in Zion, who strips us of the last rag of our conceit, and compels us to reckon squarely with reason and conscience. And he is still the best normal school we have. Not only have we the original and inspiring sources, but they are practicaHy inexhaustible. In range few teachers have the advantage of us. If we keep threshing over old straw, it is because the root of the matter is not in us. Even the secondary teacher may prepare eight suc- cessive classes in Homer without ever repeating a book. In the drama one may teach many years without repeating a play; so in Plato and Demosthenes. And, taking the extant classical Greek literature, one may teach a long lifetime without running short of fresh material. And now that long-lost authors are rising again from their tombs, we can set no limit to our potential resources in the literature alone, to say nothing of the history, archaeology, and art. 520 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher The stock indictment against Greek has another count; not only is it useless, but it crowds out what is useful. It must lie over and make room. In fact, Greek is not exclusive of other subjects, but they of Greek. As Professor Clapp, of California, puts it : The classical graduate may be an expert political economist, while the social science graduate knows nothing of Homer. The classical graduate may have had forty or fifty hours of natural science, but the science graduate has never read a page of Plato. He will have to go to the dictionary for the meaning of the scientific terms which he uses every day, for most of them are pure Greek, and his classical friend can interpret them at a glance. The classical graduate can get more mathematics than the average professor of mathematics will ever use, but the graduate in engineering will never understand the classical allusions in English literature. The classical course is the truly liberal course, because it is the broadest. And now how are we to shape our Greek program to the new con- ditions? With all protection broken down, and with every Philistine hand against it, Greek must depend for its survival (i) on its own inherent and inexhaustible vitality; (2) on a just social recognition of its unique culture value ; and (3) on the wisdom of teachers in planning courses and their power in vitalizing them. On the first head, I have said enough. On the second, I may quote two of the seven ''admonitions" with which Dr. Andrews closes the paper already referred to : All believers in a rich and rounded social education should feel, think, and act appreciatively toward Greek study. Colleges and high schools with reasonably ample facilities should be encouraged to continue teaching Greek if already doing so; if not, to begin. So far so good. Society owes it to itself to give Greek a living chance in the academy, the high school, and the old-fashioned college, as well as to make adequate provision for it in the University. And we who teach Greek owe it to society to make our teaching fresh and vital and inspiring ; to be ourselves true interpreters of antiquity in terms of modern life and thought ; in short, to keep the living waters of old Greece flowing fresh in the currents of young America. To accomplish this our studies must contemplate discipline, enlight- enment, and inspiration. As I conceive, these ends may best be met by a program ranging somewhat as follows : 1. Careful foundation work in the language. We must master the vehicle, which is itself among the marvelous achievements of the Greeks and our key to all the rest. 2. Critical reading, never remitted but never exclusive, of master- pieces. 3. Free reading for literature only — e. g., all Homer; all Herodotus; much of Plato. 4. Still wider reading of Greek authors in English, where adequate versions exist, or rapid interpretation by the teacher, combined with literary history and criticism. Department] EDUCATION IN THE APPRECIATION OF ART 5^ 5. The study of Greek history as written by the Greeks and illumi- nated by archaeological discovery. This should make the student at home under Greek skies and in the Greek atmosphere. ,6. The study of Greek life, public and private, in the light of the literature and monuments, to put the student in touch with the men and women of Homer, with the contemporaries of Pericles, with the Athenians of today. 7. The study of archaeology and art — a subject of the highest culture value, and one whose material is increasing every hour. This is but a tentative program, admitting of indefinite variation and expansion, and to be divided between the secondary school and the college, as occasion requires. To speak of the future of Greek studies may seem to some to savor of irony; but, as an optimist, who believes that on the whole humanity is moving forward and not backward, and that it cannot and will not "afford to lose out of its inheritance any part of the best work that has been done for it in the past," I confidently expect Greek to outride the storm now blowing as she has weathered many a gale already. More than that, I hope to see her emerge from the present tribulation in newness of life and plentitude of power. EDUCATION IN THE APPRECIATION OF ART CHANCELLOR WILLIAM BAYARD CRAIG, DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, lA. In our young and vigorous country we are great in science, respectable in religion, and weaklings in art. We have been too busy with the useful and practical in the material development of our new country to know or care much about art. In the matter of government we have discovered foundation principles, and know how to talk about the rights of man and the functions of the state. An average American citizen feels himself competent to appraise the values of the various elements that enter into the ceremonial and pageantry of the coronation of a king. He is no longer overawed by the traditions and claims of hereditary monarchs. He is a fearless critic in political science. It is a different matter, however, when the same average American citizen is asked to give his opinion of a work of art, a painting by Corot or Millet ; a figure by French or St. Gaudens ; or a building by Richard- son or Mayer. All self-reliance and boldness are gone. He will proba- bly utter a phrase of fashionable criticism, or, if he ventures an original remark, will pass on with a horrible feeling of uncertainty, fearing lest he has said something flat, ridiculous, or both. The fact is that in art matters the American people are in the pro- vincial period; they depend on Europe for their ideas and doctrine in art, 522 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher as our fathers depended on England for ideas of government in the old colonial days. We are not appreciative students of art production and values, and will not have opinions of our own until we are delivered from slavery to conventional traditions, by learning and applying for ourselves the first principles of art. We must be able to write a declaration of independence in the realm of art, as we have in the realm of politics. This is the essential beginning for a great national art that shall be the expression of the larger life, the new conditions, and modern ideals of our American civilization. The art of Europe expresses the life of Europe for a thousand years and more. We can make it ours for purposes of study, but it can never be our national art — the expression of our own life; that we must create for ourselves from the ground up. In art development, as in everything else of a broad national charac- ter, we must lay the foundation in the hearts and minds of the common people. It is not true that our meager development in art is a racial defect. Art is not the birthright alone of the Latin peoples. It may be granted that the Italians, French, and Spaniards are more emotional in temperament, more sensitive to the appeal of beauty, more responsive to the efforts of their artists, and thus more easily stimulated to the point where art production begins; but the English speaking race are also, in their own characteristic , manner, profoundly artistic. Chaucer sang of the common life of a practical people in a way that leaves no doubt as to the art impulse in the English heart. The English blood was warmed by intermixture with the original Celts in the island of Great Britain, by the later invasion of Celts from the continent, and by the conquest of England by the Latinized Normans. This intermingling produced a new and powerful race, that gave the world, not only the splendid pages of achieve- ment and conquest in the times of Elizabeth, but also that unequaled chorus of singers and writers who group around the peerless Shakespeare. As the race of English-speaking people have spread out to the east in Australia, and to the west in America, their power and artistic genius have become more and more conspicuous. There is no room to doubt their capacity for art appreciation and production. In our own land, the poets of New England, the novelists of the South, the sculptors. of the West, the painters of New York, the White City on the inland sea, that arose as by enchantment, more beautiful than a dream, are all sure prophecies of the coming glory of American art. How can it be otherwise ? We are young and enthusiastic. Our ideals are high, our love of the beauty of nature profound and sincere, our feeling deep and strong. When we turn our attention seriously to the study and production of art, we shall greatly excel. The purpose of this paper is to call the attention of college men to the need of education in the appreciation of art. Department] EDUCA TION IN THE APPRECIA TION OF ART 5 2 3 In a republic where opportunities for education and culture are pro- vided for all, education in the appreciation of art should be a part of the educational scheme, and this, must be done before we can have a truly national art at all, i. e., an art that expresses the deepest heart yearnings and ideals of the whole people. Indeed it may well seem to the wise student of our national life that our civilization is seriously defective just at this point. We are in a new land, with vast undeveloped resources, and the lust of conquest possesses us. With machines of power and efficiency we are opening up our rich resources; the grime of our arduous toil is upon us; too often our minds and our souls are smirched by our slavery to the mill, the workshop, and the store ; and we lose sight of the fact that there is something else to do in this world besides money making and its machinery. As a nation we seem to need the inclination and ability to see the vision of the artist and know how to read and appreciate the symbols by which he would impart to us the message of his heart, that he may minister to the joy and fulness of life. An appreciation of art would open up a new channel for the amazing vigor and energy of our people, would open up for the slaves of labor, whether capitalist or workman, new fields of interest and pleasure, and in every way soften and adorn the hard and ruder spaces of life. Poverty would be enriched by discovering new sources of inspiration and pleasure at the free and bountiful table of nature, with its cloth of green spangled with " daisies and buttercups " under the azure pavilion of the God of beauty and of love. The sordid money getter, swollen with pride because of his success in the scramble for gold, would find a new life, with new meanings, when first enabled to buy with his money one real work of art for which a genuine appreciation had been awakened in his soul. It would keep the heart young and simple and sincere. It would preserve that invaluable something that was in the heart of Wordsworth when he said : My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began, So is it now I am a man ; So be it when I shall grow old, Or let me die. We are the wealthiest people of the world, and the most intelligent; but the serious question yet remains : are we not still barbarians until we learn to appreciate the world of beauty, the realm of art ? We have made beginnings in the right direction. We have many schools of design and teachers of drawing. In some of our larger cities, especially in Denver, Colo., the cultured people are beautifying the school- rooms with works of art, and striving as best they can to awaken and nourish delight in the beautiful. We are talking about the city beautiful. There are signs of a general awakening to the importance of the claims 524 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher of the artist, and doubtless the movement will increase in power, because truth is on its side, until we shall have methods and teachers and text- books adequate to the results to be achieved. We must not lose sight of the fact, however, that it is not enough to learn how to draw or master some technique of art; the chief thing is to know how to appreciate art itself. Tolstoi's book What is Art is given to the world by its author as the ripe result of fifteen years of study. The book abounds in peculiar marks of the genius of this great writer. All his conclusions will not be accepted as sane and satisfactory, but the work is rich in helpful sug- gestions. He strips the subject of all perplexities and confusing verbiage ; he emancipates the reader from the spell of tradition or the tyranny of the conventional, and brings the student face to face with the character and function of a true art product. After quoting definitions from all the great writers since Aristotle, and noting their merits ^nd defects, he offers his own definition of art as better than any of them, and undoubtedly he is right. He says : Art is a human activity, consisting in this, that one man consciously, by means of certain external signs, hands on to others feelings he has lived thru, and that other peo- ple are moved by these feelings and also experience them. When one is able to grasp the full significance of this definition, the hitherto mysterious and complex world of art becomes simple and plain; a grammar-school student can understand it. The artist consciously expresses feelings that he has lived thru in such a way that others experience the same feeling. That is a somewhat broader and fuller statement of a long-familiar doctrine, viz., that "art is the language of feeling." This is fundamental truth. The artist con- structs a body out of words, lines, colors, clay, or other media ; and out of his own emotional experience, out of his own fullness of inspiration, breathes into the form he has created the breath of life, and it becomes a living work of art. Without this feeling imparted by the true artist, all high-sounding words, all deft combinations of lines, all splendor of color, all skilled manipulation of keys or strings, are dead things, like artificial palms and roses. Mere dexterity in handling material is not art in this high and true sense. Skill in technique is merely a refined form of mechanics, unless a genuine emotion of the heart is behind it all, seeking to impart itself to the heart and life of others. When a student grasps this truth he becomes at once conscious of power in himself in the matter of art appreciation. He has learned to ask the first and all-important question concerning art production, viz., does the artist express in it a true emotion, in such a way that I am made to feel it with him ? Department] EDUCA TlON IN THE APPRECIA TION OF ART 5^5 A student is enabled by Tolstoi's help to make this good beginning in art appreciation without considering the elements of beauty in art at all, and I agree fully with him that the supreme aim of the artist is not to make a beautiful thi^ng ; his sole object must be to express the emotion that controls him, and the beauty will take care of itself. What is beauty ? The great writers on art have been trying to answer that question ever since the days of Plato, and the best they have to give us is this : " Beauty is that which pleases." The whole subject is remanded to the verdict of the individual. That which pleases your sense of beauty is to you beautiful. There are a host of other definitions, but they can all be classified in two groups: one declaring there is no beauty in the world, it is only in the beautiful soul — idealism ; the other declaring beauty to consist in lines, in proportion, in relation— materialism. Ruskin and many of the great writers on art combine these extremes, and see the beautiful in the divine idea — the soul of all things; and also see the beautiful in the material body that the soul or the idea weaves for itself. This seems to be the only satisfactory view of the whole matter. We may, then, agree with Tolstoi that beauty is not the end for which the artist works ; his aim must be first and last and all the time to express the feeling that possesses him. But if the feeling is true and genuine, beauty is inevitable in the product ; it fits the ideas of the artist and belongs to it as the body belongs to the soul. The advance to the con- clusion of monism is easy along this line — spirit and matter are one. The foundation of art appreciation is the recognition of the all- dominant importance of feeling in the work of art. It is helpful to take the student back to the conditions of primitive life and note the development of art language, i. e., the progress in the use of the various media used by men for the expression of feeling or emotion as they advance from primitive to highly civilized conditions. The young Indian wife in the joy of motherhood beautifies the clothing and cradle of the papoose with bead and quill and fringe. She coos over her child with gentle and winning intonations of voice. She is merely translating and recording the joy that throbs in her heart and shines in her eyes. She is an artist, and stands at the beginning of all that long line of domestic and decorative art-workers inspired by love for home and children — a love that will not stop with the merely useful and necessary, but under the inspiration of affection rises into the luxury of embellishment and beauty. It was this point of view that led William Morris to declare that art is the expression of joy in one's work. The Indian who finally constructed a finished type of the birch-bark canoe, with its wondrous curves and contours, achieved a masterpiece of art — the perfection of utility, the perfection of beauty. The aquatic experience and emotions of a tribe thruout a millenium of its history can 526 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher be felt in the study of the canoe. It is born of the womb of nature, and nourished at her breast ; it is nature's own joyous product thru the agency of her child of the forest. The life of nature is in the canoe; it is as much a part of it as the deer or the water-lily, and is beautiful for the same reason. The Indian birch-bark canoe builder is already far along in the art path with the best Indian basketry and pottery. Along that same line the artists advance to the Greek vase, the Parthenon, and all the triumphs of modern architecture. The Indian lover bedecked with all the finery he possesses, showing off all his paces in dance or game before the maidens of the village, is animated by the same feeling that has created all music, all poetry, all literature and drama of romantic art. The war party returning victorious from battle, giving vent to a .very ecstacy of joy in leaping and shouting and declamation of deeds of valor, is an early prophecy of a coming Homer, the triumphial arches of the great capitals, and all the Te Deums and art monuments to victory. It is interesting to study also the effect of limited material and limited ability on the part of the Indian to express his emotions. The emotion overflows the channels of expression. He had not reached a knowledge of sculpture or architecture or literature. All the emotions of the human heart were forced into few and narrow channels of expression. He could not express his sorrow for the dead in a splendid monument, but, select- ing some bold hilltop overlooking a river or lake, he raised a simple mound of earth that seems to be saying evermore to the Great Spirit, to the rising and setting sun, to the great dome of heaven : We can- not express our sorrow; we bring our dead here; we lay him on this high altar ; let the night and the day, the dark storm and the glorious sunshine, speak our hope and our grief for us. The Indian burial-mound is in itself one of the simplest forms of art creation ; in the location selected it is great ; it puts nature itself under tribute to express its feeling and purpose. The dance is no longer an art product in America; it has been con- ventionalized into a meaningless whirl. It was a serious art product, however, for the Indian. He put into it his religious emotions, his joy, his sorrows, his hopes, his prayers. By the dance, he expressed the whole gamut of his emotions. In primitive conditions the feeling that inspires art is the overwhelm- ing fact. The technique of art is in its crudest and simplest beginnings. In our own times, skill in the manipulation of materials used in art expression is the overwhelming fact, and the feeling is often weak or con- ventional. Much that is called art today is merely a show of skill in technique; it does not reach the heart or arouse emotion. When one has learned to eliminate from the vast array of art products the large num- Department] EDUCATION I^ THE APPRECIATION OF ART 52? ber of pictures, statues, and compositions that have no special value except as exhibitions of technical skill in handling material, he will find the whole art problem simplified and comprehensible. He will no longer be enslaved by the pretensions of the school or the dominion of the con- ventional. In Millet's "Sower," in his "Man with the Hoe," in his "Angelus," the feeling is so simple, sincere, and strong that all the world responds. It is great art. These pictures tell with wonderful power the tragedy of the life of the peasant who conquered the ground with the hoe. , Note how earth and sky harmonize with the subdued garb of the figures. You feel that this painter was under the dominion of a strong abiding sympathy with his theme from beginning to end. More than that, you feel that the picture tells of a profound experience in the heart of the artist. He never forgot his text in a single line ; he could not. Turn from Millet to Corot. Here again feeling is the dominant note. In some indescribable way the artist has made light and shade, the air, the mass of the trees, tell a wondrous story of the divine beauty that breathes in the landscape at morning, noon, and night. Yet both Millet and Corot were old men before honor and praise came to them. The artists of Paris scorned and ridiculed the heavy, awkward figures, the dull colors, and the lack of brilliant technique in Millet's work. He had disre- garded the traditions of the technique prevailing in the Paris schools; he had chosen his own way to express himself, and had to wait until the great heart of unsophisticated humanity found him. It was much the same in the case of Corot. So it was with Burns, as in his own simple, homely way he told the story of the Highland cotter. He died in pov- erty, because his technique was faulty judged by fashionable standards. These are all recognized masters in the world today, because the inspira- tion was genuine. The true feeling was there. It is not always necessary, therefore, to ask, what do the critics say of this or that work of art? It may be quite interesting and instructive at the proper time to know what others think, but the first question for each individual is, what feeling does the work arouse in me? Is it the prod- uct of true emotion in the heart of the artist, and does he make me feel the same emotion? Another question: Has the feeling of the artist compelled him to make his composition a unit? This is an important point. The artist can have but one dominant feeling at one time, and under its sway all the parts of the body, all the figures in a group, or all the parts of a structure will arrange themselves in harmony and in proper relation to the central idea. In Munkaczy's "Christ before Pilate" there are many figures ; judges, soldiers, officers of the court, the rabble — representing all phases of life in Jerusalem — and the prisoner. The prisoner stands in the center, and you note at once that all inter- 528 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher est is focused in him, and tlie common feeling makes the complex group a unit. This unity will be found in the poem, the oration, the symphony, or in any other successful art expression. The art product is an organic whole, like the human body, and throbs with the dominant emotional purpose — the life imparted by the artist. It will be noted also that the real artist, under control of a dominant feeling, selects the most fitting words, the most effective color, the truest line. The stronger the feeling the more direct and simple the form of expression. See this illustrated in Lincoln's speech at Gettysburg ; in Kipling's "Recessional;" in French's monument to the young sculptor Milmore; in the Parthenon; and in "The Man with the Hoe." Under the dominion of genuine feeling the artist fulfils the laws of expression that demand vigor, directness, precision, confidence, authority. Love is the fulfilling of the law in this as in all other realms of human activity. Finally, as the art product is an expression of feeling, the successful work will, by all the virtues already recited, and others we have no time to name, impress one as succeeding in its efforts. Whatever the material employed, it must be translucent ; the idea or sentiment must shine out. Artists themselves, as a rule, have a great delight in the skill displayed in technique. It is the chief part of their profession to teach or practice the technique of art. Schools of expression cannot, of course, impart the feeling that makes the artist ; that must come with birth. They can but help the artist to manipulate and control the materials he desires to use to convey his feelings to the hearts of men. Schools of expression tend to emphasize and develop technical perfection, often unintentionally slighting the feeling of inspiration. The process is often ruinous to the young artist with an inspiration. Education in the appreciation of art must begin with first principles by helping the student to recognize the essential character of a work of art and understand its message. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 9, 1902 The department met in the Olivet Baptist Church in Minneapolis at 9 : 30 A.M., and was called to order by President J. F. Millspaugh, of the State Normal School at Winona, Minn. A vocal solo, " The Gondolier," Stewart, was sung by Mr. C. S. Laird. President David Felmley, of the State Normal University at Normal, 111., presented a paper on "The Relations of Heads of Departments to the Training School." Discussion was opened by A. P. Hollis, principal of the training department of the State Normal School, Valley City, N. D., and participated in by President Albert Salis- bury, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.; P. M. Magnuson, instructor in history and social science. State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn.; J. H. Paul, president of the Latter Day Saints University, Salt Lake City, Utah ; W. W. Wallers, principal of the Eliot School, St. Louis, Mo.; President J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan.; Miss May H. Prentice, instructor in the City Normal School, Cleveland, O.; and Presi- dent John R. Kirk, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. The department adjourned to Thursday afternoon, July 10. SECOND SESSION.— Thursday, July 10 The department was called to order by President Millspaugh at 2 : 30 P. M. President Homer H. Seerley, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la., presented a paper on " Defects in the Normal Schools that Are Responsible for the Opposition and Criticism Urged against Them in Many Parts of the United States." L. Seeley, professor of pedagogy. State Normal School, Trenton, N. J., appointed to open the discussion, was unavoidably absent. By special request of the Department, approved by the Executive Committee, his discussion is printed in the following pro- ceedings. The following participated in discussion : President Albert Salisbury, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.; President John W. Cook, Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb, 111.; President Seerley ; and others. The following officers were elected : For President — Livingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111. For Vice-President — Albert Salisbury, Whitewater, Wis. For Secretary— E.. L. Hewitt, East Las Vegas, N. M. The department then adjourned sine die. John R. Kirk, Secretary. 529 530 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Norma PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE RELATIONS OF THE HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS TO THE TRAINING SCHOOL PRESIDENT DAVID FELMLEY, STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILL. In order that any institution may do its work there must be unity in its organization ; all parts must co-operate for a common end. The func- tions or relations of the various parts cannot be seen without considering the' law of the organization as a whole. The law of an organization is to be found in its putpose. The purpose of the normal schoolis to fit its students for teaching children. It is a technical school in which knowl- edge is held of value as it ministers to an art. What anatomy is to the surgeon, or mathematics to the engineer, the various branches of study are to the teacher. In a sense, they are the instruments of his art. No teacher is really at home in his profession until he feels that the value of every subject, topic, or question is to be found in its influence in the development of the child ; that lessons are to be judged, not in their individual nature, but in their final outcome. The teacher stands com- mitted to the biological conception that knowledge is of value as it deter- mines conduct. In the normal school the various branches of study are to be organized in the consciousness of the student, not so much with regard to their inner logical relations as with regard to the interests and aptitudes of children. The question is not merely, what is this body of thought that we call geography, for example, nor yet what portions are of most practical worl^h ; but how shall the child proceed in acquiring this knowledge ? What is the value of these experiences in his unfolding life? Hence in the normal school the child occupies the center of the stage. Nor can this child be a mere abstraction, talked about, but never experi- enced or studied. The center of interest must be definite ; some group of living, concrete realities. If we have come into normal-school work after a somewhat extended experience in teaching or supervision, we can scarcely conduct a recitation without reverting to this early experience. Unless we see inchoate teach- ers on the benches before us, and are conscious of the children waiting beyond, whatever we may be we are not normal-school teachers. In the early normal school there was no training department. The instructors were men of tremendous enthusiasm, who had already won distinction as brilliant teachers. The memories of their own early experience in teaching children guided them in their work. But the students, even if they had taught, could not-iiave before them the same children, or chil- Department] HEADS OF DEPAR TMENTS AND TRAINING SCHOOLS 5 3 ^ dren under identical conditions ; while the younger students had never viewed any group of children from the standpoint of the teacher. Now, we provide systematic work in observation for the younger teachers, to which class-room references must point if images are to be concrete and definite. The children in the training department are. the living realities upon which the thought of teacher and student may focus. It is about them that all the activities of the normal school must revolve. If this is admitted, it must follow that the training school must be more than a collection of classes for practice ; it should be a model public school in its organization, conditions, and equipment, modified as little as may be by the demands of the normal school of which it is a part. Normal-school instructors should feel that their departments exist only that teachers may be prepared for their work. This truth does not justify any of the hand-to-mouth work which seems the summit of aspiration in some teachers and normal students. The primary teacher who has read Shakespeare and studied ethics and economics we believe is the better teacher because of it. Her broader outlook and deeper sympathies must count for something in her work. Still it is maintained that the so-called "general-culture" courses have no place in the normal-school curriculum unless they result in better teachers and better teaching, using this term to include all the work and influence of the teacher. It seems superfluous to state that the general doctrines of instruction and management taught in the department of pedagogy should be, accu- rately represented in the practice school. But there have been normal schools in which theory and practice were wide apart. This divorce is jus- tified as developing an eclectic spirit in the normal student. When the doctors disagree, he must think for himself. It has been claimed, too, that if a consistent system be followed in all departments of the normal school it begets a spirit of narrowness, of cocksureness, incompatible with that- humility of spirit that is the prime condition of progress. It is true enough that a vast region of undiscovered country lies all about us. Still, if we have made no progress in the science of education, there is no place for the normal school. As we are sincere men and women, we must believe that there is a body of established doctrine, rational in theory and sound in practice. It is the mission of the normal school to expound and exemplify this doctrine. It must be done clearly and consistently. It is the right of the young teacher as truly as of the young physician or of the young engineer to come into his professional inheritance unembar- rassed by clouds upon the title. It is primarily the function of the depart- ment of pedagogy to declare what this general doctrine is. The training department must square its practice with the theory. This unity is best secured where the supervisor of practice is also instructor in general method. In weekly conferences with the critics he can discuss such ques- 532 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal tions of theory as are not receiving due recognition, and keep them informed in regard to the lines of instruction in the normal classes. The unity of the normal school demands that the instructors shall know what is going on in the training school, in their own department minutely, in all departments generally. Unless a course of study has been imposed by state authority, the head of the department should plan the train- ing school course in his branch of study. We may presume that no one else about the school is so well qualified. At all events it establishes a definite responsibility for the practice-teaching in that branch. The course as outlined will provide a list of topics in due order of sequence, a catalog of the available illustrative material, and directions as to the special method of particular topics. It will be necessary for the principal of the school to edit and revise the work of the various departments in the interests of co-ordination. He will possibly find it necessary to reduce the time demanded. It is not expected that this course will prove entirely satisfactory. It will need frequent revision in the light of the experience of the training school. In order that critics may follow the curriculum wisely, or suggest needed improvements, they must know what it is. The critic teacher must know the work of each department in its general scope, and must know the work thoroly in its application to her grade. She must feel under obligation to further the general plan and spirit of the department, and to contribute from her experience toward the promotion of her work. This co-operation cannot be secured without frequent con- ferences between instructor and critic. If the critic teacher has been a stranger to the school in which she is at work, she should spend enough time in the class-room of the departments to discover their plan and spirit. The normal instructor has his reciprocal duties. He must explain his plans and methods to the critics and counsel and advise with them in regard to difficulties. He should assist in the supervision of the practice teachers. To this end the programs should be arranged so that each normal instructor shall be free from class duties at the hour when children are reciting in his branch in the training department. The chief value of the daily visits of the normal instructor to the prac- tice school is in the evidence he gains in regard to the efficiency of his own work. The ordinary written review tests the quality of the instruc- tion as thoroly as it tests the diligence of the pupils. The visits to the practice school serve a like purpose. He can afford great help and inspi- ration to the practice teachers. He knows best what material is available, the resources of his department in library or apparatus. He can suggest, needed study where he finds that defective knowedge of the subject is the chief obstacle to success. Most of his criticisms upon the teaching had better be made thru the critic teacher, partly to recognize her responsibility, partly to preserve harmony in the criticisms and suggestions that reach the practice teacher. Department] HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS AND TRAINING SCHOOLS 533 The normal instructors should occasionally teach classes in the training department. I question whether one can become a really superior normal teacher unless he has taught children. He should serve an apprenticeship in the public school. He must know from personal experience just what the problems of teaching and management are. In all his instruction there must dwell in the background of his consciousness this knowledge of actual school conditions. He must know the practicable and the pos- sible in the schools of this generation. Teachers of the normal school must be men of ideals, who with prophetic vision behold what ought to be and is to be in education. At the same time they must know that heaven is not gained at a single bound. With a clear comprehension of present conditions and tendencies they can intelligently direct the line of advance. It is equally important that normal instructors do not forget how children are taught. When it is proposed that they teach classes in the training department, a good deal of inertia is revealed. It is not because they are willing to assume the role of guideposts that point the way they never travel themselves. Some of this inertia is due to the fear of the instructor that he cannot carry out his own plans. He is conscious of the lack of personal skill, or realizes that in his class-room discussion he has ignored difficulties that he must face in the actual teaching. He is afraid of the personal humiliation that must issue from a poorly taught lesson. Still, I believe nothing in the life of a normal school is more salutary than such participation of the heads of departments in the actual teaching in the training school, A term of ten or twelve weeks once a year will enable the instructor to conduct some needed experiment, to test some promising innovation. He should give also from time to time model- lessons for observation and criticism, illustrating some difficult point. This will require him to teach the class a week in advance, to grow on easy terms with the children, to discover something of the range of their knowledge, and to lay the proper foundation for the lesson proposed. In the foregoing discussion there is an attempt to state some reasons for providing in the organization of the normal school for bringing heads of departments into intimate relation with the training department. Unless the co-operation is hearty and continuous, little good will come ; in fact, little can be expected unless the normal instructors are in the mood to demand the privilege of such participation as a necessary condition for developing their own work. The question thus becomes one of the attitude of the normal instructor. This attitude is largely determined by his training, his acquired habits, his point of view. Of late years we have been filling our normal-school faculties with young people of university training and little else. There is not much in the atmosphere of many university class-rooms to emphasize the importance or dignity of the elementary school. There is little in the spirit of prac- 534 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal tice of the professor to suggest that the growing child, and not the subject- matter, is the center of interest. Young teachers inevitably imitate their own instructors, especially when no special training has intervened to create more general ideas of the teacher's function. We must have the culture of the university and something more. It is only thru a considerable experience in public-school teaching that the normal instructor is likely to gain an active and intelligent interest in its problems. When men and women of such experience and interests make up our normal-school faculties, we shall not be found discussing the question now before us. DISCUSSION A. P. HoLLis, principal of the training department, State Normal School, Valley City, N. D. — While the foregoing reveals the logic of President Felmley's contentions, it does not show how well or how ill these heads of departments are fitted to "participate in practice-school work. If any data could be summoned which would show this vital point, a most desirable side-light would be thrown on the practicability of President Felmley's theses. Some of the points which would be essential to such an inquiry would be : 1. The amount of professional education normal-school professors had had before teaching in the normal school. 2. The age and experience of these teachers of teachers. 3. The professional spirit; the character and views of life which heads of depart- ments exhibit to practice teachers and pupils of the model school. While catalogs furnish some of these items, they naturally do not furnish others. In fact, the questions just raised were of too personal and confidential a character to be put into public print. I was therefore compelled to resort again to the syllabus method, and sent out a second circular letter to a large number of normal-school presidents, asking for information on these points. The interests of individual members of faculties were safe- guarded by the fact that no names were asked for, each teacher reported upon being referred to simply by a number. As I expected, not every normal-school president replied to questions of this nature, but a sufficient number did so from representative schools to enable me to call your atten- tion to a small but somewhat unusual group of figures. They are compiled from forty typical state normal schools, and relate solely to the qualifications of their teachers. Replies were received from more than fifty normal-school presidents, but some had to be excluded because they were not explicit enough for all the purposes of the tabulation, others because it was found they were not from typical state normal schools. One, for instance, was practically a private school receiving state aid. Some, like Albany, N. Y., and Cedar Falls, la., granted a kind of college degree, which would necessarily place their faculties in a different class from those of the typical state normal school preparing teachers for graded schools. Others were so intimately connected with colleges, like the one at the state university of Utah and the one in Rockhill, S. C, that the two faculties could not well be separated. The forty schools finally selected ranged in size from a small faculty of five to the largest, of twenty-eight, and geographically they ranged from Alabama to Minnesota and from Massachusetts to California ; so that I believe they form a thoroly representative group of American state normal schools. The total number' of teachers in these forty state normal schools was 639. Of these, 301 had received a college education. This was about 50 per cent, of the total number of I Department] HEADS OF DEPAR TMENTS AND TRAINING SCHOOLS 535 normal-school teachers. But these figures included critic teachers, who are mostly not college graduates, so that, if the heads of departments alone were taken, the proportion of college men on normal-school faculties would certainly reach 60 per cent., and it would be safe to say that three-fifths of the men in normal-school faculties are college men. It is safe to assume, also, that the 40 per cent, who are not college men are never- theless exceptionally well prepared for their work, since they were elected over the heads of scores of college men who apply for every vacancy in a normal school. Several normal- school presidents, indeed, went out of their way, as I shall show later, to emphasize the fact that they considered their teachers not holding college degrees of equal value, and some said of greater value, to the school than those holding degrees. The fact, then, that 60 per cent, of normal-school teachers are college bred, and that the other 40 per cent, fully measure up to them in the estimation of normal-school prin- cipals, seems to justify a first conclusion, namely: that in point of academic scholarship normal-school faculties in this country are fully qualified to undertake the comprehensive work outlined for them by President Felmley. It might be added that forty-five of these three hundred college-bred normal-school teachers were doctors of philosophy. I am sure I need not remind this body of the surprising change this indicates from the normal-school faculty of but thirty years ago, where the principal of the best of them was not a college graduate, and where college-trained men were avoided — where, in fact, the normal idea was the one emphatic protest against the scholastic and time-honored methods of class-room instruction then prevailing in American colleges. The next question which the circular suggested was as follows : " Is the pedagogical or professional education of these college men teaching in normal schools as adequate as their scholarship?" In answer to this question, it was found that 185 of the 300 college men, or three-fifths of them, were themselves without any normal-school training. This was a surprise. I thought of what kind of medical schools those would be which allowed 185 college men who had never attended a medical school to get into their facul- ties to instruct young doctors. No amount of graduate study on Browning or Calculus would atone for such a procedure. Why, then, is it allowable in the professional institu- tions we call normal schools ? It is occasionally urged that "deep scholarship compensates for the lack of normal- school education." But in that case the speaker denies the necessity of the normal school itself. If the normal school is willing that three-fifths of its college-bred teachers shall themselves have had no normal-school training, why should it insist that a normal- school training is so necessary for other teachers ? Another answer, however, might be given to my question. It might be replied that the colleges now provide the professional courses which formerly could be obtained only in normal schools. Anticipating such an argument, the circular asked what professional study the college degree indicated in lieu of a regular normal-school training. I hoped to get considerable light from the answers to this question, but I was disappointed. The question was misunderstood, and only a few replies indicated clearly any strictly profes- sional work at the respective colleges mentioned. In a number of instances, however, it was safe to assume that these college-bred teachers in normal schools had taken certain courses of lectures in pedagogy. Some had even performed child-study experiments in laboratories, and had sent out several hun- dred syllabi into grade schools. If there were time, it would be interesting to inquire how far such college courses in pedagogy can be regarded as the equivalent of a normal- school training. Such an inquiry would involve a comparison, not only of the broad philosophical and historical themes of educational literature, but also of the practice work done in the two kinds of institutions, of the attention given to practical common- school questions, such as courses of study, class-room behavior, absence, tardiness, mark- 53^ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal ings, and reports, with which every teacher of our common schools must be concerned. But such a comparison between college and normal-school professional work is beyond the scope of this discussion. There remained one other line of preparation which might be made to justify the presence in 40 normal-school faculties of 185 college men without normal-school train- ing. This was the very practical training which comes from a long experience in teach- ing. But the returns showed that long experience could not always be shown in the absence of a normal-school course. Eleven of these untrained college men did their first piece of teaching when they entered the normal-school faculty. Surely these are not fitted to guide the method and practice work of a normal school in the way laid down by President Felmley. Twenty college men without normal training had had an experience not to exceed one year before teaching in the normal school. This lack of professional qualifications was greatly emphasized by the next question asked on the circular. It was with regard to the age of these college men teaching in normal schools. The average age of all the college men was thirty-seven years. The average age of the forty-five Ph.D.'s in this number was fortyrone and one-half years. Omitting the presidents of the schools from the list, the average age of the Ph.D.'s falls below forty. Fifty-six of these college men were still in their twenties. One was a youth of twenty-three, without either normal training or a month's experience in teaching. One had secured a Ph.D. at twenty-five, and had had neither normal training nor experience as a teacher before he was summoned to a normal school to teach teachers how to teach. Such cases were exceptional, but it would seem that under the regime urged by President Felmley such exceptions even would be impossible; i. e., it would be simply impossible to permit a youth of twenty-three, who had never studied in a normal school or taught a year in his life, to arrange courses of study for graded schools and supervise methods of teaching in a model school ; and according to the logical position of Dr. Felmley, no man who could not do that should have charge of any department in a normal school. It cannot be denied that the increasing means of American parents and the multi- plication of universities in which graduate work is offered have greatly increased the number of comparatively young men who possess higher degrees, and whose scholarship alone would entitle them to do normal-school work. But in the absence of a further pro- fessional training and experience, this very superabundance of scholarship is nearly certain to stand in the way of simple normal-school presentations designed to help teach- ers of grade-school pupils. These admirable theses of Dr. Felmley's make the time peculiarly, opportune to consider the prime conditions of their success, namely, the pro- fessional qualifications which should logically be required of every normal-school teacher. The best preparation for men who are to teach in normal schools is foursided. The first side should consist of a normal-school education, the second of a general college education, the third of a graduate course in pedagogy in a university, the fourth of an experience of several years in grade-school work, either as an active teacher or supervisor of such work. The university course in pedagogy cannot alone be regarded as a substitute for a normal-school training. The real normal school, its problems and instincts, are prac- tically unknown to a university man who has not come up thru one himself. Possibly a long and honorable experience in graded-school work may, in scrme instances, compen- sate for the distinctively professional studies, but the man who learns an art simply thru experience has certain well-defined limitations in the presence of the man who has mas- tered the scientific principles underlying and guiding the experience. The normal-school teacher who possesses the fourfold preparation outlined above is necessarily a man who has arrived at that maturity of years and of views which will make him, not merely an enthusiastic scholar, but also a wise counsellor and an inspiring example. Department] HEADS OF BE PAR TMENTS AND TRAINING SCHOOLS 537 President Albert Salisbury, Whitewater, Wis., Normal School, said : There are three factors here involved, viz.: the general doctrine of instruction and management, the special method of each subject, and the practice of the training school. It is neces- sary to bring these into harmony, lest our graduates be left in a state of confusion and uncertainty. But the proposition that the desired unity should be secured by having heads of departments make the course of study for the training school is the weak point in President Felmley's scheme. We should thus have a race between specialists, with the president of the school acting as umpire over a general " scrap." President Draper has been credited with the saying that a chief part of the work of the head of an institution consists in keeping specialists sane. Normal schools are not an exception to this rule. Heads of departments magnify their own work ; and this is legitimate. But they naturally emphasize the logical or scientific relations of their subject- matter and lose the child out of sight. The more of a biologist, or Latinist, or geog- rapher one becomes the less of a psychologist he becomes. The critic-teachers are not without scholarship. They, too, must know the subjects as well as know the children. The critic-teachers should not be made " subs " to heads of departments. In my judgment, the proper person to make the course of study for the training school is the supervisor of practice teaching, or principal of the training school, with the advice and assistance of the heads of departments, and subject to the revision of the president. Little real unity will be secured in any other way. P. M. Magnuson, instructor in history and social science. State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn. — The center of the normal school is the practice department. The summary of all method is a knowledge of the child and his needs. If the critic-teachers and the superintendent of the practice school know their business, they ought to be the ones best competent to superintend practice. They must surely know the fundamental principles of pedagogy. If they are willing to take anybody else's " say so " as a guide in methods, they are incompetent and should be dismissed. But by all means let the heads of departments keep in touch with the practice school, but as learners and co-workers, not as lords and masters. J. H. Paul, president of the Latter Day Saints University, Salt Lake City, Utah. — I desire to ask Mr. Mollis a question. Do we understand him to maintain that no teachers be employed in normal schools except those trained in normal schools ? Or, will he not rather admit with me that the presence of college men on the faculty — men and women educated in the universities — will be a real source of strength and inspira- tion to any good normal school ? Is it not important that a real biologist shall teach the biology, a mathematician the mathematics, etc., even if these have not received their education in normal schools ? W. W. Walters, principal of the Eliot School, St. Louis, Mo., spoke from the view- point of the elementary teacher. Mr. Walters expressed regret that the normal schools should still devote so much time and attention to methodology. He hoped that in the future work of the state normals the nature and growth of the powers of the child would be a far more prominent feature of the work than it has been in the past. He expressed a regret that every mention of child study had been met with smiles of contempt by a representative body of normal-school teachers, and hoped that thoro scientific child study would be recognized as an important part of normal-school work. He expressed the hope that in the near future the best state normal schools would give academic work in English and literature, in history and social science, and in elementary sciences, that would be the full equivalent of the undergraduate work in those studies now done by the state univer- sities; and that the normal-school work in pedagogy and psychology and child study would be the full equivalent in culture value of the higher mathematics and foreign languages generally pursued in the university, so that the graduates of the state normal school might not only be well equipped for the position of teacher in the elementary school and high 538 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal school, but that their scholarship and culture might everywhere be recognized as the full equivalent for the scholarship and culture of one holding a bachelor's degree from a state university. President J. N. Wilkinson, State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. — It seems to me that this is a very auspicious occasion. We are getting ourselves together on this subject. A normal president, a training teacher, and the head of one of the other departments have thus far been heard from. The president evidently finds the training department the best field for the correlation of all departments. There are heads of departments who forget that their work is to be adapted to training for teaching. The teachers of academic subjects are likely to desire above everything else the gaining of recognition for their students in the colleges and the universities. Such teachers spend their time seeking and training prodigies who are not likely to teach, and forget that the normal school exists for the purpose of increasing the teaching strength of all its students. There will always be trouble between the training department and the other depart- ments, but it may be a friction that not only produces light, but produces the very heat we need to weld all the parts into a working whole. Miss May H. Prentice, instructor in the City Normal School, Cleveland, O.— This has been a most interesting discussion. At least one speaker, I am glad to note, has spoken emphatically of the value of the critic-teacher in council with the heads of depart- ments. Criticism from below brings as much gain as that from above. Primary pupils, student-teachers, critic-teachers, heads of departments, grow best when allowed to express themselves and not required to try to express someone else Harmony between the practice and theory departments is essential, but it should be the truth presented that secures allegiance, and not the rank of him who presents it. The plan so well advocated by President Felmley, of actual teaching in the practice schools by heads of departments, will do much to secure this harmony. The head of a department need fear no unkind nor oversevere criticism on the part of the critic-teacher it he meets her on the plane of equality. She knows the difficulties of the task too well for that. If he can demonstrate the value of his theories in actual work, there has been great gain to all ; and if he proves them to have been poorly based, there has never- theless been great gain ; and if he is sincere and has courage, the gain to himself has been greatest of all. President John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo., said : We should receive criticism with- out flinching. Dr. Butler's objections to so much methodology are well founded. I have lived largely in and near normal schools, and have visited them in all parts of the coun- try. They deal too extensively in devices, prescriptions, and recipes — too much in models. The training school is not the chief center of interest ; it is only one of the centers of interest. Mr. Felmley's theses involve too much mechanism. They destroy freedom. Mr. Hollis indulges in caveling. There need be no quarrel with the college men. The normal schools are content with too low a standard of scholarship. 1 prefer a normal-school professor whose scholarship, breadth, and personality equal that of the university professor, so that the normal-school graduate may feel and know that he has knowledge and inspiration from the highest possible sources. The mechanism of Mr. Felmley's plan is driving the stalwart young men out of our schools. Many of the state normal schools by an approach to this plan have become almost exclusively girls' schools. The girls, by our customs, submit more patiently to conventionalities, while the young men prefer, and will have, the sort of instruction that allows greater freedom and does not destroy the power and habit of initiative. Department] DEFECTS IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 539 DEFECTS IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS THAT ARE RESPON- SIBLE FOR THE OPPOSITION AND CRITICISM URGED AGAINST THEM IN MANY PARTS OF THE UNITED STATES HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT IOWA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CEDAR FALLS, lA. Normal schools as organized and maintained in the United States are a part of the public- school system of the several states, and are therefore subject to the peculiar laws and the special demands of their state environ- ments. They are also so recent in their founding and so incomplete in their development that they are more or less in the experimental stage, and hence there are almost as many kinds of normal schools as there are individual institutions. It has been but sixty-three years since the first state normal school began its work, and the time has not yet been sufficient to enable this great modern movement to adjust itself to the educational system as a whole and to its special field in particular, so as to define the exact province of such a school except in general terms. These sixty- three years of educational history have been notable for the. criticism and opposition that the normal schools have continually suffered. Possibly no other educational movement in modern times has been met with more positive ridicule or more organized contempt, and hence posi- tive progress has been much delayed and complete development of type has been greatly retarded. It has in fact been more a question what the normal schools have been allowed to do, rather than a question what they ought to do or could do. This opposition has come (i) from the influen- tial ranks of the leaders in higher education, because the promoters of higher education have always considered it as the best and almost the sole agency for bettering the public elementary and high school. In advo- cating their ideas they have frankly and decidedly repudiated the nor- mal schools, because they offered short and simple courses of study as a preparation for an educational career, and thus were in apparent opposi- tion to the traditions and the theories of the historic system of higher education. They also discouraged the normal-school graduate from tak- ing additional college and university education, by refusing to consider his normal-school education and training as having any equivalent value whatever when it came to be applied to the courses offered by these higher schools. In addition, the graduates of normal schools, as representatives of their new system of thought and training, found themselves treated as innovators, reformers, and smatterers by an unfriendly supervision which adhered strictly and firmly to the older and more accepted system repre- sented by the college and the university. Hence there was great difficulty to get a chance to exemplify the training of the normal school in a practi- 540 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal cal way, as the opportunity to get a fair test and a proper hearing was ex- tremely difficult to secure. This opposition has also come (2) from practical men of affairs, who judge public policies and plans by immediate results, and who ridiculed the pretensions and the efforts of the normal schools as specially extravagant, impractical, and illusionary. They decided also that the doctrines and theories of education as taught and exemplified by the normal schools were more or less a farce or a fiction, possessing in reality no intrinsic merit, and giving finally no promise at all of permanent and worthy results. As a consequence of these contro- versies and contentions, the normal schools have been compelled to strictly differentiate their field of labor from the college and the university, and also from the elementary and high school, in order to be able to success- fully defend themselves from the charge of being simply duplicates, and poor ones at that, or as inferior substitutes for other education already provided by the states. They have, therefore, been more or less classed among the inferior and the unnecessary as educational efforts, and have been treated by many influential educational and political leaders as unworthy and impractical. Such untoward conditions have naturally made the preliminaries slow to formulate, and have likewise made the develop- ment and the progress uncertain, doubtful, and hazardous. But despite all these things and the consequent poor chance to exert a salutary influ- ence for the betterment of public education, yet in the past half century no other educational movement of any kind has wielded such an effective influence, nor has any other attained more permanent or satisfactory results. The normal schools in America have enjoyed much popular favor among the common people, and the growth of the demand for special training of teachers has been so decided as a force in civilization that nearly all the prominent and growing colleges and universities have found it necessary to keep pace with the times by establishing departments for the special study of the educational problems and methods in elementary schools, in order that they may successfully take part in the progress that was observed on every hand. Such an acceptance was a positive and a com- plimentary indorsement of the principles and the aims of normal schools in general, and was undertaken as a means of self-protection and for self- interest by these great higher institutions of learning, more than because they were much in sympathy or greatly pleased with the conception of a teacher's professional education. The expansion in the number and in the prominence of the normal schools has been very rapid as a matter of fact, and it has meant new power and new distinction for their promoters, while the constant attempt to limit their province, restrict their service, and hinder their representatives in the field has been ineffectual as their development has been continuous and permanent. Their work has been complimented and accepted by the people at large, while the efficiency of their graduates has changed the whole face of the public service in public Department] DEFECTS IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 54 1 schools from amateurism to professionalism. The contributions of the normal schools to modern psychology, pedagogy, and philosophy have not been small or worthless. What they have done has been definite, far- reaching, and practical in results, having great effect upon all grades of schools, from the first grade of the elementary school to the last year in the university. While the direct influences have been specially marked, the indirect influences have been greater still, as the scholars and investi- gators in the universities have been more and more ready as time passed to accept, absorb, and utilize any new and promising developments found in these schools, organize the facts into a logical body of truth, and put them forth to meet and serve the exigencies of modern thought and progress. So much for the work accomplished by the normal schools during the past half century, a time of small beginnings and permanent organ- ization. It is a proud and notable record indeed, such as history can never overlook nor underestimate, as it continually represents progress, reform, and accomplishment. The thoughtful person might even easily conclude that this mission has been sufficient and this service has been so great that the present can well afford to be satisfied and let well enough alone for the future, as it seems doubtful whether further consideration could develop anything that would be stronger, more serviceable, or more practical. But those who are aggressively at the front in this great work of training teachers for public schools cannot thus be satisfied with pres- ent attainments, as they must still recognize that there are defects to be corrected and better plans to be formulated. The criticism and the oppo- sition that these schools yet receive are not products of fancy nor preju- dice. Some of them must be accepted as well taken and needing reform and construction. The destinies of teacher, education, and training are in the hands of a class of men and women who are specially noted for genuine willingness to investigate the truth, and they are also ever ready to meet the objections and make progress. With such a laudable purpose as here stated, the chief defects that are thought by the writer to be most prominent and largest in the public policies of normal schools as organ- ized, maintained, and managed in this country are stated, in the belief that they are such defects that time and effort and common-sense can easily overcome them, and that they are at this time the principal hin- drances to a better progress in and a better service by these already great and prominent public educational institutions. I. Normal schools have not made and do not now make enough of scholarship and intellectual culture to satisfy the growing demand of the strongest, the best, and the most promising students who personally look forward to education as a career. The fact is that the preparation obtainable at normal schools is in many respects not sufficient for as large a field of usefulness and service as the executive ability and personality of these persons make possible. The narrowing of the preparation must 542 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal have the effect of dooming their graduates to smaller and more petty fields of labor than is either desirable or necessary. The normal schools must therefore meet the demand and offer such inducements for scholar- ship and culture as the most promising and keenest intellects need in order to guarantee to them a career where talent and strength can be used entirely, and where the higher and better possibilities of a vocation are assured, or else they fail to comply with the real requirements of this progressive age. 2. The normal schools have made and still make too much of theory, dogma, and philosophy, and too little of the real, the practical, and the essential. There is no doubt but the criticism of the common man, which says that much of the so-called pedagogy promulgated and taught as the theory and philosophy of education is the merest bosh and nonsense from his practical standpoint of serviceableness, value, or benefit, is not entirely defensible. It is substance, reality, and efficiency that are needed and insisted upon in this great age of progress. It is common-sense and judgment that must be applied to all the problems of life in education, not abstruse thinking or disconnected philosophy or useless theories. The only kind of pedagogy that the American people regard as actually worth the having in these days of results and great accomplishments is a kind that is business in its nature, producing readiness in action and decided efficiency in the work of education. For such results and for such types of activities the real normal school must be an exponent. It cannot refuse its true mission. 3. The normal schools are usually conducted on the "one-man idea," instead of the ''faculty idea." These schools are too generally organized on a theory of unity, in which the head of the school is assumed to be so well grounded in wisdom, so perfect in judgment, so large in capability and resource, and so competent to direct that all associates are sub- ordinated to an extravagant extent, requiring them, not to think themselves, but to faithfully carry out the ideas and the notions regarding education that are possessed and enforced by the central authority. There is of course a so-called faculty of teachers, but they are not treated as if they might possess valuable ideas or experience that are worthy of being accepted or put to use. They must not constructively contribute to the upbuilding and management of these schools, as their sole province is that of satellites who shine thru the inspiration and the guidance of the superior. The faculty meeting in such relation is not a place for con- ference, but a place to receive direction and instruction, a place where the unifying process is amplified and magnified until all difference of opinion and practice is obliterated. Success as a teacher in a normal school, then, begins to mean a peculiarly special ability to work out a president's con- ception and decision of the true way to successfully teach and train teachers. This system prevents a school from becoming a great public I Department] DEFECTS IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 543 institution, such as is always possible for a university or a college, and decidedly limits its influence and power in the very field that it endeavors to successfully reach and occupy. 4. The normal schools are generally conducted on the notion that the training department is the only center of all complete and perfect efforts, and that all other lines of work and development carried on by the school must contribute to its prominence and glory. Now, such a conception exaggerates greatly the actual possible service of the training department, and also specially belittles the service that the other departments are qualified to perform in the development and training of a teacher. There are special benefits to be gained from personal contact with all superior teachers in the class-room. Such benefit is just as effective in developing the power of the teacher in training as the training school, because the actual and powerful teaching of a branch of knowledge has a great and direct influence as an effective example upon a would-be teacher. If the students getting ready for a teacher's career got nothing from a normal school except professional instruction and technical train- ing, it is quite certain that the majority of them would mentally perish from the monotony of the effort, and would find it necessary to decline to continue such unpalatable work. A true student comes to a school to get into contact with great personalities in the teachers and great ideas in the subjects taught, more than to obtain technical instruction or special methods of teaching and managing. The greatest thing about all schools is their spirit and the superiority of their environment over the ordinary experience of the student, and it is folly to expect a right preparation for any career without the benefits of a mental diet that is agreeable, attractive, and wholesome. To confine a growing life to the technical and the pro- fessional alone, to the extent that it is frequently practiced, is contrary to science and also to common-sense. 5. The normal schools are commonly conducted, maintained, and supported on a cheap plan. They are treated as if they were to be small and insignificant schools, very meagerly equipped, cheaply directed, and taught by persons of narrow experience and education. The theory of their management seems to be that they need less apparatus, less libraries, less laboratories, and less specialization in their instruction than would ordinarily be expected of colleges and universities. This fact is assumed as correct and true by the people of a commonwealth, by the legislatures, who decide destinies in public affairs by making laws, and also by the boards of trustees and faculties selected to manage and develop these schools. The preparation of a public-school teacher is thus assumed to be a very easy and simple work, and the expense is therefore inferred to be very small indeed. To secure a good patronage of students under these uninviting circumstances, tuition is made free, and special efforts are put forth to gather in "from the highways and the hedges" large num- 544 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal bers of those who are supposed not to be qualified for much of a career, thinking that possibly they can in some way be induced to be elemen- tary teachers for the common school, such teachers as can eke out an existence at the small salaries generally paid for this work. This condi- tion is unfortunate and unfavorable. It certainly requires decided native ability, in addition to training, to make a teacher. The right kind of normal schools can therefore never be cheaply conducted schools, as they must have the most elaborate equipment, the largest working libraries, the most perfect facilities, the most distinguished and original teachers, if they are to be fully able to meet the exigencies placed upon them in solv- ing educational problems. 6. The normal schools are, as a rule, weak in the personnel of their faculties. This is due to many reasons, but chiefly to the economic con- ditions that are required by the small salaries paid and by the unfa- vorable conditions imposed, when compared with other higher lines of teaching. Teachers in normal schools are commonly selected because they possess a peculiar kind of skill, even if they lack special person- ality, marked scholarship, or other decided attainments or experience. These conditions have improved somewhat in the past ten years, but nevertheless there is still so much room for positive improvement in these respects that it should never be forgotten that even normal schools depend entirely for their prestige, for their greatness, and for their usefulness upon the character, the efiiciency, and the greatness of the individual members in their faculties. Some things are useful and important, others are imperative and desirable, but a faculty is the one factor of the school whose superiority, excellence, and greatness are always an absolute necessity, whatever else may have been provided or planned. Normal schools are, and of a right ought to be, great public institu- tions, because they have such a great province and are rightly expected to perform a great public service in a great way. The unusualness of these problems demands that normal schools be conducted on large plans, that they claim their right to the things that civilization stands ready to give when the demand is rightly understood, and that they thus possess their heritage and have the facilities that are commensurate to their needs. With this outlook there will soon be the advent of a new era, and the next decade will see magnificent public institutions of the highest and best type substituted for what are today commonly denominated as very ordinary schools. DISCUSSION • L. Seeley, professor of pedagogy, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. — The state- ment of this rather long title seems to admit that there is a great deal of opposition and criticism of our normal schools, and that there is justification of the same owing to defects in the normal schools themselves. Now I do not know of any considerable opposition to Department] DEFECTS IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 545 these institutions. I know that legislatures liberally provide for them, that the number of students in them is rapidly increasing, and that their graduates were never in so great demand. There will always be critics; nor is this an unfortunate circumstance. Just and wise criticism acts as a corrective, and stimulates to better things. Let us examine some of these criticisms of our work, and wherein they are well taken, and strive to benefit by them. I. LACK OF SCHOLARSHIP OF NORMAL GRADUATES Perhaps the most vital and most often heard criticism of the normal school is that its product shows too little scholarship. Let us admit that the fundamental necessity in the equipment of the teacher is scholarship. You may secure a "knack" of doing things in the schoolroom whereby there is an apparent temporary success; you may lay stress upon " methods " by which instruction seems to be well imparted; you may acquire skill in manipulating the external evidences of the teacher's work — and I do not depreciate the vakie of all these — but if there is a lack of scholastic attainment there can be no permanent success. Too many of our normal schools, by the admission of poorly pre- pared students, by too short a course, by depending upon a veneering pi-ocess to cover up defects, are sending out teachers ignorant of the subject-matter. This condition is being slowly corrected, and we have every reason to be encouraged. When we compare our rate of progress with that of other countries, the picture is not altogether dark. Our first normal school was founded in 1839, that of France in 1684 and that of Germany in 1 697. Thus these two countries have a century and a half the start of us, and yet a comparison of the work of our best normal schools with that of the elementary normal schools of France and the teachers' seminary of Germany would show a result of which we do not need to be ashamed. The trouble is the difference between our best and our average normal school is very great, and we are comparing our best with their average. Our early normal schools were mere academic institutions, and, without materially lengthening their course, we have added the recently demanded professional training, thus weakening the academic work. The obvious remedy is a higher standard of admission, or a lengthening of the course, or both. That higher standards of admission are now possible is shown by Dr. Harris' latest report. The increase in students in our secondary schools from 1890 to 1906 was 95.98 per cent., while the increase in the number of secondary schools for the same period was 138 per cent. Commissioner Harris very hopefully says : The increase in the number of high schools and in the number of students enrolled in them is something phenomenal. It would seem as if the people of all cities and villages had determined to provide high-school accommodations for their children. More than this, there is now a movement to furnish accommodations for all qualified children in county high schools where the population is too sparse and the wealth too small to provide town high schools.^ When the standard of admission is fixed at the completion of a full high-school course, as has already been reached in some parts of the land, this defect should disap- pear, and to remove this is the first and imperative duty of our normal schools. 2. LACK OF CLOSE RELATIONSHIP WITH THE SCHOOLS FOR WHICH THEY PREPARE TEACHERS Our normal schools take too little account of the schools for which they prepare teachers. Of course we cannot expect to come as close to our clientage as the German and French normal schools do, where each normal school supplies teachers for a limited territory; but we might study our mutual interests far better than we do. How often trustees employ local teachers with but little fitness in preference to normal graduates, even on the same terms ! Prejudice may be a factor, but why should there be prejudice? The truth is we fail to prepare our graduates to meet peculiar local conditions, and the trustee will have none of them. He thinks that they are full of new-fangled notions, ' Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, p. liv. 546 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal curious methods, and high-spun theories ; but he could stand these things if the teacher had been trained to a sympathetic comprehension of the needs of his community, as the German country schoolmaster is. The normal school must be the leader, the pioneer of educational thought and practice; but it must not go too fast, else it will prejudice the community and defeat its purpose. This is no old-fogyism; it is common-sense. Our American people are progressive in education as well as in everything else; but they have been suspicious of the normal school because of its lack of close touch with the common school. I am warned that I have exhausted the space allowed me, and can only state a third effect, without discussing it. 3. LACK OF CIRCUMSCRIBED AIM The high school prepares for college or for life. The college aims to fit for broader citizenship and lays the foundations for a professional career. The university specializes along different lines, seeking to give definite mastery of some particular field of human thought and human endeavor. Modern civilization is so complex, the division of labor so great, and the requirements of each calling so multifarious that no one can be expected to master other callings than his own. The normal school is intended to prepare teachers, but there are many kinds of teachers, and the aim is not definite enough. The normal school attempts to make kindergartners, primary, grammar and high school teachers, assistants and principals, grade teachers and district-school teachers under the same course of study, in the same time, with the same instruction, in the same classes. Has not the time come when there must be a greater differentiation in the work of our normal schools? This work has already begun by the establishment of chairs of pedagogy in colleges, by the founding of teachers' and normal colleges, and by organizing classes for kinder- gartners in some schools. But this does not reach the great mass of our common-school teachers, who also must in some way receive special training for special work. This will necessitate a reconstruction of our normal-school scheme, whereby there may be at least two grades of normal schools, somewhat after the pattern of France. President Albert Salisbury, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis. — The state normal schools are set for a specific, practical service, to serve their states. The state expects the normal school to take the young people where it finds them, and to hold them as long as it can, and give them all it can. More than this it cannot do. It must give them scholarship, all they will stay for, and first of all in those subjects which they will be called upon to teach. But this is not all that it should give them. About a generation ago a bogey was invented and set in motion, the bugaboo of methods, " cut-and-dried methods." This bugaboo is now old and second-hand, but seems to have alighted in Dr. Butler's hat. We have been told here today that we should present a few fundamental principles, and then method will take care of itself. But is this true? I understand method to be systematic procedure according to principles. It is the application of principles. Are young people able to make this application wholly for themselves? Principles are abstractions; they must be reduced to the concrete. We do this by our work in special methods and by the work of the practice school. Can we do it in any other way? What more consistent or logical or profitable thing can the normal school do? President John W. Cook, Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. — I am reminded of a remark which President Lincoln once made when beginning an argument in, a lawsuit in reply to the eminent Judge Logan, of Springfield, 111. It was to the effect that he had so profound an admiration for the intelligence and legal Department] DEFECTS IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 547 knowledge of Judge Logan that whenever he found himself unable to accept the opinion of that distinguished attorney he felt somewhat skeptical as to the conclusions of his own judgment, and he could only console himself in the thought that possibly even Judge Logan might make a mistake. I have always listened with interest to anything that Dr. Seerley has had to present, but I am obliged to confess that I cannot adopt his view in this particular instance. And the discussions that have followed have been still less satisfactory. Indeed 1 have rarely attended the meetings of any of the sections of the National Association in which the work of the institutions for which the section stands has been so unhappily discredited. A stranger who should have dropped into our midst might conclude that he had strayed into a meeting whose central idea was to attack normal schools, rather than to elucidate their methods of work. The references to the Superior Normal School of Paris are interesting and suggestive. But to hold that the American state normal school at its present stage of development has any such function or should attempt any such problems is to make a grave mistake. France is generously equipped with provincial normal schools, and it is to them rather than to the unique institution in Paris that she must look for the preparation of teachers for her elementary schools. Teaching, indeed, cannot be said to have attained the rank of a profession as yet in this country. In no one of the states of the Union has there been any such development of the idea of professional instruction for teachers as to secure well-equipped and thoroly competent schoolmasters for all of the schools. Massachusetts has one good normal school for each thousand of her teachers, but such distressing mortality prevails in this particular department of human activity that even her admirable facilities are inadequate. In no state west of the Alleghanies is it possible, with the facilities at present operative, to furnish an adequate supply of teachers for public schools. Our ambition consequently must be far less lofty than that of the gentleman from Missouri. I am disposed to think that a longer experience in the work which he has undertaken will satisfy him that humbler achievement will do far more for the commonwealth by which he is employed than any Quixotic scheme shaping normal schools after the model of the institution to which he has referred. I have heard ever since I can remember a good deal of talk about normal-school methods. The impression seems to have prevailed that these institutions were engaged in the manufacture of formal devices with which their pupils were to be stuffed and which were to be retailed regardless of their application in the schools that should unhappily come under their influence. I have not before, however, heard the sentiment expressed by normal -school men. The remarks have also been so utterly inapplicable to the institutions with which I have been acquainted that I have attributed them to the ignorance of their authors. Am I mistaken in my impression that there is a disposition on the part of normal-school men to return to the academic work of the old normal school? Is it because there has been an attempt to construct professional courses and that such an attempt has been unsatisfactory because of the lack of development of pedagogical principles and practices ? I sincerely trust that I am in error in this matter, and that the normal school will not abandon the fields of professional investigation and development because the problem of education is found to be difficult. That would indeed be an ignoble surrender. I have no such conception of method as I find coming so trippingly from the tongues of many speakers. The term has a deeper and profounder significance to my mind, and I should rather include under the word "devices" all' of that formal machinery which has been so justly condemned in the past. Method is indeed a subject that is worthy of the profoundest investigation, and it is indeed to this deeper and more vital method that the normal school must devote the larger part of its energy. Let the academy exploit the knowledges on their own account, but let the normal school separate itself more and more widely from those institutions whose function is the diffusion of knowledge, and not the technical preparation of men and women for the practice of a distinct and fairly well-defined art. 548 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal President Homer H. Seerley (in closing the discussion) — I hardly think it best to prolong this discussion, altho I desire to express my appreciation of the courtesy extended. I had purposed to not make any reply to criticism upon the paper I previously read, because I have no doubt of its shortcomings. However, I am glad to express my pleasure at the unbounded optimism of my friend President Cook. He is remarkable in being able to be optimistic in whatever condition he finds himself officially. "Whatever is is best " is a good motto for all of us to have who are workers for the American people. We do what we can much more than what we would. Each has his environment of statutes and customs to more or less regulate his work, and no state normal school in the Union is able to decline to accept the conditions and limitations thus imposed. President Cook is optimistic regarding the normal-school plans of Illinois, and I am just as optimistic regarding the plans of Iowa. We certainly cannot, therefore, agree ; neither do we need to do so nor care to do so, as we can respect the efforts of each other despite these differences of opinion. I think the state normal school ought to be a training school in which all kinds of teachers needed by all grades of public schools can be prepared. I believe in the training of teachers, for primary and elementary grades, and Iowa is busily doing this very thing. It is certainly the function of the normal school to do such work, but that cannot be its sole function, as there is no reason that is worthy of the name that excludes a normal school from training all kinds of special teachers and all varieties of high-school teachers if the state sees fit to properly support and equip such departments as are necessary. The college and the university have no particular right to claim those higher lines of public-school work by virtue of their individual ownership. The right kind of a normal school can even make a better preparation for teachers of Latin, science, history, and other subjects in secondary schools, if scholarship is recognized as a part of the lawful work of the normal school, than can now be secured in any college or university as at present managed, as the training in teaching and the professional instruction possible have much to do in the development of the power and the spirit of the teacher. My claim is, therefore, that the normal school can be a greater and more useful school for the state than most of .those who have spoken have thought ; and furthermore, that it is the business of the normal school to occupy these neglected fields, as the states stand ready to give the buildings, the equipment, and the teachers to meet this larger service, if we but feel ourselves to be capable for the larger task. What the Ameri- can people need to know is that these larger things are possible, and that we are ready to be their servants in every way that we can help the public schools. The normal schools need to put themselves upon such a basis that they are entitled to the respect and esteem of the public as being equivalent in utility and possibility to the best educational institutions in the land. That the people are more than ready to permit such expansion and development so as to make them great institutions is a fact. I have had such expe- rience as to justify me in saying to you all : Come upon the platform of a greater service and demand such public support as will guarantee the most satisfactory success. DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 9, 1902 The Department met in the chapel of the Minnesota State University at 9 : 30 o'clock A. M., and was called to order by President Charles R. Richards, of the Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York city. After a vocal solo by Mrs. L. M. Park, Professor Arthur W. Richards, of the Ethical Culture Schools of New York city, presented a paper on the subject, "From the Practical to the Intellectual in the Shop." J. E. Painter, supervisor of manual training, city schools, Minneapolis, Minn., read a paper on "The Field of Shop-Work in the Elementary Schools." The following named were elected as officers for the ensuing year: For President— Q. F. Warner, of Springfield, Mass. For Vice-President—^. E. Painter, of Minneapolis, Minn. For Secretary— K. W. Richards, of New York, N. Y. The department adjourned to Thursday afternoon, July 10. SECOND SESSION.— Thursday, July 10 The Department met in the University chapel in joint session with the Department of Art Education, and was called to order at 2:30 P. M., President Richards in the chair. Miss Gertrude Louise Hale sang a waltz song, " Nymphs and Fauns," Bemberg. The following papers were presented : " Possibilities of Art in Relation to Manual Training," by Ernest F. Fenollosa, and " Practical Co-operation between Art and Manual Training," by Harold Peyser, instructor in manual training, public schools. New York city. Discussion of the papers was opened by W. H. Hatch, superintendent of schools, Oak Park, 111., who was followed by Homer H. Kingsley, superintendent of schools, Evanston, 111. After the discussion the joint session adjourned. THIRD SESSION.— Friday, July ii A round-table conference was held at 2 : 30 P. M., in the University chapel, to discuss the topic, "The Relation of Household Economics to Science in the High School." Miss Lillie Collamore Smith, of the Brookline (Mass.) High School, presided at the conference and introduced the subjects for discussion. The question of the relative value of cooking and other forms of hand work as com- pared with instruction in applied science was first taken up. The weight of opinion expressed was that actual constructive work with the hands is the natural road to the interests of high-school pupils, and represents the essential feature in any real develop- ment of knowledge and capacity in the field of household economics. 549 55° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training The conference then discussed the correlation of instruction in household economics with that in pure science. Many points of view were expressed, but the current of opinion was clearly toward denying the importance of a close correlation between instruction in the two subjects. The conference closed by adopting the following resolution : Resolved, That in the opinion of this conference intimate correlation between instruction in household economics, especially in its early stages, and the teaching of pure science is not essential, and that a scheme of instruction in household economics can be most effectively arranged on the basis of its own subject-matter. Charles R. Richards, Acting Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS FROM THE PRACTICAL TO THE INTELLECTUAL IN THE SHOP ARTHUR W. RICHARDS, ETHICAL CULTURE SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. Let US think of the title of this paper as indicating a movement, not a goal, and as a larger world-movement not less than one of possible or desirable bearing upon the question of hand work in the school. Looking about upon the activities of life, even as a citizen, does it not appear that progress in their conduct from religion and philosophy to the arts and industries is ever toward a greater intelligence concerning the processes and laws involved ? And altho the outcome in present world affairs may seem chaotic and unsatisfactory, these have neverthe- less a very natural and lawful descent from a past which with much fitness we may take seriously. In the fabric of life it is with the weft thread cast by Bacon and the pattern then begun and yet in process which the present day has to do — the warp and woof of science, which has shown the outlines of an orderly world and the presence of an intelligence with which man feels some kin. In no department of human affairs has this thread woven to greater effect than in the arts and industries of life, and the social and educa- tional purport to' man is not at all a clear and settled matter. It is, how- ever, becoming plain that the whole fabric of life is affected, and that some adjustment is demanded of its beneficent institutions, even its schools. Of the handwork of man especially is some adjustment of the vision now and then necessary if it is to be contemplated with due perspective. The moderate and crude rule-of-thumb methods of the crafts and trades of old; the contentment of a son with the craft of his father; the simple, home-made paraphernalia of life, with its homely and human touch; and, finally, the leisurely day necessary to give this lingering touch — are fast dropping from the ways of life. Regret for this the author shares with many, yet the world ever moves on, and no artificial resurrec- Department] FROM PRACTICAL TO INTELLECTUAL IN THE SHOP 55 ^ tion of the arts and crafts of old will stay those real movements which are organic. But the time is at hand when the arts and crafts of old, picturesque and human as was the art they gendered, do not represent or cover by a long way, either as to motive or matter, those constructive activities of man which are expressed thru the work of his hands. Little wonder that the age of crafts and primitive forms of industry and the present age of steam and electricity show not immediately marked common factors. Man is, however, very much the man he was — " a tool- using animal." Because his tools have become infinite and complex, and the forces subject to his intelligence surpass the highest flights of the imagination of his earlier day, shall we say, therefore, as we may no longer hail him as craftsman, that he is a less worthy kind ? This matter of values in differences of kind bothers us sometimes to balance, so often is it more of one than another kind with which we have dwelt. It was under such stress, in fact, that the several forms of hand work entered the school — thru the familar kinds, not thru philosophic considerations, from the technical school on the one hand and the kin- dergarten on the other, with an intermediary movement springing from and devoted to the home and household interests. This latter movement there is some reason to think will move on under the pressure of the art and aesthetic interests into the arts and crafts point of view. If so, again will manual training fail, as it has in the past failed, to adequately represent in the school the workshop of the world as a social and civilizing factor in the life of man ; for, failing to represent the workshop of industry and science, it fails to represent also many important human and world interests, and omits material of too great educational value. This material which has come into the workshop of the world thru the impulse of science, discovery, and invention is, it is believed, of special significance to the child of the elementary school age, consider- ing the needs of motive, intellect, and imagination. From the workshops of industry and science come those servants and tools of man which are the attractive features of the world of action which he sees about him, the factors which give it "go," ever challenging his curiosity and understanding. But is this not just the appeal we would expect of these things to him who is in nature something of the man concerned with making the mysterious in nature subject to his intelligence ? More than this, is not the dominant impulse of the elementary school age an impulse to acquire a larger grasp of and intelligence about man's world and its activities? And tho we may leave by the wayside multi- tudes of ordinary impulses, are there not some large and dominating impulses which we would hardly be justified in not considering, so much 552 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION f Manual Training do they seem to indicate something of " the nature of the living prin- ciple within " with which Plato would have us start, and so much is it necessary to consider them if we would "order their lives for the best", as is his injunction? The question, then, of what material offers the most fitting food for these larger impulses is one of some importance, and it is purposed to consider here that material which science and invention have given to the workshop of the world in its significance to the needs of the elementary school, and in the several aspects — first, as concerns the nature of the motives which it lends to the work; second, as concerns the intelligence which it lends to the activities ; and, third, as concerns the qualities it lends to the imagination. Considering the motives which may be associated with our handwork, the question is, what desires, what ends, shall we consider of most worth as the conscious impelling and directing agents of the activities, when valued according to the social, ethical, and intellectual life and purpose to which they lead ? Have those superior worth in this direction which constantly seek the aesthetic, the beautiful, the emotional, or must this place be given to those which seek delight in the rational, the philo- sophic, the perception of purpose, law, and order in creation ? Or shall the honors be divided between these two types ? Or, further, are these but exterior aspects of the same more funda- mental thing, the human quality and import of which, if acquired thru either exterior form have much the same culture value ? Knowledge for knowledge's sake is quite as sane and useful a proposition as "Art for art's sake," both art and knowledge in themselves being quite on equal terms until to humankind a difference in value and import is manifest. If we come to their subjective co-ordinates and consider knowledge, not in itself, but as leading to intelligence, exaltation, and inspiration thru a comprehension of something of the majesty of truth and order in crea- tion, then it is hard to escape the feeling that we are on the borderland of the aesthetic, and if forbidden the word according to present-day usage, it is mainly because at present the field of the aesthetic has not its final and fixed limits. However, it is not of much concern here as to whether they are or are not in the final analysis the same in kind or are covered by the same term, for it is desired but to present them here in opposition to indicate, as bearing upon the matter in hand, that there are motives which, thru other form and manner than that commonly assumed by tho'Se of the aesthetic, are to human-kind of much the same purport as to the social, intellectual, and culture values involved. Of such bearing are those motives and aspirations which have kindled the imagination of and stirred to absorbing labor the man of science, dis- covery, and invention ; and the results of these, if measured either in terms Department] FROM PRACTICAL TO INTELLECTUAL IN THE SHOP 553 of the type of individual produced or in terms of the quality of life given to mankind, as indicated by the freedom and aspirations and the altruis- tic works made possible, constitute perhaps the grandest record of his- tory. It is but an ordinary observation that" not always are those of superior moral and ethical force who are constantly occupied with the fine arts. The difficulty which this brings into the school, as already suggested, is in this matter of perceiving fairly the value in differences of kind. "Our day has its idols", and institutions still have much ancestral material in their garrets. So it is that the aesthetic is still limited to its old forms, and not as a practical working conception is it generally recognized that he of scientific and inventive impulse may " have an aesthetic aim allur- ing him by a beauty" peculiarly its own. Exterior form as a pleasing effect may be the end held before the mind in our constructive work. Now if this end be given first place in the mind as the motive of our handwork, it leads most naturally to such work being selected as allows of the maximum freedom in exterior form, and in which the functional and mechanical determine only to a mini- mum what the form shall be. Very readily, then, does a preponderance of conscious attention come to be given to this matter of appearance, with which, I submit, both the social and the school atmosphere are already sufficiently charged. Let there be no mistaking what is meant here. It is effect in appear- ance as the conscious and all-important end in the child-mind which is considered as dangerous and corrupting, and not appearance, which is a result and natural attribute of that which is admirable because constitu- tionally sound and adequate. The objection, therefore, is to giving a minor attribute the major place in the child mind ; to starting at the wrong end. And so it is held that the manual work of the elementary school, to a large extent, may well be given over to a type of work the forms of which to a maximum degree call for the consideration of the functional and mechanical content, and precisely for the purpose and advantage of placing the preponderance of attention on the content rather than the form — giving the major attribute the major place; starting at the right end. Nothing depreciating the value of the aesthetic as a force in the world of action or in education is intended here, but that this value comes only thru the influence of the fine arts is held as a reasonable doubt and con- sidered inadequate as a conception for the educator; for it is reason- ably possible that like culture values do not depend upon like forms, especially if in this connection anything be conceded individuality in its various modes of establishing its human and world relations. To hold to what this specific point leads, however, is not necessary to 554 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training the purpose of this paper; but concerning the main question of individu- ality, for which it may not seem adequate provision is here made either as to matter or method, let somebody be presented to allay unnecessary misgivings and lend point and perspective to the position, so far as it is intended to involve this question of individuality. Briefly, individuality is considered as having little or no motive or interest apart from real things and affairs of the world of man. In these things, in fact, it finds itself sufficiently reflected ; that it is from with- out the self that interests and motives are built up ; that in the same object or matter groups, or even multitudes, may acquire and have equally intense and personal interests. And that becoming a personal interest or motive not at all is it more or less personal because the same to others, or on account of the source or occasion of its origin. Whether it be derived from or suggested by person or thing, accident or purpose, friend or relative, home or school, matters but little ; for as an interest and motive it thrives more upon its inherent attributes than upon the occasion of its conception. From this point of view, therefore, it was difficult to understand why the boy who was making an ironing-board, the motive for which was acquired at home, was necessarily working with greater individual interest and motive than he who was equally absorbed in making a bridge, the motive for which came from the interest of the shop. And neither was it clear why it was an obvious conclusion that because the whole class may be dealing with the same thing there is necessarily, therefore, less individual motive, activity, or satisfaction. It would seem that those holding such a view are more interested that the individuality of pupils rtctxvt free play than that it receive the freedom gdiinQd. bywork associated with matters of large human concern, with which all inspiration and motive, however individual, must be concerned. It was not so difficult, however, to see why one boy at any given time may not have a bit of motive in making a paper-knife or ironing-board, while his neighbor may have considerable ; for with particular objects having very narrow world- relations and very little content of a nature to quicken the intellect and imagination have we not very much a common experience? And so long as we deal with the matter on the basis of objects alone, especially of the kind mentioned, that long does the question of individuality promise to present itself as requiring for its satisfaction particular things. On the other hand, can we but get beneath the things to the general attributes and principles of their being, experience shows the author that with these the question of a common kinship assumes an entirely different aspect. In connection with the two aspects of the question of motives, it is felt that the thoughts presented bear with special potency upon the latter half of the elepientary school age ; for at this age especially is there an awakening of the intelligence to a greater reality of things, and r Department] FROM PRACTICAL TO INTELLECTUAL IN THE SHOP 555 during this period are formed, thru a more conscious reconstruction of the old and a construction of the new mental material, the more positive and final motives, purposes, and ideas that are to carry over into adult life and purpose. The environment, suddenly enlarged by the freedom gained from the nurse and nursery, presents on every hand forms which are but signs of a more significant and enticing content, giving continual challenge to this awakened intelligence. The transition, then, from the form to the content of material as the basis of selection, is a move of some consequence, if we are to face the question of food for the activities of this period. And I would present here as very little exploited to this purpose the workshop of the world in its larger meaning, as transformed and enriched both in matter and method by the contributions from science, discovery, and invention. Not less is it practical, accurate, and effective in small matters and methods, but more is the intellectual demanded in dealing with the larger laws and forces with which the constructive work of man has become associated. The bearing of this material upon motive and inspiration to labor has been indicated somewhat. Its bearing as concerns the intelligence which it lends to activity is equally important. This it is hoped will appear when considering the question of method from concrete examples, for it has to do both with matter and method, and space allows of but one point being considered here. This point is that a large view and grasp of the matter, a full intelli- gence upon the part of the pupil, is necessary if anything valuable as to means and method are to be conceived and given birth. As manual training, no means or method, tool or practice, just because representing good usage in a trade or craft, is so important or valuable as that means or method conceived as fitting from the fullness of the worker's intelli- gence. Again, the plea is to give the major place to the major consider- ation, that the minor may be given its just and real bearing and import to the whole. And I would suggest the significance of this to the practical problem of treating large classes by raising the question as to whether forty workers, with an intelligent and broad view of the matter, or forty who have in mind but the immediate bearing of that move with which they are at any time occupied, make the greater problem. Does not the answer to this indicate that the first concern is the matter of intelligence about the problem in hand ? A third respect in which the workshop of industry and science becomes valuable to our purpose is in respect to the sanity, fertility, and creative power which it lends to imagination. Here again is there some reason for thinking that the " idols of the day " or the material of institutional garrets are still lingering in the working conceptions of those whom this most concerns. 556 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training Is there not some reason for believing that too much relative value is assigned the world of fanciful forms and unreal things, in which all truth, balance, and laws of order and sense, as used seriously in life, are jeopardized as formative material for the imagination of children? Is it not a common observation that the faculty to put together and conceive in imagination possible relations, forms, and arrangements of real things and forces with a keen, true sense of fitness is a faculty which in children will generally stand improvement, and one which it is at least safe to cultivate? It is, in fact, in just these qualities of imagination that the pupil whom we consider able and worthy excels. May we not, even yet, well lend ear to Bacon, at least as open to suggestion, as he condemns the practice of "the mind working, not with stuff, but upon itself, producing cobwebs of no substance or profit," and consider in this connection the condition of the child mind, and if it is not often judged as having little imaginative power when but material is lacking ? And again when he calls natural philosopy — in which he justly includes the manual arts — the first matter of philosophy, and con- sider if to the child mind this is not especially potent ? And may we not in like manner lend ear to Rousseau, who would have his pupil phi- losophize as he works, and consider as material for this the relative merits of those matters with which the workshop of the craftsman is concerned and those with which the workshop of industry and science is concerned, having in mind their bearing upon motives, intelligence, and imagination, the mainsprings of action ? Hastening on to the question of method, which after all determines the final character of the activity secured, it is presented thru an example taken from the year's work of the seventh grade, and one which fairly well answers to the thought presented in this paper. The limitations placed upon this paper, however, allow of the method being presented only in outline. A study of the water wheel — not a model of a water wheel. 1. A historic sketch — concerned with the value and uses of the water wheel to man, past and present; conditions of their use; primitive types of wheels and mills. 2. The physics involved — hydraulics, concerned somewhat with the dynamics of fluids ; raising questions concerned with pressure, head, and quantity, explaining the occasion for dams, mill-ponds, reservoirs, etc. 3. The mechanics involved — concerned with the interaction of water and wheel, the three ways which it may act upon a wheel, by gravity, pressure, and impulse ; giving three types of wheels to corre- spond, and classing thereby the several kinds known as "overshot," "undershot," "breast," "turbine," and "jet-wheels," and leading to ques- tions of efficiency as determined by conditions. 4. The problem of design and construction, starting with our city Department] FROM PRACTICAL TO INTELLECTUAL IN THE SHOP 557 conditions — a faucet in the sink ; what type of wheel promises greatest returns. The jet-wheel winning its own case — not the teacher; consider size of wheel as bearing upon power and speed, number of spacing of buckets. Leaving questions about the form of buckets and the form, num- ber, and direction of jets, for the imagination to work upon, the wheel may be started as a problem in drawing, mechanical design and construction, and tool work. Having the wheel, the problem of feeding or applying the water to it may be taken up by discussion, and with drawing-boards at hand, that, as conceptions are formed, their expression according to the laws of mechanical drawing may be dealt with effectively. The question of size, number, and position of jets being settled, and lined in, the question of connecting and feeding them may be discussed, one boy discussing the propositions of another to the profit of all. Many questions as to thick- ness and length of material, size of holes, length of shaft, base, and many other matters, may be left for the individual to settle. Brief and meager as is this outline, it is hoped that several significant things will have appeared : 1. That in the order, we have given man, nature and the two effected in the arts — in the large sense. That while dealing with a mat- ter of import to the world of man, it continually satisfies the intelligence by its content, and finally results in a production extremely worth while when measured in terms of the boy's life. 2. That of first concern was the establishment of the human and world relations involved, for not only may the shop-work contribute something directly to a sense of the historic, human brotherhood, and so really to the geographical, but, in accord with the thought presented under individuality, it is in these things that it finds itself adequately reflected, and hence finds matters most worth its while; freedom coming to individuality as to man in the world, in adjusting itself to what is already achieved, and deriving greatest satisfaction in modifying this in small ways. 3. That in physics and mechanics (nature) we have that from with- out the self — the impersonal — which kindles the intellect and imagi- nation and at the same time inspires the mind with the stability of the things of law and order in creation. 4. That the imagination, not being crystallized by the presence of a model, creates forms from conceptions of functional and mechanical causes and effects, thus giving imagination real creative activity. 2. That the first day in the shop results in something that may be taken home and put in mamma's lap is not so important as that it con- tributes something new to purpose, awakens the intelligence, and creates activity of imagination. 558 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Manual Training I would commend to attention here the gap which seems to exist between the freer mental work of literature and history, with its full con- tent, and the abstract mathematics with its meager content, and suggest that such matter as the water wheel is concerned with would very effec- tively occupy an intermediary position. In closing, space not permitting a summary, I express a conviction that the workshop of the school will soon emancipate itself from the petty and special influences to which it has been subject, and attach itself to the serious matters and methods which dominate the school as a whole. THE FIELD OF SHOP- WORK IN THE ELEMENIARY SCHOOL J. E. PAINTER, SUPERVISOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, CITY SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. "Education," says Dr. Emerson E. White, "is a complex process. In its widest sense it includes all those processes, activities, and influences that occasion subjective changes in man, whether the changes be physical, mental, moral, or spiritual. The home, the school, the church, civil ^ society, the state, industry, physical environment, and all else that touches man, are, in this wide sense, educational agencies, and each contributes something to the complex result called ' education.' " Leaving out of consideration all these agencies save the school, it is the purpose of this paper to discuss one phase of school education, com- monly known as " manual training," and this in its relation to the ele- mentary school. As the end sought must determine the means to be employed in its attainment, I will first state in a general way what I believe this end to be. The school has always concerned itself with the physical, mental, and moral uplift of the race, and we must defend whatever enters the curricu- lum on the ground that it contributes in the highest degree to these ends. We must know that its reactions upon young lives will produce a higher type of manhood and womanhood, that it will result in clearer vision and finer feeling, and furnish the strongest incentive to nobler doing. In brief, my conception of the purpose or object of education, from the public-school point of view, is to instill into the lives of the pupils such high moral principles, to give them such facility for obtaining useful knowledge, and such power of all-round expression as will insure to them the greatest happiness thru life, and to society the highest exam- ple of true living. What, then, should the construction work in our schools contribute toward this result ? Department] FIELD OF SHOP- WORK IN ELEMENT A R Y SCHOOL 559 "Man without tools," says Carlyle, "is notliing ; with tools he is all." In Ruskin we read : A boy cannot learn to take a straight shaving off a pJank, or to draw a fine curve without faltering, or to lay a brick level in the mortar, without learning a multitude of other matters that books could never teach him. The reason for this is well stated by Professor Henderson in describ- ing the interaction between the inner and the outer world. Thought is not carried on in terms of thought, but in terms of things, and is as dependent upon these as bodily action is dependent upon thought. Eviery bodily expe- rience affects one or more of the sense organs, and sends one or more impulses along the nerves to the central receiving station, the brain. Here something very wonderfnl takes place, something so wonderful that we have no explanation for it in the whole realm of empirical science. The nerve-current setting in from the outer world to the inner world of the brain manifests itself there as a fact of consciousness, a sensation. All we know about it is that these impulses taken together produce that stream of thought which is the drama of existence. The richer and more varied these impulses or sensations the richer and more varied the stream of thought. With meager sensation comes meager thought. This perceptual knowledge, this report of the senses, is the only thing that comes to us, and out of it we build the entire world. Reflection and reason make use of this mate- rial, but they can add nothing to its original content. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of having the senses alert and keen, that they may report the outer world accurately. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of giving the senses much to operate upon, the largest possible field, that they may report the outer world fully. We want for the complete life the fullest and most accurate perceptual knowledge, and we can get this only thru the activity and training of the senses. The application in education is obvious. This is what constitutes the great difference in environment and makes one favorable to growth and another unfavorable. "A keen tool with nothing to work upon, a dull tool with a wealth of material, can neither of them turn out much of value." A great deal of energy is wasted in attempting to get children to reason about a world with which they are unfamiliar. Their stock of perceptual knowledge is so meager that they have no foundation upon which to build. By compelling a strict adherence to a prescribed course of formal studies we cheat our pupils of all perceptual knowledge, except, as some one has aptly said, "what they get on holidays and when they play truant." Now, it is very largely the province of manual training to furnish this perceptual knowledge — this wide acquaintance with things. "If we arrange a series of bodily acts," says Professor Henderson, "we bring about a corresponding series of mental reactions ; and if we arrange the bodily acts with sufficient cleverness, we bring about a series of mental reactions of high educational value." Now this is what manual training attempts to do, and it is in the utilization of this " newl}'' apprehended avenue of approach to the spirit" that the construction work in our ele- mentary schools finds its legitimate field. 56o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training It is a principle of all good teaching that the spirit and character of the work should be in accord with the best interests and highest capabili- ties of the pupil. It is evident, therefore, that any series of exercises, or ** bodily acts," in order to adequately represent these interests and capa- bilities, must be broad in their application. They cannot be circumscribed by the narrow limits of any set course of models. No better can they be served by turning the boy loose in the shop and allowing him to make such use of the tools and materials as suits his fancy. We hear much of late about leaving the boy free and untrammeled in his choice of what he shall do, but, in the words of Professor Bennett : We all know that it is the regular business of the school to influence the choice of the pupils. We could not eliminate the personal influence of the teacher or of fellow- pupils or of the school-room if we would, and we would not if we could. To nullify the influence of the teacher would be to repudiate the fundamental idea of the kindergarten — the development of character by means of organized and directed self- activity. Nothing succeeds like success, and for this reason the pupil should not be permitted, much less commanded, to undertake anything which he cannot do well. He should proceed by easy stages from the simple exer- cises to those of more complex nature, and every object completed should represent the best that he can do. Nothing less than this should satisfy him. Nor will it if his activities are wisely directed at every stage of his work. Notice that I say "directed," not "led." It is possible to lead a pupil until he becomes a mere blind follower, an imitator, with no power of initiative, no individuality. But by wise direction or supervision his power of initiative is developed, his individuality culti- vated. In manual training, as in any other subject, there are certain funda- mental principles that cannot be omitted in the training, and it is this fact that makes the course of instruction necessary. Now, the question which confronts us at this point is : have our courses of instruction in shop-work been so formulated as to give every child these fundamentals, and at the same time to adequately serve the highest interests and capabilities of each ? In attempting to answer this question, 1 wish to introduce into the dis- cussion a form of manual training which, to my mind, is peculiarly adapted to the needs of the elementary school, and which, I believe, has done more than anything else to place manual training on the high educational plane which it occupies today. I refer to the sloyd, and I do so notwithstand- ing that I was informed but a few days since, by a gentleman whose intelligence in most directions cannot be questioned, that sloyd was rapidly becoming passe. Sloyd has sometimes been called the " kindergarten of the elementary school," and very appropriately so, for in fact it is but the application to Department! FIELD OF SHOP- WORK IN ELEMENT AR Y SCHOOL 5 6 1 higher grades of that same principle of self-activity which Froebel made the corner-stone of the kindergarten. " It is permeated," says Professor Henderson, "with the true Froebelian spirit, and is quite worthy to follow the kindergarten in a rational scheme of education." It stands for all that is best in manual training for pri- mary and elementary schools, and I will add further that it is better adapted to the needs of most high schools than the average course employed in such schools. When I say this I do not wish to be under- stood as discrediting everything in manual training that does not bear the name of sloyd. To do &o would be to discredit sloyd itself, for what manual training stands for today in its most advanced stage, sloyd has stood for since its inception in this country. A difference in phraseology does not necessarily mean a difference in principle. And this leads me to say that it stems a pity that our phrase- ology is not more uniform. It is eminently desirable, if not necessary, that we adopt a common distinguishing term for all purely educational handwork in our schools — one that would eventually become at least as definite in its significance as history or mathematics in their respective fields — and I know of no other word that is broad enough to fill this place. Perhaps the keynote of the sloyd idea is the importance which it attaches to " the great worth and carrying power of right motive." Right motive, or the desire in the mind of the child to realize an end which he recognizes of real worth, impels to right action, which, in turn, leads to the development of the power of concentrating all his energies upon the attainment of the desired end. With this power of concentration comes the power of inhibition in the nervous system. "The power of physical inhibition," says Mr. Carley, "means self- discipline, and, when coupled with right ethical ideas, means high ethical conduct." This is a consideration of tremendous importance at this par- ticular period of school life. From the viewpoint of method, sloyd is most thorogoing. It strives to develop the body by a series of physical movements physiologically arranged, to develop the mind by means of the rich mental reactions which accompany all motor activities, and no less to develop the heart by enlisting in all the work the child's good will and unselfishness, and by so doing to cultivate a tendency to healthful sentiments and impulses. It has been well said that "sentiments and impulses make all the difference between good and bad character." The intellect and the will, to which we usually direct all our attention, are as, much constituent parts of bad character as of good, for their highest cultivation is not inconsistent with the worst moral degeneracy. One of the greatest gains in sentiment is cheerfulness in disposition ; and let no one suppose that a happy dis- 562 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training position, bred from constant exercises in mastering the tasks of school, will not affect the character of after life. Truthful care in work is one of the most precious elements of good character. The errors, slights, and misconceptions of the pupil's sloyd work cannot escape detection as easily as in memory recitation studies, while good, honest, careful work will always show for its real value. It often happens that a passing embarrassment so misrepresents honest work in memory recitations that the sensibilities of the pupil are wronged and his feelings biased toward evil and resentful thoughts. This is exceed- ingly unfortunate from a moral point of view. Having taken the stand in favor of sloyd pure and simple, as the best form or system of construction work that has yet been devised for ele- mentary schools, I wish to notice briefly some of the criticisms that have been and still are urged against it, and try to show that such criticisms are due to a general misconception of its fundamental principles. Some say it makes mere imitators of the children ; that they simply copy what some one else has worked out for them, and no opportunity is afforded for independent thought. To this I answer : It is a fundamental principle of all sloyd work that each effort shall be a direct product of the pupil's own thought. Conceive, if you can, of a boy making, for example, the sugar scoop without first forming in his mind a definite and intelligent plan of operation. The trouble with this class of critics is that they look only at the out- ward forms, and fail utterly to comprehend either the principle or the method of the work. Then there is a much higher type of criticism coming from those who have looked more deeply into the subject and who realize the absolute need of systematic work ; yet they feel that a close adherence to any course of models is open to grave objections. They argue that no course can be devised each piece of which will appeal to a large number of chil- dren as something in itself worth working for, and, as a result, the work is not done under the best motive. They further urge that the pupil's initiative is not given opportunity to develop. To the first I would say that a close adherence to any course of models is contrary to the spirit of sloyd. If a model in a given course meets the needs of one child and not those of another, it should be used in the one case and not in the other. The course of models is not an inflexible thing that must, in all cases and under all circumstances, be adhered to. Even the series of exercises may and should be varied to suit individual needs. I realize when I say this that I am setting a high standard for the teacher, for the selection of the specific exercises best suited to the needs of each child requires a fine power of discrimination not possessed by the average manual-training teacher. As to the^second objection, I cannot see why sloyd methods should Department] FIELD OF SHOP-WORK IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 5^3 interfere with the development of the power of initiative. Of course, if the teacher must be eliminated before this power can be developed, I can see where the interference occurs, for sloyd insists upon a wise super- vision of all the pupil's acts. But this supervision is not inconsistent with the cultivation of the power of self-expression, for self-expression does not necessarily mean invention or origination. As well expressed by our president, Mr. Richards, " It means putting the worker's own thought and feeling into the thing he is working upon, rather than some other person's thought and feeling." And this is the true sloyd spirit. I think it was Coleridge who said : "If genius be the initiative and talent the administrative, sense is the conservative branch of the intellectual republic." Substitute in this quo- tation "sloyd" for "sense," and "field of manual training" for "intel- lectual republic", and you will have the position sloyd occupies in the field of educational manual training. If genius be the initiative and talent the administrative, sloyd is the conservative branch in the field of manual training. But, however excellent the principles of sloyd, they fall short of their purpose unless wisely administered; and this brings us to the question, Who shall be the teacher ? The question has been variously answered by the action of school authorities all over the country, and the way in which it has been answered has determined the degree of success or failure of the work wherever it has been undertaken. Too often the only consider- ation has been mere skill of hand. Any ordinary mechanic has been thought good enough to direct the work of the shop. Culture and refine- ment have not been deemed essential qualifications of the manual-training teacher. The boys and girls have learned to look for these qualities in their other teachers, but when they enter the shop they expect to find a man with limited education and little culture, and they are surprised if they find instead a cultivated, scholarly gentleman. This is the kind of an answer that has hindered the progress of the work more than anything else. I believe, with Mr. Keyes, that "the only way the friends of manual training can so improve and elevate that work as to make it sought for by the best people in every community is to labor for the improvement and elevation of the manual-training teacher, with special emphasis on the "man" and the "training." When we are able to place in our school shops teachers whose person- ality compels respect, and whose general culture, wealth of knowledge, and power of expression, both lingually and manually, is such as will excite the admiration of their pupils, and create in them a desire to culti- vate like qualities in themselves, then opposition to manual training will cease and the public will recognize the manual-training teacher as belong- ing to the very highest rank of the profession. 564 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Manual Training POSSIBILITIES OF ART EDUCATION IN RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING BY ERNEST F. FENOLLOSA I naturally approach this complex subject from the point of view of art, because my experience for twenty-five years has fallen chiefly in that direction. My knowledge of recent methods in manual training was so meager, and I felt so little able to put before myself the immediate problem of the grade-school teacher, that I shrank from accepting the invitation to read this paper. Professor Richards, however, overpersuaded me, on the ground that, in taking a larger view, based upon the art and social experience of several races and of many times, I might be able to con- tribute some suggestions of value. In the first place, I find it extremely difficult to conceive a clear line of division between manual training and art education. The two are not merely entangled, but identical. We cannot draw the line, as the word "manual" seems to imply, at hand-work, for all forms of visual art demand the highest muscular skill. Neither can a difference in use justify the cleavage, as if industry produced utensils to be consumed, but art, luxuries to be treasured. Our modern collections in art museums have deceived us here — so many thousands of pictures and statues torn away from the places and uses which once gave them value. Shall we, then, fall back on difference of plan, shop-work dealing only with laws of mechanical structure, art with spiritual ? There, if anywhere, the line would cut. But such a limitation implies too much modesty and abnegation on the side of manual training. It defeats the specific end of a rounding out and synthesis of human faculties. It was a good thought to supplement book-work with hand-work, and thus get away from abstrac- tions. But if we confine the plan of work to mathematical and physical laws, we get right back to abstractions, in somewhat the same way as the old art teaching which harped upon type solids. But the weakness of separation shows up more glaring still from the side of art. Painting and sculpture are but branches of useful industry, ways of treating material surfaces, the plaster and the bronze of architec- ture. Art infuses harmony into all man's surroundings, transfigures with some new law of his spirit the material which he touches, makes virtual extension of the realm where internal affinities supplement external restraints. Beauty exhibits a kind of higher economics, in which waste and even compromise must be eliminated, in that each part helps all and uses all. A thing, therefore, can have no real beauty if its material values be not involved in the harmony. Hence I urge the union of art education and manual training on higher grounds than the clamor of industry for superficial ornament; I Department] AR T ED UCA TION IN RELA TION TO MANUAL TRAINING 565 declare it to be involved in the very life and health of art education itself. As a student of the history of art, I assert that the great creative impulses of all races and times have sprung from the needs and laws of structure. Not only is this clear in the simplicity and structural quality of all Greek ornament, but it is involved in the fact that the greatest schools of painting itself have grown out of mural painting. There boundary of column and arch and structural spacing furnish the very key to composition ; the light- ing of the wall strikes the note of the necessary values; and the colors of surrounding materials govern the pictorial tones. The so-called "easel- picture" that starts from blank canvas, with no trace of structural key, has seldom furnished seed for a great school of art. It gluts the market, as we see in our exhibitions, with unusable objects, fit only for the mauso- leums of art galleries. But the vitality of Greek mosaics, of Italian frescoes, of Chinese and Japanese mediaeval painting, springs solely from the fact that structural problems furnished the seed for the aesthetic. So with sculpture. Greek statues, torn from their appropriate niches, crowded into the palaces of Roman conquerors, eventually dug out of the ruins of those palaces and set up artificially in Italian gardens, have at last come to litter the corridors of our museums, thus becoming virtually threefold abstractions. And the worst of it is that we go on creating more abstract Venuses to crowd more corridors. Why has this fatal gap between art and structure been allowed to vitiate the work of our schools ? My answer is, because the nature and aim of art has been falsely conceived to be representation. In all the discussions about art in schools, I see talk of landscapes and dra- matic groups, of technical advance in shadow drawing, perspective, - anatomy, and of the separate study of noses and toes. Art, we suppose, is the painting of things, and therefore, if we let children sit down and express their crude ideas, it will be the natural begin- ning of art education. Somehow or other we seem surprised when we find that children of the middle grades have learned practically noth- ing from all this, and are quite incapable of any systematic progress. But there need be no surprise. Leading artists whom I have talked with in New York and elsewhere generally condemn this realistic art work in schools as waste of time. No child, say they, under the age of fifteen or sixteen can master the scientific analysis necessary to represent with accuracy. And this opinion seems to be borne out by the experience of our teachers. There is no progressive way to teach these abstract means to the child mind. But even if this elementary work in representation were practical, it had absolutely nothing of help to offer the manual trainer. He, weighted with the inertia of matter, asked for a hint of grace to enliven his mechanics, and all he could get in reply was how children tell a story. Perspective, and anatomy, and cast-shadows, and reflected lights are useless to him. 566 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training Of themselves they imply no harmony, no proportion, no graceful adjust- ment, no interior law. And here we come flat against the great antimony of modern art, the dualism, nay the divorce, between representation and design. Before the year 1600 no such gap existed. In no creative era have painters suspected that their work differed from industry. It was only after pride in the mastery of realism led to the conception of painting as an intellectual and academic exercise superior to craft that design fell into contempt. We now admit that industrial ornament maybe conventional; but, in order to prevent its poisoning our academic courses, we shut it up in water-tight compartments, labeled "design schools." In 1887 I visited the South Kensington Museum and Academy, which had been founded by the Eng- lish government for the very purpose of building up national design. But the director confessed to me that the purpose was practically defeated in that all the best pupils insisted on taking the painting and sculpture courses, leaving only the incapables for the inferior work. And that this ingrained prejudice against design lingers with us today is proved by the enormous disproportion between demand and supply in art. Here we have tens of thousands of abstract paintings and sculptures dumped upon the world year after year, with no purchasers ; while on the other hand our manufacturers in vain offer large prizes for corps of designers, who have to .be supplied chiefly from Belgium and France. We see in it the fact that we still assume proper art work in schools to be based upon representation. We see in it the persistent use of the word " conventional," which, in the very arguing away from representation, still takes representation for the starting point. We see in it the preference of the superficial term "decorative" to the vital term ** structural." But this antimony, this divorce of representation from structure, is a mistake. It is not that one approaches nature and the other recedes from it ; it is that under both lies a common set of vital qualities which define their value of art. These are the qualities of unity, of harmony, of affinity, between line and line, mass and mass, color and color. These comprise a whole new world for study as truly as do the laws of harmony in music. This is what distinguishes art from not-art. If a design has those visual harmonies it is good. If a representation has them, it is good. If it has them not, it is bad as art, no matter how good it may be as represen- tation. I am not the least surprised to find that the representative art work of children does not improve, rather degenerates, above the first and second grades. What else could we expect ? If it could improve, it would be only because conscious mastery of these underlying harmonies were taught. But it is not taught. The seed of art is not nature, but the con- sciousness of harmony in the mind, which goes out from itself to see I Department] AR T EDUCA TION IN RELA TION TO MANUAL TRAINING 5^7 beauty in nature. The country bumpkin finds nothing in the sunset that nightly would minister to him. But the child, whose keen grasp of harmony has been stimulated, not blunted, recognizes all beauty in a common leaf. Therefore, art education can be nothing but the orderly stimulation by exercise of this power to perceive and create beauty. Now, the best and most natural exercise of this faculty is found in beautifying the products of human industry. - It is a mere accident of habit that we should study line harmonies in the form of pencil marks on paper. These are abstractions from reality. Better to find them in the lines of support and stress, the patterns of weaving, and the yielding con- tours of pottery. Here they are realities, and here the child feels their identity with human needs and human history. Let us create in matter, not merely on paper. One of the most vital thoughts of manual training has been to follow the course of evolution in leading human industries. Here the structural need spells itself out to the child as to the primitive man. But how if the aesthetic need, the order of the synthetic line and color problems, were found to follow essentially the same course ? The simplest line relations should spring naturally from the simplest industries. The savage hut would grow into the Greek temple by a progressive refining of lines which were always structural. The study of dark and light would follow, not the difficult representation of shadows in drawing, but the way in which the indentations and openings of structure contribute to the beauty of things. We need not be forced here to press history too far. Still it remains true that all the artistic possibilities of line problems lie wrapped up in the indications of the loom, the forge, the potter's wheel, the contrast of supporting posts with horizontal lintels, in the strengthen- ing transition of the diagonal bracket, and in the supreme synthesis of the arch. If this be true, it will not be difficult to state an important practical law in all art work. This is that all line and color systems should utilize, spring from, carry out, enrich, but never obscure, the structural elements given in the uses, forms, and materials of things. This rule is as abso- lute in the highest realms of painting and architecture as in the lowest of basket weaving. It distinguishes strong art from weak everywhere. It is a rule which manual training is in a natural position to apply for itself. Let us follow this matter a bit further. Art consists in the positive value given to each other by a group of contiguous visual areas. One of the simplest kinds of such value is given in the proportion of these areas. In fact a feeling for fine proportion is one of the natural instincts of the human race. But all industrial structures present contiguous areas ; for instance, the sides of a piece of furniture, the spacings of roof, wall, and 568 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training story in buildings. Here the use and the structure furnish a plan, or key, which the art instinct is asked to refine, not obscure. The beauty must be made to lie in these main spacings. But we violate this law every- where in the crude notion of applying ornament. .Wherever we see an empty space we rush to mar it by filling it with trivialities. All inlay, all shadow mottling, all color, which violate the large proportion of these spaces are vicious. The most complex figure painting, if it be good, care- fully divides a few main areas. The next step is to perceive that these areas, to be clear, must be bounded ; hence the presence of line in all art. But the lines of things are structural where planes intersect or stresses converge. Curves are the expression of resistances. You can feel them in your thumb. Now art takes up these lines and refines them to a single, clear impression. It does not impose something alien upon them. It expands them into fuller meaning. They still underlie and guide its most complex system. How opposed to almost all our ordinary methods of drawing and designing is this rule ! We sprawl our lines lawlessly anywhere over our paper or wood, making arbitrary curves and systems which only deface our surfaces. Let all lines spring from the main lines. How splendidly painting follows this rule in the composition of Raphael's Vatican stanza, and sculpture in the infinitely complex draperies of the Parthenon pediments! Structure forms the backbone of such ultimate line systems. But the law may be first exemplified in pottery. Next we may see that our visual areas can be harmonized, not only in terms of their proportions, but in terms of their varying luminosities, the quantities of light which they severally reflect. It is not that dark and light spots are to be sprinkled about at will, but the law is that this dark and light must follow the dark and light of structure and yet be beautiful. Any artificial inking or modeling which breaks the silvery luminosity of the planes is vicious. Materials, too, may give us these masses, as when bronze comes out dark against white marble. More constantly than any other we violate this law. All poor draw- ing and painting relies upon the accidents of vagueness. We muddy our tones instead of keeping them fiat and clear. But the best photography from nature often gives us composition in three clear values. This is why methods of stencil work and block-printing, too, are so valuable in ele- mentary study that they secure fiat tones and give scope for easy varia- tion. Power to create in two or three tones underlies all the complex combinations of painting. The whole subject can be worked out in the course of rug designing. For three-dimensional study wood-carving has points of advantage over clay-modeling. It gives firmer lines and planes. In clay we smear weak, curved surfaces. In bad drawing we try to make things look round. But the great problem in art is not to make things look round. Departmentj ART EDUCATION IN RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING 5^9 but how to make round things look square. We must conceive of solid things in planes. It is difficult, in clay, to produce the impression of firm planes. Both in our bad modeling and bad drawing we treat nature as if made up of tufts of wool or cannon balls. So, the lead pencil is the worst possible tool to draw dark and light masses with. Pencil blacks have no flatness and no luminosity. They give tones like the grizzled head of a negro. Lastly comes the grouping of visual areas according to the quality of the light with which they are charged. Here structure finds play chiefly thru materials. The color scheme of a room is guided by the wood of its furniture, exterior house tints by the nature of landscape surroundings. But the color must not violate the purity of the large planes, thus dis- tracting attention from the structure. Moreover, it should be simple. To let children run wild with a color-box is almost as criminal as to let them play with gunpowder. Yet the three-color box is too limited. In the real art of color there are no primaries. Any groups that neutralize, out of thousands, may be taken as primary in their own key. Therefore, we must constantly vary the tints we use, in order to advance in power over color. Perhaps one good method is sometimes to follow the evolu- tion of pigments in industry. Color is a wonderful great world of law, which has hardly yet been explored. It is a mistake to give it to children freely, just because they want it. The color sense is the latest and least developed in the human race of all the art instincts. To make it take the place of simpler and clearer work is to violate the order of nature and of evolution. Young children are interested more vitally in actions, and color lends least of all to the expression of action. The child's liking for color is, therefore, mostly aimless play. I come, lastly, to what I conceive to be one of the highest merits in this view of art, namely, its identity of plan with physical and social life. Such discipline in synthesis should have the highest spiritual value. The enthusiasm for fine proportion which becomes a second nature, should transfigure our whole life. Every case of art is an enhancing of mutual values thru contact. A color, like a man, becomes utterly transformed thru its surroundings. The circle of the parts must be complete ; all are essential. Art so conceived gives us the type of posi- tive economy, where each member is used to the full. It admits no loss, no waste, no clashing, no friction. It is literally transposed, for all the parts are reflected thru each other. Such ease and perfection are found in normal animal life, the delicate feline curve, the sturdy tower of the pine. So the impulse in man to feel beauty and to create it should be one. There is positive muscular delight in drawing a fine curve. So good carriage, graceful manner, genuine greeting are the incorporation of this order in ourselves — a true species of art. Even character takes on 57° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training an unconscious charm, as if its beauty were rather of a flower than of a gnarled oak. The social value of such art education would be twofold. Its iden- tity with the manual or industrial side brings personal work into conscious harmony with the great currents of civilization. Art, however individual in its creation, is no selfish loiterer in a detached heaven, as some sneer- ingly suppose. There can be but one Shakespeare, and one Beethoven ; yet they, have widened the very definition of humanity. So the pupil may feel that in his contribution, however humble, if it be genuine, he adds a new unit, a new art individual to the sum of human treasure. And this treasure is to be no mere luxury for the galleries of the rich, but shall illumine the daily toil and consumption of the masses. In Japan today thousands of new designs, simple and fine, are turned out in clueap printed cottons for simple clothing every year and every month. The national consciousness fairly bubbles with creative energy. Art is pri- marily social. But a second and more subtle social value is given in the very type of being which such art embodies. It brings virtually a new dispensa- tion, the age of harmony. A mechanical world carries us out and off into endless series of time, space, and cause. A utilitarian opens up endless lines of means. But all imply simple process, change ; there is no mutuality, no integration, no return into the self. So the world of scholastic logic, which shuts over the European brain a cap of Chinese formalism, can do nothing but run up and down endless scales of classifi- cation. Classification always accentuates an abstraction, a point of transition, as if our bamboo should be nothing but joints. When I pluck a flower or cut a seed to study it, I tear into death the very life I wish to observe. Definition is innocent of the element of reciprocity. Nothing really acts singly; give becomes take ; all negation is reaction, as positive a process as action. Now, if there were a kind of being in which mutuality reigned supreme, and all modifications became simultaneous, so that we must see all to know each one, this would give us a higher logical type, fitly to be called har- mony. Such, indeed, is art. And it is clear that similar terms might be used of an ideal society. Art gives an approximate definition of the state ; for in an ideal state each individual should help all the others to be themselves, call out their positive powers, so that from such perfect co-operation a larger freedom of social life shall spring. Every great work of art is thus virtually a lesson in good citizenship. And so, with- out superstition, and in no mystical sense, we might regard the power of creation in art as literally bringing the order and type of spirit to earth, and incorporating it in man's material life. Department] CO-OPERATION OF ART AND MANUAL TRAINING 57 PRACTICAL CO-OPERATION BETWEEN ART AND MANUAL TRAINING HAROLD PEYSER, INSTRUCTOR IN MANUAL TRAINING, NEW YORK CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS, Manual training used to mean, very literally, hand training. We aimed, by a series of exercises, to impart to the pupil notions of method and accuracfy. Nowadays I think we have gradually come to the conclu- sion that, while method and accuracy are desirable and necessary quali- ties, the aim of manual training is rather to cultivate an appreciation of the proper use of material in adaptation to ends; how to bring construc- tion and art together to make the useful beautiful, with a beauty that is simple, restful, harmonious. We want our schools to lay the foundation of that good taste which will make of us a nation of lovers of the beautiful. We will demand, then, of our manufacturers that the commonest utensil of everyday use, turned out by the thousands perhaps, shall be beautiful as well as use- ful. Necessarily, a mere series of drill exercises would not help much in furthering our object. We must have a number of constructive mod- els, admitting of original thought on the part of the pupil, and whose execution will show the qualities of the material he works in, its uses and its beauties. In designing something for any given purpose, the first consideration is the fitness of the material determined upon; does it answer all the requirements of utility? Second, what must be the general form of the object for the given use ? Art now steps in and makes of the merely useful form a beautiful one ; it also discovers the inherent beauty of 3 the material. This determines the nature of our decoration, which must be a part of the object, growing out of it, conditioned by it, and not something foreign that is grafted on. Design should be worked out from the object, not on it ; it is not a study of abstract spaces and ways of filling them, and should certainly not be taught in the class-room as such. Given a beautiful form, our decoration must bring out its beauty and add interest to the surface. There are many forms that manual training takes. I will use some of the more important ones and endeavor to show that the method of con- 572 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training sidering them all may be essentially the same. Let us take up construct- ive design in wood first. Say we want to make a book-rack. We are agreed that wood is eminently fitted for this purpose. We determine upon the length, width, height, and method of fastening ends to base. Here is the purely mechanical side of our work ; it gives us a block form. Now, we ask, what are the characteristics and beauties of wood that we must take into account in modifying our type form? It is fibrous, therefore the lines of our design should be simple and strong. It has a grain which can be brought out by staining, polishing. If we use color it should not be opaque, and thus hide the grain. In other words, our design should be strong, broad, and woody. Our first problem in design might be to modify the end of this book-rack, keeping it simple, making no projections liable to be broken off, using as far as possible a line that is continuous and directive and that gives the appearance of strength. I have here a series of such modi- fications that were worked out in the class-room. The second problem is to work out of our space a pleasing design, that will stay flat, whose lines will harmonize with the shape of the end and its colors with the color of the wood. What are the limitations of our design? It must be basal; chief interest will cen- ter at the top. We may decide upon a border design which draws atten- tion to the outline, or upon an all-over design which makes the surface the more important beauty. In the first case we might use, say, a stem Fig. I Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 form, following the outline, working into a leaf or flower form at the top, and a root form at the bottom, sufficiently heavy to give the proper basal effect. On the other hand, if we decide upon an all-over design, we must divide our space into a series of masses. Take the same end, as example: Figs. I and 2 are purely abstract ; 3 makes use of a leaf form ; 4 Department] CO-OPERATION OF ART AND MANUAL TRAINING 573 takes the spacing of 2 and uses conventional flower forms. I present a number of models which have been worked out in this manner. Match- box, bracket book-rack, box, bookcase. The method used in doing the work was as follows : After it was well sandpapered the design was marked on the wood heavily with a soft pencil ; the wood was then stained with oil paint of the desired shade, rubbed in hard ; then the design was painted in water color, outlined with India ink, and finally, when thoroly dry, rubbed with boiled oil, to which was added about 10 per cent, of hard-oil finish. There can hardly be any doubt as to which sort of work makes a more lasting impression on a child — mere drill work or that in which there is the interest of originality, of use, of beauty. We can get the same drill if our models are designed properly. Naturally, the early ones will be very simple, demanding little in design and execution, becoming more and more the product of the pupil's own thought as he goes on. If clay is our material we might start with a small tray form, merely turning up the edges, working up into bowls, vases, etc. Say we desire to make a flower vase. We present to a class approximate height and diameter, say, height about 12 inches, diameter about 5 inches. Here is our block (Fig. 5). For stability the base should certainly not be as small as, say, 3 inches; let us assume 4^^ inches. The size of the mouth will depend upon whether our vase is to hold many or few flowers ; say we make it 2 inches. For the given purpose, our form should be graceful, springing, and yet have strength. The beauty of pottery is in its form and color. A vase should not be treated as a ^'°' ^ surface for a painting or for elaborate relief work. The decoration should be simple, broad, flat, highly abstract, and characteristic of the form. If this is low and broad, then the line must suggest stability and weight, the design must give emphasis to the base and mouth and be 574 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training WISMMMl weighty in effect. If the form is to be tall and slender, then the line must suggest an upward growth or spring. We give more emphasis to the top and side. I present some vases which were designed in this way (Figs. 6 and 7). Weaving, it seems to me, offers excellent opportunities for the culti- vation of the art sense, and will undoubtedly take a much more im- portant place in the field of manual training than it has up to this time. The closer we adhere to the limita- tions and feeling of our material, the finer is our product. The weavers of the East understood this so well that their work has never been surpassed. What is the beauty of a woven ma- terial ? Its surface, due to kind of thread used and the method of weaving, which affects the play of light ; its color, harmonious and level in result. Woven designs should partake of the mechanical nature of weaving, and therefore should not be naturalistic. I Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Department] CO-OPERATION OF ART AND MANUAL TRAINING 575 m22Mm^^ T^ ) J f J nf ) t JM ,,l, f )inLL w//////i/m///nn7j Fig. io a continuous pattern (Fig. lo), The forms are either of a given length and width, as in blankets, rugs, etc., or in continuous lengths. Say we decide upon a rug as our model, with wool as the material, and ground color, as some soft shade of green. How shall we determine the sort of design to use? A band, or a series of them, at the ends of our rug, to emphasize the fact of definite length, is the most natural first step in decoration. This would be the most elementary form of design. The bands should be a little heavier than the body color (Figs. 8 and 9). A further step would be to continue the bands on the sides of the rug. Then we can break up the center space, using simple motives, such as lozenge, cross, or other geometrical motive. In the design should have no definite direc- FlG. II tion unless the purpose for which the material is to be used requires it, as in weaves used for hangings. Basket weaving may be treated in the same manner. Say the problem i 1 i 1 1 1 1 i v_ ,^ Fig. 12 is a work-basket ; material, some kind of rush. The type is a fairly wide and rather shallow one. Assume diameter and height; then in this given rectangle we can work out a great variety of forms (Figs. 11, 12, and 13). From the nature of the material, we can see that the decoration should 576 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training consist of bands, or combinations of them, following the weave. The placing of the design is worked out in the same manner as in the pre- vious examples. In the given type we put a band at the top by coloring W}}}/))V}m)h)jhw))))>hh))}})})m >>/)^^MM////i;,i/)/f„/j;l)})m/?jmj/)m/,) Fig. 13 the rush, or thickening it, or both, to emphasize the broadness and to give finish. Coloring the rush at the bottom gives the required* basal effect. In a high basket, vertical bands must be worked in to emphasize the height and form (Fig. 14). In each case we see the method of approach is the same ; we take a block form which is modified in accord- ance with the purpose of the thing we are making; then" we work out our design from the characteristics of the form and the material. Fig. 14 DISCUSSION W. H. Hatch, superintendent of schools, Oak Park, 111. — As I have not been able to see the paper just read before its presentation, I have not been able to prepare a dis- cussion of its subject-matter. But as I was requested to present a discussion from the standpoint of a superintendent of schools I will suggest three points, a careful considera- tion of which may be suggestive along the line of the topic of the paper : I. A broader view of the work by both the teacher of art and the teacher of manual training ; a fuller appreciation of the relations of the two subjects. The teacher of man- Department] CO-OPERATION OF ART AND MANUAL TRAINING 577 ual training too often has but little use for the free-hand blotches of the art teacher, and the latter is equally disturbed by the mechanical formalism and rigidity of the former. Each must admit that the other has something of value to contribute to the well-rounded whole. On the part of the art teacher we must hear less of art for art's sake, and more of art for the child's sake. On the part of the teacher of manual training we must see less of the con- structive exercise that is an end in itself, and more of the making of objects that have an immediate purpose in the life of the child. No one will deny that one function of art instruction, and doubtless the highest, is to develop in the child an appreciation of the best in art ; to cultivate a love for the beautiful as produced in color or in form. Nor will we deny that in constructive work the great aim is the result to the child, and that the object made is secondary. But there is a phase of art and x:onstructive work that touches more closely the lives of all. A large part of man's constructive and decorative activity has to do with the common articles of daily life. He has in all his history first made an article to meet some need in his life, and then decorated it. Crude have been his attempts and slow his progress, especially in the latter. One has only to look about him to see the great lack in fitness of structure to use, and the barrenness and lack of artistic taste in our architecture, the furniture in our homes, and our mural decorations. The artist produces something beautiful in itself, and the artisan an object of use to man, but how rarely do the two work together and produce an article or a structure that fills the needs of man in its use, and that is decorated by the artist in such manner as to sat- isfy the aesthetic in his nature. Structure that is in harmony with function, and decora- tions that are beautiful and that fit the place for which they are made, are far too rare. The movement for fitness in form and decoration of the common articles of the home that is so greatly forwarded by the arts and crafts societies in our cities may be, I am confi- dent, greatly accelerated by a cordial co-operation of the departments of art and manual training. 2. Both departments should more fully recognize the conscious needs of the child. He does not put much of himself into any exercise unless he has an immediate end to attain. If an article is to be made, a pressing need for its use in his little life adds greatly to the value of the exercise. The greatest teacher is he who brings the child face to face with each problem of the school life and instills within him the feeling that it must be solved. The method in which he does the work is of far less importance than the state of mind in which he approaches each exercise. This is more plainly seen in constructive exercises than in any other work of the school. If the child has a strong conscious need of the object to be made, he will find some way in which to accomplish his end. The skillful and sympathetic teacher who gets near the child and understands the needs of his little life, if he have only pencil and paper, or jackknife and board, will do more for him than can be done in the best equipped shop with the most elaborate courses that must be slavishly followed. Our best-devised schemes are too often only stumbling-blocks in the pathway of the live teacher and the eager pupil. This immediate conscious need must not be the end. It is merely a starting point for the teacher. His work is to enlarge this need into something broader that will lead the child to higher needs and broader fields. 3. More attention to these departments by the superintendent of schools. There is always danger that the teaching of the specialist will tend toward narrow and unre- lated work. It is said that "thinking is seeing relations." If the relations be broad, the thought should be broad. The course of instruction in the education of the child covers a broad field. In it there is no place for the work of the specialist in the narrow sense of the term. The teacher must know the child in his relations to all other subjects to teach well in any. The fads are so called because they have been considered as bear- ing no relation to the other subjects in the course ; and too often this has been true. Added value is given to these subjects when they are no longer considered special studies, but an essential part of the course. The superintendent has paid too little attention to these 57^ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training departments, but his work is not fully done when he leaves their direction to other hands. He may neither be an artist nor have the skill of the artisan, but he should know children and what phases of child development are to be touched by each subject. He is in bet- ter position than any specialist can possibly be to see the needs in the course of instruc- tion and the means to be employed in supplying these needs. It is his function to bring into harmonious relation all the forces employed in the system of schools that he directs. Homer H. Kingsley, superintendent of schools, Evanston, 111. — There is one funda- mental principle governing this relation of art to manual training which I believe we must all recognize, viz., that the cultivation of the eye and of the hand cannot be divorced. The hand, cannot be taught to execute unless it has an eye to govern it, and conversely the eye cannot apprehend a problem unless it has a knowledge of the condi- tions of the problem, such knowledge having been gained by means of the use of the hand. In other words, a teacher of manual training should have his pupils work from designs which they themselves have made under the instruction of an artistic designer. An art teacher cannot give instruction to such a student unless he is familiar with the materials with which the manual-training teacher has to deal. The great difficulty in correlating these branches is the too frequent lack of training of the designer. I have frequently seen attractive designs on paper intended to be worked out in wrought iron, but so designed that no artisan could execute them ; designs for wood which ought to be worked out in iron ; . and terra cotta designs where stone was the only legitimate material to use. Mere charm of outline or beauty of form expressed on paper are of no practical value nor of any artistic merit unless it is known whether the article is to take a tangible form in wood, or iron, or clay, or glass, or stone, or leather. The actual manipulation of these materials on the part of the designer is the only thing which will give familiarity with the possibilities and nature of materials, and consequently enable him to prepare for the manual-training department those designs which can be executed in the proper media there. It seems to me entirely feasible that the scientific-construction man should supervise the designs of the art department, and that the art department should familiar- ize itself with the possibilities and actualities of the shop. There need not be any friction between the two, but each ought in effectiveness greatly to multiply the other. I believe we should raise the standard of all our artistic and manual-training work by observing rigidly a few well-established principles, well established as principles, but unfortunately not well established in practice, or in general recognition in our public- school work, and I speak particularly of this because I have seen such lack of its appli- cation in many exhibitions of sloyd and manual-training work. First, the form of an article must be in keeping with its function. A pitcher from which you cannot pour water without submerging yourself, the table, or the floor is not of good design, however beautiful it may be in form ; a cup with so small a base that a breath of wind will blow it over is not of good design, however beautiful it may be in proportion ; a chair in which you cannot sit with comfort is not of good design, however expensive the carving or rare the wood ; a spoon is not of good design unless you can eat from it with convenience, however richly it may be engraved or ornamented. The fundamental object of the pitcher is to pour water, of the chair is to furnish you a comfortable seat, of the cup is to hold tea or coffee, and of the spoon is to enable you to convey food to your mouth in safety and leave it there with grace ; and whenever any one of these principles is violated the design is poor. Second, the material used must be consistent with the object made ; in other words, honesty of material is a second fundamental feature of good design. A galva- nized iron cornice sanded to represent granite is a fraud ; a column covered over with paper to represent onyx is a fraud ; a chair with a design stamped upon it with a hydraulic press to represent carving is a fraud : a gas log in a library with cast-iron holes in it and cast-iron insects crawling over it is a fraud ; a cylinder of white glass at the tip of a gas Department] CO-OPERATION OF ART AND MANUAL TRAINING 579 fixture to represent a candle is a fraud ; and I might multiply these illustrations indefin- itely. You have only to go into the average home to find plenty of them. Third, in addition to the two features which I have already mentioned — viz., form adapted to function, and honesty and consistency of material — a third element of beauty and grace must be added to make the thing complete. These three features require the skill of both the artist and the artisan. In other words, it is not enough to have the services of the engineer, but we must have the services of the poet as well ; but a poet cannot be a poet in this line of work till he has been first an engineer, or, as someone has tersely put it, " The whole problem of good design is to solve the problem of utility in terms of beauty." Again, I wish to emphasize the fact that it is the constructive nature of the child which we wish especially to cultivate. When we reflect that practically all of the progress of the world has been based upon the work of the constructive imagination of men, we see the necessity of cultivating that power of the child in our school work, and making the child produce the design which he is to interpret in the shop. Let the child produce the design, let if be refined by the suggestion and constructive criticism of the art teacher, and let it find its complete and tangible expression in the shop under the direction of the manual-training teacher, and always with this thought in mind : To develop character, not alone character as expressed in honest construction, which is the usual educational plea for manual training, but character as expressed in recognizing the value of all materials and their inherent fitness for certain purposes ; that is, original, honest uses, and not imitations. Real character manifests itself not only in the honesty which comes from doing a thing well, but more especially from doing honest things. DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES . FIRST SESSION, Wednesday, July 9, 1902 The Department of Art Education met at 2 : 30 p. M. in the chapel of the state uni- versity. In the absence of all of the officers. Miss Bonnie E. Snow, of Minneapolis, the chair- man of the local committee, took the chair. Miss Janet M. Stevens, of Faribault, Minn., was appointed secretary pro tern. The program was opened with a selection on Musical Glasses by Odin Wold and Claudia Wold. Miss Snow made brief introductory remarks, and then named the Committee on Nominations as follows : Miss M. E. Roberts, Minneapolis, Minn. Miss Annetta Wales, Milwaukee, Wis. Miss A. May Pierce, Boston, Mass. The first speaker, James L. Hughes, inspector of schools, Toronto, Can., was then introduced and read a paper on "Art as an Educational Factor." An interesting and somewhat spirited discussion followed, participated in by several members. The Lorelei Ladies' Trio then sang "Ave Maria." The next paper, " Elementary Preparation in Drawing for Secondary Schools — What May Reasonably be Expected," was presented .by Clarence Valentine Kirby, teacher of art, High School, Denver, Colo. Mr. Kirby illustrated his paper with blackboard sketches. A brief discussion followed. This closed the program, as both Miss Lucy Silke, of Chicago, who was to have read a paper on "Sense Training and Art Education," and Mr. Frank C. Bray, of Cleveland, O., whose subject was "Specifics for Ugliness," were absent. The business was then taken up and reports of committees called for. Dr. Langdon S. Thompson, of Jersey City, presented the report of the Committee of Ten appointed at Washington in 1898. The report was adopted and ordered published in the Proceedings. The Committee on Nominations then submitted the following report : For President — Miss Clara A, Wilson, Davenport, la. For Vice-President — Miss Charlotte W. Stoddard, Rochester, N. Y. For Secretary — Mr. William Vogel, Cincinnati, O. The report was unamimously adopted, and the nominees declared elected as officers for the ensuing year. The department was then adjourned to meet on Thursday afternoon in joint session with the Department of Manual Training. Janet M. Stevens, Secretary pro tern. 580 Department] ART AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 5^1 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ART AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR JAMES L. HUGHES, INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS, TORONTO, CAN. Even those who still see no reason for teaching any subject except its economic value are beginning to understand that art is one of the most important of all subjects on the school program. Men are learning very clearly that artistic training in childhood means artistic manufactures in adulthood, when the productive period of life is reached. The wealthiest nations are those which export manufactured articles, not raw materials. The value of the manufactured article consists chiefly in the character of the transformation made in the raw material by the designer and the workman. The more artistic the designer and the workman can become, the more perfectly they can transform the raw material, the more completely they can unify beauty and utility — the more they increase the value of the manufactured article. The value of the article depends much more on its beauty than its utility. "Art trans- forms clay beds into gold mines." Dr. Harris has well said : " The great problem in the industry of nations has come to be the aesthetic one, how to give attractive and tasteful forms tp productions so as to gain and hold the markets of the world." Art is, therefore, revealing itself as the most practical of all subjects ; as the subject that has most direct influence on the productiveness of individual men and women, on national wealth, and on the elevation of the home in its material conditions. But the strongest reason for the universal introduction of real art teaching into schools is its educational, not its economic, value. Art is an educational factor, because it gives the child a new power of expres- sion. Individual power develops only by self-expression. Art is the highest form of self-expression. Every time a child is trained to use a new means of expressing its selfhood, a new phase of selfhood is developed, and every other already developing power is increased, both in force and range of application. The varied powers of each individual form an interrelated unity, and each undeveloped power prevents the perfect growth of all other elements of the unity. It is even more grandly true that the development of each new power strengthens and extends the sphere of all interrelated powers. It is, therefore, of the highest importance that educational institutions should afford the best means for stimulating all developments of human power in each individ- ual, in order that he may attain his widest and most complete growth and be most perfectly qualified to understand his relationship and per- 582 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art form his duties to the universal brotherhood. As art appeals to a wide and high range of intellectual and aesthetic powers, it is an essential department of true education. One of the established principles of education is that each child has a special department of power which is his interest center. This interest center may change at different periods of the child's development, but the essential psychological fact remains the same, that there is always some interest center in each child, which, if aroused and allowed to become the leading element in his executive work, will kindle his whole intellectual and moral nature and stimulate his most energetic efforts in self-expression. No external agency can rouse to the most productive interest. The interest that kindles and defines and accomplishes, that awakes and achieves, must act spontaneously from within the child him- self, and it must have appropriate material and opportunity for its stimu- lation and its activity. With a narrow curriculum many children were never kindled, and they passed thru life "deaf and dumb and blind to a million things;" indifferent, negative beings, instead of energetic and positive, as they should have been. Interest aroused in the central department of power so fully as to lead to original expression becomes the supreme agency in producing definite and energetic action of the whole being, and therefore one of the chief aims in education should be to find the interest center of each child and provide opportunities for jts executive activity. There are many children whose central life power cannot be fully kindled by mathematics, or science, or history, or literature, or music, who may be aroused to harmonious activity by art. If these children are not allowed to illumine their lives by art study and art expression, the result is restricted and barren lives. One of the most pathetic things in the world is a barren life. No life should be barren. No life can be fully productive unless it yields its best fruit in fullest measure. No life can yield its richest fruitage unless its powers of self-expression have been trained to self-activity. No individual power of self-expression can be trained to its supreme limit of productive activity unless all co-ordinate powers of self-expression have been trained, and especially the central element of highest selfhood. Art should be a high form of self-expression for every child, and it may be the highest form of self-expression for many children ; therefore, all lives must be relatively barren, and some lives pitifully barren, without art training. Every child should have the right of added joy and power and growth that may come to it thru art, but especially those for whom art alone has strongest kindling power. Mr. Morris says, "Art is for the few." This is a narrow view. It is the limited thought of an artist, not the broad thought of an artistic educator. All partial training is defective. Education without artistic' Department J ART AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 5^3 training is partial, because the highest form of self-expression has been omitted. To omit this training restricts all lives and dwarfs some lives. What are the educational influences of art in individual development ? Art cultivates the observant powers. Seeing is an act of the mind. Every additional element of artistic thought increases the power of seeing definitely and widely, and especially of seeing beauty and relationships to which we were previously blind. The child who has not been taught the principles of symmetry is blind to the harmony of the beautiful designs in carpet and wall paper and other artistic productions. The child whose color sense has not been trained is not able to recognize the rich harmonies of color in flowers and trees and landscape and sky. The trained ear gets melody unheard by untrained ears. The trained eye sees a thousand beauties in form and color and symmetry that are unseen by untrained eyes. The melody and the beauty exist for all, and are seen by all in proportion as the mind is trained. Oh, the difference between the trained and the untrained ! We see only those things to which we pay attention. Thousands of pictures form themselves on the retina each day which are not seen. We see only those to which the mind attends. The mind can attend to those pictures only that are related to apperceptive centers formed in it by experience and training. Each new apperceptive center increases the range of definite and comprehensive seeing. Each new apperceptive center makes us conscious of beauty or relations of which we were previously unconscious. How different the revelations of a great cathredral to an architect of wide artistic culture and to a man of even broad learning who knows nothing of architecture ! A child has gone to school for years in a city along the same streets. The houses and churches and public buildings have been to him but indefinite masses. He has scarcely been conscious of their forms, or colors, or proportions. He reaches at length a class where he is taught certain elements of historic art, and suddenly he begins to see. Every porch and arch and window and spire is filled with interesting life. He finds design and purpose in each stone. He sees beauty or the lack of it everywhere. He sees the correct and the incorrect, and soon can recognize Egyptian, or Ionic, or Doric, or Corinthian, or Gothic styles. How much better it would be if all architecture were true ! How much higher the silent influence of environment would be if all schools in external construction and interior decoration were correct and har- moniously suggestive ! Culture in seeing power means culture of the mind, not of the eye. True botanical study vastly increases the power to see beauty and har- mony and unity and creative design in nature. True art teaching mul- tiplies our power to see the beauty and harmony and unity and creative design in nature and art in all their varied forms. 5^4 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art The power to see increases as the finite mind grows consciously toward the infinite mind. The best work of education is to promote the con- scious growth of the finite mind toward the infinite mind. Good art training does this for most children more effectively than any other sub- ject on the school curriculum. Art trains the reasoning powers. Definite seeing leads to definite thinking. Accurate observation lays the foundation for correct judgment, and comprehensive observation prepares for broader thinking in regard to a greater variety of individual things and their true relationship to each other. A considerable portion of our reasoning depends on conceptions of size, form, color, and relationship ; therefore art training, by the culti- vation of new and exact apperceptive centers of size, form, color, and relationship, makes a logical preparation for clear thinking. Art provides the highest opportunities for the culture of the imagina- tion. Real art is not a mere reproduction of beautiful things that have been stored in the memory, nor is its best work the representation of the beautiful in nature. True art is more than this. It is an expression of the highest revelations of a lifetime in new forms in harmony with the individuality of the artist. The divine element in man — his selfhood — should be trained to mold material things into new and higher forms, to beautify them with more exquisite and more harmonious colors, to decorate them with more attractive and more suggestive designs, and to transform them into more ennobling expressions of the highest spiritual evolution of humanity. But art does not stop here. It deals with the unseen and attemps the interpretation of the infinite. Its grandest work, the highest work humanity can ever do, is the revelation of the most transcendent develop- ment of spiritual insight, the expression of progressively unfolding con- ceptions of God himself in his personality, his. attributes, and his loving relationships to the universe and to man. It is by the transformation of material things, and by the expression of his highest ideals of God, that man aids succeeding generations to broader, purer, higher evolution, and qualifies himself for clearer revela- tions of beauty and of divinity. Whether art be reproduction, or repre- sentation, or transformation, or spiritual revelation, it exercises some form of the imagination, either representative or constructive or creative, and by exercise develops it and qualifies it for fuller, freer activity. Our highest powers are capable of most rapid and most comprehensive devel- opment, and all powers grow most rapidly and most fully when used for highest purposes. As art is the highest form of self-expression it neces- sarily follows that it is one of the most perfect agencies for developing the imagination. Art develops originality, and qualifies man to aid in increasing human wisdom and power, and in the promotion of human happiness, by the I Department] ART AS AN ED UCA TIONAL FACTOR 5^5 revelation of new thought, new forms of beauty, and new conceptions of aesthetic and spiritual evolution. We should leave the world richer than we find it. Our only possible gift to civilization is some true revelation of our selfhood. The development of original power is therefore the supreme element in education. Original power can be developed only by the exercise of some form of self-expression in constructive invention, oratory, literature, music, or art. Art is certainly one of the highest of these forms, and therefore one of the most productive of original power. There should be no barren lives, and every life is barren that gives out no new light, or new transforming thought or influence to enrich civilization. No teacher should be satisfied unless the emotion and thought of each child is given out in improved form, full of new life and power in harmony with the child's individuality. It is in this way that the sum of human achievement is increased, human power developed, human happiness promoted, and the certainty of the progressive evolution of humanity established. We are too willing to be satisfied with high achievement in the power of expression by the child in oral language, written language, music, manual training, and art. Expression alone adds nothing to the sum of human power. Expression is but a preparation for self-expression. It is not even that in the truest sense. Self-expression is not only the desired end of education, but it is the process by which the most comprehensive, the most definite, and the most perfect forms of expression may be acquired; Self-expression is infinitely more productive than expression. Selfhood should never be divorced from expression. The passive forms of expression are little better than the passive forms of accumulation in the development of the child. The selfhood or individuality of the child is his element of divinity. The development of this element of divinity must be accomplished in the same way that every other element of power is developed, by calling it into self-activity. The true function of self- hood is the exercise of originative or creative power. Whenever the creative functions of the child are assumed by the teacher or are left out of consideration altogether the child's development is dwarfed at its most vital center. No other school work affords such universally attractive opportunities as art for the expression of selfhood and for the revelation of the grow- ing inner life by creative activity in improving and beautifying the conditions of our environment. Art is of great educative value because it so readily reveals the pos- session of original power to the child himself. It is a most important epoch in the life of a child when he awakens to a consciousness of independent power. This is the most inspiring moment of a child's experience. The central element in strong character is a positive self- reverence based on a conscious recognition of original power that should 586 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art be used for humanity. No other school study affords such opportunities as art for the revelation of special power in a child, both to the teacher and to the child himself. The results of a child's original power are more distinctly manifest, more objectively real, in art than in any other subject. Art should be a part of the education of every child, in order that he may be qualified for the fuller comprehension of the great works of art. All the revelations that have been made to the world's great leaders are stored in literature, music, and art. I am never so conscious of a lack of education as when I stand with a painter before a great picture, or walk with an architect in a grand cathedral. He sees and feels and thinks a thousand things unseen, unfelt, unthought by me. I am rela- tively blind and unconscious. The things he sees and feels and thinks are recorded in the picture or the cathedral for me quite as much as for him. I cannot see them because I was not trained to see them. It might not have been possible for me to have seen them as clearly as he does, but my whole intellectual and moral life is narrower and weaker because I cannot see them as clearly as I might have learned to see them. Art training brings with it no deadening of the soul. It kindles and inspires and illumines. Oh, how we have blighted individuality and dwarfed intellectual power by some of our teaching in the past, and are blighting them even yet! But art is one of the subjects that awakens and broadens the child while he is gaining power to produce beauty, or to appreciate beauty and emotion and thought as revealed by others. We wisely try to train the race to be capable of comprehending and enjoying and using the emotion and thought that are stored in literature. We should for exactly the same reasons train the race to see and understand and be uplifted by the revelations and records of the varied forms of art in painting, sculpture, and architecture. The fact that we could not all see what Ruskin saw in color or in architecture is no reason why we should not be trained to see as much as we have power to see. Our duty as educators is to kindle the children and cultivate their vital intellectual powers so fully that they may be able to gain as much of culture and of uplift as possible from the elements of culture and uplift to which they must always be deaf and blind unless they are truly trained. Art has a wide educational value in correlation with other departments of work and study. The vital history of the race is recorded in archi- tecture and sculpture and painting quite as fully as in books. Much that has passed in schools for history is a record of the results of jealousies and rivalries and ambitions of a selfish nature. Architecture and sculpture and painting record great ideals as they have been revealed to succeeding generations and civilizations, and to different nations. Epoch conditions and national characteristics are indelibly recorded in the art productions of eras and of nations. It is quite cer- Department] " ART AS AN EDUCATIONAL FACTOR 5^7 tain that the boy who studies and draws the various types of architectural elements of different nations will have not only a more awakened intel- lect than the boy who studies history as it is usually taught, but a more revealing knowledge of the real influence of the nations upon civilization. Art is the basis of true manual training. All forms of productiveness are degraded when beauty is subordinated to utility, or when utility alone is considered. The richest beauty cannot detract from the highest utility. True beauty cannot lesson utility. If the aim to give more beauty ren- ders any article less useful, then the unity between beauty and utility has been neglected, and a fundamental law of beauty has been violated. Artistic design is one of the most important elements of educative manual training. Art may also be correlated with geometry and geography and science and literature. Many of the fundamental principles of Euclid are essen- tial in architecture and in the art department of manual training, and these principles learned incidentally as they are wrought out and applied in art are learned more definitely and understood more thoroly than they could be by being committed to memory or even thought out by the most advanced methods of abstract thinking. A boy who draws the homes of people in different climates and of different degrees of civilization, or who sketches the people themselves in characteristic national costumes, or who makes an illustrated map of the world with pictures of the animals found in the different zones, has learned and impressed the facts relating to these departments of geograpy better than by reading or listening to a teacher. Drawing and painting are now universally used in the study of botany, zoology, and other departments of natural science. Literature affords one of the best opportunities for the use of art in developing the originality of children, when pupils are allowed to represent in drawing or color their conceptions of the author's thought expressed in language. Art should have a definite influence in the elevation of the moral nature. One of the most effective lessons I ever learned was taught me by a teacher of art who showed me a collection of Japanese pictures chosen especially as illustrations of color harmonies as developed by those great- est students of color, and who then placed beside the pictures cinders and bark and decaying woods, which perfectly reproduced every color har- mony of the artists. It means a great deal to a young life to be made conscious of the fact that even the commonest things that lie unnoticed around us possess some elements of beauty equal to the highest developed conception of the race. The revelation of the beauty and harmony hitherto unrevealed prepares us to believe in the higher evolution of the race in order that it may be capable of comprehending the higher beauty and harmony yet to be revealed. It helps, too, to a clearer understanding of the universe and its Creator to realize that even the most apparently 588 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art valueless things possess transcendent beauty when we become capable of seeing it. But the lesson that we are ill the midst of beauty, and the training in power to see beauty, great as they are, are not so important as the habit of searching consciously for the beautiful. The greatest modern art teachers make alertness to beauty and responsiveness of life to its influ- ence their supreme aims. The true teacher of art says to her pupils : Draw or sketch or paint during next week or next month the flower or the tree or the tower or the landscape that is most beautiful to you. Or she may say: Bring me the pattern or the picture or the object that you like best. At first it is enough to have the choice made, but later the reason for the preference should be given. Of course it is essential that the choice of each child be recognized as of absolute value to him, and reverently respected by his teacher. If his choice be inferior, his taste cannot be lifted truly to a higher plane by the adoption of another's choice. It is by continued choosing and by conscious delight in what at present appeals to us and satisfies us that we gain a higher power of choice ; not by weakly accepting the choice of some- one else, consciously or unconsciously. The teacher should simply arrange the pictures or objects for exhibition, without praise or disapproval. She should aim to establish standards of beauty by teaching the fundamental principles of correct taste, but such teaching should always be impersonal. All the pupils maybe asked to choose the best specimens brought by their companions, but they should not be asked to include their own in the comparison, and they should report their choice privately to the teacher, not that a summarized vote may be given to the class, but as a revelation to the teacher of the present development of the individuals of her class. The making of such choices, and the explanations of the reasons for making them, form a very productive intellectual exercise ; but the chief value of such training is the development of a persistent tendency to search consciously for the beautiful and true in our environment and con- ditions. The constant relating of the best outer to the best inner will lead to a conscious purpose to make the best inner become the outer by the joyous desire of not only appreciating the best, but doing it. The habit of choosing the most beautiful in environment will necessarily develop the most beautiful characteristics of the life, and exercise the highest elements of the intellectual and moral nature. Ideals transform individuals, and ultimately transform national life. Ideals become vital in our lives by consciously choosing them. The child who is trained to choose consciously the most beautiful things in his environment is being trained in the most effective way to consciously adopt true ideals in manhood. Art has a high moral influence because it tends to lift the race soul above materialism. As Dr. Harris has said, " it arouses emotions and Department] ELEMENTAR V PREPARA TION IN DRA WING 5^9 feelings, not appetites." Every working man should feel that he can create and reveal ideals. So will his life be ennobled. Unless the material life can be spiritualized, man's tendency is toward the jungle. The spiritual in literature and music and art has lifted the race slowly toward the divine. This is the only true education. The time has come when, not the leading few, but all, should become conscious of the exultant thrill of the soul when in conscious relationship to the universal spirit. Art can do more to achieve this grand result than any other subject. Let us accept Ruskin's philosophy : " If we do not use the faculty of color to discipline a people, they will infallibly use it to corrupt them- selves." The artistic power is one of the highest, and therefore is capable of highest development. With grander ideals of liberty and individual power and the possibility of human achievement as we grow toward a truer spiritual emancipation, let us teach the best we know of art to all the children as a basis for a nobler art and a purer individual and national life. ELEMENTARY PREPARATION IN DRAWING FOR SEC- ONDARY SCHOOLS— WHAT MAY REASONABLY BE EXPECTED CLARENCE VALENTINE KIRBY, TEACHER OF ART, HIGH SCHOOL, DENVER, COLO. We, directors and instructors in art education, have reason, I think, to congratulate ourselves, for we are teaching a subject which is more valuable than any other. The best education develops a sound muscular system, which responds to every bidding of a clear brain and well- organized nerve centers ; and thru right drawing methods the eye is not only trained to observe accurately and the hand to be the willing servant of the mind's impulses, but the impressions received from nearly every school study, which might otherwise be nebulous and evanescent, are firmly fastened in the mind thru the hand, which is really rooted in the brain, and traces there the fabric of each idea. Thus drawing can make all knowledge partake of the nature of experience. How well we remem- ber our experiences when other learning has flown ! In considering the subject, " Elementary Preparation in Drawing for Secondary Schools," it may be well for us to remind ourselves that our observations from the standpoint of the high school are based upon a small percentage of the entire number who have received elementary instruction, it being generally known that nearly 90 per cent, of the number who started have dropped by the way; persumably these were less equipped than those it is our opportunity to study. Desiring to 590 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art make this paper the true concensus of opinion, rather than my own weightless criticism, I have communicated with prominent members of our profession from all parts of the country, and shall consider their recommendations in this paper, together with the conditions that have appeared to me. I am aware that, while my position as critic may not make me altogether popular, it is nevertheless easy compared with the efforts earnestly put forth by those criticized, for the reason that it is always easier to pull down than build up. "^ Drawing has a threefold mission, and it fulfills this mission to the degree that it develops the whole child physically, intellectually, aesthet- ically, and morally, instead of part of him : First, drawing is an ener- gizing power in forming a disposition and habit of work with mind and body; second, drawing is one of the most valuable instruments for co-ordinating memories and ideas on all subjects; third, drawing ennobles and exalts the mind by acquainting one with the mysteries of nature, and by enabling one to appreciate beauty, and thus bring joy into the most sordid life. In considering the first mission, it appears of paramount importance, for if there is one thing that the pupil seems to lack upon entering his secondary course it is power, and the thing he possesses most is the fear that handicaps joyous spontaneous expression. In spite of the well- graded courses and attractive exhibitions of supervisors and teachers, who are laboring zealously all over the country, the general sentiment among high-school educators seems to be that pupils are not satis- factorily prepared for advanced work ; in fact, it is not uncommon to be obliged to return to first principles. As we view the exhibitions of grammer-grade work, we are impressed with the broad scope of the field under cultivation, and if improvement can be made along any line it might be along the line of the quality of individual power, rather than the quantity of product. But as we are getting away from the weak, tentative touches of old, I believe we are implanting thru the larger, more vigorous efforts of the present, deep in the motor centers of each child's organism, the ability to make in a bold, fearless way the funda- mental forms which are the rudiments of all creations in nature and art. The best publishers are urging this larger control today. On blackboard, where fear of error is abolished, the child attains the facility which only large arm movements, in accordance with nature's law, give. This is the way the mechanic draws when he desires to express his thought. It is the way we express our thoughts on the piano and in writing, uncon- sciously, fearlessly. And yet, some teachers have stood over the child and expected accurate results where there was no control. We have been afraid of spoiling the paper, and so we have spoiled the child. And the child still grasps the pencil as tho it were a crowbar, and his labors show the lack of spontaneity which all agree is the only true expression. Department] ELEMENTAR V PREPARA HON IN DRA WING 5 9 ^ An old axiom defines spontaneity as the soul of art. This power, like every other, comes thru the performance of deeds ; deeds that give the hands skill to represent with certainty and precision the shape of a leaf, or the charming lines of the human figure, and inculcate in the organism ideas of uprightness, symmetry, balance, right proportions, and other fundamentals in art instruction. These are the underlying prin- ciples in all technical pursuits, and they can be mastered in early years by every child who can write. The favored few endowed with a special talent may soar higher aesthetically, but I like to think of the many less fortunate, who, I believe, can all express themselves in drawing as well as in writing. Goethe tells us that " all art is preceded by a certain mechani- cal expertness." There will be no failures when we all come to recognize the deeper physiological principles of drawing, which can never fail where there are eyes to see with and hands to do with. Closer and closer each year have grown the ties between art work and manual work. Art workers are finding that art methods which are not manual training are a delusion ; and manual workers are learning that the manual training which is not artistic is a snare. William Morris said: "Drawing is the basis of all the arts." As a product of the art schools, I can say that I wish someone might have helped me at the beginning to lay such a foundation. We thought that art was monopo- lized by the easel-picture, and we forgot the ennobling influence of the handicrafts and the men they produced — Men like Michael Angelo, Cellini, and Leonardo da Vinci. Gradually we found the art in joinery, in wood-carving, turning, and in other crafts. I am determined always to make a plea for the ones who, thru some misapprehension of the already crowded field, have found themselves unable to cope with the difficulties in the way. Having aimed so high, they have failed, because they were unprepared for the practical. A preparation for the ininor arts is the very best preparation for the high arts ; for, if a man falls from success in the so-called "high arts," he lands on a solid foundation, for crafts- men are needed, and the progressive ones in our profession have found it out, and we shall soon be rewarded by their labors in this direction. The growing appreciation of art instruction among superintendents and others in authority has come thru the second mission of drawing as a means of co-ordinating memories and ideas on all subjects, and this has brought about to a large degree a closer relationship of the drawing course to the other school work. From lessons in object drawing, distinct and detached from the other departments of the school, we have made ourselves felt by the means we have at hand to fix in the young mind the impressions the teacher is trying to make in the various school studies. Yet I feel that we have hardly began to show our real strength. Let us put away some of our pet ideas, and if the grade teacher has a geog- raphy lesson on Egypt, let the drawing lesson for that day consist of 592 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art drawing and clay-modeling of mummies, sphinx, obelisks, pyramids, the plan of the country, and the flag in colors, and perhaps these boys and girls will know more geography than some of us do today. We plan each year to acquaint the child with flowers, shells, birds, and animals, but why not help out in botany, geology, zoology, illustrate the great events of history, or learn lettering and constructive drawing in geom- etry ? Let the art man and the school man come and reason together. There is a distinct mental process in memory drawing that is too valuable to be neglected. Tests should frequently be made by removing the model from sight, requiring a drawing from memory, and in every case returning the object that it may be compared with the child's effort, and the differences noted. Of course the child will fail at first, but he will soon acquire the ability to construct proper mental images from material previously seen ; and these mentaT images, by the way, should contain the facts of form, rather than of hair and feathers. In early years it is undoubtedly an error to force too many abstract exercises upon the child ; to give him part of a thing when everything indicates that he is concerned only with the whole. A better method encourages the child to illustrate from time to time some circumstance in his own life or environment that directly concerns him ; then he has a story that he wants to tell, and he is anxious to learn how to tell it. In one case he has to say something, in the other he has something to say. Let us first create a consciousness of need ; then the child is ready to assimilate the instruction which will help him over the difficulty. Our methods should be an unfolding from within, rather than stucco work on the outside. As for imaginative ability, most children are born with it ; that is, with the kind that creates hobgoblins, fairy-tales, and other indefinite concep- tions. This is unbridled imagination, but it is not the kind that con- cerns itself with the intricate workings of a marvelous machine, a splendid building, or an enduring statue. This untrained imagination must first become subjected to the control of the will thru right drawing methods. By accurate observations, the receiving of correct impressions, and the expression of right ideas does the imagination come under the mastery of the mind. The importance of perspective is urged on all sides, and yet pupils leaving the elementary course seem to have a very vague idea of its prin- ciples. I have wondered if we have not confused them with too many principles and too little observation, for we are reminded that altho these principles can be applied to a table or chair, there are none that will foreshorten the human arm or head. The increased use of color in the grades is most delightful. It not only gives joyful satisfaction to the child, but it conveys a clearer idea of form by helping to distinguish objects and parts of objects one from the other. It has been my experience that high-school pupils are not always Department] ELEMENT A R V PREPARA TION IN DRA WING 593 aware that yellow and blue colors mixed would produce green. But, thanks to our enterprising publishers, we now have three-color boxes that have excellent quality at a very low price, and are only dangerous as they fall in the hands of teachers with strong tendencies for purple and red- dish combinations. It might be well here to say a word for clay-modeling. While draw- ing is the representation of a single view, clay-modeling is the actual construction of an infinite number of views, and consequently is thoro in its capacity to form concepts that can be worked out in wood or metal. In the art schools it is noticeable that the pupils who model excel in ren- dering form on a fiat surface, and we are all aware of the successful ones, from Michael Angelo to Sir Frederic Leighton and Gerome of our time, who have modeled as well as painted. As a means of exalting and ennobling the mind, by enabling one to appreciate beauty, our drawing courses are fulfilling their mission. Ruskin said : " Hundreds of people can talk for one who can think, but thousands can think for one who can see." And Emerson exclaims : "We are immersed in beauty, but our eyes have no clear vision." Draw- ing opens the eye of the understanding to the marvelous message written in every leaf, woven in the architecture of every shell, and painted in the heart of every flower — messages of beauty and grace. The child turns directly to nature for these messages, and it is to be regretted that so often in the past artificial copy-books have been his interpreters, instead of teach- ers who could both see and do.' Children cannot be averaged up like bricks, but the artificial system presupposes the same pecularities in each, and so the child is made from the textbook, when in truth he should be the text- book for us to follow. While I believe that every teacher of drawing should not only be able to draw skillfully and accurately, but be able to teach successfully with only something to draw on and something to draw with, at the same time I appreciate the progressiveness of certain publishers and the factor they have been in raising our courses to the plane they now occupy. Like every other good thing, they fail, not by use, but thru abuse. In the light of general opinion, it does not seem unreasonable to expect that a pupil upon leaving the grammar grades should have a hand trained to make forms upright, symmetrical, well balanced, right propor- tioned, and graceful at will. He should understand the simple laws of perspective, and be able to apply them to simple forms. He should be able to arrange his work pleasingly on the surface it is to occupy and letter it neatly. He should have had enough design to understand its fundamental laws of growth, rhythm, balance, and harmony, and to be able to recognize the characteristics of the leading historic styles. Work with brush and color should not be unknown to him. He should be able to reproduce from science and other studies with freedom and certainty. In 594 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art the use of instruments he should have at least learned the value of accuracy, and he should understand the principle of working drawings. Now, if these results may reasonably be expected, and yet so often fail, we are led to ask ourselves the reasons, and they are found rather in the prevailing conditions than bad methods. There are two plans : either the grade teacher must be directed by a supervisor, or each subject must be taught by a special teacher. The former plan prevails, and is no doubt better, for the reason that a teacher who has entire charge of a pupil can do more (providing she is wholesome and earnest) in the devel- opment of character and good citizenship than the special teacher who comes occasionally. The unfortunate part of it is that the grade teacher is her own lawyer, and she asserts with emphasis that she never could draw, "not even a straight line." In one of our largest cities, the supervisor began three years ago to put the teachers thru a systematic course. Altho it was necessary to take some school drawing hours for this departure, the results, I have learned, far exceeded the anticipation. If there is one criticism that can be laid at the door of supervisors and directors, it is that they endeavor to cultivate too large a field. The actual instruction for the most part falls to the grade teacher, whose training is often so insufficient that she is not aware of the many poor specimens that slip thru her fingers. But let us not be discouraged by these fail- ures. Let us rather gain hope thru our success. Let us look forward to the time when the pupils who are receiving the benefits of our present methods become the teachers of the future, and teaching becomes a pro- fession instead of a convenience ; then will our teachers express their thoughts in drawing so as to win the admiration and regard of their pupils. And the latter will have, thru right drawing methods, such well- disciplined eyes and hands that they too will express their ideas in draw- ing as readily as they do in writing or talking. Let us inculcate such power in the young that the mind may be left free to think and plan while the hand moves with automatic facility to accomplish the heart's desires. Then we will not be modeling every boy after our own pattern, but we will be helping him grow to be all to which he could possibly aspire. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN ON ELEMENTARY ART EDUCATION APPOINTED AT THE MEETING OF THE ART DEPARTMENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCA- TIONAL ASSOCIATION JULY 8, 1898. WITH APPENDICES AND REMARKS OF THE INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ANALYSIS OF THE REPORT Preface. Presentation of Report. Action of the Art Department Constituting the Committee. Names of the Committee. Department! REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 595 Some General Reflections. What is Art Education ? Limitations of the Subject. Form as the Basis of the Space Arts. I. An Infinite Number of Apparent or Accidental Forms. II. Only one Real Tangible or Potentially Tangible Form. The Two Phases of Appearances, A. The Mere ^Esthetic Appearance or the Beauty of an Object or of a Scene. B. The Pictorial Appearance, or the Picture of an Object. The Two Phases of Real Shape or Form. C. The Real Shape in Space of an Object Having Three Dimensions. D. The Real Shape in Space of the Planes, Sections, or Edges of an Object. Suggested Outline of Course of Study for Graded Schools. Outline by School Years or Grades. Suggested Outline of Course of Study for Ungraded Schools. Outline by Groups — Group I. Group II. Appendix A. Appendix B. Appendix C. PREFACE Of what practical use is the work of the Committee on Elementary Art Education ? On reading the following report for the first time some may object to the abstract or philosophical form in which some parts of it are expressed. The fact that the committee was required to determine the basis, or bases, of a course of study in elementary art education necessitates somewhat the form of expres- sion of the report, since these principles cannot be clearly stated except in exact lan- guage. The manner of expression must be somewhat abstract in order to include the different concrete elements in the minds of different individuals. If expressed in the concrete form of any one individual's thought, such expression would exclude to a greater or less extent the favorite forms of other individuals. Hence the committee feels that a general or abstract form of language gives greater liberty to the individual to read into it his own interpretation, and at the same time secures greater unity in the result of its deliberations. Its should be further stated that the committee has not attempted to make out a course of study that would completely fit the conditions found in any particular school without a single modification. It has endeavored only to lay down basic principles and a general outline which could easily be modified to suit the particular circumstances of any ordinary school. The report, then, appeals to superintendents, boards of education, and general edu- cators, rather than to the class teacher. Many class teachers will no doubt be interested in it, but there are also many excellent class teachers who are not conscious of the under- lying principles of the course of study they are helping in an efficient manner to carry out, and for this reason they may not care to study it. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN ON ELEMENTARY ART EDUCATION PRESENTED TO THE ART DEPARTMENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION AT MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., JULY 9, I902, BY THE CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE, LANGDON S. THOMPSON The following resolution was passed by the Art Department of the National Educa- tional Association July 8, 1898, at Washington, D. C: Resolved, That a committee of ten shall be appointed by the president of the Art Department of the National Educational Association, and that the president shall be one member thereof, for two purposes : 1. To determine, in the light of psychology, environment, and experience, a proper basis, or bases, of a course of study in elementary art education, including form study, manual training, drawing, and the study of art works. 2. To outline, in a general way, such a course of study for the common schools. 596 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art To the Art Department of the National Edticational Association: In accordance with the foregoing resolution, the undersigned Committee of Ten on Elementary Art Edu- cation, appointed at the meeting of the Art Department of the National Educational Association at Washing- ton, D. C, July 8, 1898, has the honor to submit the following report, pointing out the fundamental principles of Elementary Art Education, and suggesting a general outline for a course of study for the common schools. Langdon S. Thompson, Chair in an, Henry T. Bailey, Charles M. Carter, John S. Clark, Josephine C. Locke, i Herman T. Lukens, Harriet Cecil Magee, M. V. O'Shea, Gracia L. Rice, Douglas Volk,i Committee. SOME GENERAL REFLECTIONS Everyone who pursues the vocation of a teacher for any considerable length of time obeys principles, either consciously or unconsciously. Man, as a rational being, must think or reason concerning that which he does. Thinkers demand definitions, clear state- ments ; and hence reasoning on the basis of right perceptions and true conceptions must result in the discovery of more or less truth, which, when stated in language, we call prin- ciples. The resolutions above quoted assume that there are principles to be observed in elementary art education which maybe determined. It has been the business of your com- mittee to determine and state such principles, and, in accord with these principles, to sug- gest a general outline for a course of study. Here, as in all courses of study, purpose or aim must be the organizing element. The ultimate aim must determine general principles and methods of procedure, while the immediate aim, at any particular stage of advancement, must determine particular methods and devices. The general aim of elementary art education is the same as of all phases of education. Of the ultimate end of education we may safely look to ethics and philosophy for a state- ment. It is, in short, the grand march, or evolution, or progressive development of the soul (i) (^Mi" ij/the slavery of mere sense perception of thing and environment, the sup- position of non-relation, (2) into and thru the category of the understanding and the reason, the supposition of universal relation, (3) to the freedom of pure thought, the sup- position of self -relation. Hence all fragments, parts, or departments of education should have in view and should tend toward this development of the self-active soul. The particular scope of elementary art education is the field of the sensibilities, or aesthetics, the leading forth of the emotions from mere capricious spontaneity to the serenity of the habitual admiration and reverence for all ideal and aesthetic expression in sensuous matter, and for the aesthetic realization of the self-active, free spirit of man and of God. The various studies, or sciences, used as stimuli or food for the development or edu- cation of the soul may be arranged in such general groups as follows: (l) Those derived from the investigation of the inorganic world, giving rise to mathematics and the physical sciences; (2) those derived from the organic world, giving rise to the biological sciences; (3) those derived from the social world, giving rise to the sociological sciences ; (4) those derived from the spiritual world, giving rise to the metaphysical sciences or philosophy. Space-art education, whether elementary or advanced, is not confined to any one of these groups. So far as art education deals with sensuous matter, or with form or space, it finds its basic principles in the first group, in physics, chemistry, or in geometry, which last is par excellence the science of form and space. Here is clearly indicated the proper use of geometry and geometrical forms. I Resigned before report was completed. Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 597 The different forms assumed by the fine arts, coming under the consideration of your committee, as ceramics, architecture, sculpture, and painting, find their sensuous matter or material for embodiment in the first and the second groups. Here we see the necessity for exercises in clay-modeling, in wood-work, and other hard material, in fact for the whole field of manual training, in order that the pupils may get some power of manipulation and self-realization in matter. The particular /orwj of expression that works of art will probably take at any period are determined by developments in the social world, or in the third group. Here is pointed out the breadth of our proposed course of study. It must include the elements of ceramics, architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative design, and something of their history. The ultimate end of art education, as previously stated, is best explained in the fourth group, in the realm of self-activity, or philosophy. Here we have authority for whatever of self-realization and culture we may find practicable. WHAT, THEN, IS ART EDUCATION ? Before we can specifically point out the nature or the purpose of art education it will be necessary to inquire into the nature of art itself. And, first, as to what it is not. It is not a mere recreation of the mind or soul. It is much more than a recreation. Art is an expression of the profoundest interests of human nature and of the most comprehensive truths of the spirit. But art is not religion, nor can it take the place of religion, altho it has power to soften human manners, by giving to man a vision of his ideal self, and indicating what he ought to be. When he thus sees himself objectified in art he is led to dispassionate reflection- which enables him to discover higher possibilities for himself. Thus, indirectly at least, art may be said to have a proper moral end. But neither in its form nor in its content is it the highest mani- festation or the last and absolute expression by which the true and the good are revealed to the human spirit. Art is not a mere imitation of nature, altho it is perfectly natural in that it has its origin in the nature of man, and in that it uses natural elements thru which to express its ideals. Art is one of the results of the self-activity of man on his environment, one of the results of his self-consciousness. It appeals both to the senses and to the intellect, its object being something between the sensible and the rational; but in its use of images it appeals more directly to the imagination, as well as by its incarnation in a sensible form. Art is not merely the beautiful. Beauty is not all of art, altho it is the most pleasing element and one of the most important elements in it. Beauty is not the merely useful, nor does it have its origin in the association of ideas. Beauty is the revelation of the free spirit in a sensible form, and is both objective and subjective. The real labor of everyday life is serious ; it is work rather than play, while the real work of art is serene. Tears and sorrow often belong to the real work-a-day life, in conflicts between sense and duty, while joy properly belongs to art, the field of the ideal, where the spirit works with perfect freedom, where both sense and will may have their way, and where we may do as we like and no mischief will come of it. This is the gladsome kingdom of the beautiful, where man may put forth his supremest creative powers in self-realization. The mission of art, then, is to represent, under sensible forms, the free development of ideal life, and especially of ideal spiritual life. LIMITATIONS OF THE SUBJECT In general, the word " art " is a very comprehensive term, including many different forms of expression. All of these various forms, however, must find their expression in space, or in time, or in both ; hence all art subjects may be loosely divided into two general 598 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art groups, which may be called the space arts and the time arts. Those of the first group, requiring space in which to manifest themselves, appeal for recognition to the eye and to the touch; while those of the second group, requiring time in which to manifest them- selves, appeal more direclly to the ear. The principal arts in the first group are archi- tecture, ceramics, sculpture, and painting, while those in the second group are music and poetry. The resolutions of the Art Department limit your committee to the space arts, form study, drawing, architecture, ceramics, sculpture, painting, etc., all of which must con- cern themselves in their sensuous expression \i\\hform or shape. FORM AS THE BASIS OF THE SPACE ARTS These words, "form" and "shape," have several meanings when applied to actually or potentially visible objects. There are two of these meanings, however, that must be clearly understood, defined, and distinguished, if we would avoid interminable confusion. These two meanings of "form" and "shape" may be distinguished as follows : Every visible object, or potentially visible one, has, or may have — I. AN INFINITE NUMBER OF APPARENT OR ACCIDENTAL FORMS These apparent forms, aspects, or appearances can be known or recognized only thru sight. They are visual percepts pure and simple, created by the self-activity of the observer. The truth of the above becomes evident if one looks at any common object from many different standpoints. Every change in the position of the eye or in the position of the object, no matter how slight these changes may be, makes a different impression on the retina of the eye and causes a different contour or form to appear to the mind. But notwithstanding these infinite apparent forms, every visible object, as a definite unified body in space, has and can have — II. ONLY ONE REAL TANGIBLE OR POTENTIALLY TANGIBLE SHAPE This tangible or individual shape of an object is the result of its extension in space, and is never seen thru the physical eye as it really is in space. For the mind, it only exists as a mental concept. So long as the extensions of a material object remain the same and the object retains its individuality as such, it can have but one real shape in space. The above two meanings (i. and ii.) are entirely different, and the failure to dis- criminate these meanings and to keep them separate in the mind has caused the teachings of many writers to be a mere play upon words. Some writers and teachers frequently use the same unqualified word " form " in both senses perhaps in a single paragraph or even in the same sentence, thus confusing readers and pupils. Note carefully the distinctions. — The first is the conception of a visual percept pure and simple ; the second is a conception of the mind made up from visual and tactual percepts. The first form can be seen only because only the sense of sight can perceive it ; the second can never be seen by the eye of sense, because it is an elaboration of the mind, and cannot be imaged ; it can only be defined. The first, by the observer's long experience, has taken on the attitude of suggesting the second to the mind ; but the second, by itself, never intimates any one of the innumerable aspects of the first except thru the return process of scientific perspective. The first pertain^ to line only, or to colored surface, or to both ; the second pertains to line, to colored surface, and to solidity. The first gives us the beauties and the pictures of vision ; the second gives us ideals for making, modeling, architecture, sculpture, and manufacturing in real materials. The first can have but one or two dimensions ; while the second may have one, two, or three dimensions. I Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 599 THE TWO PHASES OF APPEARANCES Space art recognizes two phases of appearances in objects : (A) the aesthetic results of vision, or the apprehension of pleasing space and color relations through the eye ; and (B) the images or appearances themselves, derived from objects thru visions. These will be explained in order as follows : A. THE MERE ESTHETIC APPEARANCE, OR THE BEAUTY OF AN OBJECT OR OF A SCENE The beauty that is apprehended thru the eye, or a beautiful visual percept (and we are speaking of no other kind at present, such as may be apprehended thru touch or hearing, etc.), is a matter of appearance, something to be seen only, something per- taining to pleasing space or color relations in outline or as colored surface, but not to solidity as such, because the appearanae of solidity is not solidity itself. Most objects appear more pleasing from some points of view than from others, because by changing our point of view we may change the space and the color relations in our field of vision, which field is always apprehended on the retina of the eye as colored surface rather than as solidity. If the beauty pertained to solidity as such, it could not be apprehended by the eye alone. The beauty of objects may consist (a) in their color (analogy, contrast, harmony), {b) in their light-and-dark (value, proportion, space division), (r) or in the composition of line, light-and-dark, and color (regularity, variety, unity). In general these ideas of color, light-and-dark, and composition may have their out- ward expression in the pleasing arrangement of natural or other objects in the field of vision, in a scene, or in given geometrical spaces, but more especially in the division of surfaces into pleasing proportions for ornamental purposes. Of this specific form of expression there are two principal methods of composing an ornamental design, the analytic and the synthetic. As the practical, concrete expression of the preceding ideas, we have the historical ornament of all ages and countries of the world and modern decorative design. The scientific outcome of this study of the beautiful should give us the science of (esthetics, or the science of beauty. How expressed. — Visual beauty is its own most complete expression. It exists for itself and expresses only itself. It is its own raison d^etre. Its images as seen by the mind thru the eye may be imitated on a flat surface by drawing, painting, printing, weaving, or other method of transcribing. The second phase of appearances may be stated thus : B. THE PICTORIAL APPEARANCE, OR THE PICTURE OF AN OBJECT Under B we must remember that the graphic representation of a visual percept of an object gives us a picture, an appearance, a visual image; not the object as it is in space, only one of its innumerable visual aspects. The purpose of a picture may be (i) to inform the understanding, or to teach something; (2) to arouse the feelings, and thus to incite to action; or (3) simply to give pleasure in the presentation of the beautiful. When " (3) " is the purpose, the picture is not considered as a visual image of some real object, and in truth it belongs under the head of A instead of B. The study and the record by drawing of our visual percepts, or images of objects, if done to illustrate general school work, may be called " illustrative drawing ; " if done for the purpose of learning the principles and their applications to the drawing of appearances, we call the process "model and object drawing," "pictorial drawing," or "free-hand perspective." The scientific study and the representation of appearances yield us the science of perspective, both linear and aerial. In the execution of a pic- torial drawing there may be one, two, or three stages : {a) outline, {b) light-and-dark, and (c) color. 6oo NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art How expressed. — Under phase B, the picture is the only complete and perfect expres- sion, or outward realization, of a visual image, or percept. (Oral or written language, modeling, making, or working drawing cannot form a substitute, nor can they give any direct help.) See Appendix A. THE TWO PHASES OF REAL SHAPE OR FORM We may distinguish two phases of real shape or form, as we direct our attention to the real shape of an object as a whole, or as a solid, or to the real shape of its various planes, sections, and edges, and their relations to one another. The first phase may be stated as follows : C. THE REAL SHAPE IN SPACE OF AN OBJECT HAVING THREE DIMENSIONS The study and the analysis of the real shapes of objects may reveal to us certain fundamental, ideal, or type solids which are useful as units of comparison in dealing with the concrete forms of all objects. For our subject the following is a convenient classifica- tion of artificial objects: (i) Regular geometrical solids, or type solids; (2) objects of ordinary manufacture and building construction ; and (3) objects of art. The study of the first group gives us the science of geometry; of the second, the principles of building con- struction ; of the third, the laws of ceramics, architecture, sculpture, and all plastic art in general. How expressed. — The only really complete and logical expression for the real tangi- ble forms of these three-dimension objects is in solidity, in some material having three dimensions. (No vocal or written language can portray solidity directly. No pictorial, conventional, mechanical, or other kind of drawing can do it.) Remembering that pic- torial drawing and pictorial painting of any kind can show us appearances only, not real three-dimension forms, it then becomes evident that mechanical drawings are only con- ventional symbols. The second phase of real shape or form may be stated as follows : D. THE REAL SHAPE IN SPACE OF THE PLANES, SECTIONS, OR EDGES OF AN OBJECT Under D the objects to be considered are mostly artificial, and their planes may be classified as follows : (l) Faces, horizontal or vertical ; (2) sections, cross and longitudinal ; and (3) the single- plane surface, showing all the faces of an object arranged and joined in one plane. All these planes with their edges may be studied as concepts derived from visual and tactual percepts. When we study the edges, faces, sections, or surfaces of type solids and other regular objects, as buildings, furniture, machines, etc., and record by conventional draw- ing their real one-or-two-dimension forms (not our visual percepts of them), we call the results, {a) plans or elevations, {b) sections, [c) developments, or patterns. How expressed. — It will thus be seen that the only adequate and true expression for our concepts of edges, faces, sections, and developments, composed from visual and tactual percepts, is in so-called "mechanical," or "working" drawing. Such drawings do not show us objects as they really are in space ; they are only conventional representations of the separate and detached edges or faces, with their relations conventionally indicated The synthesis of these separate concepts forms in the mind a whole or a unified concept, which may be realized only by a constructed object in space. The basis for the conventional representations of these mental conceptions formed in the mind, or of the corresponding objects in space, is orthographic projection, a branch of descriptive geometry, with its practical departments of architectural, machine, and engineering drawing. See Appendix B. Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 6oi [Note. — Working or mechanical drawing is the most abstract and conventional of all drawing that deserves the name of drawing. It is a mere symbolical language, making no attempt to show the external unity of the object suggested. Pictorial drawing is a natural language that can be read at sight, showing the unity of the object in the draw- ing itself, while working drawing is an artificial or conventional language, suggesting the unity of the object in the mind as a conception, and requiring a process of reasoning and imagination to be fully interpreted.] To some art teachers the preceding analysis of form may appear too formal, and, even if true, unnecessary. The committee has tried to make it express the truth, and if they have succeeded they cannot but think it of vital importance in determining a course of study. To know the psychological relations of the different kinds of drawing and the dif- ferent branches of art to one another, and to education in general, would certainly help to give confidence and stability to our procedure in this important work. To want of such knowledge the committee believes is to be attributed in part the feverishness and vacilla- tion of many teachers, educators, and directors of art education. JThey have become dis- satisfied with what they have been doing, many perhaps rightly so, and instead of endeavoring to know, to formulate, and to apply the educational principles well known to practical as well as to philosophical educators, they ignore the thought and experience of the past and suppose the path of progress to lie in the direction of further experimenta- tion, sometimes of the most random character. The committee is aware that a breaking away from, or rather an earnest question- ing of^ previous processes and supposed principles is desirable as a step forward ; yet it also knows that after this self-estrangement there must come the return process in which the old has not been cast aside, but taken up into a higher unity with the new. When the committee is further reminded of the help that has come to practical teaching and to the adoption of rational courses of study from such philosophers as Kant, Hegel, Herbart, Rosenkranz, Spencer, and Harris, it is inclined to ask if it is not about time that some effort be made to unify and to arrange in somewhat scientific order what is known about modern elementary art education. If the present work of the committee should incite the leading thinkers in our chosen line of study to seriously discuss their report for the purpose of finding the truth or falsity of its theses, it believes much good may yet come from its efforts. SUGGESTED OUTLINE OF COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY ART EDUCATION FOR GRADED SCHOOLS INTRODTTCTORY For the last few years elementary art courses have been passing thru a transition period, and at the present time there is still much confusion in the minds of even the most thoughtful educators. The old unifying principles have been somewhat discounted and the new are not yet well established. In such an unsettled condition there are those who, having seen the abuses in the almost exclusive use of geometrical solids and mechanical methods in vogue some ten or fifteen years ago, are now inclined to go to the other extreme and throw out these so-called type solids altogether, and so much has been said in a plausible manner against the abuses of such solids that some teachers in high places have been tempted to discard even their proper use. Again, the rapid growth of the fascinating exercises called " nature study," in gen- eral education, and the pleasing and advantageous use of drawing in connection there- with, have tempted many to say that such work should be the basis of the course of study in drawing. Again, others have looked with confident hope to child study and the investigation 6o2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art of children's spontaneous drawings for assistance in making out a natural course of exer- cises in drawing and elementary art. One or two members of the committee have taken a prominent part in the investiga- tion and study of children's drawings, and its members are all familiar with what has been done in this line. While the results are sometimes very interesting as knowledge or information, which is very valuable in individual cases, it is perhaps unfortunate that the professional investigator is very seldom in a position to put into practice what he thinks he has discovered, in a system of schools where the classes are large, the teachers inex- perienced, and where practical, visible results are demanded by school authorities. Again, in this connection it must be noted that professional investigators are no more agreed among themselves as to the best methods of procedure than those who have approached the subject thru actual experience in the schoolroom. In view of these considerations, perhaps none but the most enthusiastic devotees of child study thru the spontaneous drawings of children would claim that we have received any revolution- ary ideas as yet from this source. The committee, however, is inclined to be conservative in suggesting a moderate use of the type solids, while acknowledging the value of nature study as a practical applica- tion of object drawing and as furnishing indispensable material for ornamental design, and giving due credit to child study for emphasizing the importance of conceptual and imaginative drawing at the beginning of the course. In general, then, the committee wishes to say that it has tried to conserve the good of the past and to welcome the aid of the present and the future, believing that those who discard the type solids now will call them back again later on, and those who^now depend on nature study so confidently will yet see their need of more regular and definite forms from which to derive general principles, and, still further, that the child-study adherents will yet see that it is too soon to throw aside what has already been success- fully done in elementary art education for many years in the past. The committee is not so presumptuous as to expect the entire approval of all who read their report, and they only suggest this general outline, hoping it will afford diver- sified and verified topics and material from which selections can be made conforming to any circumstances likely to be met in our public or private schools. A proper course of instruction in elementary art education for graded schools should provide for the development of the self-activity, the spontaneity of the pupils on the one side, and for the restraint, the guidance, or the discipline of this self-activity on the other side. Unrestrained spontaneity is one-sided and in the end self-destructive by exhaus- tion. Too much guidance or restraint is also one-sided and self-destructive by repression. The true educator understands and acts on the principle that both self-activity and guidance are necessary elements in the education of self-determining human beings, and that a well-balanced course of instruction must provide for the harmonious combination of these elements. In accordance with this principle it would seem that a model course of instruction in elementary art should provide in some degree such exercises as the following for develop- ing self-activity : {a) A series of free hand and arm movement exercises ; {b) exercises in invention and composition ; {c) exercises in free-hand brush and color drawing ; (d) illustrative sketching in connection with nature study, geography, and history, stories read or heard, and literature ; {e) exercises in clay-modeling and free paper cutting with scissors; (/) exercises in drawing animals and the human figure in various attitudes of activity. For developing the guidance of self-activity, so as to prevent waste and dissipation of energy, there must be exercises of definite form, size, and position by which the children shall learn the conventionalities of form expression as established by the best usage. Such exercises as the following will be found useful for this purpose : {a) Exercises in drawing from well-executed copy, conventional forms, and historical orna- Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 603 ment ; {b) drawing from memory and dictation ; {c) drawing from type solids and other regular objects, as well as the careful drawing of natural objects based on them ; {d) mechanical or working drawing ; {e) decorative design. With these principles and general exercises in view, the following details are sug- gested by grades or years. It is not meant that every school shall be required to carry out every detail here laid down. Something, perhaps much, must always be left to the judgment of teachers, their qualifications in drawing and other art work, the environment of the school, and to the apparatus and materials at hand. Care, however, should be taken to select work from the two series of general exercises presented above, so as to keep about an even balance between the two, neither emphasizing nor slighting too much the self-active spontaneity or the conservative force of constraint or guidance. In carrying out this or any other course of art instruction, the order of procedure at each step, lesson, or topic should be " observe, think, then express." Again, after this first expression, compare the results with the previous and with renewed observations and additional thinking, so as to be able to correct errors. Compare again, and again. Time devoted to drawing. — In some schools not more than one hour per week is given to drawing. The committee thinks this is too little time in which to do satisfactory work, but one hour per week faithfully given to this subject is much better than none. In other schools as much as three hours or more per week for drawing and manual train- ing are allowed. This is none too much time for the best results in both subjects. The committee, however, believes that two hours per week for drawing alone ought to pro- duce excellent results. The average time thruout the United States is not more than one hour and a half per week, which is not fully satisfactory.' OUTLINE BY SCHOOL YEARS OR GRADES FIRST YEAR Form study and modeling:— ^tudy and model in clay the sphere, the cube, and the isometric cylinder (a cylinder of equal dimensions), and some natural objects based on them, as cherries, grapes, peaches, oranges, nuts, apples, etc. Study the shapes, the directions, and the relations of the edges and the faces of the cube with one another. If preferred, the natural objects may be modeled before taking up the geometrical forms. Esthetic study and drawing, — Lay leaves, seeds, sticks, and circular and square tablets for borders, illustrating the idea of simple repetition. Place dots in symmetrical positions and draw simple symmetrical figures. Use the brush and ink, or brush and color, in free-hand work in border making. Study pictures, such as the " Pet Bird," by Meyer von Bremen, " Pony and Dogs," by Barber, or " An Interesting Family," by Carter. Distinguish and name the six standard leading type or positive colors, as standard red (or positive red), standard orange, standard yellow, standard green, standard blue, standard violet. Ornament with color or by drawing the faces of the cube made under the head of Working drawing. Pictorial drawing. — In all kinds of drawing thruout the course, give special attention to the shape and size and color of the paper and to the arrangement of drawings upon it, so as to produce a well-balanced and pleasing effect. («) Imaginative drazving. — Draw imaginative land and water views, representing simple visual appearances of the land, trees, water, and sky ; as a hill with a house, a road, a pathway, or trees ; a boat on the water, as a lake or the ocean ; a rainstorm, a snow- storm, or a snow scene ; the sun rising over the water or the hills ; what can be seen thru a window; etc. Illustrate fables, simple stories, or myths, one scene at a time, told or read by the teacher. I Those educators who think too much prominence is given to form study and modeling in this sug- gested outline can easily leave out a portion or all of it, especially in the grammar grades. 6o4 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art (b) Sight drawing. — Draw with the brush or pencil the appearances or direct views of a cake, a cookie, a coin, a plate, the sun, moon, ball, soap bubbles, balloon, fruits, grasses, grains, leaves, and other natural objects based on the sphere, cube, or isometrical cylinder. Use drawing freely in all nature-study work. Use very freely large and small free hand and arm movement exercises based on circles, squares, and long, straight lines. Frequently draw appearances from memory. Many of the above drawings may be exe- cuted in mass treatment. Working or structural drawing. — Learn definite distances from one inch up to four inches, by measurement first, and the unaided eye later. Draw a pattern for a two-inch cube, by measurement and ruler, and construct it in cardboard. In designing, draw around the sticks, seeds, or tablets used as units. Cut free-hand, with scissors from paper, the faces of the sphere, the cube, and the isometric cylinder mentioned under Form study and modeling, and also the forms of weather signals, toys, lanterns, boats, birds, other animals, and persons in interesting attitudes. SECOND YEAR Form study and modeling. — Review the solids of the first year. Study and model in clay the hemisphere, the prolate spheroid, the oblong-square prism, and the oblong cylinder (a cylinder whose axis is longer than its diameter), and some natural objects based on them, as bowls, hats, lemons, plums, melons, pecans, potatoes, peanuts, birds, other animals, drums, spools, etc. Study the shapes, the directions, and the relations to one another of the edges and the faces of the oblong-square prism and the oblong cylinder. If preferred, take up the natural objects before the artificial ones. /Esthetic study and drawing. — Lay leaves, seeds, and circular, square, and elliptical tablets for borders and rosette forms, to illustrate the ideas of alternate and radiate repe- tition. Continue the drawing of symmetrical figures. Use the brush in free-hand border making. Study pictures, such as " A Fascinating Tale," by Madame Ronner, " Pussy and P'amily," by Reichert, " Angels' Heads," by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and " Dignity and Impudence," by Landseer. Review previous color study and distinguish and name six intermediate spectrum hues, as orange-red, red-orange, yellow-orange, orange-yellow, green-yellow, and yellow- green, with their tints and shades. Ornament with color or by suitable drawings the faces of the square prisms constructed under the head of Working drawing. For this purpose practice the division of squares by spots, lines, or bands, so as to produce pleasing effects. Pictorial drawing. {a) Imaginative drawing. — This will be similar to that described in the preceding grade. Only the simplest elements of natural scenery are to be attempted. The different seasons of the year may be illustrated. Also, calendars may be drawn illustrating the different months. (b) Sight drawing. — Draw with the brush, in ink or color, the pencil, the pen, or crayon, sedges, grasses, leaves, and objects based on the circle, sphere, hemisphere, prolate spheroid, the oblong-square prism, and the oblong cylinder, as clock face, jockey cap, umbrella. Use drawing in all nature study, whether of animals or plants, and for illus- trating fables, simple stories, as "Jack and Jill," myths, or fairy tales of not more than two scenes, read or told by the teacher. Use very freely large and »mall free hand and arm movement exercises based on squares, oblongs, and circles. Draw appearances frequently from memory. Working drawing. — Learn the distances one-half and one-quarter inch, and from one to twelve inches from a scale or ruler. Draw by ruler and measurement the shapes of the faces of the solids studied, and also the shapes of common objects having no appreciable thickness, based on these faces. Draw a pattern mechanically for the square previously studied and construct it in cardboard. Draw around the tablets or other units used in designing borders, rosettes, or all-over patterns. Cut with scissors, free-hand, from Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 605 paper, the faces of the prolate spheroid, the oblong square prism, and the oblong cylin- der mentioned under the head of Form study and modeling, also umbrellas, boxes, toys, wagons, wheelbarrows, vegetables, fruits, and animals. THIRD YEAR Form study and modeling. — Review rapidly the solids of the first and the second years. Study and model in clay the oblate spheroid, the square plinth, and the circular plinth, and some natural and artificial objects based on them, as lemons, potatoes, tur- nips, tomatoes, pumpkins, squashes, melons, onions, square and circular boxes, toys, etc. Study the shapes, the directions, and the relations to one another of the edges and the faces of the square plinth and the circular plinth. As usual, natural objects may be taken up first if so desired. Esthetic study and drawing.- — Lay tablet forms for borders, rosettes, and all-over patterns, to illustrate repetition in a line, around a center, and in all directions. Continue the drawing of symmetrical figures, as rosettes and shields, from copy. Use the brush in free-hand ornamental work and in the drawing of plants or animals in circles, so as to result in pleasing space divisions. Study pictures, such as "Can't You Talk," by Holmes, "School's Out," by Geoffroy, " Baby Stuart," by Van Dyke, or "Lending a Hand," by Renouf. Review rapidly all previous color study and distinguish and name six more interme- diate spectrum hues, as violet-red, red-violet, blue-violet, violet-blue, green-blue, blue- green, with their tints and shades. Ornament with brush and color, or by suitable drawings, the faces of the square plinth and the circular plinth constructed under the head of Working drawing. Use the method of radiation from a center for the pleasing divi- sion of squares, circles, and oblongs. Pictorial drawing, — Draw with the brush, the pencil, the pen, or the crayon, grasses, leaves, shells, and other objects based on the lens, the equilateral triangle, and the ellipse. Use sight drawing in all nature study, whether of animals or plants, and imaginative drawing for illustrating sports and pastimes of the seasons, the seashore, or the country where the pupil has been, autumn and winter pastimes, as fishing, hunting, nutting, coast- ing, skating, a sunset scene, fables, simple stories, myths, or fairy tales of not more than three scenes, read or told by the teacher. Use very freely large and small free hand and arm movement exercises based on circles, squares, oblongs, and ellipses. Draw appear- ances frequently from memory, also in mass, from some child posed before the class in interesting attitudes. Working drawing. — Learn large distances, as foot, yard, etc., and use them in draw- ing the shape of a door, a window, or the schoolroom. Draw mechanically the shapes of the faces of the plinths studied and the shapes of common objects based on their faces ; draw the circle, the square, the oblong, and also the lens. Draw around the tablets used as units in decorative design. Cut from paper the faces of the solids studied under the head of Form study and modeling; also cut out fruits, animals, etc. FOURTH YEAR Form study and modeling. — Review very rapidly the solids of the first three years. Study and model in clay the ovoid, the square pyramid, and the cone, and the common objects, natural and artificial, based on them. Study the shapes, the directions, and the relations to one another of the edges and the faces of the square pyramid and the cone. Esthetic study and drawing. — Lay more complicated conventional tablet forms for borders, rosettes, and all-over patterns, reviewing the ideas of simple repetition, alternate repetition, radiate repetition, and all over repetition. Continue to draw symmetrical curved-line figures, as rosettes and conventional forms, more difficult of execution. Use the brush with color in ornamental work. Study pictures, such as " The Song of the Lark," by Breton, " Lions at Home," by Rosa Bonheur, "The Balloon," by Dupre, or "The 6o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art Sower," by Millet. Review rapidly all previous color study and learn to lay with colored tablets or draw with brush and color, or colored pencils, a " scale of standard colors," a " scale of spectrum hues," or a " scale of hues " and a " scale of tones." Make simple designs for a paling, or an iron fence, gate, grating, or grille, plaids, napkins, tablecloths, to illustrate the pleasing division of spaces by lines, bars, or bands. Orna- ment with brush and color or by drawings the faces of the square pyramid and the cone mentioned under the head of Working drawing. Pictorial Drawing. — Draw with the brush and color, the pencil, the pen, or the crayon, grasses, leaves, flowers, shells, fruit, and objects, natural and artificial, based on the ovoid, the cone, the oval, the triangle, the spiral, and the reversed curves. Use drawing in all nature study, whether of animals or plants, and for illustrating simple stories from literature and history read or told by the teacher. Use very freely large and small free hand and arm movement exercises, based on lenses, ovals, triangles, spirals, and reversed curves. Draw appearances frequently from memory, and draw in mass from children posed in interesting attitudes before the class. Continue imaginative drawing as in previous grades. Working drawing. — Review the study of distances and measurements, and draw mechanically the shapes of the faces of the solids studied and the shapes of some com- mon objects based on them. In the same way draw the shape or plan of a school yard, a garden, a field, a town, a part of a city. Draw around the tablets used as units in designing. Cut with scissors free-hand, from paper, the faces of the solids studied, as well as fruits, animals, and artificial objects of interest. FIFTH YEAR Form study and modeling. — Review the study of the previous solids and planes, especially circles, ellipses, spheres, spheroids, hemispheres, cylinders, cones, and ovoids. Construct the cylinders and cones in cardboard. Model such natural objects under nature study as may be convenient. Model geometrical and conventional forms in relief, as simple crosses, etc., on tiles. Model simple, regular, curved-line conventional objects in relief, as trefoils, quatrefoils, cinquefoils, etc., also natural leaves and fruits on tiles. .-Esthetic study and drawing. — Continue the designing of borders, rosettes, and all- over patterns in color, using the brush where needed. Give attention to aesthetic form composition and the pleasing division of surface areas applied to decorative arrange- ments for school programs, title pages, tailpieces, and book covers. Conventionalize some of the natural forms studied under the head of nature study, and use them for units in design. Study pictures, such as " The Shepherdess " and " By the Riverside," by LeroUe ; " Queen Louise and her Sons," by Steffeck ; " Washington Crossing the Dela- ware," by Leutze. Review previous color study and take up the broken colors and use them in design, such as the neutrals and the colored grays, as the russets, the citrons, and the olives. Study Egyptian ornament. Pictorial drawing. — Draw with the brush and color, the pencil, the pen and ink, or the crayon (occasionally blocking in the outlines), flowers, sprays, plants, or animals, used in nattire study, and objects, natural or artificial, based on objects circular in action, as spheres, spheroids, hemispheres, cylinders, cones, and ovoids, singly and in groups of two or three. Treat inductively, that is, derive principles from observation and experiment. If circumstances favor, some systematic shading maybe introduced. Use drawing freely to illustrate simple stories, geography, history, literature, and imaginative compositions. Use very freely free hand and arm movement exercises based on circles and ellipses. Draw frequently from memory, and draw in mass from children posed before the class in interesting attitudes. Working drawing. — Draw mechanically common objects having but two dimensions and no appreciable thickness. The use of compasses or dividers may be introduced where needed. Draw and cut from cardboard patterns for cylinders and cones, and all units Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 607 used in designing, and mark around them, instead of drawing the separate units free-hand. Draw diagrams to illustrate other studies, as comparative weights and measures and frac- tional operations in arithmetic. SIXTH YEAR Form study and modeling. — Review the study of previous solids, especially of objects bounded by straight edges and plane surfaces, as square planes, cubes, oblong squares, and triangular prisms, square pyramids, and hexagonal prisms and pyramids. Construct some of the above in cardboard. Model conventional leaf forms in relief on tiles. Esthetic study and drawing. — Design and draw more elaborate borders and all-over patterns, divide definite surfaces ornamentally, and give some attention to landscape composition. Conventionalize natural forms for spots or units in design, and use units derived from historical ornament. Study pictures, as the " Horse Fair," by Rosa Bonheur; "Christ and the Doctors," by Hoffman; "Lost," by Schenck ; and "Moses, Joshua, Elijah," by Sargent. Review rapidly previous color study and take up the complemen- tary colors by the use of colored papers and pigments, or water colors, and use them in designing. Study Greek ornament. Pictorial drawing. — Draw with the pencil, the pen and ink, the crayon, or the brush and color, flowers, sprays, whole plants and animals, used in nature study, and objects, natural or artificial, based on objects bounded by straight edges and plane surfaces, as square planes, cubes, oblong, square, and triangular prisms, square pyramids, and hexagonal prisms and pyramids, singly and in groups of two or three. If circumstances permit, bring in more shading. Draw frequently from memory and from some one posed before the class interestingly costumed. Use very freely large and small free hand and arm move- ment exercises based on the square, the oblong, the triangle, and the hexagon. Treat inductively. Working drawing. — Continue the mechanical drawing of objects of two dimensions. Use compasses and draw from scales preparatory to the solution of geometrical problems. Cut out units for design in cardboard, and draw diagrams to illustrate other studies, as in history and geography. Draw patterns for the construction of the solids mentioned under the head of Form study and modeling. SEVENTH YEAR Form study and modeling. — Model historical ornament in relief, especially the Egyptian, the Greek, and the Roman elements. Model natural objects when convenient. Model the human hand and the foot. Esthetic study and drawing. — Design and draw patterns for book covers, grilles, gratings, or screens. Review the elements of Egyptian and Greek ornament, and study and draw the elements of Roman ornament, using the brush where needed. Convention- alize natural forms for spots or units of design. Continue the use of water colors, illus- trating the three analogous harmonies, that is, harmonies of tones, harmony of hues, and harmony of grays. Study pictures, such as " Aurora," by Guido Reni ; " Columbus at the Court of Spain," by Von Brozik ; and " The Edge of the Woods," by Rousseau. Practice pleasing space division, illustrating the analytical and the synthetical methods of designing. Design or select several spots as units and use them in surface patterns. Pictorial drawing. — Draw with the pencil, the pen, the brush, the crayon, or char- coal, flowers on sprigs or branches, fruit-pods, seed-cases, or whole plants, and animals, as birds, used in nature study, and objects, natural or artificial, based on objects circular in section, and those bounded by straight edges and plane surfaces, as cylinders, cones, frustums, square frames, and crosses, singly and in groups, using shading where possible. Give special attention to balance in arrangement of drawing on paper. Compose land- scapes with pencil or brush, as the arrangement and balance of a house, a hill, a tree, or several trees, and a pond, in an oblong inclosing form. Draw occasionally from memory, 6o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art dictations, and from someone posed before the class. Use very freely large and small free hand and arm movement exercises based on curved and straight lined forms. Use drawing and painting freely in nature study and to illustrate stories, geography, histoiy, and literature. Working drawing. — Draw patterns for the construction of some of the frames and the crosses mentioned under the head of Fonn study and modeling. Cut out units for design and draw diagrams to illustrate other studies, as mensuration, square and cube root in arithmetic, inventional geometry, etc. Make a special study of the solution of geometrical problems by means of compasses and ruler, and use drawing board, T-square and triangles, preparatory to orthographic problems in the next grade. EIGHTH YEAR Form study and modeling. — Model historical ornament in relief, especially the elements of Byzantine, the Saracenic, the Gothic, and the Renaissance styles. Model natural objects if convenient. Model a medallion of the human face in profile in relief, and of the head and face in the round. Esthetic study and drawing. — Conventionalize natural forms for units of design. Make ornamental designs for grilles, iron gates, a screen, or stained-glass windows. Study and draw the elements of historical ornament, as Byzantine, Saracenic, Gothic, and Renaissance ornament. Continue the use of water colors illustrating the three contrasted harmonies of tones, hues, and grays. Review all the harmonies. Study pictures, such as " The Gleaners," " The Angelus," by Millet, and " Oxen Going to Labor," by Troyon. Continue the practice of pleasing space division, and the composition of spots, of line, and mass. Pictorial drawing. — Draw with the pencil, the pen, the crayon, the charcoal, or the brush, flowers, insects, butterflies, groups of beautiful objects, as vases, interiors of rooms, historic houses, as Washington's various headquarters, or the cottage of Edgar Allan Poe, trees, or landscapes. Compose landscapes with pencil or brush. Draw frequently from memory, dictation, and from some one posed before the class. Draw Byzantine, Saracenic, Gothic, and Renaissance ornament from the cast. Study pictures that clearly illustrate the convergence of lines. Use drawing and painting freely in nature study, and to illus- trate stories, geography, history, and literature. Use very freely large and small free hand and arm movement exercises based on ornamental forms. Working drawing. — Make a special study of the solution of simple problems in orthographic projection ; that is, the drawing of plans, elevations, sections, and develop- ments of simple geometrical solids and their applications to the working drawing of the mechanic's shop, using ruler, ruling pen, compass, drawing board, T-square, and triangle. SUGGESTED OUTLINE OF COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY ART EDUCATION FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS (ONE-TEACHER, COMMON OR RURAL) In drawing for the ungraded schools, the aim has been to construct a course of study that is practical and flexible, one that the ordinary teacher can teach and the ordinary pupil can comprehend. In ungraded schools, or one-teacher schools, it is impractical to have a grade or division in drawing for each school year. The youngest pupils just begin- ning to read and to spell may make simple, imaginative drawings on their slates, some symmetrical drawings and free arm and hand movement exercises, without much special instruction. All the pupils above these should be divided into two groups, corresponding somewhat to the ordinary primary and grammar divisions. Both of these groups, altho doing different kinds of work, may be taught simultaneously, or at the same recita- tion period of time, by the aid of some suitable published system of drawing. If, how- ever, time can be spared for a drawing period every school day, it would be better to take Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 609 the two groups separately on alternate days. The order of treatment of subjects in each of the above groups and the amount of work that can be done must depend upon the conditions. What is entirely practical and convenient in one school may be almost impossible in another. In some cases more can be done than is here suggested, while in many other cases not so much can be accomplished. Much of the detail must be left to the intelligent teacher or to the particular system of drawing that may be selected. In all parts of the course of study in elementary art, care should be taken to culti- vate an appreciation of the simple elements of beauty and to develop a love of the beauties of nature and in art. To this end the schoolroom should be furnished with some examples of good art reproductions, and artistic drawing books should be placed in the hands of the pupils, since such pupils have but little other opportunity of seeing art products worthy of careful study. There should be at least three lesson periods for drawing per week of twenty min- utes each in Group I, and at least two periods of thirty minutes each in Group II. Color. —Teach the spectrum colors from the prism and from the colored-paper spec- trum. Teach standard colors, hues, tints, and shades, and apply them in nature-study drawing, in map drawing, in designing borders, rosettes, and all-over patterns, in the division of surfaces into spaces having pleasing relations to each other, and in the draw- ing of natural objects, as fruits, animals, imaginative stories, etc. A SUGGESTED GENERAL OUTLINE FOR GROUP I The pupils in Group I, which corresponds somewhat to the higher primary grades, should draw very simple, familiar, and natural forms of beauty and interest, as grasses, grains, leaves, fruits, nuts, shells, etc., according to the season. Where it is practicable, color should be used in drawing leaves, apples, peaches, plums, lemons, oranges, and other convenient objects. There should be some drawing from copy, as from such conventional forms as squares, oblongs, circles, ellipses, reversed curves, spirals, etc., combined in pleasing symmetrical figures, and so taught as to exercise the invention and cultivate the taste of the children. The bisection, the trisection, and the quadrisection of lines should be taught in con- nection with the drawing of interesting figures. Memory drawing, dictation drawing, and sketching from imagination are interesting and important methods of teaching drawing not to be neglected in primary grades or Group I in ungraded schools. Inventive drawing, that is, the arrangement and the drawing of tablets and other conventional units so as to form borders, rosettes, and all-over patterns, is delightful as well as cultivating to the taste of pupils in this first group, and should not be omitted. Much use should be made of free hand and arm movement exercises, based on circles, squares, oblongs, triangles, ellipses, etc. No other means will so quickly give strength and certainty to the movements of the muscles and steadiness to the nerves of the hand and the arm. Well-directed picture study is a powerful means for the cultivation of the crude tastes of children, and it should be the subject of at least an occasional lesson all thru the period of Group I. A SUGGESTED GENERAL OUTLINE FOR GROUP II Form study. — Study such geometrical planes as squares, triangles, oblongs, circles ellipses, ovals, and such solids as spheres, spheroids, cylinders, cones, ovoids, cubes, prisms, and pyramids. Study the shapes, the directions, and the relations to each other of the edges and the faces of the above. Construct some of them in cardboard, espt- cially those having straight edges. 6 1 o NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA 7 ION [Art .'Esthetic study and drawing. — Design borders, rosettes, and all-over patterns illus- trating the different kinds of repetition, as simple, alternate, in a line, radiate, or around a center, and all-over. Squares, triangles, oblongs, circles, ellipses, any geometrical figures and conventional forms derived from natural ones may be used for units of design. Draw simple and more complicated symmetrical figures than those used in the first group, using both straight lines and curved lines, and copy approved elements in his- torical ornament. Use the brush freely with ink or color in free-hand work, in design- ing, and in the division of surface areas, so as to produce pleasing space relations. Study pictures, such as the " Pet Bird," by Meyer von Bremen ; "A Fascinating Tale," by Madam Ronner ; "Angels' Heads," by Sir Joshua Reynolds ; "Can't You Talk?" by G. A. Holmes; and "The Song of the Lark," by Jules Breton. Distinguish and name the six standard spectrum colors and the principal intermediate spectrum hues, with their tints, shades, scales, and harmonies, and use them in decorative design. Pictorial drawing. — Draw with the pencil, the brush, with ink or color or the crayon, the appearances of grasses, grains, leaves, flowers, and other objects, natural or artificial, based on the circle, ellipse, oval, triangle, square, spheroid, cylinder, cone, ovoid, cube, prism, and pyramid. Use drawing freely in all nature study, whether of animals or plants, and for illus- trating stories, real or imaginary, geography, history, or literature. Use very freely large and small free hand and arm movement exercises based on circles, ellipses, reversed curves, spirals, squares, oblongs, triangles, and conventional forms. Frequently draw appearances from memory, also from poses of children or animals. Working drawing. — Learn definite distances from eighth, quarter, half-inch to inch, inches, foot, feet, yard, and rod by measurement and by the unaided eye. Draw mechanically, by scale and ruler, patterns for making cubes, prisms, pyramids, cylinders, and cones in thin cardboard. Draw mechanically the shapes of the faces of some of the solids studied under the head of Form study, and cut them from paper with scissors. Draw mechanically the shapes of windows, doors, blackboards, wall-divisions, schoolroom floor, school yard, a garden, a lot, a field, a part of a village or a town, a township, a county, or a state. These last will of course be known as "maps," and they may be colored. APPENDIX A Notes. — Why is model-and-object drawing so difficult ? When we look at a familiar object (a material object occupying three dimensions) we have at first a general concept of it. This general concept is made up of sight elements, tactual, taste, and other ele- ments, which help the mind to a general notion as to what the object really is in space. This general concept as to what an object really is is the almost universal aim of all external observation of things. We seek percepts and hold them only long enough to lead us to true concepts, when they, the percepts, are cast aside as a bridge might be that has done us a service. Now, notwithstanding the supreme value of these general concepts in all thinking and in all practical life, they are not what we must transcribe when we wish to draw the picture of an object. When we would transfer from the mind the visual image of an object on a surface, we must cast aside the general concept and give attention to one, and only one, visual percept, sighted from a fixed point, and transcribe that. To do this we must lay aside, or inhibit, all the general notions we may have of an object, such as its real size, shape, taste, smell, beauty, color, etc., which the world and our fixed habits have taught us from infancy, and have forced us to regard as the essence of knowledge, and look for one^ of the infinite number of appearances suggested by the object. This appearance, or visual percept, which hitherto has been cast aside for the truthful concept, is changeable, ephemeral, and elusory, a mere passing shadow or image, created by the Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 6li spectator. Is it at all wonderful that children find it difficult to do all these things at once? It will be useful to study the following steps in seeing the appearance or the picture of a material object, because if these steps are clearly seen the instructor may the more easily lead the pupil to lay aside his concepts and give attention to one, and only one, visual percept. 1. We usually first see an image of a material object in connection with other images of material things in space. It is seen in a vague unity, or in a state of unseparateness from the general stream of visual sensations coming from many different objects. This image is unconsciously united instinctively with us in this stream of sensation. This is the vague, hazy, general, or indefinite stage. It is merely the beginning of distinct visual perception. We are merely conscious of something within the field of vision. 2. We must now give attention to this particular image of the object, by separating it in mind from the general stream of visual sensation. We must separate this image from the previously sensed something, and against this something, as a sort of back- ground, hold it (the image) before the mind. This is the stage of analysis, the stage of isolation, discrimination, or separation. 3. Finally, this visual image must be seen again in its relations with the other and surrounding images. It must be compared and unified with these surrounding images in a way not to lose its individuality, and still be distinct in thought. This is the stage of completeness, of synthesis, the stage of creative activity. APPENDIX B Notes and definitions. — The following discussion and the consequent definitions seem to be necessary here because, owing to the newness of the subject no doubt, there has been much confusion of thought and vague expression in speaking of matters which ought to be well settled, at least among thoughtful educators. In general, a drawing is the result of placing significant marks on a surface, usually flat, so as to express real or apparent space relations. More specifically, any drawing, diagram, or painting, when completed, may be considered in itself a conception of some mind made visible on a surface. This conception may refer (i) to some image created by the mind thru the aid of the memory and the imagination; (2) to some visual appearance or percept of an external object; or (3) to the actual relations in space of the points, edges, and planes (real or imaginary) of an external object. From the above it will be seen that there can be but three general kinds of drawing, each representing one of the conceptions just described : (l) We have the arranging and the drawing of the parts and the whole of a creation as the mind and the taste wish them to be, or "decorative" or "inventive" design; (2) the drawing of the appearances of external objects, or "pictorial drawing;" and (3) the drawing of conventional diagrams to show the actual relations of the parts of an object as they are in space, or "working drawing." Decorative design. — It is the pleasing division, breaking up, or diversifying of plane surfaces of regular or accidental shape, by means of spots, lines, light-and-dark, or color; or by cutting, carving, or molding ; or by any one or all or any combination of these. Pictorial drawing. — It is drawing or transcribing on a surface, usually flat, what the mind, thru the eye, sees in the presence of a material object having length, breadth, and thickness ; or it may be expressed as the drawing of an imaginary visual image of an object ; or putting on a flat surface, by means of some marking implement, an eye percept; or the graphic record of a visual percept; or simply drawing appearances. IVorking drawing. — It is the drawing of or making visible such conceptions as plans, elevations, sections, and developments. N. B. — Drawing from memory, drawing from copy, drawing from dictation, free-hand 6l2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art drawing, and instrumental drawing are not kinds of drawing at all. They only pertain to the methods and the circumstances of execution. Drazving from memory. — It is drawing a past or remembered visual percept, or visual image of an object, or a remembered visual concept of an object or of another drawing, neither the object nor the remembered drawing being present to serve as a copy. Drawing from copy. — It is drawing from or imitatiirg another drawing in sight as it is in space, or as the mind conceives it to be in space, not as it may appear ; or it is drawing from or imitating the shape of a real, limited, concrete plane in sight. Drawing from dictation.— It is making a drawing entirely from a word description, in the absence of the object or any drawing of it. Free-hand drawing. — A drawing is said to be free-hand when made with the hand and some marking inplement, without the aid of instruments, as rulers, compasses, etc. Instrumental drazving. — A drawing is said to be instrumental when such implements as rulers, compasses, etc., are used in making it. These two methods may be applied to any kind of drawing. Signed by Langdon S. Thompson, Chairman. Henry T. Bailey. Charles M. Carter. Herman T. Lukens. Harriet Cecil Magee. Gracia L. Rice. APPENDIX C dissenting opinions by members of the committee I regret that I cannot see my way clear to sign the report of the Committee on Art Education, sent me by its chairman. My view of art education is fundamentally different from that taken in the report — at least in its theoretical part. I find there is much relating to the aim of education and the psychological process involved in the educational activities that I do not understand, and I think it quite probable that if I could com- prehend them I should find myself disagreeing with them. Take, for instance, the statement of the aim of education made in the report, that it is "the grand march or evolution or progressive development of the soul(i) outofihe slavery of mere sense-perception of thing and environment, the supposition of non-relation, (2) into and thru the category of the understanding and the reason, the supposition of universal relation, (3) to the freedom of pure thought, the supposition of self relation. Hence all fragments, parts, or departments of education should have in view and should tend toward this development of the self-active soul." These propositions mean very little to me. I cannot conceive of any such mental processes as are here indicated. To my mind the purpose of education is to bring the individual into harmony with the environ- ing world, to give him an understanding and a mastery of it. Every individual is related to his environment in a physical way, a social way, an intellectual way, and an aesthetic way, and the purpose of art education should be to perfect the individual's relations to the world on the aesthetic side. In achieving this on the mechanical side the learner must be led to apprehend facts of form and color as they are presented in the things which he will come in contact with in his daily life, and he must begin at a point where these facts are apprehended in a relatively simple and isolated way, and move on constantly to things more complex and involved. There must also be developed in him the ability to reproduce in all ways possible what he sees, that he may keep a record of it and that he may express it to others. In the course of his education the pupil must be led to appreciate the most agreeable relations of form and color, first in relatively simple and then in more and more complex situations, and be trained so that he can create aesthetic objects and situations in which will be embodied these principles of harmony. The process of accomplishing this end is a simple one in its fundamental features. I Department] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN 613 The pupil must be led to see the distinguishing form and color characteristics in things to be represented, and he must associate with these the proper manual activities required to reproduce them in drawing or painting or any other form. This relation between motor expression und visual apprehension must be made so facile that the appropriate expression will follow more or less automatically upon the visual perception of facts to be represented. The whole process, on the technical side, consists in leading the pupil to give discriminating visual attention to the things he wishes to represent, and then making their motor expression so perfect that they can be reproduced without conscious effort. Of course in the larger aspects of art education there are involved many problems relat- ing to the development of taste and the creation of artistic things ; but these questions have not been taken up in the report. The theoretical part of the report, it seems to me, is based upon a metaphysical or even verbal psychology, which is likely to confuse the teacher and lead her astray rather than to lend her any assistance in her practical work. Terms are used describing men- tal processes with which I am not familiar. Take in illustration such a proposition as "the conception of a visual perception." I am unable to determine what this may be, and I find many statements of this character to which I cannot subscribe. I was placed on this Committee of Ten, I think, because of my interest in the psy- chological questions underlying art education, and I shall not attempt to do more than to offer a suggestion or two regarding the course of study which the report outlines. I am not competent to pass an opinion upon many of the details of this course, but while much that appears in the course seems to me to be sound, still I have noticed a few things which appear to be founded upon an erroneous educational philosophy. At the very out- set the child is expected to study pictures, but for what reason is not apparent. If it is designed that he should study reproductions of great paintings in order to gain principles of technical and aesthetic value, then I should say that this work is altogether beyond the novice. If pictures are to be studied at all they must at the outset deal with the situations in which the child is frequently placed, and he must study a picture for what it expresses in the way of content, and not for its technique. He would not be expected to analyze words at the fifth year to become familiar with their mechanical properties. Then the report indicates specific objects which the child is to represent at different stages in its development, but I cannot see that any principle of selection has been fol- lowed, except the principle that to some extent the objects must represent form and color characteristics similar to those presented in the type forms being studied at the time. To my mind the report does not allow sufficient spontaneity and freedom in the selec- tion of these objects ; it would be better if provision were made for choosing the objects and situations with which the child has interesting relations in the experiences of every- day life. Then the objects would not be just the same in Utah as in Madison or Boston, and could not be indicated in any comprehensive way in a report of this sort. The child would keep close to his environment at all times, acquiring drawing as a means of expressing the objects and situations of interest to him. I should give a larger place to what the report calls " imaginative " drawing, where the child illustrates stories, indicat- ing how he conceives the situations described. Imaginative drawing is, in the report, confined at first to isolated objects ; whereas a child is interested in situations where such objects are related to one another in causing some event. At the outset the child does not profit greatly by critical study of isolated things. Again, illustrative drawing should occupy a more prominent place than the report provides for it. In this work the child acquires the right attitude toward drawing. He employs it as a medium of expression, and by means of it the teacher can keep in intimate contact with a pupil's mind, and see how he conceives objects and situations, and she can make good use of it to help the child to correct erroneous notions, and get him into the way of regarding things in their natural relationships instead of in isolation. (Signed) M. V. O'Shea. 6 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Art I subscribe to the above report, approving, as I do, of its main features. The report is quite conservative, and yet attempts to be appreciative of all that has been clearly established by a study of children's drawings. The chief objection I have to the report lies in its omission to even discuss the stages of development in a child's drawing power. Yet this discussion clearly belongs in a report whose main object is "to determine, in the light of psychology, environment, and experience, a proper basis or bases for a course of study in elementary art education. " Many of the most important questions in this field were formulated by the committee but have never been discussed or in any way incorporated into the body of the report. This is a most serious omission, leaving, as it does, the report as a merely logical discus- sion on a deductive basis. It seems to me that the question of sequence of material is the vital question in the curriculum. That, however, is not a question for logic to decide at all, but for child study. What material, what objects, what method, what technique are best adapted to develop the artistic nature at each successive period of growth ? At what age do chil- dren progress most rapidly in art development? (i) On the side of appreciation ? (2) On the side of production ? What is the course of development in [a) appreciative power, in {b) executive skill ? Should either be stimulated beyond the others ? What is the relation of race and individual development in art ? What is the relation of the adolescent period of a child's development to the unfolding of his artistic nature ? That these are still unsettled questions is no reason for ignoring them. (Signed) Herman T. Lukens. I offer the following statement of dissent from the report of the committee : 1. The psychological section of the report does not take into account the latest and most authoritative statements regarding the essential nature of art nor of the action of the mind in art creation. 2. The courses of study included in the report do not, in my judgment, meet the needs of the schools at the present time. They lay out sequences of class-room work which could have been followed ten years ago ; but the betterment of school conditions and the awakening of more general and intelligent public interest in art and elementary education make possible a distinct advance beyond the ground covered in these courses of study. Respectfully submitted, John S. Clark. DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 9, 1902 The Department of Music Education met in the Andrew Presbyterian Church, Min- neapolis, at 9 : 30 A. M., President A. J. Gantvoort in the chair. In the absence of the secretary, Mrs. Gaston Boyd, Mrs. M. L. Chapin was appointed to act as secretary. Miss Clara Tli'ompson sang two numbers, and the president gave his greeting to the members. Mr. Thomas Tapper, of Boston, spoke upon " The Future Development of Public- School Music," and was followed by Hollis E. Dann, director of music, Utica, N. Y., upon "An Anomalous Situation, with Suggestions for Improvement." Both of these papers were discussed at the close of Mr. Dann's paper. Those taking part in the discussion were Messrs. Mountz, Corson, Marx, Cross, and Mrs. F. E. Clark. As a result of this discussion, Mr. P. C. Hayden made a motion, which was carried, that a committee of three be appointed by the chair to present at the next session the names of three members who should be instructed to formulate a plan of study for teachers of music in the public schools, this plan to be presented at the session of the department next year. Miss McClure, Messrs. Weaver, Tapper, Congdon, and others spoke of the work already being done along this line. The chair appointed as this committee Mr. Dann, Miss Brant, and Mr. Krinbill. The following persons were named by the chair as a nominating committee : P. C. Hayden. Mrs. F. E. Clark. Mr. Mountz. The department then adjourned to Thursday at 2 : 30 p. M. SECOND SESSION.— Thursday, July id The department met at 2 : 30 P. M., President Gantvoort in the chair. The opening number was an illustration of public-school music given by the Adams School chorus. Miss Elizabeth K. Fairweather, of Cincinnati, O., read a paper on "The Psycho- logical and Ethical Influence of Music." Mrs. Frances Elliott Clark, superintendent of music, Ottumwa, la,, presented the subject of " High-School Music." Mr. P. C. Hayden, of the School Music Monthly, opened the discussion, and was followed by Messrs. Krinbill, Johnson, and others. After a song by Miss Hiscock, Frank L. Nagel, musical director, Des Moines, la., read a paper on "The Musical Qualifications of a Teacher of Music in the Public Schools." Sterrie A. Weaver, of Westfield, Mass., opened the discussion, and Miss Wilson and Messrs. Fullerton and Weeks followed. A motion was made by Mr. Johnson that the incoming officers request of the presi- dent of the Department of Superintendence that a paper on "The Needs of Music in the High School " be given a place upon the program of the Department of Superintendence, which meets in the winter. The motion was carried. The committee to nominate a committee of three to formulate a course of study reported the names of Mr. Thomas Tapper, of Boston, Mr. A. J. Gantvoort, of Cincinnati, 615 6l6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music and Hon. O. T. Corson, of Columbus, O. A motion was made, and carried, to instruct the secretary to cast the ballot of the department for the nominees. The nominating committee presented their report, and the following officers were elected. For President — Mr. Sterrie A. Weaver, Westfield, Mass. For Vice-Presideni-MT. W. A. Wetzell, Salt Lake City, Utah. For Secretary — Miss Helen W. Trask, Minneapolis, Minn. A committee on resolutions appointed by the chair reported thru their chairman, Mr. Hayden, that the department desires to express thanks to the officers of the Association, to those who had provided music for the department, and to the chairman of the local committee. The department adjourned. M. L. CHAPIN, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS AN ANOMALOUS SITUATION, WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT HOLLIS E. DANN, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, ITHACA, N. Y. It is a trite saying that music is now recognized as a necessary part of the school curriculum from the kindergarten thru the high school. Ten years ago a poll of the foremost educators connected with the public schools thruout the United States revealed the fact that they were prac- tically unanimous in giving music a place in the daily program. State, county, and city superintendents thruout the country are practically requiring music of some sort. More than three-fourths of the common schools are studying music in one way or another, while city schools with- out music are considered decidedly unprogressive. It is no longer looked upon as simply a diversion, nor is it considered an incidental ornament to the school program. Its educational value is freely conceded. The eminent educators in practical control of the public schools have, with remarkable unanimity, welcomed music as an important part of the course of study. Thus far they have been consistent and progressive. Failure to take the next step places the school authorities of any state in an anomalous, illogical, and indefensible position in regard to school music. Upon the power that controls the admission of any subject into the public school rests the responsibility of making provision for its proper presentation. The licensing power is in duty bound to provide safeguards against incompetence in the teaching force, to fix some stand- ard of qualification for the teaching of every subject placed in the course of study. Of all the subjects taught in the public schools, music is the most harmed by incompetence or lack of skill on the part of the teacher; and yet, both as regards subject-matter and methods of presentation. Department] AN ANOMALOUS SITUATION 617 music is, of all subjects, the most unfamiliar to the teacher. Add to this the fact that it is the one subject that is not required in the teacher's pro- fessional training, and we have a state of affairs which demands careful and serious attention. The situation is aggravated by a failure of the school authorities to fix a standard of qualification for the supervisor. Provide the grade teacher with competent supervision and she will in time gain a fair knowledge of the subject and skill in presenting it. This, however, the authorities have signally failed to do. There is no standard set for the would-be supervisor, no test of qualification, no competent authority empowered to pass upon his fitness or unfitness. One may not teach reading or arith- metic without a license, but if he desires to teach singing in the schools, to be intrusted with the care and development of children's voices and their general musical education, he may enter upon his duties without a license, and without satisfying any required standard of fitness whatso- ever. He may not conduct a spelling lesson without satisfying the con- stituted authorities of his knowledge of the subject, but he may go on impairing the voices of thousands of children because of his ignorance of what should be the ABC of every supervisor's training, and no effective protest is made. Another discouraging part of the matter lies in the fact that school boards and patrons do not detect bad and pernicious results. People in general fail to use ordinary common-sense and judgment the moment they come in contact with music or music teaching. Where in the field of education is there a parallel to the gullibility of the public as regards vocal teachers ? Given a lusty voice, with plenty of nerve and good advertising ability, and a veritable novice in music will make a good liv- ing teaching "voice culture" in almost any community in the United States. He needs only to proclaim that he has studied abroad with Shakespeare, keep his pupils constantly before the public, and the dear papas and mammas will swear by him, altho he may be literally break- ing in two and straining beyond repair the voices of their children. If one of these papas has a promising colt to be trained, he will select a trainer only after the most careful investigation concerning his record as a caretaker and speed-maker. He will watch the colt's progress daily, and, on the first evidence of incompetence or failure to make speed, promptly change trainers. The same papa will send his only daughter to school for nine years and never once go to the school or interview her teacher. It is this unaccountable indifference and lack of appreciation of the evils and dangers involved, combined with the astounding stupidity of the public in its judgment of music teaching, that has made possible this anomalous condition in public-school music and allows its continu- ance. It must be said, however, that the failure on the part of the public to 6i8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music judge intelligently of music teaching is not wholly due to indifference. The public don't know, and it knows that it don't know. Even the superintendent of schools usually finds himself incompetent to judge of the work in music. The able and experienced superintendent gives invaluable assistance and wholesome criticism to the entire corps of teachers, excepting the supervisor of music. When witnessing the work in music, the superintendent is entitled to look wise, and usually proves his wisdom by consistently neglecting to commit himself further. If he •be a man of courage, and feels sure of his ground, he is also entitled to look pleased, while the supervisor, perchance brilliantly incompetent, goes his way in perfect peace, fully conscious of the unique situation which shields him and his work from destructive criticism. The supervisor of music, whether he be an expert or a novice, must plan and carry on his work unaided either by expert assistance or criticism. It is peculiarly necessary, therefore, that the supervisors of music should be men and women of good scholarship, sound judgment, and thoro professional training. They should be broad enough to see and appreciate all sides of the subject. The too frequent controversies among supervisors, threshing over matters that should have been settled in the training school, is evidence of an inadequate and one-sided train- ing. For example, it is anything but creditable to the leaders in school music to be found either discouraging the teaching of sight reading or arguing against rote singing and song interpretation. Both are essential. One may be able to secure results in sight reading that will astonish and delight most of his patrons, and yet be utterly unfit to supervise school music. He may secure sight reading and still be devoid of musical taste, ignorant and incompetent regarding tone quality, and utterly indifferent concerning the necessity of keeping good music constantly before his school. Such one-sided work is a failure, and is justly condemned by the best class of musicians. Again, it is equally true that school music is emphatically a failure where it does not give the children the power to read music ; where the study of sight reading is neglected and the tech- nical study of music is considered uninteresting and beyond the compre- hension of little children ; where the energy of the supervisor and teachers is concentrated on song interpretation alone. It would be equally sensible to study the English language by means of recitations and declamations learned by rote. True success lies in developing both sides of the subject, and it follows that the supervisor should have, as it were, a twofold education; first, a technical training, providing a practical knowledge of musical notation, the elements of harmony and counterpoint, a fair degree of familiarity with musical literature, and more or less skill as a singer and accompanist; second, a professional training, adding to his academic knowledge skill in methods of teaching. He must study the child voice Department] AN ANOMAL O US SITU A TION 6 1 9 and learn the simple but all-important principles which govern its care and development. He must also be an expert in the classification and treatment of adult voices, a training invaluable in the work of the high school. In addition to all this, he should be a capable and successful conductor of both chorus and orchestra. Is it urged that this will require years of preparation before one may become a supervisor ? So it will, and so it should. The character of the work demands more than ordinary ability and training. The ordinary high-school teacher must take four years in college or university before beginning teaching ; can it be maintained that the general culture and professional training of the supervisor should be on a lower plane ? The whole trend in school affairs is toward increasing and broadening the teacher's equipment. Speed the day when the specialist in school music shall be the peer of his colleagues in ability, scholarship, and special training! Our calling, instead of being lowered and cheapened by free entrance, should be guarded and uplifted by a comprehensive and elevated standard of admission. The proper and only way to gain for the profession its rightful place is to elevate the character and equipment of its membership. A higher standard means better ability, better training and better compensation, with infinitely better service to the community. This paper would be incomplete if it failed to suggest a remedy for the evils pointed out. Several weeks since, the writer prepared and sent to all state superintendents of public instruction four specific questions concerning public-school music, and invited an expression of opinion upon a fifth, based upon a statement of facts concerning the responsibility of the state in the matter of the competency of the supervisor. Thirty- four replies were received. Every one of the thirty-four heartily favor the teaching of music, and in the states where it is not taught exten- sively the superintendents deplore the fact and hope for its general intro- duction. Twenty-seven have some sort of music course in the normal schools ; sixteen requiring it for graduation, eleven making it elective. Four provide regular instruction in the county institutes. In only four states is there any serious attempt made to examine candidates for super- visor. In the remaining thirty, the examination of the supervisor is left to the city superintendents and boards of education, who do not examine. These officials, being unable to pass upon the competency of the appli- cants, choose the supervisor either upon letters of recommendation, general hearsay evidence, or personal preference. Fourteen expressed no opinion on the last question ; four thought the state had no responsibility in the matter, and sixteen believed it the duty of the state to establish and maintain a standard of qualification for the teaching of music in the schools. Two things are evident from these replies : First, the state depart- 620 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music .ments of public instruction are favorably disposed toward music to a sur- prising degree ; second, the competency of the men and women on whom the success of the whole matter depends is virtually left to chance, with practically no protection against incompetency. What can be done to improve the situation ? Whatever is attempted must be done in a careful and conservative manner, with due regard to existing conditions in the particular school system under consideration. In states requiring uniform examinations for all grade teachers the prob- lem is simple. In the state of New York, for instance, simply one change on the part of the state department in its attitude toward vocal music would result in gradually working out a solution of the difficulty. Let music be placed on the same basis as other subjects in the course of study; let it be truly recognized, and not, in effect, ignored. This would require but one addition to the force in the state department. It would necessitate having on the board of examiners one person thoroly quali- fied and experienced in school music. His services would be invalu- able. He could help bring order out of confusion. Take, for example, the matter of music in the normal schools. As long as the selection of the instructor in music is left to providence and the board of trustees, so long will the normal-school training in music be, in the majority of cases, a miserable farce. The marked success and effectiveness of the work in an occasional normal school where there is a competent and successful instructor only proves the folly of the present system. With capable instruction, based upon a well-planned course of study, excellent training in vocal music might be given to a majority of the grade teachers of the state. It is entirely feasible to gradually establish a standard of fitness in music, both for the grade teacher and supervisor, doing great good to the cause of school music, at small expense, and working hardship to no one except the hopelessly incompetent. Neither should there be great difficulty nor serious opposition to the working out of this or some better plan. A few weeks ago the superintendent of public instruction of a great state wrote as follows concerning music in the schools : I am in hearty sympathy with any movement which is to give the subject of vocal music proper consideration in the public-school curriculum. He and all other progressive leaders are only waiting for sufficient light to enable them to act wisely. They do not know, and ought not to be expected to know, the needs of school music. On those who do know, on the progressive supervisors of this country, rests the grave respon- sibility of making plain to these and other powerful friends of music the proper means of lifting this, the greatest of all forms of expression, out of the mire of incompetence toward the domain of art. They have adopted music into the family of studies; now let her guardians see that she be not abused nor neglected ; that somehow there shall be provided Department J PSYCHOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL VALUE OF MUSIC 621 a way of protecting this, the most sensitive of the arts, against crude and* unsatisfactory teaching ; that there shall be built up a profession thoroly qualified and equipped for the great work which it is destined to do. To this end should the efforts of this department be directed. By sinking differences concerning matters of detail, and uniting on the essential truths held by all sane members of the profession, the Depart- ment of Music Education should represent the most progressive thought and spirit of the times, doing its full share toward placing music where it can do its unique and wonderful part in the refinement and unification of this great people ; sowing and nourishing in their hearts a spirit of love and devotion which will help mightily to live, and, if need be, to die, for country, for home, and for the brotherhood of man. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL VALUE OF MUSIC ELIZABETH K. FAIRWEATHER, TEACHER IN NORWOOD HIGH SCHOOL, HAMILTON COUNTY, O. In this age the characteristic attitude of every activity is the scientific. A raison d'etre is demanded at every turn. Education is not exempt, but, lifting itself out of the traditional and haphazard, is seeking' to deduce rules of practice from certain first principles. Here the so-called new education calls on psychology for principles of instruction, and on social science, including ethics, for principles of education ; the one deal- ing with methods, the other dealing with subjects proper to create the well-educated man. To meet this urgent demand for a rational psychology upon which to base a systematized education, there has arisen in the field of philosophy a band of most earnest thinkers, who, going beyond the study of percep- tion, reflection, judgment, will, etc., are studying the evolution of the whole personality — not merely of the intellect. To these men we, as teachers, owe an immense debt. Their work is not yet done, nor our obligation finished, altho they urge upon us not to expect too much, nor to expect any patent process. Today we give attention to one of their findings, and to a few thoughts which grow out of it. They state the end of education as a training, not to get a living, but to live ; as an effort to put the child in complete pos- session of all his powers ; to furnish him with a complete preparation for life as a whole ; to make him a dynamic personality ; to enable him to adjust himself to the civilization in which he finds himself and the uni- verse of which he is a part. As we place our system over against this ideal, how ill-adapted to such high purposes it seems! How has it gotten where it is? In our mad zeal for knowledge we have concentrated all our attention on the 62 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music intellect. Grudgingly we have yielded lately a few minutes a day to the training of the body for health and the hand for skill, but we have had no time or place for the systematic cultivation of that third side of man — the heart, the sentiments, the emotions. May we not here have our finger upon the cause of the widespread disappointment in the results of modern education ? Our smart men are not all good men. We must recognize a philosophy of the heart, which underlies that of the head. The feelings are mighty factors behind will and action. To know is often not enough to move to do, but to feel is to act. It is not only necessary that the emotions be trained, that right aspects of them be inculcated, before which the baser will disappear, but that it be attempted not too late. The emotions show themselves early, and settle into fixed habits, which make or mar one's happiness thru life and that of all who come in contact with one. With the cultivation of the feelings goes that of the imagination, by which one can be led to create a world of his own, to conceive ideals of beauty, virtue, nobility, happiness, by which his life may be dominated, and to enter into the joys and sorrows of his fellow-beings, and even to approach the divine source of all being. Education must foster whatever elements are in man ; it cannot deal solely with the surface, but must take cognizance of the vast and spiritual behind and beyond. This need for awakening and cultivating the feelings which lie at the foundation of all sensation and will, in order that there may be a har- monious development of body, mind, and soul, readily makes itself felt, but it does not suggest how it shall be done. Neither are the voices of our guides, the psychologists, so unanimous. Few think that the study of ethics as a science will give us help, since that should come late in development, and the books so far presented for use in the schools are very inadequate. Some of the leading thinkers hold that all knowledge is saturated with feeling ; that each subject in the curriculum has its feeling side, its moral tone, which should be inculcated with it, and give no special place to moral instruction elsewhere. This necessitates the teacher having the right feeling, and lays a heavy responsibility upon him. All agree that, in the finest sense, the highest things cannot be taught, but must be caught, as it were, by contagion. Spirit grows by contact with spirit. This brings us to the supreme importance of a great per- sonality in the teacher. As a further outgrowth of these two facts — first, that some subjects have more of the ethical element than others, namely, that those into whose creation the most spiritual force has gone can give out the most; and, second, that, being denied the touch of a great living per- sonality, the child can be brought under the spell of those works.which Department] PSYCHOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL VALUE OF MUSIC 623 are the very embodiment of the great souls of the world — we have the great service modern psychology has done in justifying the arts in educa- tion as the expression of every dream and aspiration of the human heart by master spirits. But even among the arts there are degrees of usefulness. Painting and sculpture are limited by their material. It is impossible to bring the child into direct contact with the masterpieces, while copies and casts are unsatisfactory. In poetry there is the limitation of language ; but still, as Shelley says, " Poetry lifts the veil from the hidden beauty of the world." The most available art seems to be music. Thru it we can bring the child into touch with those highest moments in art in which great ideals were realized, in which noble aspirations and senti- ments were successfully embodied, and his experience must be enriched, his life widened and deepened. Often the truest and deepest emotions refuse to be expressed in words. When language fails, music can take up the thread, on the one hand revealing the workings of the spirit within him, thus bringing him a consciousness of his individuality; on the other widening his horizon, revealing to him a world of infinitely beautiful, organic, all-pervading, living order, and making him feel his place in the great harmonious whole, showing his relation to his fellow-men and to his creator. Music is a means of keeping in relation with the deepest realities and of sustaining the soul's purer and higher life. It leads to truth and to beauty. Here is the supreme value of music: to give the child a medium for expressing what he feels. This expression reacts upon his soul, intensi- fying, in turn, the original emotion, leaving him broadened and deep- ened. Then as he studies the great works and finds he is not alone, but one of a great company, experiencing many things in common, and as he finds adequately expressed what he dumbly feels, he is led out from his narrow little first feeling into the fullest sympathy with the noblest and the highest. Music is the outcome of a desire to share with and to convey impressions and enjoyment to others, and is the direct expression of man's innermost feeling. What privilege can be greater than to teach others to find the terras by which they will understand what these great men mean, to teach them to find the key by which they can unlock the secret places of their own hearts and of the universe? That this end is not attained by all music teaching must be admitted. Where the teaching is perfunctory, music can never realize its true mis- sion or reach a dignified place in the course of study. It is not a matter of notation and dynamics, or fine exhibition performances, but a deep realization of what is back of all that — the composer's soul experience, which has driven him to utterance. To this the strong teacher must add 624 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music the skill to make this felt by others. It is necessary that the music teacher add to her regular training a knowledge of the principles of psychology and pedagogy. May I suggest that a good deal of the -failure might be traced to a lack of appreciation of the importance of rhythm, which is the very essence of all music, and which makes it the key to the universe? I mean rhythm in its broadest sense, that divine rhythm which pulsates in all things and by which music is allied to all things. This rhythm manifests itself in the divine order of the universe, in the poise of each man's inner being, in the phenomena of color. Someone has said that all physical life is perfect in proportion to the perfection of its rhythm. In music it is the very basis itself. It is not enough that the teacher feel this and realize its importance, but she must find the way to develop a sense of it in the pupil. This must begin with more training of the ear, which is now so neglected. How much of the ear's work is turned over to the eye ! When one hears a new word in his own language, or in learning a foreign tongue, how frequently he says, '' Oh, if I could just see it written I could remember it"! How many people must write out the word of whose spelling they are doubtful, not daring to trust to the discrimina- tion of the ear! There is room for a great deal more attention to this culture of the ear. The eye is trained in a hundred ways, but it cannot do all the work. As the child is trained to a sense of rhythm and to a genuine appreciation of tone color, he learns to know good music from bad, and why it is one or the other. I should like to make a strong plea that the child be given some understanding of the end aimed at by the teacher. Likewise that he be made to feel in some way the need of the laws which he studies in theory, that he may see how they help him. Here is one of the plainest paths in the way of discipline — to lead the child from obedience to the laws of the teacher back to the Law behind them, and before which both teacher and pupil must bend if there is to be harmony. In music he sees that obedience to established laws brings out beautiful and harmonious effects. He can be led to see that those laws are but parts of the great laws of the world, which require implicit acquiescence on the part of all, that unity and concord may rule in the world. By leading the child to see the end aimed at, his desire to do some- thing is aroused, and he welcomes the means to the end of doing that; thus what would be the drudgery of acquiring technique of expression becomes a joy. As someone has put it, his intention leads him to pay attention, which results in retention. Here you have the psychologica process for the strengthening of memory. While I do not see just how it can be done in large classes, there would be the greatest advantage if the children could be led to attempt little compositions in the sphere of their own experience, under guidance, as well as the usual re-creating of I Department] PSYCHOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL VALUE OF MUSIC 625 Others' thought and feeling by means of the voice, for it is thru expression that the child grows and develops. Denied proper channels, he turns in upon himself and becomes misanthropic, or, breaking out without restraint, he lets his passions run riot. Music furnishes an important outlet, since it helps him to know himself, to understand humanity, and to come into relation with the infinite in an emotional way when he can- not satisfactorily in thought; it relieves tension, implants positive quali- ties, and gives him a soil for right volition ; it tends to a love of refined pleasure. The ancients said one need not worry about man's acts in his working hours, for then he is too busy to go far wrong ; but that one's energies should be concentrated on culture for the leisure hour. In this leisure hour the boy stands upon the street corner today and waits. Finally he moves in the direction of his strongest impulse. Whether he moves toward the ugly, base, and vile or toward the good, the true, and the beautiful depends upon standards of enjoyment established uncon- sciously little by little in his past. It is for us to give him the clue to the better things. On Tuesday, Professor Dewey drew our attention to our loss in neglecting recreation and amusement as moral agents, and to the certainty that if we did not provide healthy and innocent forms of amusement the tendency would be to the low and degraded. Music has an exalted place in this field of refined recreation. As a social agent the value of music can hardly be overestimated. It is a universal, common language, transcending great differences of race, culture, position, and age, and making for unity. Of all arts it is the most social, the one we enjoy best together. In chorus work the individuality of each member can be deepened and his importance emphasized, while at the same time he is taught to work in unison with others for a common end. It is a means of binding him more firmly and more intimately with the social whole. There is one danger in all this — the confounding of sentiment and sentimentality. Nothing could be worse than the latter, which is feeling sought for itself and affected. True feeling is a divine reality, and worthy our gravest consideration. Here we have taken up one avenue of approach — music. Never has music been so much needed in the world as today, when there is so much attention to material progress and mate- rial ends. But the immaterial must stir the material, if we are to be pre- pared to live the rounded, full life. We must have art for the elevation of the spirit. It is as true now as in the days of Plato that — Music is a moral law. It gives a soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight to the imagination, a charm to sadness, gaiety and life to everything. It is the essence of order, and leads to all that is good, just, and beautiful, of which it is the invisible, but nevertheless dazzling, passionate, and eternal, form. 626 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music HIGH-SCHOOL MUSIC MRS. FRANCES ELLIOTT CLARK, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OTTUMWA, lA. Fellow- Teachers of the Tribe of Apollo : We have gathered here, in this beautiful city of lakes, humble wor- shipers at the shrine of Music, to lay our tribute at her feet, and, with willing ears, listen to her counsel and wisdom thru the inspired words of her devotees. While we may look backward with some degree of complacency, there is yet much to be desired before school music takes an equal position with other departments of the profession, or its well-deserved place in the curriculum of every public school, and equal rank on the program of every state and national meeting. This position has not as yet been generally accorded us, and why ? Evidently there is a break in our defenses somewhere, or, more properly speaking, there is some spot in the bulwark of prejudice of our friends the enemy that we have not been able to break down. The one great aim of school music, including and absorbing all others, is the evolution of a nation of singing people, an intelligent, edu- cated, music-loving people, a nation of singers, whose rich and mighty volume of ringing tone shall roll heavenward from every valley and mountain top in paeans of praise for the blessings of our commonwealth. Music has been taught in the grades of most of our city and village schools for many years, and, in the main, well taught. The children read with more or less facility, enjoy and interpret the beautiful songs of the child world, and a foundation has been laid upon which to build a national music at once strong, characteristic, and as rich and free as our own broad prairies and lofty mountains. That this dream is not being realized as rapidly as we could wish is true. There lies a breach some- where between the singing children of every city and town and the notoriously unmusical adult population. There is no dearth of music among the children from the kindergarten to the grammar grade. Why should not our people, as a whole, be as familiar with the names and choral works of Handel, Haydn, Schubert, and Brahms as they are with the poems of Longfellow and Wordsworth ?. Is there any reason why we shall not have in every village and town a considerable per cent, of the people able to sing, with pleasure, the folksongs, patriotic songs, glees, part songs, and choruses of the best composers, both American and foreign? Those same children who were able to sing with clear, sweet tone the little songs of childhood, when grown up are, for the most part, unable to sing respectably in a mixed audience even our national hymn. There is surely a break somewhere, and I believe that the gap is to be DepartmentJ HIGH-SCHOOL MUSIC 627 found in the high school. Music in the high school is and ought to be a question of supreme importance to all persons interested in any way in school music, to all promoters of musical intelligence in any form; for to the high school, more than to any other place, we must look for the establishment of the art of singing the music of the masters and the founding of an abiding love for the best in the musical literature of modern times. The high school is a sort of crucible which chaotic childhood is put into, and from which he emerges, thru the kindly administrations of watchful teachers, the self-helpful, self-reliant youth, with hopes, aspira- tions, and determinations for his career. If not the birthplace, then it is the cradle, of character. The pupils are filled with the desire to do and to be. The future is opportunity, the past a tale that is told. They are filled with energy and enthusiasm, wide- awake, and alert. Historical and mythical references are understood, the touches of tenderness and pathos are felt and interpreted, and they give themselves heart and mind to the swaying, swinging witcheries of the score in a soulful way that is seldom equaled anywhere else or with any other body of singers. Granting, then, that music, for its own wider dissemination and national propagation, needs the high school, does the high school need music ? It has been said that the high school is the poor-man's college, and certain it is that the masses who make any attempt at education look to the high school as the zenith of their ambition. Probably three- fourths of the graduates from the various high schools of the country, not counting the large number that drop out before graduation, never seek higher institutions of learning, and their preparation for life's battles, as far as books are concerned, ends on the night of commencement. The high school should offer, then, those studies that will best fit tlje average boy or girl for his future, not in the way of trades or business necessarily, not fit him to meet some circumscribed college course, but in a way that will render him a useful member of society, and an intelligent, law- abiding citizen. It should give to its young people those things that make for good in the development of character; those things that give a greater fullness of life in any and all conditions; those things that develop the greatest mental activity and sharpen and quicken the whole being, moral, social, and intellectual. Does music answer satisfactorily these demands? When properly taught in a reasonable, broad, and comprehensive way, it most certainly does. There is no subject in the whole course that requires quicker per- ceptive faculties, more comprehensive grasp of many details, or is stronger as a brain developer than music, and none is more influential in reaching the mind and will of the pupil, stirring him to better things. The melodic flow of the voice appeals to his aesthetic nature, and he 628 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music is stirred and thrilled by the lyric beauty of the composer's thought. Then the meaning of the words dawns upon him, and the beauty, the daintiness, or the pathos of the author's pen-picture is revealed by the searchlight of his awakened soul, and he is touched, ennobled, strength- ened, softened, and builded by this glimpse into the realms of the beauti- ful and true. Brain cells that have been built up by coarse and unworthy thoughts, cells tha.t have harbored low motives and ambitions, are torn down to make room for the new that have been called into life and action by the demands of the better, higher, and nobler things which music brings. It is most certainly true that the brain mass is changed by the thoughts that find lodgment there, and so every good and pure thought sent into the brain of impressionable boys or girls means much for their future development and character. The music exercise in the high school should be the brightest spot in the day, a sort of safety-valve where the exuberance of spirit may effer- vesce and dissolve into concords of sweet sounds, vibrant with the joyousness of youth. Does anyone suppose that this taking of the pupil up and out of the ordinary grind of school life lasts but thru the music hour? Every time the mind is thus lifted up above the ordinary routine it is just so much added to the sum of education, which is in truth a leading out of our best powers. Every time the brain is thus quickened, every time the aesthetic nature is stirred, every time the emo- tions are touched, the paths from ignorance and dullness to knowledge and culture are deepened by just so much. The power gained is carried over into every other thing in the school life. Minds are brighter and more appreciative of the beauties of other languages and sciences, the nature is more easily controlled, and the whole school life and the life of the individual is sweetened, broadened, and uplifted by the hallowed benisons of music — God's most- universal and best gift to man. If, then, music in its fullness and entirety means so much to the actual development of the boy or girl, so much in their attitude toward all things that make for good in the building of life's ideals, so much in the general atmosphere of the whole high-school life, we, as supervisors, should approach the subject with a full realization of its magnitude and sacred responsibility. Many have seen their work dwarfed, their efforts handicapped, their results belittled by the place allotted to music in the high-school program. Superintendents and high-school principals, blinded by custom to the real merits of music, thinking it only a frill, a nice but unimportant elective, have in many places relegated it to a secondary position, outside regular school hours, making it impossible for any but those especially musical to take advantage of its culture. Think for a moment of what progress would be made in English or Department] HIGH-SCHOOL MUSIC 629 mathematics if under such auspices! How can school people expect music to give an account of itself, as a branch of education, if continually shelved in this way, pushed aside for everything else, allowed only the odds and ends of hours and places ? These, however, are minor and unimportant grievances compared to the one great injustice done music in so many high schools where the credit system is followed for graduation. If music is to be an integral part of a high-school course, taking its place beside other branches as an intellectual force in mental development, why, in the name of reason and justice, should it not have an accredited place in the scale? Why should not this premium be placed on the beneficial results of music as well as algebra, and why should the pupils be asked to give their time to music, for love of it, without credit, any more than to English? Is it not a thousand wonders that music has not failed more completely under such conditions, and is it not proof conclusive of its powers that so many high- school pupils have been willing, for pure love and devotion to music, to give their energy and effort to it without any additional credit counting toward graduation ? How long would geometry, geography, or German continue to be elected under like mismanagement? Until music shall have its proper and legitimate place in the scale of credits of every high school, our work as missionaries of the forward movement will not have been accomplished. Granting, now, that music has gained her rightful place, there arises the momentous question, does high-school music, as at present generally taught, measure up to the requirements of such an accredited place ? Are we presenting it in such a way as to be worth such a place? Of what ought it to consist? How much should be done? Toward what should we aim? These points must be settled. To be consistent with our demands, to be true to our high purpose, the what ought certainly to be something more than the dry routine of do-re-mi. The high school is not the primary school, and is not the place for the alphabet in music any more than in English. The amount and kind of reading and theoretical work must depend upon what has been accomplished in the grades below. Music is a language, and must follow the same laws as to the order, method, and time of presentation. In the early years of school life, chil- dren are taught the mechanical processes of reading, the ear-training and spoken vocabulary first, the eye-training and written vocabulary second. The first four years the eye-training necessary to recognize words on the printed page with quickness and accuracy constitutes the principal part of his teaching. As a well-known institute instructor puts it, "The child in the first three or four years of school learns to read ; in the next four, and for the rest of his life, he reads to learn." The child who has not learned to read at fourteen will plainly be unable to study anything else. 630 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music or get anything from the printed page ; will have great difficulty in learn- ing at all, and probably never be a good reader. Music is taken up later in the child life than is language. At five years the average child possesses a vocabulary of perhaps five hundred words by ear and voice, and is ready to begin the eye work. In music our five-year-old is at the bottom of the ladder, possessing a few musical tones and some small ability of repeating tones heard. He is in music exactly where he was at three or four in language. The analogy is plain. The first year must be spent in completing the ear-training, in getting the vocal vocabulary in preparation for written work. Having made such preparation thoroly and well, in the next four or five years is the time to teach, once for all, the process and practice of reading music at sight. At that age the ear, perceptive faculties, and memory are actively alert, and it is the time of all others to master forever the technicalities of note reading, the words of the language of music. Then in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades the child begins the life plan of reading to learn. When he enters the high school, then, we ought reasonably to expect him to be able to read accurately, at sight, simple and compara- tively difficult music, to know the minor scales, to be at home with chro- matics, to be able to sing with well-placed and modulated tone, true to key, his part in the songs, themes, and solfeggios. He should know some- thing of the life and work of, and three or four selections from, two to five of the masters, and have a repertoire of perhaps fifty good songs, by good composers, with words that rank as literature. With such a foundation, high-school music may be made to cover eixactly the same ground as the course in English. There, having begun the classics in the grades, the course consists of a thoro study of the masterpieces of literature, the gems of thought of Emerson, Tennyson, Milton, Browning, and the immortal Shakespeare, reading, analyzing, comparing to get the thought, style, breadth, and depth of the greatest minds of all ages. So the music in the high school ought to consist of a thoro and com- prehensive study of the best productions of the best composers from Handel down to the birthday of the twentieth century. The technique of sight reading being mastered in the grades, where it ought to be, there is no reason why we should be confined to easy songs and jingles that require no effort and brin^ no material advancement. There is no excuse for the awful waste of time and ability in many high schools in singing over and over trashy weaklings of song of the gospel-hymns order, songs written by certain would-be composers that jingle and jump and jiggle along with dotted eighth and sixteenth notes, and a bit of bobbing, dis- jointed rhythm in the chorus for bait. The market is flooded with scores of such miserable scarecrows masquerading in the form ^nd name of music ; songs that have not a vestige of real harmony, no depth of mean- Department] HIGH-SCHOOL MUSIC 63 1 ing; songs that caricature pure sentiment with their maudlin sentimen- tality, and debase and degrade the sacred name of music. Such songs have no more right in the course of music in the high school than would the dialect poetry and prose or the ten-cent novel have in the English course. We do violence to our better selves, and incal- culable harm to the cause, when we cater to so-called popular demand and admit even one to our list. The world is so full of good things that it is folly to waste the time of the school and our own when we might gather the rich harvest from the fields of modern real music and revel in the volumes of the great tone poets. Objection may be raised here that the music of the masters is too difficult and involved for the high-school pupils, and demands too much from young and immature voices. Per- haps it does, some of it, but the great bulk of the standard choral litera- ture, if properly arranged, may be used in an ordinary high school with pleasure and profit. The same objection might be raised to the study of Shakespeare, but no one dreams of eliminating his matchless plays from the course of study. We may not be able to extract all the beauties of a grand chorus, nor appreciate it fully, perhaps, possibly we may not have sufficient volume of tone to give it like a company of grand-opera singers, but it is our business to educate, not to furnish entertainment. We are forming the taste for only the best in music. The real value of these great things lies in the study of them, the intimate acquaintance with and knowledge of the great hearts that made them, much more than in the finished production. How much of this great mass of material can we study, how much can we hope to accomplish, in the four years' school life of each graduate pupil ? Under certain unfavorable conditions, very little ; with fairly good circumstances, a great deal. With little or no classification, with small, straggling classes, or one great heterogeneous mass, or with poor hours, or with an indefinite program, little can be expected. If we begin with the ninth grade in miscellaneous chorus work, and continue thru the twelfth grade with the same miscellaneous chorus work, we evidently are not aiming at anything, are not going in any especial direction, and cannot expect to accomplish anything. On the' contrary, if we can have the grades by themselves, in separate divisions, some progressive plan is made possible, and a course of study may be followed that leads to something. After the heavy demands in reading and theoretical work of the eighth grade (and there because the children are best prepared to do it there), and in view of the large number of changing voices, it seems best that there should be a decided change in the ninth grade, a rest from the sol- feggio and drills, a year of song gradually leaving the do-re-mi for strictly sight work. Here is a place in the course where the folksongs and national songs of all lands can best be studied, because of their small 632 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music demands on the voices and the ability of the pupils to look up the his- torical references, which serve as a preparation for the work in history, and also for their singableness, which is important at the crisis of bridg- ing over the gap between the eighth grade and the high school. Supple- ment this with a dozen light, easy choruses, and the way is paved for fur- ther advancement. In the tenth grade the voices are not yet mature enough for the heav- ier work. If we can have it alone, valuable work may be done in stirring choruses of medium difficulty, containing much part-work in canon form and with broken rhythm among the parts, and difficult chromatics. Here, too, is a place where musical history can be taught to advantage. High-school pupils should know as much of the growth of music as that of Greece and Rome. If this can be accomplished, then a solid preparation is made for the advanced work of the eleventh and twelfth grades. Here the door is wide open for using and enjoying practically the entire choral literature of the world. Eleventh and twelfth grade boys and girls are quite mature; they have already had so much really good music that their taste is critical. They have their voices under control, and are far enough advanced in other lines to appreciate the lights and shades of meaning of words and music, and they give themselves up to it so completely as to cheer your heart with the glow and glamor of their enthusiasm. These young people go out into the society of the town carrying with them, ringing in their ears, these great choruses. In a few years the alumni forms a leaven to lighten the whole lump. What are the personal needs today of supervisors, to enable them as well as their work to stand side by side and rank with other educators of the school system ? If school music has not reached the plane we wish, we, as supervisors, have not been guiltless. Our sins of omission and commission have been many and serious. We have been content to enter upon our work with meager preparation, and to continue therein without growth. It seemed all-sufficient if we could sing or play respectably, and not necessary to trouble about a general culture, a broad, well-balanced education to fit one for a fuller life. The teacher of school music needs a wider knowledge of mankind ; needs to be awake to current events \ needs more than a bowing acquaintance with the literature of the past and present; must have, with Ophelia, wept; with Jack Falstaff, laughed; must have dreamed with Jeanne D'Arc, and dared with Jeanne Deans. It is not enough to know music alone ; we must be able to meet on their own ground, intelligently at least, our co-workers in other lines. The high-school teachers are the best-educated and cultured people with whom we come in contact. Their friendship and companionship are of inestimable value to us. " Mind sharpeneth mind as steel sharpeneth steel," and the full-fed DepartmentJ THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL MUSIC 633 brain of these college-trained high-school teachers may be to us a well- spring of information and instruction. Their meetings for self-help should be our meetings as well. We need pedagogy, psychology, Herbart as well as they. If any of them desire to study German or French, we need it too. We need to identify ourselves closely with the life of the high school in all its phases, not only as a matter of policy, but of self- improvement. It is not criminal if circumstances compelled us to begin our work with insufficient preparation, but it becomes so if we continue to draw our salaries from year to year without strenuous effort toward progress that leads to power. We cannot draw sustenance for long from the same foun- tain we ourselves are feeding; the pool becomes stagnant, and decay is the result. We all long for power. Power in a teacher comes only by growth. Learning more of music and all kindred subjects, doing the old things better each year, is progress that promises power. Power is spelled with personality, opportunity, work, enthusiasm, and righteousness. The initial personality counts for much in one's success. The years of experi- ence are a rosary of gleaming pearls of opportunity. They may mean a cross of sacrifice and toil, but if improved for actual growth must bring the crown of reward. The whole turns on the pivotal center-work. There is the key; just work; work with all our soul and strength; then set it on fire with enthusiasm, and expect the blessing of God, which will come if we try to do our best in his name and for the bettering of humanity. THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL MUS/C THOMAS TAPPER, TEACHER OF MUSIC, BOSTON, MASS. There are said to be about fifteen millions of children in the United States who sing every day in school. It costs annually millions of dol- lars to train this monster chorus. The training of this chorus, the character of the music it sings, the character it sings into the music, the music it sings back into the character, the knowledge gained in it by every individual, the spiritual strength awakened by it in every individual — these are a few of the forces the responsibility for which rests with the people in this room. The size of this responsibility, when compared with the size of this audience, establishes a proportion that may seem amusing, yet none the less is it clear and unmistakable in what it suggests. Even a brief moment of clear visibn shows us that what men think and put into books ; what men think and put into the act of teaching; what men think and manifest in attitude; what men think and express as the fruit of the faith that is in them, be it force or weakness, positive purpose or makeshift lack of purpose — on the character and potency of 634 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music these thoughts the little children of the great chorus are being fed, and the food is nourishing them after its kind. And the kind of food is no secret. What we know, what we think, what we manifest as we teach a child to sing, all these he sings back to us, telling justly what he receives. The children are telling in the very tones of their songs how we conceive them, how we provide for them, after what manner of heart we look upon them. In their singing they are telling the simple truth that as a man conceives himself so he con- ceives others; as he conceives the value of his work to himself, that very value and no more goes out with it when he teaches others. We learn this slowly. We believe this unwillingly. It dawns upon us late that the story of the creation, in Genesis, is a man's personal history in his every action. Let us not forget that, having created, the creation looks up to us, as a child to its mother, to smile in the joy of its perfections or to cry in the pain of its imperfection. Thus a child's voice and a child's love for music you create, and at the, close of the sixth day they look up to you and you see in them — yourself. As a profession we are given to the discussion of sight-reading; yet of all the ready readers of symbols where is there a readier or more accurate reader than a child of a man's actions and intentions? That is a matter of "sight-reading" that is worthy of discussion at an annual meeting. They know — this great chorus of fifteen millions of children — whether it is your intention that out of death shall come life ; out of darkness shall come light ; out of oppression shall come freedom. They know whether or not it is true that in that day even the children of Abraham shall teach the brotherhood of man. A man teaching a child is in a great presence. There may be dirt on it. That is explained in this: that God had to send the child over a hard path to bring it and the man together. We must take no risks, we must conceive the child loftily. And equally loftily let him conceive his music. Out of it is the strand woven by which he shall show the child how to fasten himself to the realities of life; these realities making for the brotherhood of man in the name even of the children of Abraham. With school music you are not dealing with a part of education, you are dealing with the very soul and life of it; with school music you are not filling in a little here and a little there, you are supplying the spirit of it all; with school music you are not merely a toleration in the school faculty, you are its inspiration; with school music the curriculum is not only made complete, but all is quickened. The youth sent out into life with some years of school music mingled with the rest is not merely polished a little brighter in one spot, he is alive farther in. There is more of him. All the rest has come to its true value with the music that is present. Without the music there is not that mingling of harmony Department] THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL MUSIC 635 which comes when the sounding-board gathers up the message of the strings and throws it off like a tonal rainbow ; something beautiful in itself, but even more so as an earnest of the reality of that from which it springs. Is this placing music too high ? Is this overstating the case ? Any man who thinks less of his music than I have hinted at should know it better. This does not overstate the force and place of music; it merely suggests some of its possibilities. Music's power, it seems to me, lies in its deep stimulation of the individuality. It reveals a man to himself no less truly than it reveals one man to another. We seem to know Mozart and Schubert more inti- mately than we know Rembrandt and Turner. With all men the former touch more that is deeply responsive. Man works with his hands, forming a rude symbolism in which he tries to tell of the real world within him. And music is the symbolism most commonly understood. To some it conveys knowledge; to others comfort; to others wonder; but it moves them all. We do not compre- hend its force as an individual factor in education. Every member of the great chorus of fifteen millions can be lifted into higher, into more vibrant life if we keep our wits about us and never forget the great factors in the case: The wonderful power of music; the wonderful power of individuality; the wonderful opportunity one has who teaches. Thru my conviction that we do not yet begin to realize the force and value of music in the public schools I am compelled to ask if what is being done for music thruout our country is a fair tribute to its deserts. Are we paying in full ihe debt of responsibility we owe to the great chorus of fifteen millions ? Or may we bring them yet a little more intimately into relation with the life of rare moments which, as one grows older and becomes more immersed in the affairs of bread and butter, grows less and less brilliant, and by and by threatens to pass like the fading of twilight? Comparatively few studies in the school curriculum are not taught with a fair degree of uniformity in all communities. Of comparatively few studies is it true that each year's work is not a definite quantity. It is usually stated by lecturers on education that the subjects now forming the curriculum have entered one by one in the order of their utility. A thoughtful man might question the utility of the curriculum as it is, but he cannot question the fact that it is possible to estimate with a fair degree of accuracy how much reading, penmanship, and mathematics an average boy of fifteen will have, practically irrespective of the community from which he comes. This fact is a business asset of value to authors, teachers, superintendents, and boards of education. But this statement has not always been a fact. Once upon a time the unevenness in third- grade arithmetic, for example, over a large geographical area was greater 636 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music than it is now. The difference lessened more and more as men interested themselves in the subject, discussed it, made known their experiments and results, and related with what success they worked according to a definite schedule; changed the schedule and worked again, and again, and still again, always simplifying and naturally always progressing. Thus everything in our personal history moves or has moved thru various stages, passing up from the period of just getting along to the period of getting the best there is. This scheme of transition is particularly true in education. Once arithmetic was taught very unevenly, because the exigency of the situation demanded action first, discussion afterward. After a while, when things began to move somewhat smoothly, men began to take a day off now and then to study their surroundings and to observe the work of others. This process produces skilled thought, which is the better name for skilled labor. Many musicians who have been in schools little or not at all have spoken forcibly of the inutility of school music, charging that it produces neither singers nor sight-readers ; that it does not increase the musical status of the community ; does not help the choir nor the choral society — all of which is accepted as true by another man of the same opinion, but by no one else. Any man who will go into schools of all kinds, in all parts of this country, and ask to hear the music lesson, will get a knowledge of some facts, if he keeps out on the road long enough. He will learn that the country is extensive and the conditions vary enormously ; that in many communities there are skilled professional men whose teaching is remark- able; that in countless other communities children are crying out for help, like sick men in a mining camp, and are being assisted, with wonder- ful results, in some cases by skilled people who have come away from large cities, in other cases by a class who are either possessed by a spirit of good luck in their treatments, or else are natural healers ; he will learn that the children in remote corners of the United States often sing in a manner to surprise and delight, and that every day is a busy day in school. He will deduce no little from what he sees. Some of his deductions might run as follows : There is unevenness in music teaching ; the best teaching is not always done in large cities ; the supervisor usually wastes himself by doing work that should fall to a subordinate ; the grade teacher who is not learning the music work is to be set down as an opportunity wasted by the supervisor; nothing in all the field varies so much as the equipment of the supervisors themselves. I once observed a good man led into exceeding embarrassment by his own generous impulse. He arose to address a meeting of music super- visors. He was a distinguished man, accustomed to speak before audi- ences of specialists. His first words were his Napoleonic Waterloo. They I Department] THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL MUSIC 637 were these : " Whence comes the music supervisor as a scientifically trained educator?" The question sounds innocent enough, but, like many nervous, insistent men, he threw such energy into it that most of the audience stiffened perceptibly and assumed the defensive. That puzzled the speaker. A few, however, smiled ; that seemed to comfort him. These, he evidently concluded, are with me. They were, but only in the interest of amusement. At the end there was a period of twenty minutes for discussion. In that time the innocent but well-meaning gentleman learned whence the music supervisors come. He learned that some supervisors are well trained, there having been an opportunity at hand ; that some are untrained, no adequate opportunity having been at hand ; that a demand often forces a man into the work before he has thought of preparation ; that when fifteen millions of children arise to sing, there are places all along the line where any "natural healer" may fall to and help. The row of boys and girls is long, and extends from the heart of the cultured city to the remoter confines of civilization. A man addressing a gathering of physicians can readily infer what intellectual experience is common to the various individuals in his audi- ence. Whether they come from London, Vienna, or New York, they have been familiarized with much that is the same. They have enjoyed a fairly uniform training. A man addressing a gathering of music supervisors is less positive of the educational course pursued by each individual before him. This will lead him to inquire what training they receive, and where they secure it. He will be surprised to learn that many, instead of going to schools specially designed to give such training, find themselves immersed in the work ere they have investigated it in detail. They are compelled to learn it as they go on. When the investigator returns to the question of special training schools for music supervisors what does he find ? You all know what he finds. He finds that : (i) There are but few schools in the country devoted to supervision ; (2) geographically, they are so unevenly distributed that they may not deal fairly with the just and the unjust; (3) there is no commonly accepted standard on which these few schools base their courses of study, hence there is nothing for the student to pursue that is definite. These conditions demand remedies: (i) That the principles of train- ing schools for music supervisors meet the representative supervisors and agree upon a course of study; (2) that this course of study should be carried out in all schools uniformly; (3) that the growing importance of school music as a special professional career should be made evident to young men and young women of ability, in the expectation that they will pursue it ; (4) that the number of training schools should be increased. The subject of school music has reached that point in the history of its development where these changes are demanded. It presents itself 638 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music very forcibly to me that, as we are responsible to every member of the great chorus of fifteen millions, it falls to us to engage ourselves actively in this reform. Some delightful results will follow: 1. Supervision will extend to places that do not now enjoy it. 2. Supervision as a whole will become more even, and better music work will be done in the normal schools. 3. The young man and young woman who desire to specialize school music will pass from adequate normal-school training to adequate special training. 4. The grade teacher will come from the normal school better equipped for the daily music lesson. 5. The supervisor will have a chance to draw his salary for doing his own work, instead of throwing himself away in little tasks. This sets him where he belongs. Here and there, as you know, the belief obtains that the moment the grade teacher can conduct the daily music lesson well the supervisor must go (he ought to go, if that is the kind of supervisor he is); otherwise he will remain and attend to the higher qualities of his profession, bringing forth a result in school music that the world now knows not of. I have always maintained that an excellent music supervisor, at a gen- erous salary, is the best investment a community can make. No mayor, alderman, or overseer of the poor can compare with him. The intel- lectual and spiritual contribution which it lies in his power to make to his community are beyond the terms of my stating. He ministers to everyone about him thru a beautiful art. Certainly one who does that is not lightly to be thought of. You recall the office of town musician in the old German principalities. His modern prototype is not the leader of the village brass band. It is the music supervisor. He is an amusing anomaly. Ordinarily the community that hires him does not suspect his value, and he usually does not show that he realizes the musical possibili- ties of the community that has invested in him. I wish he would pre-empt the post and do all it suggests, continuing outside of school the work he does in it. Do not say the town could not afford to pay him. After he has shown the community to itself he may dictate his own terms of surrender. When we actually look to see the course of the country that is becoming musical we are astonished. It is the change in the general mass. The well-known composers, whose names you know as well as I, are not doing as much, after all, to change the mass as that man is whose daily labor is to be a good guide, a sympathetic friend, a careful teacher, a lover of music and of children. He is the man who, every day, leads his section of the great chorus of fifteen millions and inspires it every time. His office is that of the music supervisor. This, the Department of Music Education of the National Educational Association, has met for a number of years. It is likely to continue to do so. Have you ever noticed that the annual report, tho it weighs several pounds, contains little or no mention of music in its general sessions ? I I Department] THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL MUSIC 639 It is deemed sufficient to grace any of its proceedings with a solo (at times on the cornet). How many of you have ever been invited to appear before the general sessions and contribute your quota to the sum total of human knowledge they are piling up in the annual report ? Very few have had that honor. But, instead, you are set here apart and advised to love one another. You cannot make any very extensive application of that behest in an audience of this size. This, I think, is largely your own fault. If the opportunity comes for you to go over the way and give information about music to the elect, be wide-awake and have something ready to give, something that will make college presidents, state superintendents, boards of education, and the like sit up straight and wonder why they had hitherto overlooked you. I would suggest that the president of this department, with your approval, appoint a committee to determine some facts of prime import- ance: 1. What course of study and acquirement would constitute an adequate knowledge of music for the grade teacher ? 2. What course of study in general education should a student pursue who aims to become a music supervisor ? 3. What course should he follow in music ? 4. How may schools, public or private, be established in every state where such study may be provided to young men and women ? One might continue these questions to an indefinite number; but in these four there is ample trouble for one administration. If these ques- tions, or a few of them, could be conscientiously investigated by a small committee, willing to work hard and to pay its own postage, I feel sure it would bring back to this meeting next year a report you would listen to with joy and admiration. This work of investigation and formulation should be carried on every year. Then the Department of Music Educa- tion would push itself onward ; it would in time be the means of estab- lishing school music well and aright; of permitting it to show its value more fully; of bringing things about in such way that grade-teachers' work and the supervisor's work would each fall into place, one supple- menting the other ; then the music supervisor could draw his salary for doing his own work, instead of for doing a grade-teacher's work. These questions I have offered you for consideration are, as you know even better than I, but the very beginning of the matter. In like manner this department could investigate systematically and report on the extent of kindergarten, primary, grammar, high, and normal school music. This department could, to its great advantage, institute an inquiry into the music of every state, what towns have it and what have not. The accomplishments in school-chorus performance should be closely watched. Every significant achievement should be reported here. You would then come to these annual meetings and get something directly contributing to your own work. Carrying on this inquiry for a time, we 640 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music would soon have information worth one hundred cents on the dollar to superintendents, boards of education, and the general sessions of the National Educational Association. Do this and the great chorus of fifteen millions will move us when it sings. But let us not forget this: Lord Macaulay has pointed out that the annals of history record many battles won by armies commanded by the incompetent general. But in the annals of history there is no record of a single battle having been won by an army commanded by a debating society. The investigation suggested here deserves debate, but that alone will avail nothing without long-continued and enthusiastic labor. MUSICAL QUALIFICATIONS NECESSARY FOR A TEACHER OF MUSIC IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS FRANK L. NAGEL, DIRECTOR PIANO DEPARTMENT OF HIGHLAND PARK COLLEGE, DES MOINES, lA. This subject will be considered from the conditions as they are at present. I say at present, for the reason that these are but the pioneer days of this all important branch of musical culture in this country. In this pioneer work we are confronted by situations and circumstances that have to be taken into consideration, and that play no small part in the is-ness of things. Music in the public schools is a new thread in the warp and woof of our educational life, and the hands so long confined to the handling of cotton and wool homespun may be found clumsy when this bright gold thread is suddenly thrust into the loom, with the order : "This must be woven into your cloth and appear in your finished goods smooth and harmonious." The average teacher is certainly confronted with a problem. We will therefore first consider our topic from the present status of things. We will say how little a teacher should know about vocal music in order to efficiently assist in this pioneering. We will take it for granted that the supervisor is fully equipped for his or her work. The teachers in the primary grades should be able to read the simple exercises that are used for beginners, and beginners should be the pri- maries. It is of great importance that the musical education should begin with the tenderest years, for it is easy to impress the soft, pure tab- let of thought during the first years of school life with the fundamentals of music as well as the three R's. This sight-reading necessarily implies a knowledge of time and rhythm. It is in these primary grades that genu- ine, solid work must be done, for it is here the foundation is laid upon which the advancing grades are to build. Unless there is to be a mush- roomy, flimsy structure, that will not bear close inspection, we all know there must be conscientious work done by the teacher in this foundation I Department] QUALIFICA TIONS NECESSAR Y FOR TEACHER OF MUSIC 64 1 laying. It is the part of the work affording the least opportunity to "show off" your pupils, even as the slow process of digging and putting in the foundation of a building is the least observed both before and after the building is erected. But it is our duty as exponents of our much -abused art to raise our voices against this lack of proper foundation work. Sight-reading is one of our great needs, and it is this very need that has brought about the increased facilities for music in the public schools. The primary teacher no longer teaches the child to say, " This -is- a- cat," "That-is-a-rat," and calls it reading. Neither must the child be taught the simplest exercises or songs as a parrot would be taught them. The primary teacher must, therefore, have sufficient knowledge of musical expression to avoid this danger, for, as important a part of this question as sight-reading is, it is not the whole thing. The spirit of the thing must not be buried in the letter. The first expression of music was rhythm, and this is an important point with the primary grades. While the supervisor selects the songs and exercises, the teacher must have a thoro knowledge of rhythm and time. These primary teachers must have some knowledge of tone produc- tion and what this signifies. The young voice must be handled gently and wisely; otherwise we shall have in a few years' time a lot of crippled, misshapen voices that will be nothing short of criminal. To illustrate : What could be more offensive than the monstrous nuisance of the so called "methods " used by some so-called "vocal instructors," who have turned loose upon the listening public a horde of singers with quiv- ering, vibrato methods of producing tone that reminds one of so many frightened billy goats. Give me a cultivated voice, but let the billy goat stay in the back pasture where he belongs. The teacher should be able to sing a pure, clear tone, and if unable to da so should keep still, for the child thought is too receptive to have any bad pictures held before it. Indeed, the grade teacher should do no singing beyond what is absolutely necessary. If unable to sing a pure tone, the teacher should know how it can be done. Young children need a curbing hand when it comes to singing, for they are naturally disposed to shout, and the voice must be intelligently guarded and guided during the first grades. The real teacher is one who seeks for what is within the child, finds it, and then nourishes and develops the child's native capacities. The old way of simply pouring and cramming the same thing into every pupil is no more teaching than darkness is light. As the grades ascend, the grade teacher must naturally know more about the science of music. The higher grade teachers should be able to build an exercise as a suitable study for that special grade, tho I do not advocate the extensive use of home-made exercises. You will see at a glance that this means a good deal to us now, but in the lapse of a few years it will be considered 642 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Music a matter of course. There is so much that enters into the fabric of music, when you set out to furnish a whole garment, that each teacher should set before himself a high standard and never stop until it is attained. You cannot jump up to this elevation in a course of "six week's summer schooling," but you can begin, and climb one step at a time, always working in the light of thoro understanding of what you leave behind as you advance. The higher grade teachers must have an intimate personal acquaintance with musical history, musical biography, and musical lore in general ; and the teacher who has never looked into the vast store- house of music will find many brilliant gems to set into his coronet of knowledge. It is the refining influence necessary to education and cul- ture, and twenty years from now all these efforts to raise the standard of music, to bring this sweet breath of harmony into darkened and sodden homes, will be rewarded. The higher grade teachers need not sing unless there is the ability to present a pure, clear tone. There will always be some pupil or pupils who will be able to "lead," and with the thoro work done in the primary grades the pupils will be able to read. These are the necessary qualifications for the teachers of our public schools, as we noiv stand, and no teacher need feel the least alarm about,undertaking the task set before him, for it is not difificult of attainment; it simply requires a systematic, conscientious effort on the part of any man or woman who has chosen the vocation of teacher. Good teachers in any line work for results, and not merely for the reward. In a few years' time this country, as a nation, will feel the beneficent influence of this most important work of putting music into the lives of every school boy and girl in the land. In each grade the work should be thoroly done, and this does not mean that a few or many songs should be well sung, by any manner of means. No more is a pupil a thoro mathematician who can swiftly and accurately work a certain set of problems than one is a thoro musician who can sing a certain number of songs in the most acceptable manner, if these songs are not merely the structure that rests on a solid foundation. And when in due time we look upon the beautiful results of some years of work and see a symmetrical structure fitly framed and put together with classic columns and gilded dome, let us not forget to give thanks for the unseen and humble work of the foundation layer — the primary teacher. There should be an all-around effort made to equip the country teacher with a good knowledge of this entire subject, for here is the greatest need. The children are cut off from much contact with any sound of music, except the hymns as they hear them in the country churches, or the "fiddle" as they hear it at some country dance ; and it is here we find Egyptian darkness so far as music is concerned. I once came in personal contact with an illustration of the difference between the musical development among the lower classes of our own country and that of foreign nations. One summer, while camping in the Department] QUALIFICA TIONS NECESSAR V FOR TEACHER OF MUSIC 643 mountain fastnesses of Utah, where a small fertile valley was almost shut in from the outside world, save for a few stray peddlers who occasionally found their way into this by-path of civilization, I would hear in the twi- light times the distant tones of a trombone, played in an unusual manner. Little snatches of opera, symphony, or sonata would occasionally be wafted to our camp in the most tantalizing fashion. When we found that trombone it was in the hands of a man who was earning $40 a month as watchman at a tunnel that made its way thru the Wasatch range. He was a Swiss shepherd, who with his little family had made his way from the vicinity of Neuchatel, Switzerland, to central Utah. He could not read and write in his own language, but in the universal language of music that day laborer was perfectly at home ; and a German, an American, and a Scotchman sat down and listened to this Swiss shepherd play "The Evening Star " as an artist would play it. It is a universal language, for we all heard the same thing, and/ J Com'l law ' English . . Civil gov ern - ment and ele- mentary eco- nomics 3 Correspond'ce . 2 Commercial En- glish 3 Comme rciaj English 3 History of com- merce 2 Penmanship and spelling 3 Bookkeeping and intercommunica- tion business practice 10 Penmanship and spelling 3 Office practice. . 5 Spanish 4 Physical geog. . . .3 P>ench 4 Algebra 4 English history . . 4 Physiology 4 Spanish 4 Botany 3 French 4 History: Greece and Rome 4 Plane geometry. .4 German 4 French 4 German 4 European history. 4 Physics 4 Shorthand 5 Solid geometry. . .4 German 3 U. S. History 3 Geology 4 Chemistry 4 Shorthand 5 Drawing i Music I Debating i Drawing i Music I Debating i Drawing i Music I Penmanship and rapid calculation.! Typewriting 5 Pari iamentary practice i Drawing i Music I Penmanship and rapid cal c ul a - tion I In preparing a commercial course for a high school, it must be remem- bered that the training to be derived from it is to give the pupil a special fitness for entrance into business life, but that, unlike the private business school, the public high school must do foundational work. Two extremes must be avoided. The technical commercial subjects must not be so much diluted that the pupil shall enter the business world with no appre- ciable advantage over his schoolmate who took the scientific or classical courses and then began to work in a business office. . On the other hand, the course must not be narrowed to the limits of that given in the average private business school. The graduate from the commercial department of a high school ought 688 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business lo be able to compete favorably with the graduate of a good commercial school for a business position. It is on this theory that the accompanying outline was prepared. The subjects are divided into two general groups, required and elective. The former includes the usual commercial branches, excepting shorthand and typewriting. The elective group includes subjects so arranged as to make it possible for a pupil to carry, parallel with his strictly commercial studies, a course in history, language, mathematics, or science, together with some subjects of a general character. The outline is based on a week of twenty-five possible recitation periods. The minimum requirement is fifteen periods of prepared work and five periods of unprepared work. No home work is to be allowed in bookkeeping. Elections are to follow a definite plan thruout the course. Two periods of unprepared work should be accepted as equiva- lent to one period of prepared work. Because spelling and penmanship are not taught satisfactorily in the grammar schools, considerable attention is given to these subjects in the foregoing outline. Both of these subjects ought to be completed in the grammar schools, but they are not, and must therefore be taught thoroly in the high school. English is required in every year, because of the fundamental character of its relation to the other subjects of a properly arranged commercial course. The first two years of this subject are not to differ from the regular English teaching in the high school, but the last two years should be differentiated from the English of the college preparatory classes, more attention being given to composition and the mechanical features of writing. Much dictation involving business terms — not necessarily correspondence — should be given to the class, with careful correction of the transcripts, the essential purpose being to teach the pupil to prepare a perfect transcript and to set forth his own thought effectively. The arrangement of bookkeeping, shorthand, typewriting, and ofiice work is intended to hold pupils thru the four years of high-school work. Intensive work in bookkeeping is highly desirable. The work in bookkeeping and business practice is therefore concentrated into one year. Two consecutive periods daily are allowed in order to save the loss of time and energy in getting out, arranging, and putting away the necessary books and papers, and in getting hold of the work in hand. Pupils should be taught how to journalize, post, take a trial balance, classify accounts, make a simple form of balance sheet, and close a set of books before they are required to perform any work in business practice, so called. , With such a foundation, some one of the several systems of business practice requiring dealings with imaginary persons should be used, but only long enough to familiarize the pupil with common busi- ness forms. This training can be followed in the last term by no more Department] A PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL COURSE 689 inspiring work than intercommunication business practice, in which the pupils of several schools should deal with one another, actually carrying on their transactions thru the United States mail. The pupil at the close of the second year in the high school should be able to keep any ordinary set of books. Shorthand and typewriting are made elective because they are subjects not indispensable to a good business education, and furthermore because they are worth practically nothing unless mastered ; and some pupils cannot master them. In the third year a sound foundation in the principles of shorthand should be laid, with but little dictation. In the fourth year, accompanying a continual review of principles, the pupil should get dictation until he can write readable shorthand at from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five words a minute. Typewriting should be taught by the all-finger method, or '* touch system." No pupil should be allowed to do general work for anybody during the first half-year. The class should receive a great deal of dicta- tion at the machine. They should be given plenty of work requiring the use of the hektograph, the mimeograph, and the neostyle, and every pupil should become proficient in making carbon duplicates, in taking perfect impressions in the letter-book, in the use of the tabulator, and the various methods of indexing and filing, including card work. It is a mistake to put shorthand in the earlier part of the course on the theory that the pupil can make shorthand a useful substitute for longhand in taking notes in class. It should be studied, as a rule, only by those who expect to use it in a business way after the close of school. Both shorthand and typewriting should be so placed in the course, and should be given time enough, that the pupil who takes those subjects may derive from them practical as well as disciplinary value, and be, when school closes, at his very best in writing and transcribing shorthand. One of the important objects to be kept in mind in arranging a com- mercial course in the high school should be to persuade young people to remain thruout a four-year course. In many instances, putting short- hand and typewriting early in the course will result in their leaving school as soon as they have done the required work, to try to get positions as stenographers ; or they will quit early in the course to go to a private business school where they will probably not have to take the indis- pensable English that they dislike, and where such cultural subjects as geography, history, language, and literature are rarely heard of. Business correspondence should be taught as a subject distinct from English. Commercial law should be taught from some simple text-book adapted to the immature minds of high-school pupils, and attention should be directed largely to contracts and negotiable paper. 690 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business Civil government should be presented from the practical, rather than from the historical, point of view. It is better that a boy know only the organization and operation of town government than that he know only its origin and the conditions under which it has been developed. It seems that at least the primary principles of the science of political economy should be taught to pupils in the high school. Commercial geography is one of the most valuable of the informa- tional subjects, and should occupy an important place in every commer- cial course. The history of commerce, because of its close relation to commercial geography, may well follow it. It is here placed in the last year in the outline, in order that, at a time when the pupil will be best able to appre- ciate them, lectures may be given on various phases of present-day com- merce by able men engaged in the work. In the outline herewith, commercial arithmetic is placed earlier in the course than is altogether desirable, because the later years are occupied by subjects that cannot to advantage be shifted to the earlier part of the course. Pupils should reach the high schools thoroly taught in the four fundamental operations, in common and decimal fractions, and in com- pound numbers.. They will, of course, have some familiarity with the more common applications of percentage. In the high school, daily drill should be given in some of the following : Rapid adding, multiplying, billing, and the computation of interest and discounts. Pupils should be taught to write from dictation figures for addition, rapidly, plainly, and in straight columns. Partial payments should be worked by United States .and Merchants' rules, and, if time permits, some attention may well be devoted to involution, evolution, and mensuration, in addition to the commoner applications of percentage. A complete equipment of office books should be provided, as far as possible, so arranged as to avoid duplication of forms, and to illustrate special books, special columns, and special systems. The loose-leaf ledger in one office, the card ledger in another, the horizontal sales and pur- chase ledgers in another, is an indication of the general plan. Card indexes and ticklers, or "following-up" systems, should have a place. " The vertical system " of caring for correspondence, as well as the common plan of using the letter-book and transfer case, should be repre- sented. Correspondence emanating from the offices should be dictated to shorthand pupils by pupils acting for the time being as managers, should be transcribed on properly printed letter-heads, copied on a letter-press (or a carbon duplicate filed), and finally sent out in envelopes properly directed, stamped, and sealed, but sealed only after the teacher has inspected and stamped his approval on every business paper contained in the envelope. Pupils should be taught mail classification, and, by using Department] THE EDUCATION OF THE AMANUENSIS 691 the postal scales, to affix the correct amount of imitation postage. The teacher each day should collect all mail that is to go to the same place, and put it in a large envelope, mailing it to the teacher in charge. A centrally located school bank may be chosen to play the combined part of clearing- house and correspondent bank for the other schools in the association. In short, the offices should be so completely equipped, so systematically laid out, and so enthusiastically and carefully carried on that in attract- iveness, in educational worth, and in practical value office practice should be regarded by pupils, teachers, and taxpayers as the crowning feature of a capital course. The initial expense is considerable, varying with the quality. That which I have in mind may run from $700 to $1,500; but this is chiefly an initial expense. The necessary annual outlay is a very small amount, ranging from possibly $25 to $75, according to the size of the school. Probably no other course in the high school assures a better educational dividend than does the properly arranged four-year commer- cial course, and certainly no other provides the immediate financial income that graduates from the commercial department command. It is not intended, and it does not appear feasible, that instruction in electives should, for commercial pupils, differ from instruction for the other pupils. The commercial course, not only in a Massachusetts high school, but also in any other high school, should be both disciplinary and cultural, and it should provide such thoro instruction in the technical commercial subjects that graduates from the commercial department of the high school may have not only a general preparation for a business life, but also a definite, technical training that will entitle them, other qualifications being satisfactory, to immediate remunerative employment in a business office. THE EDUCATION OF THE AMANUENSIS SELBY A. MORAN, PRINCIPAL OF STENOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE AND TEACHER IN HIGH SCHOOL, ANN ARBOR, MICH. The kinds of work done by the stenographic amanuensis today are so varied and the quality of the work accepted by employers differs so greatly that it becomes an exceedingly difficult task to treat the subject assigned to me. In order to lend what little influence I can to raise the standard of professional stenographic work to a higher plane, I have briefly outlined what I believe to be the requirements necessary to the attainment of the greatest success in this line of work. It seems to me that the most important element, in fact the one thing that really includes all that should be taken into consideration in the education of an amanuensis, is a habit of thoroness. This is something which today, unfortunately, is woefully lacking in the average young 692 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business man and woman. It is, however, one of the chief essentials to the highest success of the stenographic amanuensis. Thoroness is, of course, important in every field of effort. In no other one is it of so great value as in the one occupied by the reporter. Thru him, as a medium of cor- respondence, is daily transacted an immense volume of business, amount- ing in the aggregate to a sum too great for the mind to even dimly comprehend. Today, in the mad race for professional, scientific, and commercial supremacy, the scientist, lawyer, merchant, or manufacturer cannot take the time to minutely scrutinize the important communica- tions he indites, any more than he can spare the time to write out his own business correspondence. Therefore he wants, and must have, as an assistant an amanuensis whose training for this special work has been so thoro that every tendency to error may, as nearly as possible, be eliminated. This is the kind of stenographer who is today being demanded more and more in the great world of affairs. An engineer, under the influence of liquor, disobeys orders and wrecks his train. As a result the railroad company which employed him must pay many thousands of dollars as damages. Railroad corporations have learned, after having sustained immense losses resulting from such unfor- tunate and expensive occurances, that it does not pay to employ men who drink. It is therefore not surprising that the large majority of railroad corporations make it a rule never to employ a man who touches liquor. Only a short time ago, in Chicago, a manufacturing firm was asked to give a quotation on a large amount of high-priced material. Careful ■estimates were made by the superintendent and the result dictated to a stenographer. The letter giving the quotation closed with the statement that a 5 per cent, discount from the price quoted would be allowed for cash. The careless stenographer, confusing the discounts allowed on different classes of material, made the clause concerning discounts read 25 instead of 5 per cent. The party receiving the quotation based a bid for an important contract upon the price and discount quoted on the material. As a result he was the lowest bidder. He secured the contract, gave his bond for its satisfactory completion, and wired his order for the material. The Chicago firm then discovered the error, but it was too late to rectify it, and the company was obliged to live up to the quotation made by an incompetent amanuensis. As a result the manu- facturer sustained a loss equivalent to the stenographer's salary for ten years. Errors of more frequent occurrence are those which, as a result of carelessly written letters, give rise to misunderstandings and disputes, and oftentimes to expensive litigation. In view of such things, is it strange that men at the htad of large affairs are coming to realize more and more that they must have amanuenses upon whom they can rely implicitly? Department] THE EDUCATION OF THE AMANUENSIS 693 The important question arises, how may we educate the amanuensis so that he or she may be so thoro in his or her duties that all danger of these and all other kinds of error may be reduced to a minimum? In the first place, much depends upon the man with whom you start. Does he want to be something? Can he amount to anything if he has an ambition to make something of himself ? Ordinarily, the boy or girl has sufficient foundation of native talent upon which to build. Assuming that he has, the following questions arise: I. How can you reach and inspire the student with a desire to make something of himself or herself ? Without ambition on the part of the student the case is hopeless. In order to arouse ambition, the teacher must first gain the respect and confidence of his pupil. He can gain and hold the confidence of those whom he would lead up to higher and better things only by culti- vating in his own heart a wealth of sympathy for and an interest in the youth whom he would thus inspire. It is oftentimes surprising how even the dullest pupil may in this way be aroused to accomplish what before had seemed utterly beyond his reach. There can be no set rules by which one may attain this end. Each teacher must study the peculiar charac- teristics of each individual pupil and treat each one according to his special needs. Following this awakening should come careful, systematic, and thoro training by a teacher capable of developing all that there is in the pupil, especially along the lines most beneficial to the aspiring stenographer. This brings us to what is ordinarily included in the formal school educa- tion of the amanuensis. This formal education must necessarily be of two kinds: First, educa- tion in the art of writing shorthand and operating the typewriter; second, general education. Of the two, the former requires but a few months of careful training and study of a good system of shorthand and the manipulation of the typewriter under the direction of a skilled teacher. The latter, or gen- eral education, requires the work of years, and, strange to say, is too often considered of very little importance by those who aspire to become amanuenses. I have, in this brief paper, confined my remarks to the latter phase of this subject. In speaking of this general education, three things occur to me as being of special importance : I. One of the indispensable things is a thoro grounding in what may be called the rudiments of English. In my opinion too many schools, even many of the better class of high schools, are sadly neglecting that thoro training in English which should be an important part of every young person's education. Under this head I would include, first, spelling, capitalization, punctua- 694 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business tion, and paragraphing; second, a large amount of careful practice in composition. By this I mean drill in how to express ideas in clear, con- cise language, using no more words than are really necessary in each instance, and using them in such a way that they will express just what it is desired to express, and nothing more. While these subjects are all studied and practical drill given to a certain extent in every high school, and in most instances in the grades also, the work is not thoroly done. What I mean by being thoroly done is that one shall be so familiar with these subjects that when he attempts to write out matter which he has taken at dictation he will be able to spell readily common words without referring to the dictionary; he will not halt in the use of capitals; will not sprinkle in his marks of punctuation apparently with no conception of their proper use; he will need to make no special effort to properly paragraph the matter he must turn out upon his typewriter. Further, if for any reason the one dictating does not use the best language, or does not express himself in the clearest and most concise manner, the amanu- ensis should be able readily to recast the matter so as to remedy these defects. I would include among those who need more drill in these ele- mentary subjects not only the boy or girl who drops out of school at the end of the eighth grade, but also the average high-school graduate. I would say, too, that a very considerable portion of the students in our leading colleges and universities could take more drill in those subjects to good advantage. What the amanuensis must have, if he would do his work well, as it should be done, is such familiarity with these rudi- ments of English that he will, unconsciously and without the least effort or waste of time, properly spell, punctuate, capitalize, paragraph, and (when necessary) edit the matter received at dictation. A stenographer who is able to do this is indeed rare, and when found is always highly prized and liberally paid. What is needed to develop such ability is more drill in these rudiments of English, beginning in the grades and keeping everlastingly at it until one completes his high-school and university course. I am inclined to believe that if, in the high school especially, more time were devoted to such work and less time given to an attempt at advanced literary criticism of our English classics by immature minds, far more benefit would result. 2. Another thing of special importance to the amanuensis is the acquisition of a large vocabulary, and with it a knowledge of the exact meaning and use of every word with which he is at all familiar. This requires long and patient study. To do this it is absolutely neces- sary that one, as soon as mature enough, shall read and study exten- sively literature, science, and the arts, and also that he shall keep abreast of current events. 3. Skill in the ready use of words. A knowledge of a large num- ber of words is of but little value to the shorthand amanuensis unless I Department] THE EDUCATION OF THE AMANUENSIS 695 he is sufficiently familiar with the words he knows to recall them instantly and apply them properly. To acquire an ability to do this requires much drill in the actual use of words. One may be a great reader, and become familiar, in a way, with a vast number of words. This is important and necessary, but not all that is necessary. He must not only have instru- ments of thought, but he must also know how to use these instruments readily. It is, it seems to me, right along this line that the large majority of amanuenses are weak. This accomplishment requires extended study and practice. The best college education obtainable is none too much to fit the amanuensis for the attainment of the highest possibilities in his art. Indeed, I would advise that wherever possible the would-be stenographer supplement this with a considerable training in rapid composition. Writing for the press, for example, affords most excellent drill, if done under proper restrictions. Such work will develop a ready and correct use of language, and will be remarkably helpful to the work of the amanuensis. Six months' schooling in" this kind of work, under the direction of a critical managing editor who will check the tendency to loose work so common to newspaper writers, will add much to the fluent and correct use of one's English, a thing greatly needed by every would- be amanuensis. Another thing in which the amanuensis should have careful training is in editing copy. He should be able in an instant to detect errors in construction and in the exact use of words, and should feel it his duty to make amends for the shortcomings of his employer. The lawyer is absorbed in the strictly legal phases of his case ; the physician is con- cerned chiefly with important scientific questions ; the merchant is think- ing mainly of some business undertaking ; the manufacturer has questions of labor, material, and the disposal of his products to demand his best thoughts. Except possibly in the case of an employer engaged in purely literary work, other things than correct English construction are of greatest concern to the employer, and it is the duty of the amanuensis to furnish the literary exactness that is almost sure to be lacking where other questions so greatly overshadow. The amanuensis should in fact be the literary critic of the concern, rather than the literary bungler, as is too often the case. There is another feature too often overlooked, and one which should always form a part of the necessary training of the amanuensis. I believe it is one fully as important as any. It is the cultivation in the would-be amanuensis of the idea that he should take an active interest in his employer's business. No person has a better opportunity to advance his employer's interests than his stenographer, because his position enables him to know more about it than any other person. In no other position, on the other hand, will it become more readily apparent if the stenog- 696 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business rapher is indifferent to the interests of his employer. He should under- stand that this interest cannot be assumed. The relation of employer and amanuensis is too close to allow any pretense in this respect. It should not be necessary for an employer to urge such active interest upon his stenographer. As a rule, an employer will appreciate more thoroly than any other one thing a genuine and a willing interest in his affairs on the part of his stenographer. I am aware that I have demanded a far more extended education than is usually acquired by the average amanuensis. It is true also that the remuneration usually offered is not sufficient to warrant such thoro prepa^ ration on the part of the amanuensis. On the other hand, there is a demand, a constant and an insistent demand, for amanuenses with a liberal education. That this demand is growing, and that the remunera- tion offered for such assistants is liberal, is known to all who are familiar with existing conditions. Many young men and women with a university education have come to me to be fitted for the work of the amanuensis. I have never known of a single one who has not readily found employ- ment at a liberal salary and in places where the opportunities for promo- tion were not far greater than are found in the positions usually secured by stenographers who are not university graduates. I think it is our duty to induce every teacher of shorthand to strive to lift up the profession to a higher level. There is no doubt that such efforts will be fully appreciated by the better class of business and profes- sional men. We need not concern ourselves about the demand for cheaper stenographers. There will always be plenty of second and third class schools to furnish the required supply. A business or profession is judged by the best men and women it produces. Let us strive, then, to elevate our profession by demanding a better general education on the part of amanuenses. It is sure to give us a better standing and a wider influence. THE EDUCATION OF A STENOGRAPHER MRS. M. L. VEENFLIET, PRINCIPAL OF ALPENA BUSINESS COLLEGE, ALPENA, MICH. As 75 per cent, of stenographers are employed in business offices, the opinion of business men as to what should constitute the equip- ment of a shorthand secretary or general office amanuensis is of first importance to us in determining the essentials of a stenographer's educa- tion. The employing public, not the schools, set the standard of require- ment, which is steadily moving upward, and the schools training in this particular branch of practical education fail in their duty if they do not elevate their standard of proficiency in proportion to the advance in the Department] THE EDUCATION OF A STENOGRAPHER 697 demand. A§ indicating how high that standard is, I insert a few of the replies I received last month from a number of prominent business and professional men to whom I addressed these questions : 1. Wherein do stenographers most frequently fail to meet the requirements of busi- ness offices ? 2. Where do you place the responsibility for these defects ? 3. Considering a practical course of stenography, what would you advise as to {a) content of curriculum ? {b) speed requisites in both shorthand and typewriting ? {c) tests ? In other words, what proficiency would you require for a certificate or diploma ? The president of a corporation which has made itself felt in trade matters during the past year wrote : A stenographer should, first of all, be intelligent ; quick to catch the language and meaning of the dictator ; reliable in spelling and use of good English ; able to punctu- ate and paragraph a letter and arrange it pleasingly without being told. She should at least know the elements of bookkeeping, and be able to make good letter-book copies and to classify and file letters and papers so that she can produce them without delay. The ideal stenographer for any business-man's office must be neat, methodical, and secretive. The stenographer who does not understand that the secrets of the office should never pass beyond the office door is dangerous. Schools should train particularly on this point. Also, a business stenographer should be good in figures and ready in the correction of errors of all kinds. Who is to blame for the great number of inefficient stenographers ? The schools. They don't require enough special as well as general ability. The length of time is too short. It should certainly take as long to make a good stenographer as to make a good dentist, civil engineer, etc. Another wrote : A good stenographer is one who can spell and punctuate and who is generally well informed. Shorthand without a good English education back of it simply qualifies some young man or women to be an aggravation, a thorn in the flesh, to busy people. We have just discharged a "steno." who in transcribing a recommendation of our head chemist made the statement, " He is a thinker," read, " He is a thin cur." Can't you teachers weed out such unpromising material ? Seems to me this is where your chief duty lies. A lawyer wrote : As you know, I lean decidedly to the culture requirements of a stenographer's educa- tion, Thoro drill in English, composition, business forms and customs, legal papers, and a general knowledge of English literature and history, and familiarity with the elements of the sciences which are such an important factor in the business of today, are as neces- sary to the stenographer as ability to take dictation and manipulate a typewriter. Here is the opinion of a successful teacher of shorthand : I wish to think of the profession of stenography seriously — as a distinct business venture, rather than a temporary makeshift leading to " something better." A ground- work of English, composition, spelling, and punctuation must be had by every stenog- rapher. In addition to these, for the better class of positions a considerable knowledge of bookkeeping, familiarity with business papers, and a great deal of information of a general nature increase a stenographer's usefulness very greatly. 698 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business Another writes : The crucial test of knowledge of English is composition. One who can read good literature intelligently and can write English with purity, force, and clearness has suffi- cient command of the knowledge to meet the needs of anyone except a professional instructor. In the light of these replies, and from what we hear and read on all sides, we have a pretty good basis from which to figure out the essentials which should enter into the training of a stenographer. Native ability, the quality known colloquially as "gumption," scholar- ship— these are the things required to make stenographic service effective. Not the least important of these requisites is gumption, used in the sense of ready perception and discrimination, quick discernment, acuteness, common-sense. The stenographer who has not gumption is a nuisance, and the uneducated one a living evidence of sin on the part of some school. But what shall we do with the students who lack this sense of the relation of things ? Don't try to make stenographers of them, that is all. Advise them to take some other course, or keep them at other work until the quality of gumption is acquired. In this day of liberality in school matters there is seldom any excuse for mistake in the selection of the trade or profession best adapted to any student's particular abilities, acquirements, and the time at his disposal. No matter what other sins we may have to answer for, let us see to it that turning out poor stenographers isn't one of them. There is no sense in it, no cause for it. Young men and women who haven't gumption enough to get a serviceable knowledge of good English and to broaden out along general educational lines should not be allowed to continue the stenography course in any school. We, as teachers of technical branches, are responsible for the quality of the work we turn out in exact proportion to the power we have of creating the standard of qualifi- cation. The proprietary schools are not more free in this respect than the public schools, and the teacher of business subjects who does not feel that his responsibility is always first to the profession he represents fails in that highest attribute of a teacher, that which makes for character in his students. Business education within the scope of secondary schools naturally divides itself along two lines, bookkeeping and stenography. Necessarily these two courses of study overlap, and there are those who advocate that, especially in the public schools, there shall be only the one commercia course, made up of bookkeeping and correlated branches plus stenog- raphy and typewriting ; but it is hardly fair to the students who wish to prepare for positions as bookkeepers only to make stenography and type- writing obligatory. Ability to do business and record business are the requisites of a bookkeeper or business manager. The successful book- Department] THE EDUCATION OF A STENOGRAPHER 699 keeper need not be able to write shorthand nor operate a typewriter, but the successful business stenographer must know something of bookkeep- ing and business practice, commercial paper, etc.; hence, it is the steno- graphic course which, in the secondary schools, should require the longer time and greater preparation. If there is any one person in a business office who should be well educated, it is the amanuensis. The brains of his employer flow thru his fingers, and the correctness of the rendition depends as much on the stenographer's literary ability as on his skill as a shorthand writer and typist. He must possess the seven cardinal virtues of business : honesty, accuracy, self-reliance, punctuality, industry, neatness, secrecy. The cultivation of these qualities during the training period should keep pace with the growth in perception and knowledge, manual dexterity, and mental nimbleness. Within the last ten years stenography has developed into a profession almost limitless in its opportunities for advancement for both men and women. Business school employment departments, the typewriter com- panies, and other agencies of supply cannot begin to meet the demand for competent stenographic help. There need be no feeling of rivalry between the departments of shorthand in the public schools and the private business schools. Both working together will not turn out capable stenog- raphers in greater numbers than business demands. Especially is this true of male stenographers. Last year the employment bureau of one prominent typewriter company placed 16,247 stenographers in seven of the largest cities of the United States. Of this number less than 29 per cent, were men, altho the number of calls for men stenographers thru these seven agencies alone footed up 40 per cent., a fair average of the discrepancy between the demand and the supply for this kind of steno- graphic help thruout the United States. The government pays men stenographers $1,200 a year at the begin- ning, which is increased to $1,400 in six months if the service is satisfac- tory ; but even at these figures Uncle Sam cannot secure all the men stenographers he needs. And the demand is equally great from business and professional offices. This demand for men stenographers does not indicate any desire on the part of the government or of business or professional offices to sup- plant women stenographers. Last year's marvelous increase in the number of women stenographers placed in good positions indicates that stenography has opened up to women a source of permanent as well as profitable employment ; but there is a class of stenographic work for which men are especially desired, and it will be matter for con- gratulation if the public schools are more successful than the private schools have so far been in inducing young men to fit themselves for amanuensis work. 700 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Business By making the course sufficiently thoro on the side of business train- ing, the stenographic course should attract both sexes equally. I herewith submit a course of stenography which will probably require two years of high-school time, because of the long vacations, short hours, and class plan of work : Stenography. — Theory of stenography, according to system used. After the text- book part of the work, with daily drill in phonetics, carefully planned dictation exercises leading to accuracy and speed in taking and transcribing business letters, literary, legal, scientific, and historical matter, contracts, specifications, etc. Time : Thruout the course. Tests : (i) Ability to take new matter easily at a minimum rate of one hundred words a minute and read back in the same time; (2) ability to write in one hour from 6,500 to 7,500 words of new matter, covering a wide range of business subjects, general informa- tion, legal papers, contracts, ordinary correspondence, etc., and to make correct tran- scriptions of same on the typewriter in not to exceed six hours ; (3) ability to take lectures, sermons, testimony, depositions, etc., and transcribe same correctly. Typewriting. — Expert or piano method (correct position ; proper stroke ; location of keys not dependent on sight; use of all the fingers; continuous movement of the carriage, the hands writing as the eyes read) ; word exercises ; study of leading machines ; plain copying ; copying from rough draft ; legal and business papers ; invoicing and tabulating ; making carbon copies ; duplicating processes ; letter-press work, indexing, and filing ; writing from dictation ; speed drills ; arrangement of subject-matter as to headings, margins, spacing, paragraphs, etc.; adjusting the matter to the size of the paper. Practice : Daily thruout the course to insure nimble fingers, pliable wrists, quickness and accuracy of sight in following copy, keen development of the sense of location. Tests: (l) Ability to copy plain manuscript or printed matter at the minimum rate of thirty words a minute for one hour, the transcript to be well arranged, accurate, free from erasures or faulty typing ; (2) ability to write accurately from dictation, a half hour at a time, new matter at a minimum rate of forty-five words a minute. Bookkeeping. — Thoro grounding in the elements of single and double entry book- keeping ; business practice ; simple transactions introducing the ordinary record books ; business forms ; practice in making deposits and keeping bank account. English language. — Spelling, pronunciation, word study, composition, punctuation, letter writing, grammatical principles, rhetorical principles ; diction, synonym, essays, writing, sum and structure of the paragraph, impromptu writing, proof reading. Literature. — English and American classics, with particular attention to prose style ; selected reading, as a basis for speed practice in both stenography and typewriting ; selected plays of Shakespeare. History and biography. — American, English, and general. Biography, history, and literature can well be handled thru dictation, weekly quizzes, and assigned readings. Arithmetic— Practical problems covering every subject of business arithmetic ; daily drills in rapid calculation ; speed practice in fundamental principles, particularly addi- tion ; metric system ; wages and pay-rolls ; foreign money and exchange. Current events. — Daily discussions, oral and written. Correspondence (treated as a special subject). — Arrangement and style of letters ; exercise in correcting, condensing, expanding. Study of letters relating to special sub- jects, contracts, sales, credit, collections ; social letters and forms; telegrams, circulars, business cards, etc.; paper and envelopes — quality, weight, sizes, etc. Business forms and customs. — Commercial paper, invoices, vouchers, bills of lading, and manifests, discounts, securities, collections, filing devices, card indexes, etc. Penmanship. — A plain, rapid business hand. Time, one hour or more a day until proficiency is attained. ^ Department] THE EDUCATION OF A STENOGRAPHER 701 Commercial geography, — A general survey of the subject, with emphasis on the com- mercial, industrial, and economic geography of the United States. Transportation treated specially. Commercial law. — Fundamental principles governing the ordinary activities of busi- ness, paying particular attention to contracts and negotiable paper, principal and agent, common carriers, bailment, partnership, etc. Civics (general survey of the subject). — Constitution of the United States; princi- ples of government. Dictation of any good text on civil government. Elementary science (taught principally thru dictation). — Natural history, chemistry, physical geography, geology, physics. Conversation and impromptu speaking. — One hour a week. In my school this course had been in operation for a little over three years, and has resulted in stenographers of creditable mental development and intellectual power. The average time for the completion of the course has been fifteen months. We work on the credit plan, and how long it takes any student to get the number of credits required for graduation depends entirely upon himself, his previous preparation, natural ability, application, and the number of hours he works each day. He may at any time ask for an examination on any subject of the course, and, showing the required proficiency, he is given credit. In conclusion, I take the liberty of quoting from a paper read by Mr. Charles McGurrin before the National Shorthand Teachers' Association last year : Allow me to suggest a thing which has long been a handicap to school men and educators in stenography and typewriting, and which, in my opinion, should be corrected at the earliest possible moment, namely, that of the too short period of tuition prevailing in the schools thruout the country. The fault is due, in my opinion, to the custom inau- gurated in the early instruction in these branches. There was a time in the earlier days when shorthand writing was taught in but few schools in the country; when the classes were very small indeed ; when it was regarded as an indifferent, unimportant, and unprofitable branch of the college ; when the teacher was one who himself had learned for the sole purpose of teaching. Six and eight months within which to perfect a pupil for the work is, 1 believe, the average period now obtaining in the majority of schools. This time is much too short, and especially in this day now that typewriting has taken its place as a co-ordinate necessity with stenography, and demanding such careful and thoro instruction. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July 9, 1902 The first session of the Child-Study Department was called to order in the assembly room of the East High School Wednesday afternoon, July 9, by President H. E. Kratz. The following program was presented : " New Lines of Attack in Child Study," Frederick E. Bohon, professor of the^science and art of educa- tion, University of Iowa, Iowa City. Vocal solo, Mr. J. Austin Williams, " Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes." Dressier. "The Child-Study Department of the Chicago Public Schools," Miss Angeline Loesch, volunteer assistant, Chicago child-study department, Chicago, 111. Vocal solo, Mrs. Maud Ulmer Jones, («) " Daisies — ^aw/r)// {b) ''When Song is Sweet" — Gertrude Sans Souci. " What Our Schools Owe to Child Study," Theo. B. Noss, principal of Southwestern State Normal School, California, Pa. Discussion by John Dewey, professor of philosophy and education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Pres'dent Kratz appointed the following Committee on Nominations : E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fitchburg, Mass. Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell, Denver, Colo. Harlow S. Gale, Minneapolis, Minn, The department adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July ii The second session of the Department of Child Study was held on Friday afternoon, July II, in the East High School assembly room. President Kratz in the chair. The program was as follows : Vocal solo, Mr. Crosby Hopps, " Come Into the Garden, Maud " — Balfe. " How Far Does the Modern High School Fit the Nature and Needs of Adolescents ?" — Reuben Post Halleck, principal of Boys High School, Louisville, Ky. Discussion by E. G. Lancaster, professor of psychology and pedagogy, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. General discussion. The Committee on Nominations reported as follows : For President — G. W. A. Luckey, Lincoln, Neb. For Vice-President — Stuart H. Rowe, New Haven, Conn. For Secretary — Susan F. Chase, Buffalo, N. Y. The secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the department nominees as officers for the ensuing year. The ballot was so cast and the officers declared duly elected. The department then adjourned. Kate A. Hopper, Secretary. 702 Department] NEW LINES OF ATTACK IN CHILD STUDY 703 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS \ NEW LINES OF ATTACK IN CHILD STUDY FREDERICK E. BOLTON, PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCA- TION, THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA At the present time child-study enthusiasm of the sort witnessed a few years ago is manifestly on the decline. At the state associations it is difficult to secure an audience, and local societies have diminished in num- ber. The number of so-called investigators and the number of articles on child study have been steadily decreasing. This does not mean that the scientific study of the child is being abandoned. Only the dilettante are dropping by the wayside. The scientist was not lured by delusive hopes. His expectations have been well realized, and large rewards await his future efforts. But the practical effects of child study have been much less important than many have been led to suppose. That the novices have been disappointed is not strange nor unfortunate. But it is unfortunate that the genuine interest then awakened has not per- sisted and increased. The reason, however, is not far to seek. Child study has not yielded results that have appealed to the people. Child-study societies have ceased to flourish, and now continue only a devitalized exist- ence because they had little of interest to any save a coterie of specialists. Tho modern child study has accomplished much in a scientific direction, and also in stimulating many teachers and a few parents to take a live, prac- tical interest in children, yet its effects have been very little felt among lay- men and uneducated people. Were we content to gain the ear of the specialist only, there would be no cause for anxiety. But we want the benefits of child study to reach every teacher, every parent, and, still better, every child, in the land. At present the results are inversely proportional to the needs. The very ones who need its help most have been comparatively little benefited. Child study, like medicine, should result in bettering conditions of humanity, else it has no right to exist. This does not gainsay the value of a science of child study any less than a sci ence of medicine. But medicine has only recently become a real science, while it has long been a valuable healing art. May we not hope that many practical results may flow from child study even long before it has become a well-organized science? Hence I believe that students of the child should push their work from a new point of view as well as from the old. While in full sympathy with all the valuable child-study work that has been done, and also believing that the scientific workers have rich, unex- plored fields still to cultivate, I believe that the time is at hand when 704 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child Study there ought to be a great awakening of the people to an understanding of the great problem of education, and that is almost synonymous with child study. While we are in the midst of unprecedented wealth and material opportunities, there are grave dangers working insidiously into the very fiber of our national fabric. Someone, with much truth, has said that the American people have been successful in every business except the busi- ness of training children. In the mad rush for gold and glory the average father turns his children entirely over to the mother and the schools, and in the recent days of women's clubs and conventions and business activities the women are in turn giving over their sacred charges to the servants and the street. Thus it is that of families with vast estates and wayward children there are everyday illustrations. When child study is mentioned there loom up in the mind of the average listener images of measuring and weighing apparatus, the isola- tion of abnormal or exceptional children, tables or statistics, references to remote ancestors, a hunt for vestigial organs, etc. This may represent the field and the point of departure of a certain phase of child study — the genetic or the evolutional phase. Such a study is for the scientist only, however. There is another kind of child study for the home and the school. Tho it may not weigh or measure a single child, tho it may not make a single collection of statistics, it may yet be indirectly of the most valuable sort. This other kind is not only the privilege, but one of the most sacred duties imposed by society upon all citizens. Educa- tion is usually thought to concern only teachers, but the methodology of instruction and school government in no way comprehend the whole problem of education. Spencer's comprehensive definition of education as " a preparation for life " is even too restrictive. Education is not begun at the statutory age of five and completed at twenty. Education is life itself, and life is education. The education of every individual was begun ages ago. A given life is the resultant of all the forces that have operated upon him and all his ancestors. The modern biological doctrine of memory teaches conclusively that no impression, however insignificant, is lost, either to the individual or to posterity. Thus the sins of the fathers have been visited upon the third and fourth generations, and also mercy has been shown to thousands of generations of them that kept the Lord's commandments. Therefore the obligation resting upon each individual for the account of the deeds done in the body is faithfully recorded away down in the nerve cells and fibers, and at any moment the book of life indicates the exact balance. Even without lineal descendants, the influence of our lives is never obliterated. There are two great factors in everyone's education — heredity and environment. Heredity is the conservative tendency. Environment makes for variations. Now, every individual, unless he be absolutely isolated even more than Robinson Crusoe, is a Department J NEW LINES OF ATTACK IN CHILD STUDY 705 part of somebody's environment. Every action has a direct influence upon our own future and that of our posterity, and indirectly there is an influence upon others. Like the pail of water which has been made slightly different by the added drop, never to return again to its former state, so society as a whole is different because of each act of every indi- vidual composing it. Thus is each one to some degree responsible for the character of those with whom he comes in contact. Thus is each one his brother's keeper. And if responsible for the character of future civilization, should not all have the deepest concern for the education of children? Should we place their education in the hands of incompetent, untrained teachers? Shall we permit children to go to school under any except the very best conditions known to the science of education? Shall we permit chil- dren to attend school in overcrowded schoolrooms, where they learn habits of inattention and dawdling? Shall we permit the school play- grounds to be unsupervised and our children continue to become inocu- lated with the immoral filth which pollutes many a school playground ? When we understand the far-reaching effects of the present upon the future, the influence that others exert over us, the influence other chil- dren exert upon our children, then we shall be more careful to secure only pure, wholesome, elevating, stimulating surroundings for ourselves and our children. We shall be almost as deeply concerned to educate our neighbor's children properly as we shall be about our own, for in the widest sense we cannot educate a given individual properly without suitable environment. Every man is a product of the time in which he lives. The great man of a time merely epitomizes the greatest and the best of his civilization. A great statesman cannot be produced without a great state. A great scholar cannot live in an unscholarly time or place. Therefore, every parent who wishes to educate his children in intel- lectuality, morality, and virtue must seek to secure those conditions in his neighborhood, his school district, his town, his county, his state, his nation, yea thruout the world. No one who desires to educate his children properly moves to the slums; no, he moves where culture is highest, not because good teachers may not be secured for the slum dis- tricts, but because of all the other contributory factors. While many seek these conditions, few understand their duty in creating such an environ- ment. The child study of the immediate future must be so conducted as to bring more immediate benefits to children. It must be of such a nature as will appeal to the people. Down to the present it has brought even opposition from them. Their children have been experimented upon, tabulated, and weighed, and measured, and classified, but the only thing of all this that has come to the ears of the people is that certain children are peculiar or abnormal. Hence as soon as child study is now men- 7o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study tioned they begin to imagine that you are hunting curios or abnormal specimens. We must bring the people into sympathy with us, and not court their disgust and disapproval. We must begin to bring them bene- fits. What they want is medicine, and not diagnosis alone. How shall we correct the cigarette habit, the nickel-library habit, utilize the gangs in righteous club work, cause the parents to secure medical treatment for suffering children, induce proper hours of sleep and recreation, prevent nervous breakdowns, remove temptations, pro- vide wholesome occupations and amusements, etc.? Questions like these are of far more vital importance than mere diagnosis and cataloging of conditions. What we seek are remedies. There are numberless questions waiting solution which are worthy any scholar's attention. They should be undertaken primarily in the hope of helping children and humanity in general. They may develop articles and theses, but this should not be a motive for their undertaking. Much of the work suggested can be accomplished only indirectly. All teachers must first be indoctrinated with child study and with education in all its broader aspects. Further, education should be a study not alone for teachers. If any classes of persons need child study more than teachers they are the parents and school boards. May the day be hastened when the study of the principles of education shall become a regular part of the course pursued by every college student ! Among the list of required subjects I would place education, rather than algebra, Latin, and Greek. Not only should education be included in the required studies in the colleges of letters and science, but also in the colleges of law and of medicine, etc. Even in the high school an ele- mentary consideration of the relation of education to society might be undertaken, and be more beneficial than a knowledge of Caesar's wars. Just at this time we need to secure the co-operation of the public press in the interest of better education. While the newspapers now give pages to prize-fights and horse racing, they give only paragraphs to public education and child-study congresses. The newspapers have almost unlimited power in creating public opinion, as is attested in every elec- tion campaign. If they could be enlisted in spreading the gospel of child saving and child culture, the results would be unpredictable. A Carnegie who would endow in every large city a newspaper which would give the news, not scoops and reporters' exaltations of imagina- tion; a paper which would avoid sensationalism, eliminate and reduce the recital of crime; a paper which would rigorously exclude advertising mat- ter which rivals the Police Gazette columns, all advertisements of quackery, charlatanism, and traps for the unwary — a person who would do this would be a benefactor of the boys and girls of our country. Many a youth has been sent on the downward road to ruin by reading the adver- tisement of quack doctors in our newspapers. Department] NE W LINES OF A TTA CK IN CHILD STUD Y 70? The newspaper is said to be a reflector of public opinion, but it is more truly a former of public opinion. Suggestion is a mighty force in all our life. Ideas which are constantly heralded before us eventually find lodgment in the mind. Once intrenched, according to the law of ideo-motor action, they are most sure to find some expression in activity. Could the newspaper publisher understand the mighty power of sugges- tion, and could he take a square look at the morality of accepting an advertisement, he would no more think of inviting the unsuspecting thru his paper to be swindled or dosed and poisoned physically and mentally than he would think of standing on the street and distributing handbills or giving the same to his friend's son. Here is a chance for a study. Who will find a way to enlist the public press for education ? Along with this we need to make a crusade against the omnipresent, hideoiis, demoralizing posters that stare at us on every hand. Their influence counteracts all the aesthetic cultivation that is afforded by art instruction in schools. Before holding out health-giving tonics let us remove the contaminating influences that beset us on every side. The playground as an educational factor has not yielded the best results possible. We need many more experiments like those of Super- intendent Johnson at Andover to determine how to utilize this factor in modern education. How to select games that shall interest, instruct, and develop, and at the same time how to keep all at play, is a difficult question. Mr. Johnson has rendered inestimable service by his sugges- tions gained thru actual experience. We are constantly admonished that the period of adolescence is a time for great concern, and that our present methods and procedure in school are entirely at variance with adolescent needs. But who has given us a workable plan which can be reasonably offered as a substitute? The high school is confessedly without sufficient attractiveness to boys, and is very largely feminine. Many theories have been put forth diagnosing the situation, but how few persons have come forward with accounts of curative measures successfully applied ! These are the persons we need to hear from in the child-study meetings. In the Sunday schools it is rare to find a boy of adolescent years. Theories without number have been put forth to explain their absence, but how few are the recitals of successful means of securing their pres- ence and assistance ! If the church and Sunday school do not meet the needs of the boy, then what substitute can be provided ? Dr. Byron Forbush has given us the most valuable piece of child- study literature that has appeared in many a day. It is especially valuable because it indicates just how he has actually accomplished so much in establishing boys' societies and clubs as a substitute for the gang and marauding band. The article, however, is in no way com- parable in value to the work which it represents for these boys. It is the 7o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study work with boys and girls primarily, and not articles and reports, that we need. We know well that the child's strongest characteristic is activity, and yet how little do we utilize his activities in teaching! We are remiss in this principally because we do not know just what activities to utilize, nor do we know what sort of occupations will utilize the activities he possesses. From impression to expression is a slogan which we have heard so frequently of late that it rolls off our tongues like many religious sayings which have no significance. The idea is correct, but who has made a study to show the varying application ? Knowledge of ethical principles is only slightly valuable until it has given rise to activities in harmony with them. The boy who learns to denounce rascality in historical char- acters, and then goes out to the playground and cheats, lies, and terror- izes those weaker than himself, might almost as well have left the literature unstudied. According to James' theory, the lessons are worse than wasted. In all ethical training we need to enlist the services of the youth in definite active moral enterprises. To weave ethical teachings into the fiber of their lives we need to secure their co-operative activity in assisting the needy, relieving suffering, protecting the weak, preventing cruelty to animals, ministering unto the sick, bringing sunshine to minds clouded by sorrow and distress. We need to emphasize more the gospel of service. The gospel of feeling has received its due share of attention. With proper service, feelings will take care of themselves. Children should be taught that no man liveth unto himself, and that genuine service rendered unto others is the highest morality. Advanced thinkers clearly see that educational practice has too long maintained the scholastic divorcement of home and life interests from school duties. Our attitude has been a vestige of the period of world renunciation. But we are beginning to believe that education is life and all life is education. Now, how to identify these interests and occupations so as to secure an ideal education and an ideal life is the problem to which few have really addressed themselves in the interests of the child. We need many more investigations like those of Dr. Dewey.- Another problem demanding our attention is that of juvenile offenders. Every city and town has its cases, all too numerous, to deal with. Lucy Page Gaston is authority for the statement that 17,000 child crim- inals are arrested yearly in Chicago. It is gratifying that noble men and women are studying this problem and attempting to secure juvenile courts and corrective institutions whereby these children, largely the victims of vicious environments, may be shielded from further vice and helped toward reform. But far too little has been attempted in the way of prevention. Moral typhus pervades the atmosphere of thousands of luckless urchins, who, unless the disease is stamped out, or they are res- cued from its contamination, will become infected just as certainly as tho living in the pesthouse amidst smallpox. Our legal philosophy is Department] NEIV LINES OF ATTACK IN CHILD STUDY loq inconsistent when it assumes the right of the state to isolate and punish criminals and does not assume the right of the state to withdraw the child from the cause of such crime, or require, the home and community to furnish surroundings conducive to right living. Instead of punishing the child as a criminal, every parent whose children under sixteen years of age are brought into the police court should be punished. The parents are the culpable ones. Neglect and indifference of parents is the antecedent of most childish delinquencies. Dr. Wm. T. Harris says: " If I were to name one product of vice or crime that would nearest touch the heart of all good people, I would say the neglected child. Give me the child, and the state may have the man. Every case of vagabondage has its root in some neglected child." In this work we must secure the co-operation of the clergy. Ministers should be trained in child study, and should devote a considerable part of their time to child-culture questions. It is pathetic that the churches have done so little for the child and have spent their time and energies in try- ing to convert confirmed sinners, a task psychologically almost impossible. The new note in education and religion must be prevention, rather than cure; formation of character, not reformation; righteous, growth, not redemption ; positive development, not repression. More effective train- ing of children would lessen the number of adult sinners. Jesus said, " Suffer little children to come unto me and forbid them not, for of such is the kingdom of heaven." Children must be trained to walk in paths of rectitude, and not, when adults, converted from their evil ways. We must also secure the co operation of physicians and lawyers. They have much expert knowledge that may be utilized in the service of the child. From personal conferences with many physicians, I know that they are very sympathetic with many child-study problems, not alone ques- tions of physical welfare, but intellectual and moral problems as well. The lawyer can render expert testimony and helpful- suggestions concern- ing child-labor laws, juvenile courts, corrective institutions, dependent and abandoned children, etc. Finally, we must secure the co-operation of business-men and the home- makers. When a question comes to the point of legislation and execu- tion, teachers and scientists play a very unimportant role. The lawyer and the capitalist make laws, and the lawyer interprets them. The school- master teaches obedience to them. Last winter, when certain educational laws were before the Iowa legislature, it was said that the teamsters' union was more effective than the State Teachers' Association. The teacher's voice is one crying in the wilderness. He is a prophet, not a lawyer. The teacher may say what he will about cigarette smoking, but his words of wisdom go unheeded. Whenever the railway managers find that the cigarette fiend is an inefficient operative they can immediately secure reformation among their employes. Because of these conditions there must be a joining of forces. I am 7IO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study not sure that there should be any local child-study societies as such. If the child-study specialists and the teachers could ally, themselves with the mothers' clubs, the civic leagues, good-government clubs, etc., and there consider child-training questions as one among others, would not the net results to the child be greater? If our National Educational Association could bring into its ranks the lawyer, the doctor, the editor, and the business-man, if we were not so disso- ciated from everyday life interests, instead of being identified with them, we could much more easily reach the public ear and arouse public sentiment. In conclusion, I desire to suggest some of the most pressing problems for child study. Better child-labor laws, the establishment of juvenile courts, segregation of juvenile offenders from confirmed criminals, com- pulsory education laws in every state, the execution of such laws, fewer children per teacher, better utilization and supervision of playground education, an educational journal that appeals to the home and the school, the establishment of the kindergarten in every hamlet and city in the United States, the co-operation of the clergy, the lawyer, the doctor, the business-man, and the home. The child study of the future should deal not less with anthropology, but more with pedagogy; not less with intellectual training, but more with moral ; not less with a study of origins, but more with shaping of destiny; be not less curative, but more preventive ; not less psychological, but more sociological. May the scientific interest of the specialist be not one whit abated ! But he should seek to couple with this more of practical usefulness than he has in the past. The interest of the teacher should not be in the theoretical consideration of the science, but in the practical application that may come from well-formulated principles. The schoolroom is not the place for experimentation upon children, and the teacher should not be an experimenter. It is well if the teacher has had scientific train- ing; but the sooner teachers and parents learn that child study in the home and in the school is primarily for the good of the child, secondarily for the good of the teacher or parent, and only incidentally for the sake of the science, the better it will be for the child and for the reputation of the science. THE CHILD-STUDY DEPARTMENT OE THE CHICAGO PUBLIC SCHOOLS MISS ANGELINE LOESCH, VOLUNTEER ASSISTANT CHILD-STUDY DEPARTMENT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. With the advice and co-operation of Dr. W. S. Christopher, the Chicago board of education organized the department of child study in July, 1899. The three members of the department, Mr. F. VV. Smedley i Department] CHILD-STUD Y DEPAR TMENT IN CHICAGO SCHOOLS 7 1 1 director, Mr. C. C. Krauskopf and Dr. D. P. MacMillan, assistants, have therefore just completed their third year of work. The first period, sixteen months of that time, was devoted entirely to certain investigations into the physical condition of the Chicago school children. There were taken and recorded for each child measurements of his height, standing and sitting, weight, strength of grip, lung capa- city, and tests of hearing, sight, and endurance. Records of place and date of. birth and nationality of parents were kept, as well as careful notes on any marked defects of growth or development. For tests of grip, an adjustable dynamometer invented by Mr. Smedley was used, and the ordi- nary wet spirometer for lung capacity. Sight and hearing were tested, the former by Snellen's test type card, and the latter with Seashore's audiom- eter. Mosso's ergograph, somewhat modified by Mr. Smedley, was used as a test of endurance and an indication of general nerve strength. Its results were recorded in kilogram centimeters ; time given, ninety seconds. In all, 6,259 school children were examined, 2,788 boys and 3,471 girls. These included all the pupils of four large elementary and two high schools, besides eighth grade and kindergarten in others. After compilation of data, the fruits of this work were many tables of average height, weight, etc., for boys and girls of all ages; and these were designed to be used as a basis of reference for much of the department's later work. To obtain these norms had been the whole object of the six- teen months' work. Whatever individual advice as to incipient nervous disease, defects of hearing or sight, was given to pupil or teacher was merely incidental. The gaining of norms, the establishment of a physi- cal basis for comparing children of one age with those older or younger, the boys with the girls, the dull children with the bright — this was the purpose to which all else was secondary. Specifically, the results may be put in the form of one concrete example. According to the department's statistics, a Chicago school boy ten years old, if of ordinary physical and mental development, could be described, in average numbers, as follows : BOY OF TEN YEARS Height, standing . . . 4 feet, 3>^ inches Height, sitting ----.-..-, 2 feet, 4 inches Weight 63 pounds Amount of work possible in 90 seconds . . - . . 16 ft. pounds Strengtn of grip, right hand - - - 36 pounds Strength of grip, left hand - - - - - - - - 34 pounds Lung capacity 97 cubic inches He is able with either eye alone to read type three-eighths of an inch square at a distance of twenty feet. In all these respects the boy of ten years is just ahead of the girl of the same age. She is one-half inch shorter, two pounds lighter, grips four pounds less, and is eleven cubic inches 712 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study less in lung capacity. Needless to remark, her eyes and ears are just as good as his. When this boy is fourteen years old he is five feet tall, a gain of eight and one-half inches (the major part of it, by the way, in length of limb); he weighs ninety-four pounds, has a lung capacity of 146 cubic inches; his strength of grip, right hand, is sixty-two pounds. BOY OF FOURTEEN YEARS Height, standing ..--.--.-- 5 feet Height, sitting 2 feet, 7 inches Weight g4 pounds Amount of work in 90 seconds 28 ft. pounds Strength of grip, right hand - - - - - - - - 62 >^ pounds Strength of grip, left hand 58 pounds Lung capacity - - - - - - - . - - - - 146 cubic inches While the girl of ten was in all respects the physical inferior of the boy of ten, when they are both fourteen we find the case somewhat altered. The girl is now one-half inch taller than the boy, and three and one-half pounds heavier. But in other respects he still surpasses her. In a word, he has kept his superiority in strength but lost it in size, a loss only temporary, of course. GIRL OF FOURTEEN YEARS Height, standing - - 5 feet, y^, inch Height, sitting - - 2 feet, 8 inches Weight - - - - - - - 97^ pounds Amount of work in 90 seconds .-..-.. 23 ft. pounds Strength of grip, right hand 54^ pounds Strength of grip, left hand 50^ pounds Lung capacity ■ - - - - 123 cubic inches The possession of material for such comparison ad libitum was the result of the child-study department's first year and a half of work, a labor more satisfactory, perhaps, than that of the next year, because the more definite ; but more statistical, and so less interesting. The la'^ter half of the work, extending approximately over fourteen months' time, may be looked upon as of two sorts: 1. The application to various school problems of the norms gained. 2. The approaching of the more difficult and delicate task of gaining a few psychological norms; these to be employed afterward along with the physical. Of the former, i.e., the use of the physical norms, we shall presently speak more fully; of the latter, the psycho-physical work, only a little can be said. It is both unscientific and uninteresting to dwell on a half-finished task. Suffice it to say that the children's power of construct- ive imagination, of immediate visual and immediate auditory memory have been subjects of experimentation. Criticism and discussion of method were here of course very important. After repeated trials and DepartmentJ CHILD-STUD Y DEPAR TMENT IN CHICAGO SCHOOLS 7 1 3 changes, a method was decided on as adapted to the conditions. So far, only one or two indications of results are worth mentioning: 1. Data obtained show no sex difference in memory power; no evidence, as other experimenters have found, that the girl's memory is more accurate than the boy's. 2. Nothing points to the existence of a " memory period," i. e., a time when the child's memory power is actually stronger than at any later age. Whether at one period the memory is the predominant mind- process is another question. Growth of memory power is rapid up to thirteen or fourteen, and slow, tho steady, afterward thru the school age, i.e., to twenty-one. 3. Visual memory is weaker than auditory in very early school life, is equal to it at nine years, and by fourteen is almost invariably stronger. Is this the natural course of development among people who are neither exclusively " eye nor ear minded," or is it the effect of school life? 4. Among the pupils, more of the visualizers are above grade than those who depend on the auditory memory. Is this because in modern life the eye is the more useful sense-organ, or because school work is so largely planned for visualizers? The facts which raise these questions are still unsupported by sufficient quantities of data to warrant their dis- cussion. Another psycho-physical test which promises to be most profitable in its outcome is that for quickness of movement, muscular control ; this involving, of course, powers of attention. With a metallic pencil the child taps as fast as possible on a platinum plate one-half inch square. Time allowed is thirty seconds, and the number of taps is automatically recorded. The records of about twelve hundred pupils — too few for conclusions — show the boys slightly quicker than the girls, and in both sexes, from eight to eighteen years, a steady gain with age. For undertaking such tests as these, immediate and local pedagogical problems have in each case supplied the motive. And, because it means economy of pupils' and experimenters' time, several problems are often attacked at once, as they have been this year, when, for example, meth- ods of teaching spelling and the effect of manual training in the elemen- tary school were both under discussion. It is to be remembered that the department was not organized for psychological research, but to use the means furnished by the psycho-physical laboratories as an aid in the solu- tion of Chicago's school problems. To return now to the other part of this year's work, work which logic- ally follows and depends upon that of the years 1900 and 1901, i. e., the using of the physical norms in certain specific problems. Any teacher knows that present conditions in most of the schools compel many children to use desks much too large or too small for them. Adjustable desks are a comparatively recent innovation and are expensive. 714 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study The result in our schools has been a guesswork combination of large and medium-size or small and medium-size non-adjustable desks. The child- study department was asked for a recommendation in this matter. By referring to average-height charts it responded with a report giving the proportion of adjustable desks necessary for each school grade, and also the best size for regular desks. These instructions are now followed in each new school when built. The norms have also been used for reference in examining special groups of individuals in the public-school system. Two years ago, for the first time, the high-school graduates, before being allowed to enter the normal school, were required to pass a physical examination. This examination was conducted in part by physicians appointed by the board of education and in part by the child-study department. Measure- ments of height, weight, strength, and lung capacity were taken. Also sight and hearing were carefully tested, and if found seriously and irre- mediably defective the applicant was refused admission to the normal school. The same examination is regularly given at the close of the nor- mal course, and must be satisfactorily passed before the young woman is allowed to teach. Physicians and the child-study department look wholly to the welfare of the children in this matter, and no young woman whose physical health is such as necessarily to impair her usefulness as a teacher is recommended. Another group examined yearly is the boys of the John Worthy School. This is a public school maintained in connection with the Bridewell, Chicago's prison for criminal and delinquent boys. Physically and mentally these boys are found to be much inferior to the ordinary school- boys of the same age. In height and weight the averages of the John Worthy boys were, for the ages from eleven to seventeen years, from i to 23 per cent, lower than the norms foi- those ages. In strength of grip, endurance, and lung capacity the averages were even lower. Strength of grip, for example, of the sixteen-year-old John Worthy boy was 46 per cent, less than for the ordinary sixteen-year-old high -school boy. Result- ing from these examinations there were sent in to the board of education certain recommendations as to the treatment of the pupils in the new parental school, which will have many of these same boys to deal with. Mal-nutrition was a very common condition, and was looked on as a cause of some of the defects. It was therefore advised that particular care be given to provide nourishing food and much manual training. In the future a physician will reside at the parental school who shall be a mem- ber of the child-study department, and shall aid the examiners in their oversight of the boys' physical condition. But by far the most important work made possible by possession of the norms has. been that done in the child-study laboratory. This laboratory was established in June, 1900. Some special apparatus and I DepartmentJ CHILD-STUD Y DEPAR TMENT IN CHIC A GO SCHOOLS 7 1 5 a room in the board of education quarters was open each Saturday of the school year. To it parents and teachers were invited to bring any children who, they thought, needed a careful psycho-physical examina- tion. The child who comes to the laboratory is examined in the following way : Physically and psycho-physically he is measured, and the results compared with the data for the normal child of his age. General facts as to his home and school environment, his conduct, previous illnesses, etc., are obtained. This is done by questioning and consulting at some length with his parents and teachers, for usually at least one of the parents and either the child's teacher or principal are present. Lastly, the child is closely observed thruout the time he is in the room, and careful record kept of any growth and developmental defects or abnormalities. To the teacher and parent conditions are then explained, and, as far as may be, advice is given about future treatment of the child in school and home. In all, 360 children have been examined — 276 boys and 84 girls — the great majority (231) of these from seven to eleven years old. Most of these might be put into one of five groups : 1. Dull, but physically well. 2. Dull and physically defective. 3. Bright and very well developed physically. (These brought in with the false idea that they are overdeveloped and should be held back mentally.) 4. Bright mentally, but weak physically. 5. Very defective in sight or hearing. ^ • Thru the laboratory the child-study department acts in a way as a general adjusting bureau for the schools. It is called upon to answer such questions as these : For this child with very defective sight, is the best place the ordinary class-room or the department for the blind ? This child does well enough except in drawing, or in singing, or in arithmetic, and there he absolutely fails. Have you any suggestions to make? Is there any explanation and remedy for this boy's fearful restlessness, making him extremely hard to manage in the schoolroom ? Is this backward, inert child mentally defective, physically incapable, or merely indolent ? Are these ten or twenty pupils backward enough mentally to warrant their segre- gation in a special room ? All these queries the department answers as best it may. If it recom- mends a special room, it afterwards keeps watch of the pupils, and often finds improvement enough in a few months to sanction the return of the child to the graded room. This question of " segregation " reminds us of the true reason for the existence of a laboratory, a motive which it has in common with all state segregating institutions, a motive of which it never loses sight — the good of the large majority, the normal individuals. With their interests chiefly 7 '6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study in view, all reasonable aid is sought for the abnormal, and his segregation if feasible. That it makes for the normal children's welfare to assist or remove the seriously defective no teacher will deny. That the interests of the two classes generally coincide is an indubitable fact most welcome to all concerned. After calling attention to the underlying purpose of this laboratory, and to the fact that 360 children have been there exam- ined and in a great many cases helped, it is needless to reiterate the importance of this part of the work. In a word, then, the aim of the child-study department has been : 1. A collection of data, physical and psycho-physical, to help in solv- ing pedagogical problems. 2. The use of those data and all other aid possible in the public- school management of backward and delinquent children. 3. (And this work is only just begun.) The presentation to the teacher of the facts and conclusions to assist in his valuation of the child and his adaptation of the curriculum. WHAT OUR SCHOOLS OWE TO CHILD STUDY THEO. B. NOSS, PRINCIPAL OF THE SOUTHWESTERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CALIFORNIA, PA. In the study of the child, as in the study of nature, much has been left to the last two decades to discover. We speak of the present as an extraordinary era of invention and discovery. It may be that the greatest discovery of all is that of the child. People will say, " We have had child study for twenty years. What has it done for our schools?" The aiiswer is : It has done much to give us a new education. More par- ticularly child study has contributed much to give elementary schools (i) an improved curriculum ; (2) a better method ; and, most of all, (3) a new goal. The curriculum. — The employments of an up-to-date primary school bear slight resemblance to those of a primary school of thirty or forty years ago. The child then had little to do and much to remember. Even yet it is painful to see that in thousands of elementary schools the traditions of the past enthrall the teacher. The children in less-favored localities still devote their time, not to doing what is interesting and useful, but to memorizing what is for the most part dull and useless. The secret of the best primary work of today is that it is essentially doing something, instead of committing something to memory. It has been truly said that " the strongest potential capacity in the child is capacity for action." In the kindergarten, where the blight of custom is less felt, and where there is a constant appeal to what is natural and interesting, the principle Department] IVHAT OUR SCHOOLS OWE TO CHILD STUDY 111 of freedom and self-activity dominates. So in the university and the technical schools (which in some measure have caught the spirit of the kindergarten), where there is a constant demand for what is useful and vital, again the method of freedom and self-activity dominates. It is only between these happy extremes that the practices of the school still show in many places the stupid memory habit and the text-book disease of a past generation. And now, fortunately, we see that many of these schools are moving toward the light. Are we not indebted in a large measure to child study for this new view of education which adapts sub- ject-matter and school employments to the real needs and interests of the pupil? It is a matter of regret that more progress has not been made, that in so many schools there is still an adherence to old forms from which the soul of truth has departed. Lesson matter was formerly chosen because of the utilities of life ; hence the prevailing notion of the paramount value of the three R's. Now we have no patience with such puerilities in education. The utility of the child himself as a personality to be developed is of such towering importance that nothing else is worthy to be compared with it. Child study has given new emphasis to the old doctrine that the essential element in education is not knowledge, but training. Nothing can be truer in practical pedagogy than Solomon's dictum : " Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it." Education consists chiefly in forming rather than informing the mind; the creating of interests, the formation of habits, rather than the storing of memory with conventional knowledge. All great success in early training springs from intelligent and sympa- thetic interest in the child himself. Child study has come when most needed to direct the attention and interest of teachers to the paramount importance of the child himself in the process of education, and to emphasize the importance of beginnings. What is put into the first of life is put into the whole of it. The earliest efforts yield the best and the most fruit. To concentrate upon the early years is to seize the strategic point. Lose this and we lose the battle. The failure and waste of life in thousands of men and women thru neglect of early training is the saddest tragedy of modern life. The 7nethod. — In education most depends, not upon what we study, but how, and with whom. The method of the teacher is always impor- tant. Here is the pearl of great price in the art of teaching. How is a method of teaching learned? By a study of the subject-matter alone? No, but by a patient, loving study of the child. Child study has taught us the value of motive in education. Presi- dent Eliot recently said : " When you appeal to a child with motives he won't use when he is a man, you have not helped him much. " Motive," 7i8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study he adds, " makes all the difference between slavery and freedom, between misery and happiness." We sometimes hear the fear expressed that the new methods make education too easy. It is true that for the best results oft-repeated and severe exertion is necessary, but it is never necessary that this exertion be made without motive. Hard work is necessary, but should it ever be done without interest and a pleasurable sense of reward? " The time of interest is the time of opportunity." There can be no excuse for making things dull or difficult that may be made easy and attractive. The child must be dealt with sincerely, naturally. We do not expect success by finding the longest way instead of the shortest, the slowest instead of the quickest, the hardest instead of the easiest. The common-sense of the busy and prosperous life of the farm, the store, and the street is just what is needed in the schoolroom. Good teachers will soon cease to believe that some studies are good for discipline that are not good for anything else. The best discipline is and must be found in doing something worth doing, and doing it well. Life is a unity and is continuous from the cradle to the grave. The school is not to be viewed merely as a preparation for life, but as a very important part of it. Those interests should be begun, those methods started, those purposes planted that are to characterize the life thruout. If this be true, how important it is that we scrutinize very carefully the usages, employments, and methods of the school, lest haply we find that we have wasted time and dissipated energy and acted very foolishly in dealing with children ! The end or goal. — It is now more evident than ever before that the true aim of education is not knowledge merely, or chiefly, but a many- sided development. Child study has helped us most by enhancing our value of the product of our work. This is, nothing less than skill of hand and eye and tongue, a well-poised body, a well-rounded mind, a sympa- thetic and altruistic nature, strong and worthy interests, force of will, and power to do. Knowledge is not the end. Tho the pupil have all knowledge, and have not interest and motive, it profits him nothing. To what, then, shall we appeal in education? To the needs of the individual child. There is but one rule that will never fail us, and that is, study and serve each child. Everything else must be secondary to this. School is but a contrivance to help the child. The rigidity of the curriculum and the school routine must yield somehow to the needs of the individual child, or it would in many cases be better to take the child out of school. By far the richest fruit of the whole child-study movement is the greatly increased interest in the child to be educated. The Great Teacher said, " Consider the lilies of the field how they grow." In education we have at last happily reached the stage when many teachers really "consider" the child. Department] IVIJAT OUR SCHOOLS OWE TO CHILD STUDY 719 Child study seems destined, not to modify merely, but to revolutionize, our methods of discipline. The teacher who punishes the child in igno- rance of physical infirmities and home deficiencies is inexcusable, and the teacher who does so with a knowledge of, but without allowance for, these things, is cruel and brutal. No hand is fit to touch young life in the schoolroom except the hand of skill and kindness. Almost as well employ an eighteen year-old girl without special training to fill prescrip- tions in a drug store as to employ her without training or preparation to teach children. The demand should be instant, constant, persistent that only well-trained teachers shall be put in charge of schools. Child-study has emphasized this demand as no other educational movement has done or could do. In spite of all that child study has accomplished, a recent writer says : '* There are some healthful signs that the child-study diversion which has been carried to such extremes has well-nigh run its course." In my judg- ment the most hopeful sign for the future of elementary education is that child study has only begun its course. DISCUSSION John Dewey, professor of philosophy and education, University of Chicago. — I would emphasise, first, the last statement in Professor Noss' paper. The chief thing child study has done is that it has regenerated the peculiar thing named " pedagogy and psychology for teachers," a great deal that formerly went by this name being very remote. The first pedagogical doctrine, " from the concrete to the abstract," was often disre- garded by pedagogs themselves. The concrete for the teacher is the mind of the child, not mind in general, but a particular mind, a particular spirit in an individual child. Child study has led us to base methods on the actual characteristics of the actual concrete being under instruction. Classifications used to be laid down of the various faculties of the mind : memory, imagination, reasoning, and rules given for training each. There was smooth sailing when these were considered only theoretically; but when the rules were applied to children it was discovered that the latter were not faculties, but live beings. A person from Mars might study purely theoretical pedagogy, and still not be able to identify a human being. Analysis is carried so far that it would not put one in touch with faculties when bound together in a human being. Independent of some exaggeration about particular truths discovered by child study, it has served to put emphasis in training a child upon the right basis. The teacher who really knows the subject to be taught and the nature of the individual mind which is dealt with can develop his own devices with better results than he could attain by learning particular recipes having not much to do with the child. Child study has put into proper perspective the sort of training which the teacher needs, and has brought a vitalizing element into the work. We teachers are the most conscientious class in the world; often too conscientious in following types of pedagogical recommendations which bring no adequate return. Child study vitalizes the truths grasped after. Child study has brought about a different conception of education itself. One of the late advances in education was the doctrine of drawing out instead of pouring in. But the thing drawn out was expected to be knowledge, as tho the child had swallowed the world, and methods must be applied to draw out of him what he has swallowed. Conceive little children in the home or at play. They don't sit around waiting to have 720 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study things drawn out, but are all activity, full of intensity, zeal, restlessness. Child study makes prominent the activities of the child and tries to find the line along which these activities can direct themselves. Child study brings out the significance of development in education. We have always talked about this, comparing the child to the acorn, but it has been treated ift a poetical rather than a scientific way. We recognize particular characteristics which are prominent at different periods of growth, and which must be treated in different ways. Child study has done much in bringing out the defining and leading characteristics of different epochs. Biologists talk about a culture medium. According to different media they get different results in lower and even in higher forms of life ; and this control of the nature of living things is as scientific as the action of machinery. The skill of the horticulturist in transforming grains and fruits is not guess-work or haphazard, for he knows the conditions necessary for such transformation. There is certainty that this can ultimately be done in human development when conditions for growth are better known. To say that there are laws governing the movement of planets, laws of chemistry, metals, etc., and that mind has no laws of its own to be made use of, is absurd. To ridicule child study, which has its excresences, is to say that mind has no laws which can be discovered. The time will come when one of the two or three important facts which educational history will mention about this period will be its recognition that the embodied mind of boys and girls has laws which can be discovered, and the laws discovered give a basis for directing a growth which will give the richest and best results. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD AS APPLIED TO EDUCATION R. O, BEARD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA The literature of education is rich in its elaboration of the methods of instruction and in its discussion of the tools of teaching. It is poor still, and that despite some recent valuable contributions to its treasury of knowledge in the study of the human being to be taught. As in the library, so in the schools. The teacher is trained in the technique of his task, in the use of his implements, in the subject-matter of the multiplicity of themes he is to teach. He learns little of the physiology of the child with whose physiologic development he is charged. The true musician is he who knows not only the science of harmony, the theory of composition, the technique by which his musical conception is to find expression in instrumental or vocal form, but he who is familiar with the structure of the instrument by which his creations are to be actualized. It is a master hand guided by a master mind which touches to our finest sense the keys which utter his musical message to mankind. But it is too often an unskilled hand which fumbles with roughly shapen fingers, an unawakened eye which scans the unmeaning measures, an unknowing mind which seeks to stir the sweetness of this harp of a thou- sand strings, to awaken the harmonies of the human mind in which the music of a myriad years is massed. I Departmentl PHYSIOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD 721 Child study, it is true, is a recognized obligation of the teacher of today, but child study has been pursued almost exclusively from the meta- physical viewpoint, and has, so far, been based but little upon the physi- ology of the young human body, of which the mental is the highest, but not the only, nor in any sense an independent, form of functional activity. The subject has been obscured by the pursuance of technical details of mental peculiarity, instead of being illumined by the liberal study of the broad principles upon which the physiology of childhood rests. The consequence is that modern education is, in its results, a departure from the ancient ideals which we, far better than the ancients, with far greater possibilities of knowledge than they possessed, have the opportunity to attain — the culture of a mens sana in corpore sano. The consequence, to put it in positive terms, is too frequently seen by the physician in an unfortunate tendency to the asymmetrical development of children. In order to lay down some lines along which the scientific study of the child should be pursued, certain foundational principles in the physi- ology of childhood may be profitably suggested. Child study, to be safely informing, must carry the student teacher back not only to the beginnings of infant life, but to an inquiry into those hereditary forces which so frequently and so deeply determine character. He cannot safely content himself with the attempt to discover the physiologic conditions of the child of school age. The teacher deals with fortunately plastic but nevertheless partially formed plasm. Development is, and education therefore must be, continuous, both in the individual and in the race. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes predicted his failure to correct the physical errors of a child because he had not had the opportunity to begin with his patient's grandmother. While the teacher is required to build upon foundations which are already partially laid, his knowledge of the ideal substructure of the human edifice will ultimately improve the building in the home, as well as the building in the schoolroom. The teacher is the most permanent of all builders, because that which he builds in the childhood of today tends to establish the type of the building of the gene- rations which are to follow. He is a most potent factor in the evolution of the future, since that structural impress which he has years of oppor- tunity to make upon the human organism fosters the hope of heredity. Without that structural change transmission fails. And this emphasizes the important consideration that he has to deal with a thing which is still in the making — in the making in a very essential physiologic sense. Growth is the dominant characteristic of childhood, and one which is conditioned not only upon its rapidity, but upon its specific quality. Dif- ferentiation of structure and specialization of function are going on hand in hand, and that, particularly at this period, in the nerve tissues. It becomes the task of the teacher to foster the symmetrical development of 722 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child- Study the child both structurally and functionally. His aim is, or ought to be, the production of a perfect whole. This burden of growth which childhood carries constitutes a heavy nutritive demand upon it. This demand is met by the large development in early life of the tissue-elaborating organs. They represent a very large percentage of the body weight of the child. Their functional operation requires an equally wide range. It must not be narrowed by the intru- sion of other forms of functional activity of less immediate consequence. The need of tissue-building material in childhood is correspondingly large, and it should be remembered that this structural material includes water and oxygen in very generous measure. Teachers and school offi- cials do not sufficiently appreciate the physiologic need of large quanti- ties of pure air and pure water by the children during long school hours. The process of digestion in the child, however advantageously simple the dietary may be, is relatively slow, and temporarily taxes the blood supply. It should not be embarrassed by an undue draft upon the circu- lation for the purposes of cerebral activity. For the school-going child the morning meal should be early ; the noon meal light ; an early even- ing meal staple. The school tasks with which morning and afternoon sessions begin should be easy, in order to allow time for the completion of digestion. The more difficult studies should be reserved for the inter- vals following recess. Seasonal variations in growth, particularly empha- sized in the spring and autumn, should be respected. In childhood, time is emphatically of the essence of function. The fund of potential energy stored by the tissue-cells is not large and it is rapidly expended. The periods of functional activity are therefore brief. The demand for repose is emphatic. Sleep is the period alike of con- struction and reconstruction. The more actively growth and repair are associated, the longer must be the interval of rest. Sleep is the overseer of the tissue-building process. To be effective, functional activity must be minimized; relaxation must be complete. Sleep-tension, a condition frequently observed in the overtaxed child, is a practical insomnia. It is a signal of nerve storm. Not only is the range of physiologic activity in childhood a narrow one, but the pendulum of function is easily swung. Elasticity is alike a structural and a functional quality. It is illustrated at almost every point, in the wide and readily provoked variance in the caliber of the arteries ; in the frequency and changing force of the heart-beat; in the rapid and deeper rhythm of respiration ; in the sharp contraction and perfect reaction of the skeletal muscles; in the ready rise and fall of the temperature scale; in the quick response and the equally quick exhaustion of the nervous mechanism. Valuable as this elastic quality is, it marks a tendency to extremes of which the educator must beware. Department] PHYSIOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD 723 Emphasis has been put upon the prerequisite of symmetry in the development of the child. This demand does not predicate an initial symmetry to be preserved, but rather a symmetry to be attained. Asym- metry is a feature of early childhood. The task of the teacher is the cultivation of the child along asymmetrical lines to a symmetrical result. Success involves the study of the average structural and functional condi- tions of childhood at given periods, as well as a careful estimate of the degree of individual departure from this common standard. A comparison of the structural conditions which obtain at birth is suggestive. In the new-born babe the nutritive organs show a percent- age of body weight disproportionately great to that in the adult. The skeletal framework has reached and merely maintains its essential pro- portion. The muscular tissues represent only 23 per cent, of the weight of the young infant. They reach an average of 45 per cent, at maturity. The nerve tissues are relatively massive, representing from 13 to 15 per cent, of the body weight at birth, while they are wanting in that struc- tural complexity and functional specialization which they attain, at the expense of bulk, in the adult, of whose total weight they bear but 2 per cent., or less. The applications of this fact of physiologic asymmetry to the education of the child are manifold. The several strings in the human harp must be turred and played upon in turn. They are of variant tensions and unequal lengths. Each must be developed in its fundamental quality or in its under- or its overtones of power until its pitch, variant from but relational to the rest, falls into place in the production of a harmonic composite. All the strings of function do not demand equal play. They do require exercise in turn. Alternation and brevity in their exercise are the elements of functional pleasure or interest. The whole gamut of activity, fitly touched, turns work into play at every point of contact and gives to recreative use the quality of rest. More, there is a tone-domi- nant in every human instrument which marks its individual quality, and which demands discovery by a master mind and cultivatipn by a master hand. But while the teacher discovers and cultivates, he does not create. Marchesi trains a throat and drills a tone to lingering sweetness, but never yet did a Marchesi make a voice. The child harp has its own spe- cific vibrations, its own intrinsic hidden song. Strung to sympathy and tuned to response by the trainer's hand, life strikes at last its sympathetic chord and it sings itself. Again, every string cannot be played upon successfully by the same hand. Variance in exercise is not more impor- tant than variance in the exerciser. The grade teacher of today who is expected to serve as a mental acrobat in the teaching of a half a dozen topics for five days of every week and forty weeks of every year is an educational paradox in herself and a physiologic blunder in the education of the child. Specialism must go into the grades as it has partially gone 724 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION f Child- Study into the secondary and wholly into the university schools. The teacher as a factor in the development of childhood will be potentized in direct ratio to the number of the years in which she is permitted to pursue the training of a given child, as well as in direct proportion to the degree in which she specializes herself in its teaching. But perhaps the most significant physiologic feature of childhood, and that upon the recognition of which the success of the child trainer most largely depends, is the fact of the relative immaturity of the nervous sys- tem. The nervous mechanism of the infant is of great but undeveloped bulk at birth. It is an unmapped chart. Its functional activity, so far, is limited almost to the exercise of those rhythmic reflexes which represent the small funded capital — the transmitted quality of a few nerve cells. The avenues of special sense which serve as the fields of instruction along which impressions pass to the awakenment, the direction, the development of the dormant nerve centers have been, until birth, but closed pathways. They are suddenly opened up to a flood of influences. At once the dif- ferentiation of nerve tissue, the specialization of nerve function, begins. Under the influence of newly-operative stimuli, the end organs are at first uncertain in their responses; they manifest an irregular irritability; at first the paths of conduction along which impressions and impulses are conveyed are poorly insulated, and a certain vagrancy of transmission is observed ; at first the nerve cells display a degree of instability, of imper- fect storage, of disorderly discharge of energy. Gradually the specific quality of receiving cells, the lines of resistance along nerve paths, the intelligent reaction of nerve centers, become established. The education of the nervous mechanism is rapid, but it is essentially post-natal, and, however rapid, it is a long process by which it is brought up to the point of average contemporary development. This educational process affects the evolution of two distinct yet related phases of function — that upon the afferent or impressional side, and that upon the efferent or actional side of this nervous mechanism. Upon the one side is involved the evolution of the properties of specific sensa- tion, or the power to develop specific impressions; of perception, or the power to recognize the causes of such impressions ; of judgment, or the power to compare impressions with each other; and, finally, of registra- tion, or the impress of given impressions upon the nervous mechanism, to the end that they may be reproduced, upon similar stimulation, in the form of memory. This progression of function upon the afferent or impressional side of the nervous mechanism is essentially a matter of edu- cation. It involves the cultivation of all the avenues of special sense, and, in its highest results, the association of these several fields of instruction with each other. The child trainer enjoys a large opportunity in the adaptation of the means of education to this great end. Certain primary principles must guide his task. Departmentl PHYSIOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD 725 First, and perhaps of most important observance, the stimuli by which impressions are to be produced upon the nervous mechanism of the child should be self-chosen. So, and only so, can they be fitly graded to the degree of its development. Age is not an index to that development, and consequently it is not an intelligent means of school grading. More care- ful estimates of capacity should determine, from time to time, the classifi- cation of pupils. Large opportunity should be provided for the child's voluntary comparison of stimuli to the education of his judgment. The application of given stimuli should be frequently repeated to the attainment of that permanent impress upon his nerve centers upon which registration or memory depends. Memory is a too contracted term which marks an undue limitation in the estimate of this registrative function. It is a trite saying that we forget far more than we remember. It were better said that we are unaware of how much. we register. The field of unconscious registration is a wider one than that of conscious memory. Memory is but registration in act. The more clearly cut in its character is a stimulus — that is, the more sharply contrasting it be upon the field of specific sensation — the more likely it is to produce a permanent impress. The teacher should study the mode of application of a stimulus or the method by which an object is brought under observation. The element of surprise is useful. The invariable demand for what the physiologist terms reaction time in the development of an impression should be respected. Its duration varies in different individuals. The child who is said to be absent-minded is usually one in whom this reaction time is necessarily prolonged, or in whom it is occupied with a slow comparison of impressions, out of which sounder, safer judgments are born than are usually developed by a mind of readier response. Stimuli are often employed in too rapid succession. Impressions crowd each other in the avenues of sight and sound and touch ; they pro- duce indefinite sensations or perceptions; they permit scant time for com- parisons ; they leave feeble impress at the best. But that is not all. They intrude by their undue repetition upon the possibilities of education upon the other side of nerve function. They embarrass the actional result in which every nerve act completes its full cycle. The impression which does not have its counterpart in expression is in the end a bane rather than a benefit. The remarkable achievements which have been made in the teaching of the deaf or the blind are in part traceable to the fact that the teacher is compelled at every step to halt for the intelligent response of the pupil. A flood of impressions, flowing in fast upon the highly sensitized nerve cells of the child, and find- ing no outlet, becomes a physiologic burden upon the nervous mechan- ism, and in the end produces the overcharged, introspective, self-centered. 726 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study unkinetic type of which modern society affords so many examples, espe- cially of the feminine order, in whom action or expression is habitually disastrously limited. Fortunately, the motor element in education has been of more clearly recognized importance in recent days. It is still of too limited apprecia- tion. Action takes form in the finer as well as the coarser movements of the muscular tissues. In physical exercise it is trained only upon a broad field. In pose, in gesture, in facial expression, in speech, in song, in all varieties of manual training, it has opportunities of the most delicate cul- ture. And in this actional phase of nerve function we witness the same progression of development that we have already noted upon the impres- sional side. From the simple reflex response the human nervous mech- anism rapidly proceeds to the exercise of the nerve centers and muscular tissues in relation and eventually in co-ordinated harmony of result. Next, the co-ordinated act becomes habit — the acquired reflex — and habit gradually merges into those repetitional effects which determine structural impress and which fund themselves in those rhythmical reflexes which are exhibited in hereditary or instinctive acts. The educator should note and foster this progression. It should be one of his continual aims to develop harmony of action, to make co-ordination habitual, to encourage habit to serve for the creation of a larger fund of hereditary capacity in the motor cells. He should observe another foundational fact — that in their nature all forms of motor expression are rhythmic. Rhythm is the rule of func- tion. It is simply another evidence of the physical fact, exalted into a physiologic law, that all matter, and especially all living matter, is sus- ceptible of vibratory motion. Vibration is the essence of rhythm, of that rhythmic swing, of that rise and fall of functional activity, which, now within narrow range and again upon a broader plane, every organ of the animal body exhibits. This rhythmic quality is a feature of all forms of motor expression. "Muscular movement," says Wilks, "is essentially rhythmic." "All movement," says Clifford Allbutt, "even the rush of falling water, is rhythmic." Roy observes that upon using a pencil to form a series of dots upon the surface of a sheet of paper, while the paper is drawn slowly along from right to left, a uniform number of dots per second is made. Wallaschek tells us that "not in the different passions of the mind, but in muscular action, music appears to have had its origin." Allbutt again says: " The Greek strophe and antistrophe, the basis of rhythm (in music) — terms now applied to musical phrasing — were primarily depend- ent upon the movement, the dancing, of the orchestra from one side to another." If musical rhythm, then, has originated in muscular movement, it follows that muscular movement itself, inspired by a nervous mechanism I Department] PHYSIOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD 727 which pulsates in the discharge of rhythmic waves of energy, is essentially rhythmic. The regulation of that rhythm is part of the work .of the educator. To cultivate its highest expressions, to vary its exercise, to change its measure, is to afford pleasure in work and rest in recreation. Finally, the study of the physiology of childhood in its applications to methods of education must take account of the fundamental distinc- tions of sex. These differences are inalienable and are alike structural and functional. They are emphasized in the nervous mechanism of the child. The common view that these differences do not antedate puberty, that they are not to be recognized and need not be respected from infancy up, is believed to be a physiologic error. The writer has deter- mined, in a long series of cases, the sex differences in heart-beat, in respiration, in digestive capacity, in emotional quality, in physical meas- urements, and in the limits of muscular and nerve power ranging from birth to puberty. George Eliot's definition of woman as " morally superior, physically finer, and intellectually different " is inherently and originally and ineradicably true. Modifications of these differences may appear, but the types persist. They afford a basis for distinctive training, even within the coeducational limits of the public school. Education must still leave room for the characteristics of sex or it will be in the end deforma- tive. Boy and girl may sit side by side and learn the same lesson, and yet be differently educated. Each should be taught what each instinctively knows — the fact of difference. Each should be taught to recognize that difference as the most sacred fact of each human life. The evolution of each sex must proceed along its own lines. The more sensitive organism of the girl makes her demand for physiologic consideration the more urgent. The dominant part which she plays in the- evolution of the race makes the elevation of her type of largest consequence. As Lester Ward puts it, "woman is the unchanging trunk in the genealogic tree." Those educational methods must fail of their possibilities which do not take large account of the eternally feminine in nature, which tends, in the process of evolution, to its own inevitable and inevitably beautiful result. DISCUSSION E. A. KiRKPATRiCK, professor of psychology and child study, State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. — Much of what Professor Beard has said is not only unquestionably true, but so well stated that it is unnecessary for me to repeat, and unwise for me to attempt to restate. My time may be best spent in discussing points of difference, and in elaborating ideas which Dr. Beard had time merely to suggest. I take exception, first, to the statement that child study has been pursued almost exclusively from the metaphysical standpoint, if by child study is meant what is now known by that term. The child study which is sometimes said to have been carried on by all educators from earliest times may have been of that kind, but certainly this is not true of the child study of the last decade. I am quite sure that of the list of books and articles 728 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study bearing on child study, numbering over a thousand, which I arranged a few years ago, not I per cent, are metaphysical, properly speaking, and I should say that over 50 per cent, are more physiological than psychological. It is true that educators never have, and do not even now, realize the closeness of relation of the physical and mental, but whatever sins modern child study may have been guilty of, failure to call attention of teachers to the importance of physical conditions is not one of them. Possibly, however, in emphasizing the need of taking account of defect- ive and abnormal conditions of children, they have not sufficiently emphasized the corre- lations between physical and mental development in normal children. I think it is true, however, that physiologists generally have failed to appreciate the closeness of relation of bodily structure to nervous structure and function. If Professor Loeb's experiments and theories are substantiated by further investigation, we shall be compelled to look upon the nervous system as chiefly a transmitter of nervous energy from one part of the body to another. We shall not say, as we have been doing, that the hand is controlled by a cer- tain group of nerve cells in the cortex of the brain, but that certain portions of the brain facilitate communication between sense-organs of the hand and other parts of the body and the muscles of the hand concerned in making the proper reaction. We shall not speak of the center controlling the heart, but of the portion of the nervous system that facilitates the transmission of nervous impulses from various parts of the body to the mus- cles of the heart. In short, we shall look upon the nervous system as a means of com- munication between every part of the body that may be stimulated and the muscles or glands that need to respond in an appropriate way. On this view the development of every organ and tissue is of direct significance in the development of the nervous system. Every change in every part of the body disturbs the fine equilibrium of the organism and calls for new adjustments. It is not surprising, therefore, that the age of adolescence, when so many marked physical changes are taking place in the struc- ture and function of the body, is a stage of unstable mental equilibrium and variable action. If this view of the nervous system is supported by the physiologists of the future, as I believe it will be in the main, I am sure child-students will not be slow in calling the attention of teachers to its significance, as they have not been in the past in calling attention to what is known of the relation of physical defects to mental abnormalties. Another point upon which I must beg leave to differ with Dr. Beard is one of application. I agree fully that the nutritive functions are of supreme importance in childhood, and that digestion should not be interfered with by excessive brain activity immediately after eating. His conclusions, however, that the harder part of school work should come after rather than before recess seem to me not justified by the conditions. Most children, especially among the laboring classes, bave had breakfast one or two hours before beginning school work. In the graded schools I think every teacher will agree that pupils are in much better condition for hard work at the opening of school sessions rather than near the close, when tired and hungry. In high schools, however, with only one session a day, where pupils study long on an empty stomach, or one containing two or three hastily swallowed, greasy fried-cakes, doughnuts, or " sinkers," as they are expressively called by the small boy, there is good ground for saying that the sins against physiological laws in the high schools are almost beyond forgiveness. To finish briefly with all points of difference between Dr. Beard and myself : 1 see no occasion for "respecting seasonal variations in growth," and doubt whether the physical differences between sexes before ten years of age is sufficient to demand material differences in treatment. I even think it would be well for young girls not only to study as boys do, but also to play more boys' games, that they may develop physically and socially. On all other points, most of which are much more fundamental than these, I heartily agree with Dr. Beard, and only wish I might more effectively emphasize them. Perhaps Department] PHYSIOLOGY OF CHILDHOOD 729 I may best do this by briefly stating some of tlie differences between the nervous system of children and adults. 1. The nervous system of children is largely unspecialized, yet it is ready for action. Hence, in infants, there is a wonderful variety of aimless movements during all waking moments, and in childhood many more useless movements when trying to attain a definite end than in the case of adults. 2. For many years the child is in a state of very unstable equilibrium ; consequently he is in all kinds of moods and has all kinds of interests within a space of time too short for an adult to get comfortably settled in one frame of mind. 3. Associated with this, as either cause or effect, or both, the child is very quickly fatigued by any one kind of activity. He needs frequent short periods of rest or change of occupation. Prolonged activity of one kind is desirable in adults, but utterly imprac- ticable for children. . 4. The motor or expressive tendency is much stronger in children than in adults, and consequently they tire of receiving much more quickly than of doing. Fatigue and a dis- turbance of the natural functions, with consequent lack of interest, stupidity, and confusion of mind, are the natural results of receiving impressions without opportunity or means of reacting to them in an appropriate way. The mental condition of educated adults who take in for hours and do nothing is wholly unnatural and incomprehensible to the child. From the earliest beginnings of nervous systems in the animal kingdom, nerve cells have helped in making an appropriate response to each stimulus as it was received. If education is to prepare for life, and still more if it is to result in living fully each stage of life, provision must be made for children to do something else besides frantically wave their hands every time they receive an idea. It is not that the motor side of a child's nature needs development by itself so that it shall not be exceeded by the sensory. There is nothing gained by equalizing the time devoted to impression and to expression if the processes are carried on separately, for successful living is nothing but making the proper response to each stimulus as it is received. 5. The nervous systems of children are exceedingly plastic, hence children can be taught anything or learn to do anything with almost any degree of accuracy. This ability to adapt itself to environment is the most striking and valuable characteristic of the young of all the higher animals. In man it is most prominent and for the greatest length of time. In our constantly advancing civilization men and women need to preserve this plasticity of the nervous system as long as possible, or they will fall behind in the race of life as customs, processes, and methods change. 'J'o this end variety in' training is necessary, and only the universally useful activities should be allowed to become automatic habits. 6. Plastic as is the nervous system, and capable of being molded almost at will, we must not forget that it has a natural order of development as surely as the grain of corn produces leaf, stalk, tassel, and ear with never a reversal of this order. As fast as we learn this natural order we should strive to utilize it in hastening and perfecting the educational process. We shall then work according to the plans of nature, the great architect of the nervous system, in developing the highest type of men and women. Professor Beard. — In my paper I did not mean to assert that child study had been altogether limited to the metaphysical aspect, but that in the books on the subject this side had been overemphasized. Referring to Professor Kirkpatrick's allusion to an empty stomach, I would say that when the stomach is empty digestion is not over, but that the largest events of digestion take place in the small intestines ; so that, even in the case of the laboring man's child, with his early breakfast, the early exercises of the school should be light. The post- recess period is good for hard work because the recess poriod gives chance for large consumption of oxygen. 73° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study There is seasonable variation in growth ; in spring the curve of height, in autumn the curve of weight, show a marked rise. At these seasons it is more difficult to make a successful impression on the mind of the child than at other times. I should be the last to deprecate allowing girls all the freedom of motor expression which boys have ; but should insist that there are intellectual differences. Not in the playground, but in the schoolroom, should differences on account of sex be made. Both sexes should choose for themselves their lines of work to a larger extent than is done at present. HOW FAR DOES THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL FIT THE NATURE AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS? REUBEN POST HALLECK, PRINCIPAL BOYS HIGH SCHOOL, LOUISVILLE, KY. What is the nature of an adolescent? In many respects he is like the boy that has preceded and like the man that follows, but in some he is emphatically different. There seems to be no absolute break in nature, but between barren branches, buds, and full-grown leaves nature shows rapid progressive changes. Adolescence is one of nature's marked pro- gressive changes. By adolescence we mean that period which begins approximately at fourteen and continues for an indefinite period. It is the most wonderful period in human life, the period that takes a child and makes out of him a man. The child is at first receptive and reactive. A flash of light or a noise assails his senses and he reacts. Memory, imagina- tion, and the simpler processes of thought develop. In adolesence there appears a something as new as the spring buds on the branches. A cre- ative spark is added to the mental life, a spark which the breath of .education may fan into such a flame that the heavens may become light with the work of resulting poet, artist, or inventor. Roughly speaking, in adolescence creative capacity is added to the simpler mental powers. I do not mean that the adolescent ceases to be receptive. I am sure that the rank and file of men are and always will be more receptive than cre- ative, but I do know that the creative spark alone will bring humanity to its full heritage. Note that I am to speak of the high-school adolescent, not of adoles- cents in general. The high-school adolescent represents the fittest survivals of an elimination process that has been active for eight years. I am speaking of the pick of adolescents, of those whose influence will cause the world to progress. I bespeak for the high-school adolescent better treatment, better facilities, better-paid teachers of the broadest education. Some would emasculate the high school for the grades. I would improve the condition of the high-school adolescent, not alone for his sake, but for the sake of the balance of the world, which he is to elevate. It was right that at Valley Forge George Washington should have been better clad and less likely to catch pneumonia than the rank and file of the army, not for his sake, but for the sake of the millions to whom he I I Department] THE NATURE AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS 73 ^ was to pass the cup of liberty. It is time that the public school stopped teaching the lie of equality. I know a high-school graduate who man- aged a factory so well that it employed thousands. When he left it fell into less efficient hands. The wages of the workmen had to be lowered, many were discharged, and their families suffered. He was brought back and the factory prospered. Leaving his welfare out of the question, was it not better for the thousands that this manager should have had an excellent high-school education under the best possible teachers? I am a firm believer in the doctrine of the greatest good to the greatest num- ber. I am, therefore, careful not to urge the necessity of giving the high-school adolescent the most inspiring teachers for his own sake, but for the sake of the many whom he is to benefit. By nature an adolescent is akin to the Elizabethans. Adolesence is the Elizabethan age of youth; the age when all things are possible; the age when ships with tons of treasure are returning home from the new western world ; the age when newly-discovered climes are proving the wildest dreams realities; the age when the Armada is defeated; the age when Shakespeare sings a new magical birth song. Then shines the light that never was on land or sea. The teacher who cannot enter heart and soul into this new Elizabethan age is unfitted for his task. What are the needs of the high-school adolescent? First, he needs improved ideals. They will be found to lie at the basis of his improve- ment in all other lines. If, as the poet says, we needs must love the highest when We see it, how many schools, as part of their definite settled aim, give their students frequent glimpses of the highest in litera- ture, in biography, in history, and, equally important, in contemporary life? Here are four worlds, for the most part new to the adolescent. Alas, that they should still be new to many of his teachers ! Every teacher should every year send a ship on a voyage of discovery to these worlds, that she may return home laden with ideals, for there are gold mines of ideals in literature, biography, history, and contemporary events. Because the dreams of the adolescent so far surpass his feeble powers of achievement, he is unusually responsive to those stories and to those heroes that present to him an incarnation of what he would like to be. The shortest distance on earth is the distance from the adolescent's admiration to his imitation. I am not an advocate of promiscuous story- telling for high-school pupils, but every teacher of every high-school subject ought to be able to relate inspiring stories from biography, and to bring to bear on the formation of the ideals of those under them, not only the force of their own examples, but also the examples of the worthy men and women of every age and clime. An adolescent who does not know what hero worship is has not more than half lived. We have too long been feeding high-school adolescents on a disproportion- ate diet of stones, because we have not known the bread which literature, 732 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child- Study biography, history, and contemporary life offer. In their lives there should be nothing " But doth suffer a sea-change Into something rich and strange." I believe that feminine ideals differ in many ways from masculine ideals. Both kinds of ideals are necessary, and each is equally important. In a well-rounded world there must be developed the power of repression as well as the power of expression, the spirit of conservatism as well as the spirit of radicalism ; there must be a fostering of the love of fight as well as a fostering of the love of peace, and there must be assured protection for the weak and vanquished as well as the laurel crown for those to whom strength has brought victory. Both the feminine and the masculine world have, to a certain extent, their own division of labor in the work of life. I protest against that high-school training which endeavors to make girls mannish and boys womanish. The girls and boys often protest, too, by leaving school when that is attempted. Their nature sometimes guides them right. If feminine tastes, emotions, hopes are not appealed to, the girl will be inclined to stop school. In matters of interest as various as reading and sports the tastes of girls differ widely from those of boys. That man who thinks that he can train boys to do everything that girls can just as well as they can do it is a fool. It seems to me that a crying need in the education of adolescent boys is for more virility, more aggressiveness. Of course a ship with engines powerful enough to force her ahead in the teeth of a gale needs a rudder and good steering apparatus, but she does not require the weakening of •those powerful engines. There is a time in the history of most adoles- cent boys who amount to 'anything when masculine restlessness and aggressiveness so assert themselves that the mother is sure that this stage in her son's development is " wrong." It would be just as sensible to describe as " wrong " the shedding of the tadpole's tail and the hopping of the resulting frog out on the bank where he can breathe the freer air. So long as there are in this world opposition to wiser plans, selfishness, dishonesty, crime, there must be masculine aggressiveness to deal with them. Education must develop this quality and hold it in reserve. I think of Runnymede, and Bunker Hill, and Gettysburg, and Santiago de Cuba, and I thank God for the masculine virility and aggressiveness that stood a victor on those fields. Our adolescent boy likes this aggres- sive education, because he springs from a race that today enjoys civil liberty, that today worships God in whatever church it pleases, only because his ancestors were aggressive. He learns to admire the aggres siveness of a Democratic president like Grover Cleveland and of a Repub- lican president like Theodore Roosevelt. Do not be afraid of developing this virility and Aggressiveness. It is well to have a gun loaded, but it need not be fired off at all times. This aggressiveness is not anti-social ; Department] THE NATURE AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS 733 it is an antecedent condition of a social life. There can be no truly social life under a tyrant or the menace of an evil. Next, it seems to me that training and development in the high school should be modeled more closely on the lines of life, if the pupil is to be fitted for the outside world. It used to be said that the gap was too great between the grammar and the high school, but that was nothing compared with the gap between the present methods in many high schools and in life. Mushy educational theory has laid down the dictum that rivalry is unsocial and ought to be kept out of the high school. A boy graduates and finds employment in a great railway system. He sees that it offers many prizes. If he has ambition, he wants to become head of a department or an ofificial of the road. The surest way to win any of these prizes is to do the work better than someone else is doing it. We have progressed from savagery to civilization because of a determination on the part of some to do things better than others were doing them, to be gentler, kinder, truer, nobler than their neighbors. Rivalry has improved modes of travel, surgical instruments, footwear. This world without rivalry would be a dead world. It has developed on the principle of the survival of the fittest after a struggle to determine who the fittest are. I believe that school is a better place than life to meet jealousy and con- quer it. I know a graduate who, influenced by jealousy and anger, gave up two good positions soon after leaving school because others beside him were advanced in preference to him. You may remove most of the causes of jealousy from the high school, but in so doing you are not training for life. I have a classmate who is principal of a high school in a prohibition state. He said to me : ** I long ago realized the lack of wisdom in removing every apple tree from the adolescent's Eden. I pre- fer to develop in my boys the power to pass by an open saloon door, because I know that without this self-reliance he will easily fall a prey to the hidden back door." As the case stands, athletics is the only branch in many schools that trains to the exact conditions of life. Football is rivalry to the core, and it gives wonderful opportunity for the mastery of undesirable emotions. I believe that in almost every high school there is a pronounced feeling that, when B has shown himself a better boy than A, B should take A's place on the team. If A sulks for that reason, his treatment by the rest of the school soon teaches him something more valuable than book knowledge. I therefore wish that more athletic games involving group activity could be invented for adolescents. I know that some teachers maintain that it would be better to change life rather than the high school. Consciously or unconsciously, they are swayed by the belief that the only true philosophy is socialism, which abolishes competition and largely destroys the incentive for one human being to do better than another. Socialism, they believe, is the remedy which will render things more nearly equal. That may be true, but with 734 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child- Study the incentive to do one's best gone, the equality will be the equality of the hovel, and not of the palace. From such an equality it is the mission of the high school to rescue us. A high school often fails with an adolescent or damages him irrepa- rably because of its atmosphere. Adolescents are unusually sensitive to that indefinable something known as "the atmosphere." It frequently determines their attitude toward life for the rest of their days. If there is a spirit of guying and mean prank playing rife among the pupils, if there are animosities among teachers themselves, if there is lack of an altruistic atmosphere, such a high school is not suited to the needs of adolescents. In visiting the same class in different rooms you have been startled at the change. The same class has seemed as different as the Berkshire Hills looked at thru the happy Indian-summer haze and again thru the driving March rain. You have felt that to reach the heart of certain classes you must select some rooms in which to talk to them and avoid others. Watch the atmosphere of your high school. If the pupils feel that everyone is their enemy, against whom they must be on the constant watch, it would be better if that high school were closed. If, on the other hand, all feel that the rest are their friends, that their presence in the school is nesessary, that the school expects them to do something worthy of it, that school is a pronounced success, even if its pupils learn nothing from books. Do the high-school studies suit the nature and needs of adolescents ? Shall these studies be made more practical? I have tried to get a jury to decide for me what the really practical high-school studies are, but there are only two subjects on which there is sufficient unanimity of agreement to make it worth comment. Most agree that it would be difficult to pay too much attention to spoken and written English and to the great things in our literature. The majority say that a part, a very small part, of the physics taught in our high schools is also practical. But when we men- tion mathematics there is an immediate protest that nothing is less often used by the rank and file of people than algebra and geometry; that a few arithmetical principles taught in the grammar schools are all that are absolutely practical. The chemist concedes that high-school pupils will probably make but very little practical use of what he teaches them. Modern languages are practical only in case the student is actually called on to write them or to speak them. The teacher of Latin can readily show that this study is as practical as zoology, but one can get along in practical life without either Latin or zoology. The historian insists that his branch it absolutely necessary as a guide for future action and legis- lation, but a careful inquiry among a large number of high-school pupils has shown that the majority believe that the study of history did them little practical good and left little else than a blur on their minds. Astronomy! Why that deals with the stars, and we may never visit them. 1 I .Department] THE NATURE AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS 735 Shall we, then, confine ourselves to the strictly practical and teach nothing but common English, bookkeeping, shorthand, typewriting, and commercial geography and law in our high schools? Those schools that have narrowed themselves down to these subjects alone have been the most conspicuous failures of all. If they would succeed, commercial high schools have learned that they must include in their course many of the so-called impractical subjects. Even wood-choppers of ordinary intelligence are becoming gradually less influenced by the argument that they don't need a grindstone because it won't cut down a tree. They are satisfied to sharpen their axes on a Saturday, so that on the following Monday they can cut down trees with half the labor. Professors in German universities have noticed that since fewer hours were given to Latin in the German schools there has been a decided decrease in the capacity of the pupils for original thought. Adolescents must feel this truth in a dim way, for, altho Latin has often been put on the optional list in the last ten years, the number of those taking it has increased twice as fast as the enrollment. Nothing has yet been found to make it possi- ble to dispense entirely with grindstone subjects. A striking confirma- tion of this comes from a most unexpected source. Commenting on technical secondary education, one of the greatest of technical-school presidents writes: The broader training of a well-organized English or classical high school should pre- cede the technical course whenever possible. We should not infer that all of these subjects, whether practical or not, are alike acceptable to all adolescents. A subject that one adult is fond of bores another. When we consider the variety of the future world to be ministered to, we must conclude that it is fortunate that human minds should be cast in such different molds. Adolescents ought to have this natural difference considered. 1 know numbers of cultivated people, some of whom have asked me to be their attorney on this occasion, to state that they were born with a dislike for certain subjects, and that their, continued study merely worried them. The ideal high school should not only have different courses at the start, but after the end of the second year subjects like mathematics and Latin and much of science should be optional. In the majority of cases the adolescent must choose his occupation as soon as he leaves school, and it is wise to give him a little practice in choosing. The high school ought not to have a single weak teacher or a single weak subject. If all subjects were well taught, these optionals could not do harm, and they would develop the pupil's natural capacities, and thus lead to greater interest. I think that all high-school teachers will have more charity for their pupils by remembering that we do not expect adults to pay attention to things in which they are not interested. I cannot agree with those who think that the requirements of the 736 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child-Study college have tended to make the high school less fit for adolescents. With increasing optionals, few pupils need to take college subjects unless they choose. My experience has convinced me that this course develops a fine type of pupil. The high school is largely indebted to the college for the strength and excellence of its most important course. Since the colleges have insisted on English as an entrance requirement, the high schools in some states have improved their English course 60 per cent. Tiiis course by itself has come to be sufficiently excellent to repay attend- ance at many high schools. College-entrance requirements are further useful in locating and in remedying inefficient work in certain branches. If any college insists on unreasonable requirements, the schools have their remedy in advising pupils to choose some other institution. No matter what the subject taught, the majority of adolescents will not themselves be satisfied unless their teacher leads them to think. Think- ing is rather a new game with them, but it is a fascinating game after it has once been tried, and it will never lose its novelty. Now that they can begin to steer for themselves by their newly-adjusted compass of thought, they will insist on occasionally sailing out of sight of land. Every adolescent loves the motor element in his mental world. A new definition of motor training has become absolutely necessary. Conscious- ness in itself has motor elements, but these are very slight when one is memorizing bliiTdly or merely imitating with hands or feet. Motor action without the creative mentality born of imagination and of thought is machine action ; it is the activity of a man whom a machine may sup- plant any day. Thought, the most intense motor element in conscious- ness, is the highest type of motor-mental action. The mind of the engineer in planning a bridge is more truly motor than the arm move- ments of those who put the matter where his mind has ordered. It is easier to find a thousand who can make matter fit the mental mold than it is to discover one who can himself make the mental mold which must precede all purposive changes in matter. Unless studies are of this higher motor type they are not bread to the adolescent. With the old-fashioned method of studying many things, which held that a thing was learned when it was lodged in memory, conscious- ness has slight motor characteristics ; it is like the river Arar, you cannot tell in which direction it flows. With memorized demonstrations in geometry this is specially true. In a visit to one of the great eastern colleges last month, I noticed that 50 per cent, of the examination con- sisted of originals. The mental state of the candidates taking that examination was certainly motor. Perhaps English literature, especially Shakespeare, is superior to any other subject in the course, when taught in a motor way. Give a pupil a chance to do some live thinking in Shakespeare and note how readily he responds. I told a ninth-grade class reading the Merchant of Venice that I should hold each one respon- I Department] THE NATURE AND NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS 737 sible for his individual opinion, supported by Shakespearean passages, on questions like these: "Was Jessica's treatment of her father right?" " Which character in the play would you prefer for an intimate friend ?" The answers often surprised me for breadth of thought and interest in the comparisons. High-school pupils like to think if you give them some- thing which touches their world to think about. Interest is knowledge moved into the king's row on the checkerboard. Fortunately interest comes with each succeeding step of knowledge, if the pupil can make use of it himself, if he can himself play with the checkers of knowledge. For instance, as soon as he has learned sufficient Latin to translate a " boy's girl " or a " girl's boy," by combining a genitive and a nominative, he is interested in the process. It is his own combination made with his own knowledge. Rendering English into Latin necessitates original motor- thought training far more than translating Latin into English. In this connection it is interesting to note the confirming experience of an examiner of the University of Berlin, who in 1897 testified that, with the change in the study of Latin since 1892, the power to translate it had not been much weakened, but that the ability to write Latin prose had been ruined, and that there had followed an actual decrease in mental power. It is the doing something that appeals to the adolescent. Mere imitation in either the mental or the muscular field appeals less and less strongly to him. The high school ought to afford pupils more varied ways in which to express their thoughts, or, in other words, to show what they can do. In my own school I have founded an Order of the Knights of the Round Table, admission to which is based solely on doing some- thing, if only one's duty, a hundred times out of a hundred. Finally, let the teacher remember that adolescence is the Elizabethan age of youth ; that then appears a spark of creative activity, which the proper training may fan into a blaze ; that the ideal is all important, hero worship a necessity ; that feminine and masculine ideals differ and that both are equally important ; that masculine virility and aggressive- ness must be encouraged ; that the school must more nearly approximate to the condition of outside life, just as athletics do ; that the atmosphere of the school should be social and altruistic ; that no high school can succeed if it teaches only the so-called absolutely practical subjects ; that any grindstone subject is practical in the truest sense if it sharpens the mental ax to fell trees in the forest of life ; that the ideal high school containing not a single weak subject or weak teacher should allow increas- ing choice of subjects to suit varied types of mind ; that the majority of adolescents will themselves pass the verdict on any teacher of any subject that he has given them a stone instead of bread, unless he has taught them to think, unless he has done something more than lodge a series of dead facts in memory, all of which will perish unless they sprout with the life of thought, unless he has taught them to use this knowledge in the varied combinations. of their own mental life. 738 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Child- Study DISCUSSION E. G. Lancaster, professor of psychology and pedagogy, Colorado College, Col- orado Springs, Colo. — I do not agree with the speaker as to the definition of the adolescent period. It is not merely the high-school age, but begins during the last two years of grammar grade and continues thru college life. It is the period of growth in which the child develops out of the stage of primitive man into the modern civilized man. This growth means, first, development in size ; second, differentiation. The tadpole which is kept in the dark will grow to be a large tadpole of the size of the frog, but will never develop into a frog. There are men and women tadpoles, morally and intellectu- ally undifferentiated. The adolescent period ends, for the girl, at about the age of twenty-five ; for the boy, at twenty-eight. The hope of the race depends on the lengthening of the adolescent period, say, until forty. As to the question of the fitness of high-school studies to adolescents, the speaker has implied that they do and that they do not fit, and I agree with him. Rather than prepare a high-school course of study, I recommend to the audience the paper by President G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University, in the School Review iox September. Adolescensce, as the speaker said, is the time of ideals. We should use those ideals for discipline, and should discipline only thru ideals. Practical considerations are not so important in the high school. The average age of the inventor is thirty- three. The old psychology laid down the three fundamental principles of mind — knowledge, feeling, will. This is not the order of the unfolding of the human mind. Feeling comes fir^t. Nothing is done without enthusiasm. In the properly trained child the emotions are not very prominent until adolescense, and then they come in a flood. We must take account of this emotional life. Any subject that lays hold of the emotional life is a good subject. Is it Latin, geometry, physics ? This depends on the teacher, on the way in which the subject is taught. We need teachers who understand adolescent psychology. The dull teacher, without enthusiasm, is unfit for adolescents. ^ DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July q, 1902 The meeting was called to order in the Exposition Auditorium at 2 : 30 P. M. by the president, Dr. William O. Krohn, of Chicago. After an overture by the Danz Orchestra, Director D. H. Painter conducted a class in tactics, uniform rank, Adams School. The president's address followed, on "'Educative' Physical Education." Dr. Krohn thanked the large audience that had assembled for their interest in this branch of edu- cation, and said : " Not only is this the largest session this department has ever had at any annual association, but the largest attendance any department has ever had." Six thousand people were present at the meeting. The remainder of the afternoon was devoted to the exhibition work of the Minne- apolis public schools, given by pupils and teachers under the direction of Mrs. Louise Preece, director of physical training, city schools, Minneapolis, Minn. The program was as follows : Holmes School: Director, Agnes L. Robinson. Harrison School: Director, Agnes M. Price. Bremer School : Director, Agatha B. Morris. Van Cleve School : Director, Mary F. Regan. Clinton School : Director, Elizabeth Conner, Washington School : Director, Jean L. Gowdy, Teachers' Class: Director, Mrs. Louise Preece, The president appointed the following Committee on Nominations : Miss Mary H, Ludlum, St, Louis, Mo, Mrs, Louise Preece, Minneapolis, Minn, Miss Mabel L, Pray, Toledo, O. SECOND SESSION. — Thursday, July id The meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 P. M. in the Exposition Auditorium by the president. A violin solo was given by Miss Verna Gblden, of Minneapolis. A paper on "Requirements for Physical Education in«ur Public Schools" was read by Dr. Henry Hartung, member of the board of education of Chicago, and delegate from the North American Turner Bund. After another solo by Miss Golden, discussions were led ^by Dr. E. A. Lyttle, state inspector of New York, and by Miss Jean L. Gowdy, principal of the Washington School, Minneapolis, Minn. Mr. Henry Suder, director of physical training, Chicago public schools, then gave an exhi-bition on his new combination apparatus to be used in schoolroom.s. The Committee on Nominations reported the following officers for the ensuing year : President — Dr. William O, Krohn, Chicago, First Vice-President — Baroness Rose Posse, Boston, Mass. Second Vice-President— M2ih&\ L, Pray, Toledo, O, Secretary — Alta Wiggins, Buffalo, N. Y. The report of the Nominating Committee was accepted without dissent, and the nominees declared elected. The department then adjourned. ^^^^^ L. Pray, Secretary. 739 740 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS— '' EDUCATIVE'' PHYSICAL EDUCATION WILLIAM O. KROHN, CHICAGO, ILL. It is not my purpose in this brief address to discuss the merits of the various methods or schools of physical education, but it is my purpose to call attention to the one quality that must characterize all methods of physical education in order that they may be worthy of a place in our schools, and that all physical exercises under the direction of the special teacher may be educative in character. In the discussion of any educational topic we find ourselves compelled to consider at least three factors : (i) The object and aim of education ; (2) the methods by which this aim can be attained ; (3) the raw mate- rial— the child whom we are seeking to develop into the product which we have in mind as the object of our school work. I believe that most that passes for physical education is of such nature as to be a real and vitalizing force in the development of the child ; the development of his brain, of his mind, of his muscles. But I also recognize that there is much that is called physical education that is only indifferently educative, in fact is of little positive value in promoting the child's development. It is also true, tho happily in a less degree, that there are some exercises given at the direction of a few teachers of physical training that are not only uneducative, but are deleterious to the child's growth and the unfolding of his powers of mind and body. The object and aim of all education, especially as applied to our American school system, is to develop the best type of citizen possible — best physically, best mentally, best morally. I say best physically first because without a sound body it is impossible to have the highest type of intellectual development, and without these two — the sound mind and sound body — it is absolutely impossible to have the best quality of moral and ethical development. Some teachers are still laboring under the delusion that the function of the teacher is to impart instruction, as if knowledge could be given to the child in the form of ready-made packages — so much instruction each day which the child will absorb and assimilate. The true idea, as you all recognize, is that education, from the very derivation of the term "educe," means to lead out of or draw from the child certain of the latent powers and ideas into expression and activity. Knowledge must be "educed" by the child's self-activity if we would have education that is I Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 74 1 at all worthy of the name. Modern method in education is insisting on the necessity of self-activity on the part of the child as essential to his development. This self-activity in its most decided and satisfactory evidences is found in actual self-expression thru the child's motor ability. Just here is where the teacher in the department of physical education can accomplish the most for the child under his care and tutelage in making possible the largest number of definite lines of expression so that his whole physical being will respond quickly, correctly, and gracefully withal, to the thoughts and ideas arising within his rapidly developing brain. There is no fundamental principle more vital than this, which is being more and more recognized by us all, namely : That the child grows by periods, by epochs, by stages. All capacities of the mind are not unfolded at the same time, but there is a growth period for each of the faculties, a period in which each unfolds with rapidity and makes its great lunges of growth. Thus we know that the first mental unfoldings are a child's sensation capacities. The first experiences of the child are sense experi- ences, and the first days, months, and early years of his child life are concerned chiefly in gathering a large fund of sense experiences that may be later elaborated into memory and thought experiences. All of the raw material of thought must come thru his senses, and it is a wise dispen- sation that makes it possible for him to gain a whole mass of raw mate- rial thru his early sense experiences. We know that the second faculty that the child's mind unfolds is memory ; the third, imagination ; the fourth, judgment and the power of comparison ; curiosity comes next ; and last of all, reasoning. We will find these same periods of growth even more marked when we come to consider the child's physical being. We know that all parts of the body do not grow at the same time, but growth focuses and centers itself upon one set of organs for a time, and then upon another set, and so on. Each group of muscles has its period of most rapid growth. For a time, as we know, the child grows in girth of chest, of head, length of arm, and length of body, a regular order of growth being established ; and we know that the time to educate any of these groups of muscles is at the time of most rapid growth. The muscles of the upper arm and shoulder are capable of being educated monthsbefore the smaller muscles of the fingers. We must fit and adapt our exercises to this law of growth periods that nature has written in the very constitution of the child. All children grow in the same order, tho they do not all grow at the same rate. Thus, one child at twelve may be much farther advanced physically, as we all recognize, than another child of the same age or a child a year older. Nourishment, his previous physical education, may have occasioned lunges of growth that the less fortunate pupil, tho he be older, may not have experienced. Just here we find a better basis for 742 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical the classification of our pupils with reference to class work in physical education than age or grade. Because certain groups of pupils happen to be reading in the same reader, or working the same problems in arith- metic, or because a certain group of pupils happen to be of the same age, does not give us warrant for putting them thru the same physical training, for the reason that of a given number of pupils of the same age, or of the same school grade, many will be much farther advanced in their physical education than others. A better basis of classification than age or grade is weight. A still better basis of classification would be weight and height. I have seen in the public schools of one of our cities a class of boys of the same grade taking their lesson in physical education. The difference in weight between the lightest and heaviest boy taking the same routine of exercises was forty pounds. The difference in height between the shortest and the tallest boy was thirteen inches. If the exer- cises were adapted to the heaviest boys in the class, they were certainly not adapted to the lightest ; if they were adapted to the tallest boy in the class, they were certainly ill-adapted to the shortest boy. Roughly speak- ing, the difference in physical development, as represented by the two extremes in this particular class that 1 have in mind, was at least two and one-half years, the best-developed boy in the class being at least two years and a half farther along in his physical development than the least- developed boy. If the exercises of this particular lesson that I have in mind were educative for the average child in the class, they were certainly not educative for the best-developed or least-developed boy. There are three characteristics that should mark each lesson in physi- cal training : First, quickness ; second, grace ; third, precision. If any fact has been established as a result of modern researches in physiological psychology more plainly than any other fact, it is that of the reciprocal relation of mind and body. The mind acts upon the body, and the body acts upon the mind. We know that any change in the quantity or qual- ity of blood supply acts directly upon the brain cells, and thus influences our entire range of mental activities. We know that certain drugs, such as phenacetine, accelerate those activities, while other drugs, as the bro- mides, inhibit these activities. On the other hand, while we all admit that body acts upon mind, we must also recognize the fact that mind acts upon body, that every thought we think, every emotion we feel, registers itself upon the organism ; that there is a different rate of heart-beat, a different kind of pulsation, during the solving of a mathematical problem from that accompanying the reading of a poem ; that intellectual activity directly affects the blood supply ; that grief, melancholia, and other emo- tional states affect many of the secretions. It is just as true that anxiety, grief, melancholia, or any state of mental depression, causes loss of appe- tite, retarding the flow of the secretions, as it is that the improper action of the digestive organs may cause melancholia. The relation between Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 743 ideas and movement has been recognized by many of our schools of physical education, and in all of our exercises we should endeavor and insist upon real enthusiasm and real purpose before any attempt at expres- sion is allowed. The child must have a definite notion of the exercise, and having this definite notion must enter into it with enthusiasm, so that the exercise will accomplish the most possible for him. I stated that quickness is one of the qualities that should characterize every lesson in physical education. If we do not develop an alertness, not only a physical alertness, but a mental alertness, we are failing signally in our endeavors ; if we are not developinggrace then we are failing dismally to make more and more possible a ready co-ordination of the muscles as expressive of mental states. Without precision our exercise will be in vain. If the exercises do not promote quickness we are developing as a result a brain lethargy or brain slowness. If our exercises do not develop a certain marked physical grace there is, as a result, a brain slovenliness. If they are not carried on with precision there is, as a result, a brain disorderliness which cannot be eradicated by ordinary schoolroom methods. Your physical education, to be educative, must have in mind first of all the development of mental symmetry ; in the second place you must have in mind development of mental force ; in the third place your exercises, to be fruitful of good results, must promote an increased mental activity. These three — mental symmetry, mental force, mental activity — must enter into every lesson if that lesson is to be educative. Some have the idea that physical exercises in the schools should be simply ornate or recreative, rather than educative. Many schools have pro- vided for physical exercises in the grades without an intelligent notion of the educational function that this provision is to afford. We are prepared, however, to make this broad declaration, and not without careful thought: that those physical exercises which do not have a part in the real education of the child, the education of his mind and brain, as well as a mere employ- ment of muscles for a few minutes, the ornate movements so fully elabo- rated without any definite idea of their educational content or purpose, are not only negative as far as educational results are concerned, but are injurious and harmful. Just as some mental exercises are extremely beneficial to the child of ten, and other exercises are negative,and still others are injurious, so certain methods and lessons in physical training may be beneficial to the child, may be totally without result, or may be harmful. The one supreme test that should measure every lesson in physical education is the educational test. Does this or that exercise give the child a better co-ordinated brain life, a better mental symmetry, increased mental force, accelerated mental activity? Are we developing his brain into that hair-trigger condition that will enable it to respond quickly to outside stimulus as he pursues his other lessons in the school ? Are the physical exercises we plan for him of neceseity going to result in a better 744 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical sense discrimination, a brighter eye, a keener ear, more delicate touch, better attention, and more tenacious and more spontaneous memory, more accurate judgment and reasoning ? If they have not these ends in view then are our efforts misdirected. My one word to you this afternoon is that our work in physical train- ing should he educative rather than merely recreative, or, better, should be educative and recreative, recreating those impoverished brain cells by furnishing them with rich, newly-oxygenated blood that has been rejuve- nated as a result of intelligent lessons in physical education. Not only can these exercises be made to develop and maintain a high order of brain integrity, but.it is also true that these physical exercises may be made to obviate mental abnormalities that have already fastened themselves upon the child. The effects of good physical training in the school are to diminish the number of cases of brain disorderliness and the number of dull children. During the past five years I have gathered sufficient evi- dence to demonstrate that it is unquestionably a fact that in the school without physical training the number of both boys and girls with abnormal nerve signs, such as weak hand balance, lordosis, baggi- ness under the eyes, spontaneous finger twitches, and wandering eye movement is much larger than in a school with physical training ; and furthermore it is true that in the schools without physical training there is always a larger proportion of boys and girls classed by their teachers as " dull pupils," and this cannot be attributed to other causes, such as low nutrition, because the social conditions obtaining in the two schools were the same. It can only be ascribed to the* absence of physical train- ing. Physical training, if it is educative, always tends to improve the brain condition of children, prevents and even remedies brain disorder- liness, promotes healthy activity of both mind and body, and develops, not only physical grace, quickness, and precision, but develops, further- more, a mental symmetry, increased mental force, and mental activity. Our physical exercises, to be educative, must be so devised and adjusted as to exercise all parts of the brain. We know that when a muscle is sup- plied with good blood and is stimulated to action it grows. We also must recognize that the nerve centers of the brain, which stimulate the muscle and initiate its action, are affected at the same time, and that these nerve centers will act on future occasions with more exactness and with greater quickness when the same exercise is to be carried out. The object of physical exercises in any class in physical training must be to control this or that group of nerve centers in the brain, increasing in this manner the quickness, precision, and association of their activities together. As a result of this, with the proper range of physical activities appealing to all of the brain centers, a well-organized system of physical education cannot help but result in a firm building of a healthy brain, that will always act with integrity. Department] REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 745 REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS HENRY HARTUNG, M. D., MEMBER OF BOARD OF EDUCATION, CHICAGO, ILL. Physical training in its numerous aspects has gradually come to be a prominent feature in most of our educational institutions, as well as a daily requirement in the life of people of culture. Bicycling, lawn tennis, golf, rowing, swimming, the various ball games, and other popular forms of athletics known and practiced for many years by a privileged few, are more and more indulged in nowadays by the masses. Penal and reformatory institutions have introduced gymnastic exercise as a factor for the moral and physical improvement of their inmates, and have recorded splendid results therefrom. Military schools and academies have made it a part of the training of their pupils. There is hardly any up-to-date physician who does not employ physical exercise, in active or passive form, for many bodily ailments, defects, or functional disturbances of the different organs of the body. Business-men, laborers, and people engaged in professional work, men and women, young and old, flock to the gymnasium or practice at home for the purpose of recuperation, stimulation of bodily development, or to counteract the effects of a more or less one-sided health-impairing occu- pation, to regain that physical vigor, strength, and mental equilibrium which is absolutely necessary for every individual in his everyday struggle for existence. Our higher institutions of learning have special departments of physi- cal training, placed under the supervision of well-qualified professors, who, by special measurements and prescribed exercise, aim at the physi- cal perfection of every student and prepare the better ones for contests in team work and the higher forms of athletics. At last physical educa- tion is also being recognized as a matter of necessity for the education of our children, and is slowly but steadily gaining admission to the curricu- lum of many school systems. This great variety of application of physical training naturally implies manifold requirements and ideals, attained only by methods and means spe- cially designed for such special purposes. Thus it can readily be seen that the aim which the physician has in mind does not coincide with that pur- sued by the college athlete, and that aims and methods adapted to a military training school would not be appropriate for the worn-out business-man who looks to gymnastics for recreation and recuperation only. And again it is obvious that the principles guiding us in the physi- cal training for school children must be different from those that govern any of the other cases. Unfortunately, tho, we see in many instances our schools invaded 746 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical by all sorts of physical-culture enthusiasts and self-constituted specialists, apt to harm the cause of physical education more than to further it. It is thru such people, lacking all qualifications for this particular work, and their faulty, one-sided, and inadequate systems of training, that this important educational branch has come to be looked upon in some cities as a fad, and been justly criticised and ridiculed. The condition in which we find ourselves at present in regard to physi- cal training may be likened somewhat to that of medicine, where the true and rational art of healing, as practiced by the regular physician, finds itself surrounded by innumerable systems of isms and paths, all-cure people, quacks, and humbugs, who each one detracts as much from the dignity of the medical profession as physical- culture quacks injure the cause of bodily training. Since we still find a great diversity of opinion as to the fundamental principle for a perfect system of physical culture for our school children, it seems timely and advisable for teachers of this special branch to agree upon some common, rational basis which meets all ordinary require- rnents for the average graded school of our country. ITS PROPER PLACE^IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM One of the first and most important requirements is to give physical education its proper place in the school curriculum. Our educational ideals are still footing too much in the antiquated conceptions of mediaeval civilization, when there was no education but that of the mind, when the body belonged to the devil, and was just good enough to be maltreated and chastised by all sorts of tortures. Slowly and gradually this emanci- pation of the body from its bondage has taken place, and as years advance and progress enlightens we hope that the body will receive its due consideration. It has been in the interest of a certain class of people to keep mankind in darkness and confusion in regard to the proper relationship between body and mind. The world has been taught for centuries that mind and body were two separate beings, existing side by side, and created for independent activities and purposes ; the one the slave, the other the master. Modern science has taught us that man is an organic unit and that there exists a mutual relationship and interdependence between mind and body. It is just as true that mental activities may exert an influence on the body as that physical activities may produce corresponding effects on the mind. To mention only one instance of the truth of this statement, permit me to call attention to the results of the child-study investigations as car- ried on with thousands of pupils of St. Louis and Chicago, which have established the fact that there is a distinct relationship, in school children, between physical conditions and intellectual capacity, the latter varying directly as the former. I Department] REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION ' 747 It is only recently that educators have paid more attention to this process of correlation between physical and mental activities and have begun to recognize it in their methods and theories of teaching. In all those schools where physical training has been given a perma- nent place and a fair trial, its great value has been demonstrated and acknowledged. May it suffice to quote in proof hereof a few words from one of the foremost educators and thinkers that America has ever pro- duced, the late lamented Colonel Parker : It may never be known scientifically what a tremendous influence the body and all its organs, every nerve and muscle, vein and artery, exert upon the brain, and consequently upon the intellect, and the more I see of the good work (of physical culture) in the school, the more I believe in it ; the more I study psychology, especially physiological psychology, the stronger my belief becomes in physical training. AIMS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE SYSTEM Being convinced of its absolute necessity and extreme value as a fac- tor in modern education, we demand that physical education, with its manifold powers of sensory, motory, and intellectual training, be given just as much attention as mental education, and only when this demand is realized can we ever hope to do justice to the growing child, produce a more harmoniously developed race, and reach a plane of civilization such as had been established thousands of years ago by the people of ancient Hellas. To attain this lofty ideal it is, first of all, necessary to lift physical culture, or whatever goes by this name at present in many of our school systems, from that inferior position as a remedial or therapeutic agent, as a repair department for sins committed by faulty and obnoxious school methods and ways of living, to a higher level, and place it on a sound foundation as a truly educational department. Therefore, we consider it the first and foremost requirement of any good system of physical education for our public schools that it have for its aim and object the harmonious development of all the different ele- ments and organs of the child's body, according to well-defined physio- logical, psychological, and pedagogical laws. As such it must furnish the foundation upon which all the higher mental and moral faculties may be built up. The results to be aimed at by such a rational system of training must be : 1. Health, by which we understand the proper activity of all the organs of the body. 2. Grace and agility, implying the correct carriage of the body, and such control over the neuro-muscular systems as to perform movements of trunk and limbs with the least expenditure of energy and time. 3. Vigor or strength, by virtue of which we train and test the powers of the body to such a degree as not to endanger its health or structures. 4. Training of the special senses, mainly those of sight, hearing, and touch, endeav- oring to acquire a multitude of conceptions and correct judgments based on such sensory impressions. 74^5 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATLON [Physical 5. Such psychological phenomena as are a direct result of the proper training of the motory nervous system, comprising all those higher motor impulses which are necessary for the building up of will-power and character, and which are recognized as obedience, precision, submission to rules and orders, perseverance, courage, self-reliance, and self- control. The laws according to which such a system should be built up must be, as stated before, in conformity with physiology, psychology, and pedagogy. Physiology must serve us as much in a negative as in a posi- tive manner. While it teaches us in a general way the good effects that physical exercise has upon the various systems, especially those of loco- motion, circulation, and respiration, and helps us to select proper work adapted to the physical condition of the pupils, it cannot be made the sole foundation for an adequate system of training, as, until now, no one has yet determined the specific value and influence of certain movements upon special muscles, nerves, bones, blood vessels, the heart, or lungs. Therefore, anatomical and physiological considerations can guide us only in a general way; they are of a greater importance, however, from a nega- tive point of view, teaching us to avoid all such exercises as may be injuri- ous and therefore contra-indicated. It is evident that, in regard to methods of teaching, this special branch of school work must be subject to the same principles as any other elementary branch of our curriculum ; must be graded in a logical, sys- tematic way, and adapted to the different stages of bodily development of the pupils. Progression must follow, as much as possible, the laws of growth and exercises arranged in conformity with ordinary school classi- fications for the kindergartens, primary and grammar grades, and high schools. When should children be required to take regular exercises ? From the first year of school life to the last — subject, of course, to variations in form and intensity. In the primary grades they should follow up the work in the kindergartens, and they are just as necessary there as in any other grade, especially as they are admirably adapted to furnish the foundation for most of the higher forms of co-ordinate motor and mental activity. Here they should take, as a general rule, the form of games and plays, calisthenics, and be of such a nature as to stimulate growth and agility. From year to year there should be an increase in variety and difficulty; exercise of swiftness should be followed by those requiring endurance, strength, and dexterity, culminating in the high schools in the various branches of athletics and field sports. Gymnastic games and plays should be a prominent feature for every age. Classes in physical culture should be graded rather on a physical than on an intellectual basis. While it is necessary under present conditions to drill large masses simultaneously, we must not lose sight of the wants and needs of the individual pupil ; but to make the individual the center Department] REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 749 of the whole system, as is often suggested by physicians and people engaged more in therapeutic than educational gymnastics, is entirely out of place and wrong, considering that in some of our larger cities thou- sands, or even hundreds of thousands, of pupils must be cared for physi- cally every day. Such a system of individual training may be the proper one for house and home training, or for a university where a small num- ber of individuals are prepared for athletic specialties ; it may also become a feature of necessity with children poorly developed or suffering from special defects ; but it does seem ridiculous under the present conditions to suggest, for instance, that each of the 270,000 pupils of the Chicago public schools should be subjected to a special physical examination and. anthropometric measurements in order to prescribe separate exercises ior each individual even once annually. There is absolutely no need for any such proceedure, just as little as for giving every child his lesson individ- ually in reading, spelling, or arithmetic. Just as we assume a certain average of mental capacity for each sepa- rate grade, in accordance with which we adapt our lessons in the elemen- tary branches, we may give physical culture in relation to an average type of physical development for every grade without much harm to the individual. If it is possible, and does not interfere too much with other school work, subdivisions should be made in each grade, placing pupils with the highest physical qualifications in one squad, the medium ones in a second, and the poor ones in a third. The best way, however, of being as just as possible to the individual, and still adhere to the collective training of large masses, is by taking gymnastics entirely out of the schoolroom and placing it where it really belongs — in the gymnasium — limiting class- room practice wholly to calisthenics for recreation and to counteract the effects of mental overwork. This leads us to the consideration of another object of physical culture in our schools, which, however, is only of secondary importance to its educational mission, namely : Its office as a hygienic or therapeutic agent. As such it restores the mental and physical equilibrium of the pupil, counteracts the effects of mental overwork and the various impair- ments due to and resulting from school life, builds up weak and poorly developed pupils, and looks after the correction of bodily defects and deformities. It is a deplorable fact that even in this role gymnastics are at present a matter of necessity in our schools, and are of great value, as long as our schools and educational methods are not yet in harmony with sound physiological and sanitary requirements ; but it will disappear as such with improvements in sanitation in schools and houses, and perfection of principles of teaching; when we have fewer hours of school work, no home study, fewer pupils in a room, proper adjustment of seats and 750 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical desks, sufficient heat, light, and ventilation, better arrangement of school programs, more attention to the hygiene of sex, the proper diet, medi- cal examination of school children, and individual care for pupils who do not come up to the physical and mental standard. General and per- sonal hygiene should have a place in every school curriculum, but it should be taught as a separate study outside of the department of physi- cal education. The physical director cannot, and should not, take the place of a medical examiner and sanitary inspector in schools, except he be properly qualified for each kind of work and be employed for one school exclusively. Special exercises of a corrective nature should be prescribed for pupils whD are below the average of physical development of their grade, and also for those who suffer from defects or deformities and bad habits of carriage of the body. This special instruction should be given under the supervision of a qualified physician, and outside of the regular school hours. The treatment of the more serious forms, of course, does not come within the province of school training, and must be attended to at home. Having determined the requirements as to the proper system and methods bf teaching, what are the requirements we must make concern- ing the teacher of physical culture, the place and time of practice ? AS TO THE TEACHER Physical culture is in some respects a much more difficult subject to teach than any other educational branch, especially where it must be adapted to large masses. Very much, then, if not everything, depends upon the efficiency of the teacher. If he be the right kind of a man, gifted by nature with all the qualities that make a pedagog and a master of his art, a person imbued with the dignity of his profession, with an ardent desire to do credit to himself and to his calling, good results will undoubtedly follow his labors, and it will be an easy matter for him, by the results of his work, to convince the public at large, and educators in particular, of the extraordinary value of proper physical training. It will not do to have this important branch taught by mere drill-masters, mili- tary instructors, ex-circus performers, or college athletes, according to arbitrary notions or cut-and-dried rules. Time was when anybody, by reason of some special gift of nature or result of training in athletics, considered himself well qualified to teach physical culture, and, managing to get himself on the pay-roll of some school, began to treat or maltreat children according to his individual conceptions. Owing to a more general demand for physical education, the last decade has seen the production of a small army of self-constituted professors and physical directors, some of whom are no more fit for the position of a teacher than a medical quack is entitled to the position of I Department] REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 751 college professor. Still, they flourish, and as long as the public in general, and school boards and superintendents in particular, are much in the dark as to the real object of physical education, they find their positions well-paying sinecures. They are the creators of monstrosities of so-called systems of physical culture, and do not hesitate to display their ignorance by even publishing books on the same. In spite of this oversupply of so-called teachers of physical culture, there are, to my mind, but few who can justly claim this distinction. The ideal teacher of physical training is a rather rare specimen of man- hood, embodying qualifications which are seldom found perfected in one person. If possible, he should be a graduate from a normal school, or be suf ficiently familiar with the fundamental requirements for elementary teach- ing, and well informed on the subject of general education. Gymnastics, well taught, are rich in impulses for developing will power, good habits, and a strong moral character, but it requires a thoroly trained master to impart these principles. In addition to this general teachers' training, he must be intimately acquainted with those special sciences which are closely related to his profession. He must know the laws pertaining to the physiology of exer- cise, mechanics of movements, anthropometry, hygiene, physical diagno- sis, and naturally the theories and principles underlying that system of physical culture which he represents. If he have the knowledge of a physician, so much the better, altho the mere fact that he be a physician does not at all imply that he is a good physical director. But any amount of theoretical knowledge and enthusiasm will never make a perfect teacher of physical culture. One must not only know his subject, but also be able to practically demonstrate it when required. There is hardly any educational branch, except manual training, v/here theory and practice are more closely allied than here. A good teacher must have done enough practical work in the different departments of gymnastics to know from his own experience how to execute the elemen- tary movements with the greatest amount of benefit and the least danger to the body, also how to avoid certain obstacles or faulty positions. His bodily perfection and gymnastic skill should be rated as high as his men- tal qualifications. He must come as near as possible to our so-called type of perfect manhood, and, if possible, be a personification of the principles for which he works. I cannot consider a person up to the average of requirements for this position who shows any marked defect or deformity, or who by carriage and movements betrays that his neuro-muscular powers have not been developed to a high degree of co-ordination and self-control. 752 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical PLACE OF PRACTICE In most of our school systems where physical culture has been intro- duced we find the work carried on between the desks, in aisles, in some places in halls and corridors, and in a few instances in a gymnasium. I cannot consider any system an efficient and perfect one which is limited to mere schoolroom . exercises. Such work is rather an excuse for physical education, apt to degenerate into a fad, and entirely inade- quate to respond to the demand of a harmonious and all-around development. Gymnastic activity requires freedom of motion, plenty of room, air, light, and a variety of apparatus, partly as a means of developing bodily structures and power, partly as a test for strength, skill, agility, and endurance. Limited to the schoolroom, we will never get much beyond the recreative or hygienic principle of exercise, good enough in its place when nothing better can be had, and when directed by an interested and able class teacher, but worse than nothing if conducted in a super- ficial, lifeless, and haphazard way, in a poorly ventilated room, with an abundance of dust and toxic exhalations from a large number of children, by a teacher who is neither trained nor qualified for such work, who per- haps considers it an imposition and despises it. One of the most urgent requirements, then, which we must make, to which attention has been called again and again, and which must be insisted upon until it is put into effect, is that every school be provided with an adequate place for exercises, with a complete equipment of gym- nastic apparatus, if possible a closed hall or gymnasium for winter and rainy days, and an open playground or athletic field for summer. That the realization of this demand is not an impossibility is proven by con- ditions as we find them in European countries, especially in Germany, Switzerland, and Scandinavia, where almost every school or school -district prides itself on a properly equipped gymnasium or outdoor training ground. There is certainly as much, if not more, money available for the edu- cation of school children in the United States as in any of the nations of the world ; hence the financial aspect of this question should not offer an obstacle to the solution of this problem, especially if we take into consid- eration what enormous sums of money could be saved to the nation every year thru its value as a hygienic and prophylactic agent, not to mention its immense educational and ethical value for building up a gen- eration of strong, self-controlling, and noble men and women. The number and variety of apparatus must be decided on by the teacher of gymnastics in accordance with the system taught, but there should always be enough of each to afford a large number of pupils an opportunity to practice simultaneously and thus derive the greatest benefit in the least time. \ Department] REQUIREMBNTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 7 53 TIME OF PRACTICE While there is not yet a uniformity of opinion among specialists and educators as to the length of time per day or week absolutely necessary for adequate physical training of pupils, we should rely on the experience and results obtained from schools where it is made a part of the regular school work. Naturally, allowance must be made for local conditions, the number of school hours, age and development of the pupils. It seems rational, tho, that wherever the demand of the school in regard to mental activity is greatest, and wherever bodily development is deficient and below the average of a certain age, there more time should be devoted to physical culture than where the reverse be the case. Taking the experience of such schools as mentioned for a guide, it may be safe to require an average time of from three to five hours per week, divided up into periods to suit local conditions, either one hour per school day or a longer period two to three times weekly. There are schools where from one half to one hour is devoted to gymnastics daily, and others where it is given two or three times a week for one to two hours at a time, both showing excellent results. These longer periods of gymnasium work should not do away with such exercises in the schoolroom, in daily lessons of ten to fifteen min- utes each, which the regular class teacher may consider necessary for recreation and hygienic purposes. The hours for gymnasium practice should be placed either in the middle or towards the end of forenoon or afternoon sessions. It is also necessary that the number of special teachers of physical training, especially in our larger cities, be in proportion to the number of schools and school children. There should beat least one special teacher for every large school of i,ooo pupils or more, or, if this is not possible, at least one for a small number of neighboring schools. While such demands can easily be carried out in smaller towns, they still form a serious problem for our large cities, on account of the great number of schools and the financial obligations involved. In Chicago, for instance, with its 250 schools and 270,000 pupils, physical training is carried on under the control of eight special teachers and one general supervisor in the grammar schools, averaging about thirty schools and 30,000 pupils for a single teacher. It is obvious that under such con- ditions the results of physical training cannot be considered perfect and cannot meet the demands. We can point, however, to much more satis- factory results in our ten high schools, almost every one of which is provided with a well-equipped gymnasium and enjoys the exclusive service of a competent physical director. It is also desirable that more attention be given to physical training in the education of our normal-school pupils, not only to improve their physique and make them more fit for their strenuous and enervating 754 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physica work as future teachers, but at the same time to enable them to teach some of the elementary forms of exercise which should be given in the schoolroom, and to look after the proper sitting, standing, walking, and carriage of the pupils. It is the elementary teacher and principal to whom we must appeal first of all, to convince them of the value and necessity of proper physical education in our schools ; for it is thru their assist- ance and co-operation that we can influence school boards and the public at large and convince them of the great benefit that will accrue from it to the children of the present and the men and women of the future generation. Physical education for school children is still in a stage of infancy in our country, but much is to be hoped for in the future. Let us all strive to get a hearing before the great public, and let them see things as we see them. Let us be earnest and serious about our work, and let the results speak for us. Let it be known, first of all, that it is not our endeavor to make a physical giant out of every child, and that Sandows, Sullivans, and Roman gladiators are not our ideals, but that we owe it to the body and soul of every boy and girl of this great commonwealth that his physical powers be built up and trained to the same degree of perfection as we endeavor to develop his mental and moral capacities. Let us keep on working and agitating until physical culture is established in every school and until our demand for a harmoniously educated body and mind is realized. DISCUSSION Eugene W. Lyttle, inspector of schools, university of the state of New York, Albany, N. Y. — A small boy had just gone to bed, naughty and impenitent. His mother had lain down beside him without covering him up, without the good-night kiss, and with face turned away. There was a silence that was electric. A small hand stole out of the dark and sought the mother's face ; still the silence continued. Finally came the plaintive wail, " Mamma, I've got a whole purseful of money and five dollars in the bank, but I'm a poor boy for all that." Still no reply from the mother. Again the plaintive wail, " Mamma, I tell you I am a poor boy; I have a sore finger, and my back is cold, and you don't care." Sometimes when I have seen the wealth of educational efforts that we lavish upon primary children, and also feel that we are not giving them the thing which their nature most craves, I say: " Oh ! the poor boy." It has been said here this afternoon that physical education is as important as mental training. I shall make bold to go a step farther. It is my profound conviction — a con- viction that grows stronger every year — that the very first purpose and focal center of primary education should be physical rather than intellectual. I mean physical educa- tion in its broad sense, including the simpler forms of manual instruction and the develop- ment of the social nature that grows out of group activities. I believe this for three reasons. In the first place, it is thru physical exertion that the race has received its education. There is- no time to amplify this thought, but anyone who has studied the progress of the human race as it has come up from barbarism thru savagery to civiliza- Department] REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 755 tion must be aware that such is the case. Again, it is almost entirely thru physical activity that the child learns until he comes of school age. We then put him in school and try to reverse nature's process. We make mental development the main purpose of school life and call it education. Our national history should teach us the first importance of physical training. If the American people have any points of superiority over other peoples — and I think the most modest of us will agree that they have some — these points of superiority have resulted from the magnificent physical effort that our people have put forth. When we sweep over the country from east to west and see how the native forests have been redeemed, how the millions of acres of wild land have been made into large and fertile and beautiful farms, how great cities and great industries have sprung up, we need not fear to claim that this process of the redemption of the new world has been the most gigantic physical effort ever seen in the history of the world. Nor need we fear to claim that intellectual great- ness has resulted from the struggle. It has been well said this afternoon that calisthenics are but a small part of physical training. I think that it is exceedingly fortunate that the population of some of our large cities is growing so rapidly that the primary children can be accommodated only with half-a-day sessions. I hope that after a time the American public will learn that primary children can learn as much in sessions of three hours a day as they have been wont to learn in sessions of five hours. It is true that we should not, perhaps, turn the children on the streets for the other half a day. They should be taken by competent instructors into the fields, into the parks, under the blue skies, when this is possible, and there receive additional physical training. As has been intimated by your chairman, we have been making a study of the sani- tary condition of our schools in the state of New York. All of us who have ever tried to raise plants know that the first and most essential thing for the gardener is to see that the conditions for natural growth are favorable ; that the soil is mellow and that the weeds are kept down. This constitutes a large part of the gardener's effort. But in the educa- tion of children it seems that we have yet to learn that the first and most essential thing is to remove unfavorable conditions. In the course of the year I visit many schools of different grades. I have kept for several years a record of the sanitary conditions found in these schools. You, in the west, where the school buildings are of more recent con- struction, doubtless have much more favorable conditions ; but I find that of the schools I visit in New York state only lo per cent, have any system of ventilation at all worthy to be called such ; that in most of the schools where there is a system of ventilation it works very poorly. I find also that a very large number of school boards appear to select a janitor whose sole recommendation is that he should somehow be kept from the poorhouse. Dust and bad air are the two foes which our children have to face. In looking over the reports of our state board of health for a period of ten years I was struck with the fact that there is a steady increase in the mortality from contagious dis- eases during the school year. I made a chart showing the monthly mortality from measles, diphtheria, and scarlet fever. That mortality is lowest in September, rises stead- ily thru the year, reaching its highest point about in May; then there is a small decline in May, a somewhat greater one in June, a very rapid one in July, and in August the mortality has come nearly to its lowest point. Fearing that the records of the state might not be absolutely right, I took the num- ber of cases of these three diseases reported to the board of health of the city of New York for a period of six years. The charts showing the monthly morbidity for those six years coincided in their teachings with the chart prepared from the tables of our state board of health. Do these charts prove anything ? Are our schoolhouses centers of contagion ? We cannot, of course, absolutely affirm this, but the evidence is sufficient to make us suspicious. So far as I know, the only state that has a compulsory ventilation 756 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical law is Massachusetts. I investigated the reports of the Massachusetts state board of health for ten years before their law went into effect and for ten years after. The com- parison showed that the mortality from each of the three diseases before mentioned decreased 30 per cent, after the passage of the law. There was no corresponding decrease in the corresponding years in the state of New York, where climatic conditions are much the same. One of our superintendents informed me that it was the practice in his city to fumi- gate the school building two or three times a year with formaldehyde ; that in case a con- tagious disease appeared in the school the infected room was at once fumigated ; that since this practice had gone into effect his city had not been troubled with any serious outbreaks of children's diseases. If the parents of our children could be brought into the schoolroom and kept there for one week in the cramped and ill-fitting desks, in the foul air and in the fouler dust, there would be such a howl of indignation that it would rend the walls of our old build- ings, and we should at least have clean and beautiful school homes, equipped with such furniture as would not hinder the physical development of the child. Jean L. Gowdy, principal Washington School, Minneapolis, Minn. — ^We are not assembled here this afternoon to discuss the special merits of any system of physical training. We know there is much good in all systems ; none claim to be perfect, undoubt- edly some are better than others, but all have the same object in view, and by their results are they known. We do know, however, beyond a doubt, that physical training is not a fad, and that as a part of our public-school system it has come to remain. The educational world realizes its value, and it now becomes the duty of educators to present the subject in such a manner as to awaken the interest and co-operation of the world that is to be educated. To do this, educators must first understand justwhat constitutes a good physical educa- tion, and, second, they must seek to find the best way to present the subject. Let us consider for a few minutes what a really good physical training should accom- plish. It should promote physical strength and power of endurance. This does not mean that some part of the body should be abnormally developed ; that the legs and arms should have hideous, ungainly bumps on them which God never meant to have there, and on which he must ever look with disfavor. Too much cannot be said in emphasis of the value of an even, symmetrical, healthy, harmonious development of the body, one in which all the muscles shall be brought into healthy action. Undirected, aimless exercising will never accomplish this. Manual labor of any kind only increases the need of physical training. The woman who bends over the washtub from morning until night needs it as much as anyone we could mention. Nowhere else does muscular degeneracy show itself so plainly as in the waist muscles. The woman who bends over the washtub constantly draws these muscles together in the front and stretches them in the back. Hence they become strong and tense in the front and weak in the back. This woman needs exercises which will overcome these faults, as raising the arms overhead, stretching the front waist muscles and lifting the chest. One is never too old and never too weai-y to exercise. God meant everyone to be beautiful, and we glorify him in all honest efforts to become so. We are responsible for our figures whatever our walk in life. Emerson says very truly, " a beautiful form is better than a beautiful face," and time is never wasted in the endeavor to make oneself " seventy years young instead of forty years old." A good physical training should also promote grace and harmony of movement. This life is somewhat too short to allow simply the gaining of physical strength and power of endurance to occupy all of the time given to physical training. To learn to appear well, to give pleasure to those with whom we come in contact, cannot but claim some share of our consideration. Easy, graceful, harmonious, nerve-soothing exercises are the Department] REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION 757 great need in our busy, crowded, overwrought American life. Such exercises as combine strength and force with rythmic grace and harmony must eventually be considered the best for the greatest number. In some cities and in some really great institutions of learning two systems of work are combined ; one to promote physical power, and the other to counteract the angularity gained in the first. This, tho much better than having only the angular movements, seems a waste of time. What we need are exercises which successfully combine physical strength with ease and grace. Lastly, and best of all,- a good physical education should teach right thought thru right physical living, or temperance in its highest sense. Mrs. Emily M. Bishop, the well- known advocate of the Americanized Delsarte work, claims that if we hold a noble thought, a noble attitude must accompany it; and our friend Samantha Allen says : ** You are not to blame for being small, Josiah, but if you would let your soul grow, mebby your body would grow some, too." One may as truly say, "Take a correct physical attitude, and right thoughts must come ;" and if right attitudes become habits, right thoughts will become habits as well. What boy can walk well, hold his head erect, look straight into your eyes while speaking, and not be noble and manly ? Much is said about putting a sound mind into a sound body. We cannot put a sound mind anywhere. The mind is God-given, and we can only train a mind as God has given it. We can, however, train a sound body for a sound mind to dwell in, and we know the help a sound body gives to the growth of a sound mind. The best thing Ella Wheeler Wilcox ever wrote is her little poem one stanza of which is this : I may not triumph in success, Despite my honest labor ; I may not grasp results that bless The efforts of my neighbor. But though my goal I never see. This thought shall ever dwell with me, I will be worthy of it. Tho we may not be able in all cases to train intellectually sound minds, we can train bodies which shall be fit dwelling-places for noble thoughts and aspirations. How shall these results be best accomplished ? I do not know, but let me give a few suggestions. Every good physical exercise is composed of three parts ; the energi- zing part, the stretching, and the relaxing. During the first years of school life the child is all self-activity. He is ready for those active, forceful movements which will promote physical strength and health. During this formation period the energizing part of the exercise should hold the thought. Exercises should be given often and the time should be quick. After this period of energy comes the period of most rapid growth. Exercises at this time should be given with much slower time and the stretching should be more pronounced. Plenty of time should also be given to the relaxing part of the exercise. Never before has the child shown self-conscious awkwardness, and never again in his life will he so much need the unconscious study of harmonious movement. He is in a con- stant state of weariness, and he needs the gospel of relaxation. His exercises should broaden and extend his muscles and at the same time give him rest. After a strong physical body and good physical habits are formed, we have laid the foundation for the study of grace as a study. How shall we inspire the boys with a desire to be graceful ? (All girls naturally desire to become so.) By personal example first. By showing them beautiful statuary and pictures. By bringing before them graceful people. Let them see how much more a thing done gracefully may mean than one that is awk- wardly done. How shall we inspire in children, thru physical training, a desire to live aright? 758 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Physical By personal example first. Teach them that the body is our temple, and the mirror of the soul ; that everything we do influences someone for better or for worse. " To walk badly is sinful, as it injures the physical organs. To walk badly is bad manners, for every way of walking expresses something." Bad walking expresses bad things, and is therefore immoial as well as impolite. It is not unlike vulgar slang and violent gestures. Seek to make the children feel that good physical habits are a duty. In conclusion, let me add this thought : The physical training work must not be confined to the ten or fifteen minutes daily given to the exercises, but it must extend to all the acts of the day, for, in the words of Montaigne, " It is not a soul, not a body, we educate : it is a man. Out of this one we must not make two." DEPARTMENT. OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION. — Wednesday, July 9, 1902 The department met in the lecture room of the chemical laboratory of the State University, and was called to order at 2 : 30 p. m. by President W. H. Norton. The following was the program of the session : Music— a vocal solo, by Mr. D. Alvin Davies. President's address, "The Teachings of Science," by William H. Norton, professor of geology, Cornell College, Iowa. " The Educational Value of Museums," by Oliver C. Farrington, curator of geology. Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. " The Projection Microscope: Its Possibilities and Value in Teaching Biology," by A. H. Cole, Lake View High School, Chicago. After discussion of the papers a committee on nominations was appointed as follows : C. W. Hall, of Minnesota, C. O. Bates, of Iowa, W. A. Fiske, of Indiana, A. G. Clement, of New York, and J. H. Kimmons of Wisconsin. The department then adjourned. SECOND SESSION. — Friday, July ii The meeting was called to order by President Norton at 2 : 30 P. M. The following program was followed : Music — vocal solo, " The Erl King," Schubert — by Miss Grace M.Ames. "High-School Instruction in Physics," by F. M. Gilley, High School, Chelsea, Mass, "Physiography in the Secondary Schools," by J. A. Merrill, teacher of science. State Normal School West Superior, Wis. "The Scientific Work of Our Government and its Influence in Secondary Education," by W. J. McGee, ethnologist in charge. Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C. The discussion which followed was .led by C. W. Hall, of Minnesota, W. H. Norton, of Iowa, and A. G. Clement, of New York. The report of the Committee on Nominations was read and adopted, and the follow- ing officers were elected for the ensuing year : President — C. W. Hall, Minneapol^f, Minn. Vice-President — W. A. Fiske, Richmond, Ind. Secretary — F. M. Gilley, Chelsea, Mass. The department then adjourned. Edward H. Lehnerts, Secretary. 759 76o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS— THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE PROFESSOR WILLIAM HARMON NORTON, CORNELL COLLEGE, MOUNT VERNON, lA. It is the custom that any words spoken by the chair at this time shall relate to the common interest only. This does not lie in any single sci- ence, either in its content or in its method of instruction. We are here as teachers of science, and it is the teaching of science in general, its scope and aim and place in the educational system, that seems to be indicated as an appropriate theme. In suggesting a few of the functions of science teaching, I shall not attempt to arrange them in the order of their importance. In fact, the first I shall mention is that which is probably least often in our thought — the discovery and training of scientific aptitudes. In a broad sense, education is the transmission of the world's knowledge from one genera- tion to another. This rich inheritance cannot be conveyed by libraries and museums, or in any mechanical way. It can be handed on unim- paired only by training men capable of receiving and using it. Do the Vanderbilts and the Rothschilds see to the technical education of their sons in the management of their vast railway and banking properties ? How much more does it concern those whom this department represents to take all possible pains in the training of the men of science of the future, the heirs of its wealth ? Somewhere in our schools today are the Rowlands and Asa Grays, the Maria Mitchells and the James Halls, of the next generation. There, too, are the thousands of the rank and file who are to do their humbler work in winning the scientific victories of the future. It was in an old log schoolhouse that the genius of Mendenhall was awakened by a good Quaker lady who had the way of setting her pupils to making simple experiments in physics. Early in the century an eminent botanist at the University of Cambridge took one of his stu- dents into so intimate a friendship that the young man was known among his fellows as "the one who walks with Professor Henslow." He had been considered a very ordinary boy indeed. His classical schooling, as he himself tells us, had omitted all habits of observation and reasoning. But Henslow discovers the marvelous scientific aptitudes of young Darwin, he secures him a place as naturalist on the ship "Beagle," and to the friend- ship of that teacher Darwin attributes "more influence on his career than any other." Whether in country school or in college, the teacher who discovers talent to itself, who directs it to its goal and helps it on its way. Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 1^ may be doing his generation a greater service than money can render, in endowments however munificent. It may possibly be true that genius needs no discovery; that it will blaze forth from beneath any smother of adverse circumstances. Possibly Rowland would still have been Rowland even if his father had refused to listen to his pathetic cry at classical Andover, " O, take me home 1" and had not removed him to the congenial environment of the Renssalaer Polytechnic. But without question the vast majority of science workers owe their efficiency to those whom we here represent. Without science instruction their scientific aptitudes would never have come to fruitage, for faculties which in childhood give every promise of large develop- ment may be so repressed in youth that they remain stunted forever. How much science should there be in our schools ? Enough so that all the way from primary school to university there shall never be a single year in which the scientific aptitudes of our pupils may not be developed by the study of nature at first hand. These boys in our classes who are to be workers in science may not be particularly brilliant ; they may not shine in recitation as do those young intellects which are made with the capacity of the gelatine copying pad and can as faithfully reproduce the phrases of the text. They may ask inconvenient questions; they certainly have a high degree of indi- vidual initiative; they maybe restive under routine. But in the field and laboratory we shall discover in them a marked ability to see, to co-ordinate, and to interpret. Let me suggest that we enter sympathetically into whatever scientific interests of these boys may at the time be strongest. If they are in the " collecting stage," we may gently divert them from postage stamps to flowers, fossils, or butterflies ; we may see that their collections are studied with something of the care that Oswald Heer gave his plants, Darwin his beetles, and that made the cabinet of young Spencer Baird the nucleus of the collections of the Smithsonian Institution, If we find in our boys a greater liking for their furry, finned, and feathered friends alive and at home than dead and on the dissecting table, let us see that the laboratory does not repress this normal turning of the young naturalist to out-of- door study. I do not mean to imply that the cadets of science need instruction of a sort different from that of their fellows. The teaching which best brings out scientific aptitudes is precisely that which every student should have ; it is that which performs the second function I shall mention of science teaching ; it brings in touch with nature. Science teaching is objective ; its impressions are at first hand ; it brings face to face with facts. How weak and vague, how illusory and fleeting, is the impression of the word compared with that of the thing ! It is our peculiar privilege to teach things, not words. In this presence I need not attempt to slay 762 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science again the slain and say aught against the bookish teaching of science. After all, it is perhaps as worth while as the bookish teaching of anything else. I do not know why fourteen weeks in physics or geology is not as good as fourteen weeks in Grecian history or political economy. But the text-book teaching of science is so markedly inferior to the laboratory method that it is fast disappearing from our schools. In chemistry, physics, and biology it has well-nigh gone. But in the earth sciences the new and fruitful methods of study in the laboratory and field are by no means common. How many well-equipped physiographic laboratories can any of us count in his own state in colleges, normal schools, and universities, to say nothing of high schools ? And in how many public schools are such fundamental notions as the weathering of rocks and the work of streams still taught from the printed page instead of in the field ? Last fall I asked the students in my different courses in geology in Cornell College how many of them when in high school or academy had ever taken an excursion in geography or physiography. And there were but four out of 120 students who had ever been taught anything in these two subjects outside the schoolroom. The enthusiastic visitor at a great museum who was so anxious to handle the feldspars in one of the cases, because she had been teaching feldspar to her pupils for fourteen years and had never before seen .the mineral to know it, belongs, I fear, to a type not yet extinct. No matter what or how much we omit from the text-book, let us teach first and foremost, as critically and as fully as possible, whatever can be seen and handled, drawn and described, and verified by experiment. We may leave to others to teach how to con the printed page and to assimilate and reproduce its ideas. It rests with us to train the quick eye and the skillful hand, to teach the patient investigation of nature. I once asked Dr. Alexander Winchell if he found his seniors in geology at the University of Michigan good observers. Yes, he answered, unless they have had too much Latin and Greek. Apart from science studies, a college course may easily dim the eye and leave one a duller student of things than when he entered. If science is rightly taught in our schools no one need ever say, as the distinguished president of an American university recently confessed : "The best teacher I ever had was the kindly old neighborhood loafer, who roamed the woods with me and told me the times of the wild flowers and the habits of the birds." It is because scientific culture is objective that it has an ethical value wholly different from that of any culture largely subjective, such as literature, art, or philosophy. Edward Everett Hale has told of the good he got when a boy from setting type in his father's office : " The absolute accuracy which is necessary is good for a boy. The solid fact that 144 ems will go in a given space and will require that space, and that no prayers nor tears nor hopes nor fears will change that solid fact — this is Department! PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 7^3 most important." Here we touch the special note of science training. It teaches limits and bounds, the bounds of the solid fact. In literary culture the spirit projects itself into the world. It fuses, I might almost say, external reality by the breath of phantasy and reforms it accord- ing to its own free creative power. But science faces the spirit with adamantine walls, the unchangeable moenia mundi. Its god is the god of things as they are, not of things as we might imagine them to be. Its work is patiently to investigate, and humbly to obey. Science, therefore, teaches fairness, emancipation from prejudice and personal bias, and a supreme love of the truth. Its word is not freedom, but law. Everywhere it teaches law and the inescapable consequences of its breaking. Despite the rapid upward curve of the scope and effectiveness of science instruction, its work is still far from done. The scientific culture of the age is but skin deep. Scratch it anywhere and one comes upon the strange delusions of the primitive savage. We are all acquainted with estimable people, cultured and lovely women, graduates of our high schools and colleges (tho seldom, I believe, in scientific courses), who have come under the spell of the recrudescence of an ancient illusion. They have been "set free." To them there are no solid facts. "Do not teach physiology in the schools, for the dear children really do not have any bodies," was the pith of their petition to the school board in one of the largest cities in Iowa. It is their faith that they can change at will this old world of ours and annihilate all its hardship and pain and disease. I know of nothing which will render immune to such vagaries except a continuous treatment of physical science administered in large doses. Let me emphasize the fact that science is in touch with external reality; it teaches the veracity of the world, and its discipline is therefore pre- eminently serious, healthful, and sane. All this is related more or less closely with the last function of science teaching I shall take time to mention — the discipline of the reason. Language, with its vocabularies and paradigms, literature, with its imagi- native interpretations, with its supreme sense of beauty and of form, rather than of substance and of truth, indispensable as both studies are in a liberal education, cannot develop the rational faculties. For this we must ever depend on the strenuous athletics of mathematics and of science. What geometry is as an educational instrument in deduction, that the inductive sciences may be made in training the reason to deal with the concrete facts of daily life. These sciences demand as a daily exercise comparison, judgment, reasoning from cause to effect and from effect to cause, the sifting of evidence, the testing of hypotheses, the calculus of probabilities. If the teachers of science in America can teach the scien- tific method to the rising generation, we need ask no other opportunity to join in the long war against credulity and superstition, for we shall 764 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Science have helped to accomplish perhaps the chief mission of science in the world — the rationalization of the social mind. It was once said by Robert Louis Stevenson, that consummate artist in words : " No one knows better than I that as we go on in life we must part with prettiness and the graces." The time has come when in education prettiness and the graces ought at least to be made subordinate. Second- ary and higher education may be likened to the two pillars of Solomon's porch. Wrought of solid metal, and crowned with chapiters of carven pomegranates and lily work, they were fitly named yhi^/^m. He shall estab- lish, ajid Boaz, In ii is strength. However rich may be the decorations of the education of the future, I believe it will be established in the strength of science, using the word in the widest sense. If the understanding is more than imagination, if truth is more than beauty, science must needs be the central supporting column of all education after the reason has come in its development to surpass the faculties of earlier ripening. The core of science in American culture will save it from any deca- dence. There have been, there are, decadent cultures, as there are decadent nations. Let me cite the chief historic examples : 1. The culture of the rhetoricians of Greece, a culture which concerned itself wholly with words and the art of public speech, and which at last made the very name of its professors, the sophists, a byword to all generations. 2. The culture of the last century of the Roman empire, a culture which was devoted to the study and imitation of models of literature even then ancient, and which was therefore smitten with barrenness even in the field of letters. 3. The culture of the English universities at a time comparatively recent, "caravansaries of idlesse" in the phrase of one of their distinguished graduates, where the flame of thought was fed with the ashes of ancient studies from which the vital interest had long since been burned out. 4. The culture of the universities of India today, a culture which the London Spectator has recently called rotten, which' teaches the Bengali the masterpieces of English as the Roman was taught the masterpieces of Greek, and "indifferent as it is to science and the constructive arts, is ulti- mately to fail, and probably with a crash." 5. And last, the culture of China, a culture classical in the veneration of the ancient models of its literature, and exquisite in the cultivation of the amenities of speech, a culture which has lately excluded science from the empire by imperial edict, and which, more than any other internal cause, is bringing to pass the dissolution of that venerable nation. The strain of weakness in all these decadent cultures is clear. They make, no provision for the education of the rational faculty of man thru the study of his environment. But we need apprehend no similar fate for education in America. It is woven of too many strands. iV culture Department] THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF MUSEUMS 765 which teaches literature, the highest expression of the thought of the world, and history; the story of the social evolution of man, and science, the knowledge of the laws of nature, of self, and of society — such a cul- ture cannot become decadent; it cannot die except with the death of civilization itself. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF MUSEUMS OLIVER CUMMINGS FARRINGTON, CURATOR OF GEOLOGY, FIELD COLUMBIAN MUSEUM, CHICAGO, ILL. The word in this title which I would emphasize is *' museums." Neither laboratories, collections, nor field work are just now to engage our atten- tion, but museums — institutions founded for the preservation and exhibi- tion of objects of science and art. We shall probably agree for this occasion, since this is the Science section of the Association, to confine our discussion to museums of science. I am confident, however, that any principles which we may discover regarding the possibility of educa- tion to be obtained from museums of science will apply equally well to museums of art. Tho the two cultivate different fields, they are embodiments of the same idea and have similar aims. Regarding the general principles underlying the purpose of museums which gives them their chief importance as an educational factor, it will doubtless be generally admitted that museums stand for the study of things, in contrast to the study of words, or even of pictures of things. It was natural, perhaps, in the development of the race, that as man came to realize the power of words, their beauty and their value as means of communication, it should seem to him that the possibilities of progress lay chiefly along the line of their study, and that he should hitch his educational wagon to that star, forgetting that others might be as lofty and as brilliant. To a greater or less extent he also realized the advantages of using pictures of things to help the understanding and the intellect, but it is only within a comparatively short time that he has begun to see that to deal with the things themselves is still better. Things cannot lie ; words about them may. Our neighbor's idea as communicated to us in words may be, and probably will be, helpful, but our neighbor is not infallible, and the only way for the individual to get individual truth is for him to deal with the things themselves. To this study of things museums of science are one of the most recent contributions. Just when to date their birth it would be difficult to say. Probably for a number of centuries past housed collections worthy to some extent of the name of museums might be discovered here and there, altho these were in almost every case private rather than publie institutions. But the inception of the museum of science as we know or conceive it is only a recent matter. We may agree with the late Secretary 766 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science Goode of the National Museum in fixing it no farther back than the London Exposition of 185 1, where for the first time, as another has said, were realized the advantages of "gathering together within the limits of a day's walk objects which could otherwise be seen only by years of travel." All the important scientific museums of our country are certainly sub- sequent to this date. The organization of museums in this country can be grouped about three periods, two of them following expositions. The first period was about i860, and saw the erection of the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History and the Harvard Museum of Com- parative Zoology. The second was about 1876, and from it date the American Museum of Natural History of New York, the Peabody Museum of Yale University, the Museum of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, and the inception of the United States National Museum, altho the build- ing which it now occupies was not completed till 1881. The third period followed the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, and to it belong the founding of the Field Columbian Museum in 1894, the Carnegie Museum in 1895, the Philadelphia Commercial and Golden Gate Museums in the same year, the Milwaukee Museum in 1898, the Denver Museum, just building, and numerous university museums. In Europe the British Museum, in many respects the world's greatest museum at the present time, was not a vigorous institution until 1845, and the natural history department was not made a separate division until 1880. The great Austrian Museum of Natural History began in 1748 to occupy a corner in the National Library building, but it was not until 1876 that its present magnificent plan and building took shape. The Museum of Natural History of Paris in the Garden of Plants was founded in 1795, but only within the last five years it has undergone improvements so radical in their character that the old museum seems in contrast hardly to have been worthy of the name. Is it any wonder, then, since these institutions are of so recent origin, that as educational appliances we have not yet learned by what handle to grasp them, and that they are in general approached with a feeling not far removed from bewilderment ? There could be no better proof of this bewilderment than ro notice, as anyone may if they will, the purely casual way in which most museum visiting is done. A vase here first catches the visitor's attention, then a mummy there, a moose here, a goose there, and so the spectator flits, butterfly like, from room to room, until the sum of the impressions he receives does not differ much in kind, if indeed it does in quantity, from that which he would gain by looking into a kaleidoscope. I cast no aspersions upon those who visit museums in this way. Often recreation is the only object sought, and if change is the secret of recreation, then such visiting furnishes it in an eminent degree. But such a practice can hardly be regarded as in accord I Department] THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF MUSEUMS 767 with the highest ideals of education, for, while it is true that a higher value than formerly is now placed upon education unconsciously imbibed, it is also true that the education which counts still comes largely as the result of study and application. This study may, of course, be to a certain extent unconscious, and need not be distasteful or laborious, thanks to modern pedagogical methods ; but it must still be study. The way to get education out of a museum, then, is to study it, and my aim will be simply to give a few practical hints as to the character of this study and how it may best be conducted. My first point would be to say that museum study should be definite. The verdict of all teachers with whom I have talked as to the best means of securing valuable results from museum study is that some particular work, some special topic, should be assigned for each occasion, and that all effort for that occasion should be confined to that work and topic. A wise teacher would not tell his pupils to turn over the leaves of a text- book of chemistry for an hour or two and then expect them to know all about chemistry, or even anything about chemistry. How much more benefit is likely to be derived from a two hours' general visit to a museum ? If, then, museum study is to be definite, what are some of the definite things that can be done ? Let me suggest several, some of which I know have been tried, and with success. For pupils of the lower grades, much use can be made of objects in museums for purposes of illustrating nature study. One Chicago school of the fourth grade of which I know conducts an exercise in nature study like this : The pupils are first taken to Stony Island, an old quarry in the city where fossils may be collected, and there, gather and see in place a number of different kinds of fossils. Then they go to the museum and conipare the fossils there with what they have found. They see their relations to the larger groups, and study a collection illustrating how fossils are formed. The reports of their studies are then submitted in the form of an essay on fossil making. The Whitechapel Museum of England seeks to aid use of its collections by inviting teachers to send in lists of their object lessons for time to time. The objects to be found in the museum illustrative of these lessons are pointed out to the teachers and they subsequently come with their pupils to see and study them. The study of geography finds almost endless illustration in the natural history museum. The products of different countries, animal, vegetable, mineral, can be sought out and reported upon, so as to make more lasting impressions oh the mind than if learned from books. Relief maps, which most museums provide in greater quantity than schools can do, give far more accurate ideas of geography than the ordinary maps. Observation of such maps will help the pupils to realize the why of geography; why the Sahara and the American deserts exist ; why the old 768 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science world produced five races, the new world but one ; why the peoples of India, China, and Egypt are stationary and unprogressive ; and so on. Similarly the study of history can be given greatly increased interest and vividness by illustrating its events by reference to museums. How much more fully and accurately can the Indians of our country and the conflicts of the white races with them be understood by a child who has seen representations of their culture and mode of living in a natural- history museum than could be the case were his ideas drawn from the average history or from Cooper's novels ! In science work in the higher grades much important work can be done in museums. Classes in botany, both systematic and economic, may find in any good botanical collection numerous opportunities for study. Such materials as woods or fibers, and collections illustrating varieties and uses of cotton, corn, coffee, etc., admit of various applica- tion to purposes of instruction, even if herbarium studies must be excluded on account of the fragile nature of the materials. Classes in zoology may study collections such as those of shells, birds, or mammals, with a view to making classifications devised by each pupil which can be compared with those generally adopted. Again, profitable study may be made of collections, such as one of vertebrate skeletons, by assigning the analysis of different bones or limbs to different members of a class. To one, for example, the cervical vertebrae may be allotted, to another the fore limb, or single bones of it, to another the hind limb, and so on. The pupils are asked to trace these bones thru the different animals and note their variations in form, size, and use. The reports of these observations are then read in the class the next day and discussed. In the Englewood High School of Chicago, mimeographed copies of an outline of study like this or others which are to be made at the museum are given, and the pupils are sent to the museum with these with instruction to make a written report at a certain imminent date. In such ways studies of variation, of adaptation, of mimicry, and of similar subjects may be made on any large collection of mollusks, birds, insects, or other animals. In some museums, chiefly in Great Britain, regular courses of instruc- tion in science are given in the museums by members of the museum staff. The plan seems to have been tried in this country, so tar as I know, only in the Boston Museum of Natural History, and reports do not indi- cate that such courses are very largely patronized. The school board of Milwaukee has, however, employed for the last three years a museum lecturer, who spends his time at the Public Museum in giving talks to the public-school children on objects of nature study there found. Pupils of all grades above the fifth attend these lectures as part of their school work. The chief difficulties attending talks in a museum at the cases, or what are called in England "museum demonstrations," are the small number who can see and hear to advantage and the fatigue consequent upon Department] THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF MUSEUMS 769 Standing for any length of time. To obviate these difficulties in some museums the objects desired for use in instruction are taken to an audience hall and there exhibited as they would be in a class-room. There is some danger , however, of loss or breakage of valuable specimens by this method, and I have not found as much interest aroused when specimens are viewed in this way. Stereopticon lectures in which photographs of the speci- mens are exhibited answer much the same purpose, and often are to be preferred. General courses of lectures illustrated by the stereopticon now form a prominent feature of the work of nearly all museums, and their educational value is without question great. Another way in which some museums have endeavored to aid school work is to offer prize-essay contests. Such contests have been offered in this country by the Field Columbian and Carnegie Museums, and in Scot- land by the Perth Museum. The results have been most satisfactory and indicate that museums may thus distinctly aid our educational system. Even without the stimulus of prizes, museum visits may be made to afford excellent sources of essays, written as school work in English or in English and science combined. We thus see some of the ways in which definite museum study can be carried on. The variations of methods possible are of course endless, and dependent upon the nature of the museum and the collections in it. It is trusted, however, that from these hints the fertile-minded teacher may be able to make applications suited to his or her particular field. My second suggestion would be to say that museum study should be diligent ; and the diligence of the teacher should precede that of the pupils. A teacher would probably not think of teaching any subject in the class-room without having previously become to some slight degree acquainted with it, but museum study appears to be sometimes thought an exception to this rule. No, museum study, like all other kinds of study, requires work, work on the part of the teacher and work on the part of the pupils, in order to obtain the best results. Given the wide-awake, earnest teacher and I have no fears that the pupils will fail in diligence. It has become a common thing at the Field Columbian Museum to see the pupils of certain teachers spending their time after school hours for weeks in succession earnestly studying some subject assigned by these teachers. The work interested them, they enjoyed it, and their diligent pursuance of it followed as the day the sun. In the third place, museum study should be delightful. What ! I hear it said : Can study of those long rows of specimens having meaningless Latin names ever be made delightful ? Is there any draught of pleasure to be quaffed among the dry bones of museums ? If they would contain collections of axes with which murderers have killed their victims, or of ropes with which they were hanged, or there were specfmens of bicephalic calves, anastomosed trees, or cyclone-twisted lamp-posts to be seen, then 770 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science the prospect of visiting a museum might be looked forward to with pleasure. Unfortunately to those who desire recreation of this sort it is to be said that nature is to be known by her fruits, not by her freaks, and that society has too frequently painful illustrations of the fact that the excit- ing of morbid curiosity is neither safe nor wise to encourage effort along this line. To arouse a healthy curiosity, however, and then provide means to satisfy it, is to my mind one of the noblest duties an educational institution can perform, and few are better fitted to do this than museums. "• Knowledge begins in wonder," and the boy who goes to the museum because he believes it to be a " stuffed circus" may stay because he finds it to have a subtle stimulus. To attain this end it is certainly desirable that museum representation should be made as attractive as possible, and the observer of the times will, I think, find that the present trend of museum development is notably in this direction. Groups and group collections are, wherever possible, being made to replace tiresome and {engthy systematic series. The design and fittings of halls and cases are being made of the richest and most pleasing order possible. No material is thought too costly or precious to serve as settings for even humble specimens. Mahogany and velvet, plate glass and burnished brass, are felt to represent true museum economy and to furnish the only kind of equipment which ought to be considered permanent. And surely, with Ruskin, we believe that " out of the millions spent to give attractiveness to folly we can spare one to show the honor in which we hold instruction." Of the fact that museum study is found to be attractive there need be no better proof than that seen in the constantly increasing attendance on these institutions by teachers and scholars. I cannot give many figures to show this increase, for few museums have thus far kept record of such attendance, but I feel sure it is a fact. At the American Museum of Natural History the attendance of teachers and pupils for the purpose of systematic study of the collections was, in 1899, subsequent to May 20, 2,928; in 1900, 5,302; and in 1901, 5,320. The similar attendance at the Field Columbian Museum was, in 1895, 9,1 18 ; in 1896, 5,228 ; in 1897, 8,753 ; in 1898, 6,585 ; in 1899, 9»i3^ J i^ 1900, 8,871 ; and in 1901, 9,640. The latter record I regard on the whole as showing a marked increase, since 1895 was the opening year of the museum and the attendance was largely to see what the museum was like. I am confident that if a measure of the real instruction and the value of the instruction received from the museum in this time could be taken this would show a still greater increase. A rather significant result of museum visits which one large Chicago insti- tution reports is that the number of books of fiction which the pupils draw from the library has notably decreased and those on natural history increased. Increase in seriousness and earnestness of study is a result reported by nearly all teachers. The museum impresses the child with I Department] THE PROJECTION MICROSCOPE 7 7 I the reality of things and the extent of the world about him of which he has as yet learned little, as books cannot. Perhaps some to whom I am speaking willingly admit the value of museums as aids to education, and would gladly make use of them if any were accessible, but such is not the case. In answer to such I would paraphrase an old adage and say : ** Either find a museum or make one." It is not simply collections of rare objects from remote corners of the globe that are required to constitute a museum; it is collections of any objects intelligently gathered, grouped, and exhibited. There is not an inhabited area ten miles square anywhere in our country of which the fauna, flora, physical features, and industries are not now undergoing changes such as will make an accurate record of them, in the shape of care- fully preserved specimens, of inestimable value fifty years from now. Moreover, such collections can, during the passage of the fifty years, be constant sources of instruction as well. Efforts to form such collections must be intelligently made. Spasms of enthusiasm interspersed by long intervals of dust and decay will not bring about the desired results. Such achievements are more likely to prove horrible warnings to the coming generation. What is done must be done well and with an eye to the future. A few well-lighted, well arranged, well-labeled specimens con stantly cared for are worth acres of " clutter " and rubbish, for the care of which no one in particular feels responsible. This is not the time or place to elaborate plans for projects of this sort, but I feel sure that the desirability and importance of establishing museums in all good-sized communities is coming to be appreciated, and that it is as certain that patrons of museums will arise at no distant day as it is that patrons of libraries are even now distributing beneficent influences. " Silent reformers," museums have been called by an eminent political economist, and such they are. Both as such reformers and as means for becoming acquainted with those forces of nature whose possibilities we are just beginning to understand, museums have pre-eminent value, for they have power to preserve what is good of the past and to point to what shall be good in the future. THE PROJECTION MICROSCOPE— ITS POSSIBILITIES AND VALUE IN TEACHING BIOLOGY AARON H. COLE, INSTRUCTOR IN BIOLOGY, LAKE HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. We are dealing with terms needing definition, in order that we may be sure of occupying common ground. Biology, as used in this paper, includes the study of the vital phenomena of live plants and animals, as well as the details of their external morphology, anatomy, and histology. 772 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science Projection microscopes include all types of apparatus by which pictures of actual objects may be exhibited by transmitted light and under various degrees of magnification on a suitable screen. Transparent, translucent, or opaque animals and plants, or their parts, may be substituted for the picture on glass, i.e., the lantern slide, regularly used in stereopticons, and the stereopticon then becomes, in effect, a low power projection microscope. For medium and high power magnification microscope objectives are necessary, and these require a projection microscope attach- ment, or an ordinary microscope carefully adjusted so that its optical axis coincides with the optical axis of the system of condensing lenses. True teaching, in biology, must attend,^first of all, to the training of the student in the habit of accurate perception of objects and in the for- mation of correct mental images; for these lie at the very foundation both of an understanding of the phenomena, relations, and structure of organisms and of the intellectual development which results from such an exercise of the student's perceptive and reflective faculties. Whatever information the teacher is called upon to impart should be supplemental to the student's own acquisitions and tend toward directing his energies and broadening his view, never merely cramming his memory. Three types of mind are likely to be found in any large class: First, there are the minds which are suffering from an acute attack of mental resistance and active protest against study; second, the passive victims, as it seems to them, of a necessary but useless school routine (they are intel- lectual putty, more or less workable); and, third, the wide-awake young investigator who has caught the spirit of the age but capers over the field of scientific thought without definite purpose or results. How to catch the eye and attention, stimulate intellectual activity, and wisely direct it in all classes of minds is the teacher's problem. Permit me to record the conviction that in the realm of biology there are the natural conditions which ought to lead to a very large, if not the largest, measure of success in conquering resistant and arousing passive minds and directing frisky pupils into definite and effective lines of work. It is a matter of common observation that any one method will not reach all cases. Experience for a score of years with students of various grades, ranging from first year in high school to post-graduates in college, is the basis on which is founded ray growing belief in the wide usefulness of projection microscopes as aids in teaching biology. Time will not permit me to enter into the details of manipulation by which the results are attained, nor is it fiecessary, as these details are now in course of publication.' The most important data in reference to the possibilities of the pro- jection microscope may be summed up in the answers to a half dozen practical questions : ^Journal of Applied Microscopy and Laboratory Methods. Department] THE PROJECTION MICROSCOPE 773 1. What are the minimum and maximum sizes of objects which may be shown in one picture on the screen? If the projection outfit includes a good selection of lenses, micro- scopic organisms, such as motile bacteria (e.g., Spirillum volutans), live amoebae and infusoria are examples of the minimum sizes, while objects about four inches in greatest diameter, such as live fish, large leeches, entire plants of moss, portions of the axis of chara, and similar objects mark the maximum for the ordinary projection objectives. 2. In what conditions may the objects be in order that they may be projected successfully? Live animals and plants of aquatic species, and others which may be mounted in water, are of the highest value in exhibiting life phenemona, and are of great interest. Until one has gone to the ponds with a dip- net, or even with a pole, hook, and wide-mouthed bottle, and has taken up a mass of weeds and placed them in the bottle of water, he will not know what a host of interesting organisms are available for this work in almost every locality. Many of these types are easily kept alive thru the entire winter in battery jars, or other simple balanced aquaria. For pro- jection, they are mounted in water in glass cells of various forms and sizes. If the animals are normally too active for careful study; e.g., mosquito larvae, daphnia, gammarus, and tadpoles, they may be partially or com- pletely anesthetized. The anesthetic best adapted to all types of animals is chloretone. Detailed formulae for the use of this comparitively new hypnotic are now awaiting publication and will cover a wide range of types from amoeba to frogs. All sorts of prepared specimens of animals and plants, either in natural colors or stained, and practically all micro- scopic objects are suitable for projection. 3. What is the possible range of magnification of the pictures of objects as they appear upon the screen? While the answer in any specific case depends upon the intensity of the light, distance from the projection microscope to the screen, the mode of mounting, and the nature of the object, it may be answered, in general, that a good series of lenses will give various powers from a minimum of ten diameters or less up to ten thousand diameters, which is the highest for which there is any practical use, but not the highest obtainable. Lest it may seem that these high powers are guessed at, it ought to be stated that they are the recorded results of careful measure- ments. The power to be used on any particular specimen is determined according to the general rule for the use of all magnifying lenses, viz., use the lowest power which affords a satisfactory picture of the details to be studied. 4. What lenses are used for magnifying the live or dead organisms or sections of them? For pictures of larger objects, in^which gross morphology or motions 774 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science are to be shown, e.g., swimming fish or tadpoles, crawling leech, beating of the heart of a large fresh-water clam and similar objects, regular achro- matic stereopticon objectives are used, the object itself, properly mounted in a glass cell, taking the place of the usual lantern slide. Quarter-size objectives of this kind will also show the circulation of blood in the tail of a fish or tadpole, if the light is good and the screen is from twenty-five to thirty feet distant from the object. It thus becomes evident that the range of usefulness of the ordinary school or college stereopticon may be greatly increased by the addition of a few glass cells to the outfit. For medium powers, good quality regular achromatic microscopic objectives of powers from the lowest to about three-fourths inch are used. For high power work, use one-half, one-quarter, and one-eighth inch objectives. For the highest magnification, use one-twelfth inch oil-immersion objec- 4:ives. If the objectives used on your regular microscopes do not give satisfactory pictures on the screen, special projection objectives may be purchased. 5. What is the distance from the projection microscope to the screen? The projecting distance may be varied to suit the conditions between the limits of five and fifty feet. A good distance, when using solar or electric arc light, is twenty-five feet. With oxyhydrogen light and one- twelfth inch oil-immersion objective, the distance must be reduced to ten feet or less. The three sources of light just named are the only ones which give light of sufficient intensity for use with microscopic objectives. Sunlight works up to a maximum of more than ten thousand diameters; electric arc light, with a properly adjusted system of condensers, has been used by my classes up to eight thousand diameters, and a special oxyhydrogen projection microscope fitted up for an eastern college gave, with a twelfth-inch oil-immersion objective, brilliant pictures up to fifteen hundred or two thousand diameters. 6. What plants and animals and their parts, and what vital and chemical phenomena pertaining to them, may be successfully demon- strated with projection microscopes? If this question were answered by giving an enumeration of the screen work done by my classes each year in connection with their work with regular microscopes, you would be wearied before the end was reached, and yet this would be but the beginning of what is possible and is being -done, to some extent, by an increasingly large number of workers in this line. The question is best answered, therefore, by a statement of the classes of objects, with a few examples. First, practically all permanent microscopic preparations used in ordinary microscopic work. These include small animals and plants, and sections of larger species, either stained or in natural colors. Second, hundreds of spe'cies of microscopic and small, live animals and plants, which are easily mounted in water, for exhibition of their forms and much I I Department] THE PROJECTION MICROSCOPE 775 of their structure. An anaesthetized small, live earthworm will show the following details of structure, viz. : body- wall and cavity, septa, dorsal, and ventral blood vessels, setae, oesophagus, crop, gizzard, stomach-intestine, and the glandular portions of the nephridia. In crayfish about two to five days out of the ^gg even the nerve ganglia and commisures in the abdomen may be demonstrated. Third, the movements, changes of form, and many of the vital phenomena of live plants and animals may be clearly shown, some of them much better than by any other method. Under the stim- ulus of solar and electric lights, green plants, e. g., anacharis, carry on the regular life processes, manufacture starch, and throw off oxygen. The effect of cold is easily demonstrated by the addition of a little ice water to the water in which the plant is mounted, and the rapidity of evolution is instantly reduced, or, if ice is added, the bubbles of oxygen cease to appear. Starch grains may be tested in green plant cells, or in slices of potato, and boiled enough to cause them to swell and become trans- lucent. Cooked starch may be tested with iodine, and then another portion of the same starch which has been treated with saliva may be similarly tested to demonstrate the chemical change, or digestive action, of the ptyalin of the saliva. Other phenomena include modes of motion, as in amoeba, infusoria, planarian worms, leeches, gammarus, and fish ; feeding, as in fish, and various aquatic insects and larvae ; action of vital organs, e. g., the beating of the hearts in earthworms, daphnia, fresh- water clams, and the movement of the valves of the heart in the nymph of the dragon-fly; peristaltic action of the intestine and the grinding of food in the gizzard of earthworms; circulation of blood in tails of fish and tadpoles, foot of frog, and antennae of crayfish. An interesting series of plant motions is seen in diatoms, volvox, oscillaria, the movements of elaters on spores of equisetum, and circulation of protoplasm in cells of chara and tradescantia. We now turn to the consideration of the value of the projection microscope as an aid in teaching biology. If the demonstrated possibilities of this class of apparatus, as above set forth, give promise of educational value, the actual use of the instru- ment gives results most satisfactory to students and teachers, both while the work is being done and in the riper judgment of the student's later years. The educational value of projected pictures cannot be devel- oped, if they are simply made the basis of a more or less valuable lec- ture. Such pictures, in the class-room, may be — in true teaching must be — definite links in the chain by which the teacher educates, or draws out the intellecual powers of his scholars. This follows from the fact that the pictures are connecting links between practically indentical and synchronous retinal images in teacher and student, and afford definite common bases for question and answer as well as for lecture demonstra- tion. The principal results of tests of the value of projection work in 776 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science teaching biology to a large number of classes of high-school and college grades may be summed up in seven statements : 1. Projected pictures awaken and increase the student's interest. The motions of live animals and plants, as they appear upon the screen, appeal directly and successfully to his innate love for things in motion. The odd forms and varied motions of different species hold the attention and interest until a desire for more knowledge makes itself felt as a new or accelerated force in the scholar's life. Compare the ordinary diagramatic chart, or even accurate pictorial representations of a fresh- water hydra, with the expanding, contracting, and twisting monster which is seen as a living chart on the screen. If a mature bud is about ready to separate, or if water-fleas have been mounted with a hungry hydra, interest runs up to "ninety degrees in the shade." If the odd pranks of some live animals send a ripple of laughter over class and teacher for a moment, it acts as a wholesome condiment flavoring the heavier intellectual meat, and improving intellectual digestion and appetite. Ordinary microscopic preparations are full of interest, and serial sections, e. g., embryo chicks, kindle enthusiasm. 2. It supplements regular work with microscopes, and, where students are so unfortunate as to be denied the privilege of using a compound microscope, projected pictures are the best substitute. As a student works with his microscope, and is encouraged by the teacher to be self-reliant and develop original power, there will be points on which his views are not full or accurate. With the type specimens projected on the screen, all the ragged ends of observation by all the class may be quickly and successfully gathered up. Individual work with the compound microscope trains the student's hands and judgment, and is always to be preferred as a sound foundation, but its true supplement and best substitute is the projection microscope. 3. It saves time in teaching the technique of the compound micro- scope. Did you ever find earnest beginners with the compound microscope wasting precious time and losing enthusiasm over objects in unlighted or half-lighted fields, or watching air-bubbles, dirt, and other foreign matter in their preparations ? A brief demonstration of these on the screen, inter- esting because entirely new in the student's experience, clears up the light, air-bubble, dirt, poor-focus and no-focus difficulties. 4. Each student is given the benefit of the best specimens. The laws of growth and variation of organisms, together with the vary- ing skill of students, result in a wide difference in the quality of the preparations on which their observations are made. After each one has done his best, he needs the benefit of a brief view of the best that has been done. It may be remarked, in passing, that the exhibition of the best preparations made by the members of the class is considered an Department] THE PROJECTION MICROSCOPE m honor worth working for. Fifty or more students may successfully study a preparation in the same amount of time that is ordinarily consumed by one in the usual method. 5. Students prefer to draw from objects projected on the screen. The exercise is made all the more valuable educationally from the combi- nation of best object, better supervision by the teacher, and the inability of careless pupils to excuse their errors on the ground that their specimens were like their drawings. When using solar or electric arc lights, one or more window shades may be raised enough to furnish ample light on the drawing paper without destroying the details of the picture on the screen. 6. It contributes to a broader knowledge of types. Too often it is true that students who have made a formal and excel- lent series of notes and drawings on some type animal, e. g., the earth- worm, are left in almost complete ignorance of related genera and classes. Lack of time and the expense of many duplicate specimens are insurmountable obstacles. Lecture demonstations, including a consider- able amount of quiz work, in which all the principal relationships to the type form are studied out by the class, are at once beneficial and pleasant exercises, broadening knowledge, training the observational faculty and judgment, and fixing mental pictures of the objects themselves, not merely their names. 7. The use of projection microscopes increases definiteness. A characteristic of untrained minds is indefiniteness, which manifests itself in failure to understand or use words accurately, or to do the sim- plest things according to directions. Talking to the student will never cure this mental blight. They must be trained by having definite stand- ards set before them, followed by insistence on definite work, until it becomes a habit and its value is appreciated by the student himself. The excessive variation in the focusing power of the eyes of different persons is an important factor in the general indefiniteness which is characteristic of the earlier weekSj at least, of work with compound microscopes. The projected picture is either a surface view or an optical section at some defi- nite depth in the object. By seating pupils with defective vision near the screen, it is possible to give every member of a large class practically the same retinal image which the teacher has, and with pointer in hand he may fix attention on any part of it while lecturing, demonstrating, and quizzing. The value of thus centering the eye and mind on definite objects during more or less prolonged study cannot be overestimated. The success which gives a student greater courage for harder tasks, and prepares his mind to deal with the practical problems of after life, is built upon this corner-stone. [The speaker then gave a demonstration of microscopic projection, using the electric arc light, with one-inch, three-quarter inch, and one-twelfth inch oil-immersion objectives. The typical subjects chosen for exhibition were animal motions and anatomy, shown in 778 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science living infusoria, daphnia, and gammarus ; histology, in a stained hydra, and the nuclei of the red corpucles of frog's blood; vital phenomena, in the pulsation of the "hearts" and dorsal vessel of a live anesthetized earthworm and in the beating heart of daphnia ; and chemical and physical phenomena, shown by testing starch with iodine and then boiling the starch to exhibit the swelling of the grains and their change to a translucent condi- tion.] HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICS F. M. GILLEY, INSTRUCTOR IN SCIENCE, HIGH SCHOOL, CHELSEA, MASS. Of the three ways of presenting the subject of physics, by the recitation or text-book, the laboratory, and lecture methods, the latter, tho perhaps the oldest, is not now utilized to its full extent. It has been more or less modeled on the practice of the colleges and technical schools. By lectures suitable for high-school classes should not be understood a formal discourse, but rather an informal talk, interrupted from time to time by questions and suggestions by the class. The teacher should assure himself, by questioning, that the descriptions and experiments have been understood. It may be well to repeat, of course rapidly, some important and fundamental experiments four or five times, the purpose being to fix a scientific fact by seeing the experiment repeated, instead of seeing the experiment once, and afterwards studying and committing to memory the record and description of that experi- ment. At intervals, the reading of notes just taken by the pupil should be called for and the more common errors in note taking corrected with- out the laborious use of the blue pencil. Coaching in athletics and teaching in manual training are done on the spot, as it were, and are more effective than written or verbal criticisms that come to the pupils hours too late. It is not to be expected that young children will know how to take notes at the beginning of the study of science. In fact, one of the peculiar advantages of science study (and this is especially the case in physics), is the invaluable training in note taking. The pupil soon learns to take notes at any time, to condense and edit, as it were, the lessons developed by the teacher and the class. There is training in writing in simple language on topics where a lack of clearness is only too self-evident. The pupil finds the data he has recorded the basis of computations that give him further and more definite knowledge. Care- lessness in experimenting, observing, or recording, or in following instructions, any inaccuracies or omissions, bring their own punishments. Note taking should be practiced during the lecture, laboratory, and reci- tation periods. The set division, however, of school periods into lecture, laboratory, and recitation is hardly desirable in high-school work. The ideal way is to combine a little of the three in each lesson. The exercise may open I I Department! HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICS 779 with a few minutes' talk, an experiment may be shown and the class questioned, perhaps on some essential point that needs to be emphasized. Then let the laboratory work follow. The uncertainty of just what is to be the form of instruction excites the curiosity and holds the interest of the class. Physics as taught by the lecture method alone is usually non-mathe- matical, and is superficial and easily forgotten. Its impress on the future thinking of the pupil is soon lost if it is the only method of presenting the subject. Whenever possible, laboratory exercises should be the foundation for lecture and recitation work. There is at present a demand, largely from those who have not delved into the real science of physics, for a broad but brief course, especially as preliminary to a labo- ratory course. This general course, sometimes given for a whole year, is much like the tour of a conducted party, perhaps good for the health, and interesting like a view of the earth from a flying machine. General information, the humanizing portions of the subject, engines, meters, pumps, niotors, telescopes, X-rays, wireless telegraphy, etc., the things that go, practical applications, must, from lack of duplicate pieces of apparatus, be taught from the lecture table. The past fifteen years has seen a great development of laboratory. courses and apparatus. There is just as much or more room for advance in apparatus for lecture-table work. It may be said that the physics that is now taught, or should be taught, is the creation of the last twenty-five years, during which time few additions have been made to the old and obsolete apparatus so long in use. Of the questions asked from motives of curiosity of an educated or a supposedly educated man, how many, either directly or indirectly, refer to some department of physics ? The history of modern civilization, one might almost say, dates from the introduction of the steam engine. Comfort and luxury have been brought within the reach of everyone by the application of the steam engine and by the electrical discoveries and inventions of the last half century. Physics, being fundamental to chem- istry, meteorology, astronomy, at least should be begun early in the high-school course. The first and second years are not crowded, and the mind has not come completely under the influence of the prevailing method of studying exact mathematics and ancient languages. Young pupils learn physics because they like to ; the upper classes, always bur- dened by a variety and amount of work, study physics often because they are driven to it. Partly because of college entrance requirements, physics for the college section at least has been removed from the second year to the third and fourth years of the course. Since a large proportion of the college classes prefer to continue other subjects instead of beginning a new one, the percentage of pupils studying physics has somewhat decreased in the last ten years. If the full benefit 78o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science of physics is to be obtained, it should be studied in the first two years of the course, before habits of study have been formed by other subjects. It is the only science subject in which definite lessons for home work can be assigned for every lesson. It is somewhat immaterial in what order the several grand divisions are studied, and selections suitable for first- year pupils are easily made. Teach from your own convictions, and do not lean on the authority of others. Familiarize yourself with some of the mechanic arts. In these days when fortunes and positions in the business world come to those of practical rather than theoretical or academic training, it would perhaps seem superfluous to urge upon science teachers the necessity of acquiring a varied range of mechanical skill. A man in the world at large was once rated according to what he knew, but now according to what he can do. The science teacher, especially the teacher of physics, is no exception. A more or less handy knowledge and skill in the sim- pler portion of glass grinding, glass blowing, wood and metal working, are of the highest importance. While teachers would seldom think of grinding lenses for pupil's use, still some skill in this line of work clears up many difficulties for the teacher and awakens an interest in the sub- ject of light. Skill in the use of tools is valuable, not so much for any apparent saving in the cost of apparatus made by the teacher, but because that skill is put to use in constructing pieces of apparatus that are a pride to the teacher and the class. The interest evolved in this way turns work into play. The art of presenting physics by lectures, the use of the lantern, the making of photographs and lantern slides should be acquired by every teacher of physics. In the training of a teacher, instruction in a good high school counts for more than that received in college ; for teachers are wont to teach as they have been taught, and the methods and general style of presentation and drill of the high-school course are better models for them to follow. The college course can be improved, for those at least who are to teach, by introducing a broader general course in physics. Why cannot there be a body of lecturers who in turn might spend a week each year in residence, much after the plan of the boards of preachers in our universities ? In the way suggested the best talent could be obtained, men famous for their attainments in the arts and sciences. The biog- raphies of great scientists, their stilted portraits, exert a less potent influ- ence than personal contact with men who have done and are doing the work of the world's progress. Many men who have not the time, strength, or general diffuseness of scientific knowledge to make them ready to fill the chair of physics in some university are well fitted by lecturing on their specialities to arouse a lasting enthusiasm in college students. Modern language departments bring across the seas men who have written things of note to give courses of lectures. Why should not Department] HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICS 781 the science departments bring men who have done things in the world ? The advancement of science and its applications becomes doubly interest- ing when explained by the very scientists and inventors themselves. Ask any of your pupils in physics, and in the most advanced classes, too, "how much of your algebra do you find useful ?" "Only a little of all we learned," will be the answer. The complicated expressions so common in algebraic problems seldom occur in actual practice in applied mathematics, at least in work likely to fall to the lot of a mechanical or electrical engineer. The dozen or more cases of factoring, the intricate, problems in two or more unknown quantities, are not made much of out- side the algebra class. Just examine the algebraic statements of a number of even difficult problems. Once stated the solution of the algebraic equation is usually very easy. It is, in fact, impossible to invent prob- lems that when stated in equations are nearly as difficult as the majority of the equations given in the text-books for solution. In plotting algebraic equations, much practice is obtained in substitu- tion, most useful in physics and all applied mathematics. Formulas can be used as tools by one who is skillful in substitution. Much less algebra of a simpler and more practical nature in the high school would help the physics teacher and save time in the mathematic course for other work usually neglected ; for instance, trigonometry. In arithmetic some attention could be paid to shortened methods of multiplication and division, to the number of places of significant figures, and to rough checks in computation. It takes some time in the physics course to overcome the idea that in estimating the capacity of a tank the carry- ing out of the product to several places does not make up for care- less measurement of the dimensions. Plane geometry has been burdened by additional theorems first set on college examination papers and after- wards incorporated into the course. And just as a mechanical tool cata- log is enlarged by new inventions (does the mechanic use them all?) so the amount of geometry the ambitious teacher tries to teach grows by the addition of the new originals invented each year by the college examiners. At the British Association in 1 901, almost without exception the lead- ing mathematicians and scientists approved a syllabus of a course in mathematics presented by John Perry. He advocates the illustration of important propositions in geometry by drawings, the use of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions and abandonment of almost all demon- strative geometry. He argues that we should reason about things rather than ideas ; that we think too much of logic and too little of the matter to which that logic is applied. A little mathematics of this practical type makes physics a more serious and scientific study. As in the case of the new pronunciation of Latin first advocated in England twenty-five years ago, and today almost univer- sally used in this country and not at all in England, so the more attractive 7^2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science and less artificial course in mathematics outlined by Professor Perry will, I think, be introduced in this country long before it makes great progress in England. Why is it that the whole elementary algebra is studied before geometry and trigonometry are taken up? Cannot the interesting yet simple portions of trigonometry, geometry, and analytics, at least the use of squared paper, be taught along with algebra? The time when a Latin grammar was learned by heart before beginning simple transla- tion is long gone by. Physics offers a use for the practical field of mathe- matics, and on much the same basis as in actual life. The computations of the data of an experiment have a reality not possessed by examples in algebra or arithmetic. Practice in laboratory work should in general precede and be made the basis of class-room and text-book instruction. The actual contact with and use of apparatus gives the pupil a set of standards by which he can interpret intelligently scientific writings and follow with profit experiments performed on the lecture table. If this order of instruction is followed, the " wire edge " will not be taken off the pupil's appetite. The laboratory work being taken up first is new and fresh, and the sup- plementary lecture work will contain as much new matter as the pupil can receive without confusion. Why is it that the individual method of laboratory instruction is general? No one now thinks of such a method in Latin or mathematics ; for in those subjects all are at one time giv- ing attention to the same thing, and the answer of one pupil assists the others. The class is taught as a whole, and one pupil at any time is as far advanced as the others, and no farther. In the individual or go-as- you-please method commonly in use today in the teaching of physics the pupils follow printed or copied directions. As each difficulty arises, and much the same difficulties are met some time or other by every stu- dent, the teacher is called upon to settle that difficulty for each individ- ual pupil, and the teacher moves around the class answering questions here and there, adjusting apparatus and distributing supplies as if he were the servant, instead of the teacher, and as if he were directed by, instead of directing, the class, while all the time he bemoans the large number in the class and the little time he has for each one. The end of the lesson finds the pupils at different stages of advancement and the teacher exhausted by the almost impossible task of directing at one time as many classes as there are pupils in the class. Dr. Sargent, of the Hemenway Gymnasium, was once asked if he could develop a man without the class work of the gymnasium. "Yes," he replied, "but I should become a wreck myself." Let us consider a totally different method, one in which the class is taught as a whole and the teacher directs the class. After giving instruc- tions for the first step, wait until all have finished before giving further instructions. If any question is asked, consider whether that question is I Department] HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICS 783 one that will be or might be asked by a number, and after calling the attention of the class state the question and either answer it or help some pupil to answer it. Then state the second step of the experiment. While the class is working, examine a few of the books in order to see that notes, and accurate ones, are recorded. Just at this point one word has more effect in improving the notebook than many lines of blue pen- ciling, and is less wearing to the teacher. There are now and then stages in an experiment where it is important for the teacher to see that the work is correctly done, but in general the teacher does not move around at the beck and call of the pupils. Instead of answering every upraised hand, wait till one step of the experiment is finished, and call for ques- tions. Pupils are often impatient to have their questions answered at once, questions, too, that are answered by the directions for the next step. A question that is not worth keeping in mind a few minutes is hardly worth answering at all. This method is applicable to classes of considerable size. Indeed the number is limited only by the lack of equipment and laboratory assist- ants. The whole system of popular education is made possible by teach- ing, large classes. The tuition cost per pupil must not be many times as great as in the other subjects, if physics is to take its proper position in the secondary curriculum. Let me describe briefly the actual teaching of a laboratory exercise. Take Newton's law of cooling, for instance. Each pupil is provided with a small tin can and a thermometer. Some of the cans are bright, others blackened. While the cans are being filled with hot water, the date, tem- perature of the room, and number of the thermometers are recorded. The thermometers are placed in the cans and at a signal given each minute the temperature is read and recorded. The instructor verifies one or two readings of each pupil, and now and then suggests to the whole class that about one reading in ten will be a whole number of degrees. From time to time ask what the fall of temperature per minute has been for a blackened can ; for a bright can. All the pupils are work- ing at the same rate. After thirty or more readings have been recorded, the scale on which the results are to be plotted is shown on the black- board and a few observations of some one pupil are plotted in. During the remaining time the class begins to plot the results, or the subjects of the radiating power of different substances, or the cooling correction in heat experiments is discussed. The underlying principles of an experiment and its practical application may be emphasized at the exact point in the experiment to be most effective. With the individual method, in which pupils work from printed directions, the point of the exercise is often lost. I advocate an enrichment of the lectures or familiar talks by new and practical experiments; the combination of lecture, laboratory, and recita- 784 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science tion work at times in one period; a practical reform in the teaching of mathematics ; the teaching of larger numbers in the laboratory and the class method of instruction in laboratory work; the employment in large schools of low-salaried assistants ; the more thoro training of teachers, especially in the mechanic arts ; and the introduction of physics in the first years of the high-school course. PHYSIOGRAPHY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS J. A. MERRILL, TEACHER OF SCIENCE IN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WEST SUPERIOR, WIS. THE PLACE OF PHYSIOGRAPHY IN THE COURSE OF STUDY The secondary school occupies a unique place in our educational system. It is a genus of several species, each of which has had an origin peculiar to itself, and possesses characteristics in harmony with its origin. The earliest form was the preparatory school for colleges, with a course of study consisting largely of classics and mathematics; the next form, the academy, with a course of study somewhat more varied, including considerable history and science ; and the public high school, an expres- sion of the demand of the ambitious American for an education higher than the grammar school, at public expense, with its course emphasizing English, history, and the sciences. So strong has been the current of American ideals that the different courses of study in the schools of widely different origin have gradually approached each other until the public high school, with its broad courses of study, is the best representative of the secondary school. The normal school and other similar schools of technical and professional import do the work of secondary schools in some directions, but concen- trate their energies on their technical work. In harmony with its origin and practice, the secondary school is a place where a student can get the best moral, mental, and physical train- ing that he is capable of receiving in modern thought and its applica- tion to the solution of problems in the social and commercial world in which lies his sphere of action. The essential elements of such a course of study are English, a means of expression ; mathematics, a means of calculation ; history and civics, the origin and present condition of man's social relation ; and the sciences, including manual training, the means of self-preservation, and enjoyment. The sciences generally taught in such schools are : Biology, includ- ing botany, zoology, and physiology ; chemistry, physics, and physiog- raphy. Since these all deal with the immediate surroundings of the student, they are so closely related and cross each other so often in the I Department] PHYSIOGRAPHY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 7^5 same territory that there is a wide difference of opinion as to the order of appearance in the course. This, however, is not essential in the pres- ent discussion, and it effects the results of the course of study not so much in their total value as in the method of treatment of the topic composing the body of knowledge. Physiography is the world-science, and deals with the results of forces rather than the forces themselves ; therefore it should not be given in the first or second years of the course, and care should be taken that it is never the first science that is pursued by the student. The text-book should be carefully constructed, with no effort to appeal to the general reader. It should be intensive rather than extensive, and should deal with fundamental principles rather than abound in descriptions and citations. It should introduce the student to the technology of the great subject and give him the ability to successfully struggle with the real problems of the science. RELATIVE VALUE OF PHYSIOGRAPHY Since physiography is the earth-science and affords so many prob- lems where mathematical solution is impossible, the tendency to theo- retical and even purely scientific speculation is strong indeed ; and the teacher who would not sacrifice the true value of the course must guard against the byways of the theorist, who airs himself so freely in the popu- lar press. From the nature of the original information in this subject, which is largely observational, the reasoning must be largely inductive ; and its value lies in the fact that all results are conditioned on so many things that are subject to variation. This necessitates a comparison of values and a steering thru possible errors to a correct conclusion. The cause and effect relation is often apparent from meager investigation ; and the cause plus some force of nature, or some process resulting from many sources, equals the visible effect, or vice versa. This is especially true in the development of topographic forms and in the relation between physical features and commerce. The greatest disciplinary value of this subject lies in the classification that results from the inductive process of gathering, sifting, and arran- ging facts, and in the application of these categories by the deductive process. A very great value in any natural science comes from the com- bination of isolated facts under the guidance of a skillful instructor into some system of classification. This does not mean that the observation and comparison should be less thoro, but rather that these facts be followed in the direction in which the mind naturally travels to a con- clusion which epitomizes an entire body of facts. In the study of zoology a student has placed before him, under favor- able conditions for study, an animal from which he is to gain facts of structure, function, and ecology. The gaining of these facts is interest- 786 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science ing because he puts himself in harmony with the animal and compares the struggle for existence of the animal he is studying with his own trials and difficulties. By and by he gets thru with the type study and takes another specimen. True to the conclusions of his first study, he finds that difference in structure is associated with different surroundings and different ecological problems. Finally he has on hand a knowledge of structures of sufficient variation to produce a scheme of classification to which he now turns with new vigor. This is to every student the legiti- mate outcome of the investigation of a type. In no dissimilar manner does a student of phyisography proceed. Whether the type be a cyclone, a tornado, a river system, a mountain ridge, a commercial center, or a nationality, its structure is studied with all the known conditions and variations, original observations are made as far as possible, and the observations of others are interpreted and compared. By this means definite information is obtained which serves as a basis of a classification founded on natural characters as observed and interpreted. As in zoology when a family group or genus group definition has been worked out it becomes at once a standard for comparison, so in physi- ography, when a distinct form of climate, landscape, ocean current, or production has been given a class or group name, it becomes a rep- resentative of the characteristics which form it, wherever they may be found. To the general reader and the casual observer this process may seem unnecessarily encumbered by detail of method ; but when this inductive work has been thoroly done and the application of it is made to the various regions of the earth, the rapid grasp of the essential ideas of each topic proves the value of inductive study. I am aware also that this introduces into physiography a mental activity that has fallen into dis- repute in biology in recent years, but altho it may have been necessary to discredit and even force from the schools a classification that was arbitrary until a more rational one could be substituted, yet it is my firm conviction that biology will never realize its fullest possibility until the classification of plants and animals that have been collected by the student becomes an essential part of the study of types. But the culture value of physiography is increased by another line of investigation, which has its parallel and perhaps its origin in the study of zoology. This line is life history, or morpho-genesis, which is often made the basis of classification. This is the application of the inductive pro- cesses which I have described to the individual, and shows relationships which are often unobserved in the type at the time it is studied. This is of the greatest possible value in the study of the evolution of present forms, and in the solution of all kinds of physiographical and geological problems. It is thus clearly seen that physiography is a natural rather than a Department] PHYSIOGRAPHY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 7^1 physical science, and that it deals with the application of forces in the production of natural phenomena, rather than with the forces themselves in individual occurrences, as is the case in chemistry and physics. METHOD OF TEACHING AND STUDY The placing of physiography in the scheme of sciences throws some light upon the proper method of teaching and study. Its subject-matter has often been treated by the text-books as tho it were a mass of infor- mation to be memorized under topical headings, and the average teacher will not rise above the ideal set by the adopted text. Such an arrange- ment was common even a quarter of a century ago, but the revival of the last score of years has done much to develop order and system, as well as a new subject-matter that promises much for the future. Since the primary source of information in this work is observational, it is necessary that the student be trained to observe accurately, and to record his observations in a conventional way. Furthermore, as his gen- eral conclusions must be based more or less on the work of others, the necessity of training in the interpretation of maps, diagrams, pictures, and descriptions is manifestly imperative. This training has been painfully lacking in the past among teachers of secondary schools, and until such deficiency is remedied progress in this direction must be slow. This pre- liminary training in interpretation is no small accomplishment when we consider that a map often represents a whole volume of facts to the trained geographer. The text-book must ever be depended upon for general guidance and the main points of classification of the subject-matter. It suggests, directs, and holds the sequence where other sources of informa- tion fail. However, the text is not the only source to which one must go if the full possibilities of the subject are to be approximated. Among other agencies laboratory work holds an important place. It develops skill in the interpretation of the work of others, and mechanical skill in repre- senting the observations of oneself and others, and crystalizes the entire work. In the study of atmosphere, if the weather map has been used with the necessary clearness of interpretation, the successive data for an entire storm period may be charted on blank maps in the laboratory , and dia- grams for each day of progress made. Likewise, with maps of the harbors of the eastern coast of the United States before him, the student may trace the old river channels of the bays and draw the original condition of the dismembered rivers. A river system may be drawn to scale, its topogra- phy charted and drawn from altitudes furnished by the United States government, its life-history indicated, its geological structure worked out by section, and its geographical value drawn in colors. A laboratory exercise of less value, but of considerable interest, is the modeling of a 788 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Science topographic form of any kind after its surface has been drawn to scale and its relief indicated by contour lines. Thus laboratory work develops mechanical skill and renders more accurate the entire work. But it does more ; it gives a feeling of confi- dence in working out the details of any proposition and representing them in a graphic manner. It may be used thruout the entire course with every topic studied. Reference reading makes up what the text-book lacks, and completes the information necessary for comparison and classification. If assigned to sections of the class the views of the entire class may be broadened and the knowledge of the few intensified. It has always been a serious obstacle to intelligent reference work that books procured for the purpose were written by travelers and others who were casual observers rather than trained geographers, but happily this difficulty is disappearing, and thru the agencies of geographical societies and national governments, as well as some enterprising publishing houses, much literature, both accurate and extensive, has been placed at the disposal of students of this subject. Not less than one-fourth of the work of the course in physiography should consist of field work, or of exercises growing directly out of such work. Much has been said upon this subject recently, and there seems to be a general impression that something called field work should be under- taken. However meritorious, field work is so rare that a survey of the methods employed and the results gained in the average schools almost induces despair to an advocate of the method. But a little reflection will lead to the conclusion that much laboratory work in the past has been a waste of time, and that with a better understanding of its aims and legiti- mate results the laboratory has become an indispensable factor in the teaching of science. So^there is hope that field work, when better under- stood and in the hands of trained teachers, will reach its proper place in the methods of teaching all grades of geography. The idea that work in the field is a pleasure-seeking excursion or an outing for recreation must be abandoned, and in its stead must come the realization that it is but the going to favorable conditions for the solution of problems often quantitative in character. No one who has taken work under that prince of American geographers and teachers. Professor W. M. Davis, can fail to realize that field work is a method of solving problems, and that it requires concentration, research, and calculation not surpassed by any other kind of exercise in the entire subject. The nature of field work must vary with the locality, but all localities present many problems of a similar kind. One series of exercises is the representation on paper of a landscape of varying altitudes by modern methods of mapping. Another valuable line of work is the study of the methods and results of the river system considered as a unit of denuda- tion. Another is the -changes in rock, soil, and vegetation that takes I DepartmentJ PHYSIOGRAPHY IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 7^9 place on the hillside. Besides these there are the larger problems of geo- logical structure, economic value of different rock strata, evidences of dynamic force, glaciation, etc. Such work brings a student into direct contact with the living problems of geography. Its value is greatly increased by the laboratory and library work which broaden the individual into the general notion. A COURSE IN PHYSIOGRAPHY The secondary school, as has been set forth, is too much engaged in preparing for practical life to spend more time than is absolutely neces- sary on the theoretical side of physiography. No issue is taken in this paper with modern text-books on this subject, but it is insisted that the teacher should not depend upon the text that the students use, or upon any text, for his knowledge of the subject and its applications in the industrial affairs of life. No subject has reached its highest usefulness in the secondary school until its resources have been exhausted to find that organization of subject-matter that will make the student face intelligently the vital problems of comfortable, honest living. This should rarely, if ever, be done at the sacrifice of systematic presentation, for it is clear that the student's methods of study in after life will be influenced no little by the habits in gaining and using knowledge which his teacher has helped him to form. Details of a course cannot be given in the space allotted to this paper, but it may be observed that much is to be expected from the impetus that has been given during the last few years to the investigation of the rela- tion between geographical conditions and organic life. RESULTS THAT MAY BE EXPECTED What results are to be expected from a certain line of study in the schools IS a legitimate inquiry which should concern no other class of people more than the teacher or the administrator of a course of study. The physiography which I have set forth is certainly definite enough in purpose to bring about results which may be forecasted with a reasonable degree of success. It would at least prevent the person who had taken such training from expecting a gold mine from a limestone ledge, or a successful agricultural colony where the season is but seventy-five days in length. It would also lend much profit as well as pleasure to travelers, who are more abundant in this republic than in any country in the world. But the greatest benefit derived from it in the secondary school is the new meaning that it gives to history and national development of all countries, ancient and modern. The dependence of the motives and activities of man upon his environment makes history and physiography so dependent upon one another that neither is complete without more or less consideration of the other. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES Thursday, July io, 1902 The Department of School Administration met at 2:30 p. M. in court room No. i, new City Hall, and the meeting was called to order by President Israel H. Peres. Secretary Bruce moved that, inasmuch as the three speakers who were to appear on the following day's program were unable to appear, the meeting be closed in one session. Carried. A nominating committee consisting of C. H. Parsons, of Iowa, Dr. J. F. Force, of Minnesota, and B. F. Hunsicker, of Pennsylvania, was then appointed. President Peres then delivered his annual address, after which he introduced Miss Anna Doerfler, who read a paper on the " Ideal Teacher." This was followed by a paper on " Progress in the Consolidation of Rural Schools," by State Superintendent J. W. Olsen. The secretary then submitted the report of the Committee on Schoolhouse Legis- lation. After some discussions by L. P. Ludden, of Lincoln, Neb., C. H. Parsons, of Des Moines, la., Harlan P. French, of Albany, N. Y., and Dr. E. A. Donelan, of St. Joseph, Mo., the following form of a general legislative measure was adopted : AN ACT Providing for the heating, lighting, and ventilating of public schoolhouses, and fixing penalties for a violation of the provisions thereof. Section i. Be it enacted by the people of the state represented in the . . . . : It shall hereafter be unlawful to let any contract for or to construct any public schoolhouse, or other building to be thereafter used for school purposes, the lighting, heating, and ventilation of which is not in full accord with the provisions of this act. Sec. 2. All public school buildings hereafter constructed or remodeled for school purposes must be lighted by windows placed in one rear or side wall of each class and study room, and such windows shall con- tain glass surface of not less than one-fifth of the floor space of each room ; and all desks and seats shall be so arranged that the windows will be on the left, or in the rear, so far as possible, of the pupils. Sec 3. All class and study rooms shall contain not less than fifteen square feet of floor space and not less than one hundred and eighty cubic feet of air space for each pupil. Sec. 4, All public schoolhouses or school buildings of more than three rooms each which shall here- after be constructed or remodeled for school purposes must be provided with such heating and ventilating apparatus as will facilitate the introduction of warm air, when occasion requires, into each class or study room, not less than eight feet above the floor line, with provision for the exit of impure air at the floor line: and the whole shall be so arranged that the required temperature of seventy degrees can be maintained thruout each room even in the coldest weather, and the air changed in each room (combined average measured at inlet and exit openings) at least eight times in each hour, without lowering the temperature or creating a noticeable draft at or below the breathing line. Sec 5. All closets and urinals must be so constructed as to provide for the absolute seclusion of the pupil using the same. They must also be provided with vent flues, so arranged that all foul odors and air will be carried out below breathing line. Sec 6. Any contract for the construction or remodeling of any school building, not in conformity with the requirements of this act, shall be void ; and any public school officer or contractor who shall violate the terms and conditions of this act, by letting or accepting any contract for the construction or remodeling of any public schoolhouse or school building not in conformity with this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misde- meanor, and shall be subject to a fine of not less than two hundred dollars, nor more than one thousand dollars, for each offense. 790 _^ or^Hnnn pj^^SIDENT'S ADDRESS 19^ The Committee on Nominations then submitted the following list of officers to serve for the ensuing year : Prestdenf— Harlan P. French, Albany, N.|Y. Secretary — William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis. First Vice-President — Dr. J. F. Force, Minneapolis, Minn. Second Vice-President — Grafton D. Gushing, Boston, Mass. Third Vice- President — B. F. Hunsicker, Pennsylvania. Chairman Executive Committee — Israel H. Peres, Memphis, Tenn. Dr. Donelan, of Missouri, then submitted the following resolution, which was adopted : Whereas, The health of the children in our schools is essential to prosperity and good results, and Whereas, The various diseases, including consumption, myopia, and nervous prostration from excessive application to studies, cannot be detected by either superintendent or teachers in a large majority of cases in time to give the necessary relief and to arrest the spread of those that are contagious, therefore, be it Resolved, That it is the imperative duty of school boards or city boards of health to appoint medical examiners in the Interest of the health and lives of children attending the schools. At this point President-elect French assumed the chair, and in a few well-chosen words promised his loyal efforts to advance the growth and usefulness of the depart- ment. Dr. Donelan then submitted the following resolution : Whereas, Many children form habits of spending the small change given to them by parents or friends for articles that are not only injurious to health, but lead to excess and extravagance, and Whereas, Economy, frugality, and self-restraint leads to thrift in life, therefore, be it Resolved, That penny saving banks should be established in our schools. . On motion of Mr. Peres the resolution was referred to a special committee of three to report next year. The chair thereupon appointed upon the committee Dr E. A. Donelan, St. Joseph, Mo.; Hon. H. S. Prophet, Lima, O.; W. S. Ellis, Anderson, Ind. The department then adjourned. William George Bruce, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS BY ISRAEL H. PERES, MEMPHIS, TENN. A Study of Professor Huxley's series of lectures, collected under Sci- ence and Education, promptly reveals that over a generation ago the English public were confronted with the same educational problems, substantive and administrative, as today confront us. For that matter, ever since society has undertaken education the same problems have pre- sented themselves, and curiously enough the discussion has been carried on, not only in a similar tenor, but also often in the same phrase. It has been, and always will be, a matter of degree. We of the present have made a remarkable advance. Many ideas of the old masters in art have been realized, and we may be positive 792 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Administration that a steady improvement will continue. Even the most skeptical no longer doubt Mr. Darwin's conclusion that the presence of a body of well- instructed men, who do not have to labor for their daily bread, is impor- tant to a degree which cannot be overestimated, as all high intellectual work is carried on by them, and on such work material progress of all kinds mainly depends, not to mention other and higher advantages. And so our universities are becoming more and more places of research and investigation, and are the nurture grounds whence arise mental and moral athletes to successfully battle against ignorance, error, prejudice, and superstition. These men in their turn are preparing others to direct and administer education in all its branches, and their influence is thus projected by a division of labor into all of the ramifications of educational work thruout the land. The National Educational Association is a part, and an important part, of this educational impetus, 'and each of its members is doing work in a good cause. Those who give their time and attention to the study, preparation, and formal presentation of the many problems in the several departments work an incalculable benefit to the cause of education, and therefore to the cause of human progress. Certainly, then, our gratitude is due them, and our obligation to those who arrange the detail of the convention work can hardly be adequately stated. These hold the key to the Association's successful meetings, and an annual onward step attests their faithful and intelligent effort. Industrial conditions are kept in an artificial state by artificial legal restraint, with the result that the spirit and individuality of the millions of men and women who work with their hands are sunk into lifeless machines — silent giants of industrialism, who reck not the souls of the workers. This phase of our present economic status is one of the chief reasons why there seems to be no outlook for the majority, and why we hear so much about the uselessness of too much education. This is false doctrine. The trouble is that education is not prized for its own sake, for its intrinsic value. It is looked upon too much as an investment. It is demanded that your education be such that at a moment's notice you may convert it into what our financial geniuses term "the coin of the realm." Therefore, you are told not to waste your time acquiring an education, but learn a trade. The better advice is, do both. Let us teach our children not to gauge a man by what he does for a liv- ing, but what he is. Let us teach them not only the dignity of labor, but the sublimity of man himself. Let us teach them that mental culture consists with the mechanic arts, sciences, and employments. Then will the man become the master and the machine the automation ; then will our education, higher or lower, be, not the shadow of a contented life, but a substantial blessing. Department] PROGRESS IN CONSOLIDA TION OF R URAL SCHOOLS 7 9 3 PROGRESS IN CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS J. W, OLSEN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, ST. PAUL, MINN. The most important educational problem before America today is the rural-school problem. The general upward trend of our state university work, the public secondary schools in our cities articulating therewith, and the great work in our cities and towns in turn articulating with our secondary schools, is becoming definitely fixed and established. Great progress has been made in university work and city school work during the last quarter of a century, and while great progress has been made in building country schoolhouses, in furnishing libraries, text-books, suitable apparatus, and better trained teachers, rural-school advancement has not kept pace with the wonderful progress in our city schools and state univer- sities. This is due to the natural ultra-conservatism of our rural popula- tion, to the abandonment for the city and the west of farms in the eastern states, and to conditions inherent in the isolated one-room schoolhouse itself, where organization and gradation is almost impossible, where nepotism and personal favoritism on the part of local school trustees too often prevent efficient and continued effort by the teacher ; where the environment is too narrow to broaden the intellectual horizon of the pupil by active rivalry and keen intellectual competition with others in his class. We have already reached the stage where the advocate of consolidation no longer occupies debatable ground in a body of school men. It is con- ceded by state and county superintendents and other administrative school officers everywhere that the most rational solution of the country-school problem lies in combining the small, isolated school units into larger ones and transporting the pupils to and from schools at public expense. In response to inquiries, and from examination of state superintend- ents' reports, I find that twenty-six state superintendents are in favor of transportation of pupils, while no state superintendent expresses himself as opposed to the plan where normal conditions prevail, and from some I have no expression of opinion. Among ourselves, as educators, we agree with practical unanimity that it will insure better teachers ; insure better classification ; stimulate intellectual competition, severer effort, greater interest and enthusiasm among pupils ; increase attendance ; insure punctu- ality; provide better apparatus, text-books, and libraries; provide longer and more regular terms of school ; guard the health of the children ; keep the older children longer in school and at home under parental care ; educate toward the farm and farm life, and discourage the tendency to drift into centers of population ; provide better heated, lighted, and ven- tilated schoolrooms ; promote the growth of reading circles, lyceums, and other literary and culture movements among the adult farm population — 794 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Administration and all this, as a rule, at no additional cost after the first expense of pro- viding the proper schoolroom. By turning to the Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- cation for 1894-95, we learn that Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Connecticut have made definite legal provision regarding the trans- portation of children to school. By 1896, New York, Maine, New Jersey, and Nebraska were added to the list, while Ohio had a few consolidated districts transporting pupils under a special act. In the year 1900, State Superintendent L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, issued a bulletin showing that the following eighteen states have laws allowing the transportation of pupils at public expense, altho at that time only thirteen were availing themselves of the privilege. These eighteen states are : Connecticut Massachusetts Ohio Florida Nebraska Pennsylvania Indiana New Hampshire Rhode Island Iowa New Jersey South Dakota Kansas New York Vermont Maine North Dakota Wisconsin To this list must now be added Washington and Minnesota, while in Michigan and some other states pupils are being transported either by implied powers, without legislation directly authorizing it, or by sufferance. In addition to the above, Illinois, Missouri, and Virginia authorize by law and have township high schools, Tennessee has consolidated schools, and California authorizes and has what are known as " union high schools " in the country. As many states report only biennially and others do not gather statistics in regard to transportation, it is impossible to present complete comparative statistics showing progress in consolidation, except irregularly from a few states, which probably illustrates the general tendency in favor of the movement. In 1899 and 1900 New Jersey expended nothing for transportation. In 1900 and 1901 she expended ^4,420.62. Ohio reports thirty-three districts transporting pupils last year. The amount expended for transportation in Massachusetts increased from $3,648, in 1890-91, to $75,608, in 1894-95, and to $141,754, in 1899-1900 ; in Vermont, from $11,122 in 1893-94, to $26,492, in 1899-1900. In 1893, free transportation of pupils was authorized in Connecticut. In 1900-01 the number of schools closed was 84, pupils transported 849, cost, about $9,817. In Vermont free transportation is growing in favor, as attested by the fact that the state expended for this purpose $11,112 in 1893-94, and $26,492, in 1899-1900. During the latter year 726 schools were closed and 2,909 pupils transported. New York has a system of contracts whereby one district may contract with another for the education of its pupils and still draw the district Department] PROGRESS IN CONSOLIDA TION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 795 quota of public money. Connected therewith is a provision of law per- mitting the district contracting to transport their pupils to the district contracted with. The first contract law was passed in 1896; during the next year twenty-seven districts took advantage of the law and contracted with adjoining districts. The number taking advantage of the contract system has increased from that time until the present year, when about 300 contracts have been filed. Transportation was first tried in Iowa in 1896 in two districts. This year pupils are transported in about fifty districts. In Indiana, transportation was first undertaken ten years ago. Last year 2,339 pupils were transported over 164 routes in fifty different counties. From South Dakota, Superintendent Collins reports that perhaps in one-fifth of the districts some transportation is provided. Since reports were issued transportation has been operative in a half dozen Mississippi Valley states. Progress has been made in providing township high schools in a number of states, and where the township is not a feasible school unit, such units as seem expedient have been carved out into high-school districts. Ten states report township high schools or their equiva- lents to the number of 1,319, Indiana leading with 491. Statistics from six of these states show an enrollment in this class of schools of 30,404, the largest being 13,183, in the state of Maine. The first town- ship high school is reported from Illinois in 1867. These figures show that township high schools have grown in favor very rapidly. All these figures encourage the view that the contest we are engaged in in favor of better schools thru consolidation is more than half won. The greatest difficulty is overcome when the first half dozen well-managed consolidated schools in a state have demonstrated beyond serious con- troversy the success of the plan. How rapidly this plan will progress in the future depends upon a number of things: First, the general intelligence and public-school spirit of the people. Second, upon the topography of the country ; whether or not the roads are in good condition during most of the school year ; whether the territory is well adapted to large units, or is segregated into smaller ones by hills, creeks, lakes, or other natural barriers. Third, whether legislation makes it easy and natural or artificial and difficult. Fourth, consolidation will also depend in a large measure upon the prevailing system of school government and organization. People are not inclined to employ a unit of government that is not a governmental unit for other purposes also. In New England and states following the New England plan wide powers in general government are delegated to the town or township, carrying with it township control of schools under a township board. The step for a number of separate 79^ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Administration schools in a township under control of one board to a central graded school where pupils are transported is short, easy, and logical. Upon this point the report of the Committee of Twelve well says: **In the northern states the cause of school consolidation depends intimately upon the adoption of the township unit system. A certain amount of consolidation can be affected by the abolition of small districts. It may be possible also for several districts to merge their schools into one, for the time at least, and still preserve their independence, but it is manifest that the first plan will not prove effectual and that the second one will be infrequent and precarious." Where the county is more largely the unit of school and general government, as in some of our southern states, and where central county authority is vested with wide discretionary powers in locating school- houses and defining school-district boundaries to which the entire situa- tion presents itself in more accurate perspective by being removed from the narrow view too often taken by selfish interests in a small neighbor- hood, progress in consolidation may be expected, unless prevented by topographical conditions or lack of school interest. The greatest difficulties are met in states like the one I have the honor to represent, Minnesota, where the township is hardly a unit of government for any purpose whatever, except to lay out and keep in repair a local highway; where assessments are reviewed by a county board of equalization; where taxes are "run" by a county auditor and col- lected by a county treasurer ; where legal business nearly all centers in the county seat; where township and school-district boundaries are rarely coincident; and where each little school-district is a unit in itself, having three officers with almost sole control of its tax levy and school management ; and where the county exercises no control of school affairs, except thru the county superintendent, whose powers are limited almost entirely to advice, personal influence, and collecting statistics for the department of public instruction. Where people have been educated away from the township system and the larger school for a half century or more under such a system of overburdened democracy it is not surprising that the introduction of the consolidated school is steadily resisted. It is manifest that in those states where similar conditions prevail con- solidation must be encouraged by easy steps, arousing as little antagonism as possible. Only to an inconsiderable extent will they establish town- ship schools. Minnesota has had a permissive township law for seven years, and yet not more than one or two township schools have been organized under it. Personally I believe that the plan of New York and Wisconsin author- izing a district to. suspend its school and arrange with any adjoining district or districts for the instruction of children and transporting them, if I I Department] PROGRESS IN CON SO LI DA TION OF R URAL SCHOOLS 797 necessary and expedient, and yet be able to maintain its separate organi- zation and participate in the apportionment of school funds, is the most rational method of promoting practical consolidation in states where the small independent school-district is the school unit, and not the town- ship or county. Undoubtedly in many places school-districts can be induced to favor temporary suspension of school for a term, or a year, whose prejudice of tradition would not sanction their formal dissolution and union with other districts. This contract system will naturally lead to formal consolidation where best and necessary. Such a contract law was passed in New York in 1896, and it is remark- able that 300 contracts for the education of children in adjoining districts are already filed with the state superintendent of public instruction this year. The free rural delivery of mail, promoting the good-roads movement, the telephone, and the tendency to industrial co-operation, bringing farm life into closer relation and sympathy, will add impetus to this movement. In Minnesota alone we have 131 farmers' mutual fire insurance com- panies, and about 600 co-operative creameries. We have rural commu- nities grouped about a co-operattve creamery, department store, live-stock shipping association, fire-insurance company, lumber and fuel company. Where this condition prevails the next step is co-operative schools. From one short year to another we may not be able to discern great educational progress in our rural communities, and yet if we measure educational progress during the last decade or quarter of a century, must we not conclude that we have advanced almost by leaps and bounds ? Enrolled in the cause of popular education, we have by no means enrolled in a lost cause. In our country there can be but one answer to every great question confronting us, and that ultimately the right answer. The American educator, co-operating with intelligent patriotism and public spirit, will ultimately realize the most effective system of school organiza- tion and administration, that in our country a race of physical, intellectual, and moral giants shall be reared. LIBRARY DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Thursday, July io, 1902 The first meeting of the Library Department of the National Educational Association was held in the reading room of the University Library, Minneapolis, Minn., at 2 : 30 P. M., and was called to order by Miss M. E. Ahern, secretary, neither the president nor the vice-president being present. The meeting opened with a selection, " The Watersprite," Schumann, by the Min- neapolis Ladies' Quartette. Dr. Wm. W. Folwell, librarian of the University of Minnesota, extended a word of greeting. A letter from the president, J. H. Canfield, regretting the necessity of his absence and pointing out what seemed to him to be the work before the department, was read by the secretary. At this point the vice-president, Mr. Reuben Post Halleck, of Louisville, Ky., having arrived, took the chair. The first paper was presented by W. A. Millis, superintendent of schools, Crawfords- ville, Ind., on "The Library as an Educator." The second paper, on " Libraries and Schools, a Double-Faced Question," was pre- sented by Miss Emma Fordyce, teacher of physics and chemistry in the high school, Cedar Rapids, la. This was followed by an address by A. H. Hopkins, assistant librarian of the John Crerar Library, Chicago, 111., who brought greetings from the American Library Asso- ciation. At the close of Mr. Hopkins' address Vice-President Halleck introduced Dr. J. K. Hosmer, president of the American Library Association, who addressed the department. The papers of the afternoon were discussed by Reuben Post Halleck, principal of Boys High School, Louisville, Ky., J. I. Wyer, Jr., librarian University of Nebraska, A. H. Hopkins, assistant librarian John Crerar Library, Chicago, 111., O. H. Bakeless, principal Carlisle Indian School of Pennsylvania, and Miss Emma Fordyce, teacher of science in high school, Cedar Rapids, la. Miss Ahern presented a proposition from Chairman J. C. Dana of the American Library Association Committee on Co-operation with the National Educational Associa- tion to prepare a manual of instruction in the use of libraries for normal schools to be issued by the National Educational Association for the betterment of the library service in the secondary schools. A motion was offered by J. I. Wyer, Jr., of the Nebraska State University, that the Library Department heartily indorse the idea and request the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to take favorable action in the matter. The motion was seconded, and, after some discussion commending the idea, was unanimously carried. The Committee on Nominations was appointed by the vice-president as follows : J. I. Wyer, Jr., of Nebraska. Miss Gratia Countryman, of Minnesota, O. H. Bakeless, of Pennsylvania. The meeting then adjourned. 798 I Department] THE LIBRARY AS AN EDUCATOR 799 SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July ii The meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 p. M. in the university library. The vice- president being absent, the secretary again took the chair. Proceedings were somewhat delayed by the absence of the speakers for the afternoon. The first paper was presented by J. M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kan- sas City, Mo., on ** What May the School Properly Demand of the Library ? " The paper was discussed by R. H. Emberson, of Missouri, Miss M. H. Prentice, of Ohio, and A. H. Hopkins, of Illinois. The second paper was presented by Miss Agnes Robertson, county superintendent of schools, Cherokee, la., on " School Libraries in the Rural Districts." This paper was discussed by J. A. Lapham, of Iowa, J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri, and Miss M. E. Ahem, of Illinois. The Committee on Nominations reported the following, who were unanimously elected as officers for the ensuing year : For President — James H. Canfield, of New York. For Vice-President — Reuben Post Halleck, of Kentucky. For Secretary — Miss Mary Eileen Ahem, of Illinois. The secretary, after urging the teachers to greater interest in the library section, declared the meeting adjourned. Mary Eileen Ahern, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE LIBRARY AS AN EDUCATOR W. A.MILLIS, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, CRAWFORDSVILLE, IND. An evident revolution of function has occurred in recent years in the management of libraries. Traditionally, the office of the library, upon whatever foundation, was the conservation of knowledge, as distinguished from its dissemination. The primary object was the collection of books. If they were rare or quaint, the better. These were grudgingly loaned out to readers who perchance had discovered the hiding place of the treasure. The emphasis was placed on the number of volumes, their wealth, their immediate history. Their use was of secondary moment. More frequently than not their use was discouraged by screens and bars. Certainly no effort was made to encourage extensive use. Yet, even under these conditions, the library has been the means of vast service in the development of culture. The history of intelligence reveals a great debt of the world to the libraries of ancient as well as modern times. But in the main the library has been passive in this process. It has rested passively and been drawn upon by the infrequent scholar. It did not project itself into the life of the people. It was not fired with the purpose of active service. It was not conscious of the possibility of sur- 8oo NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library rounding the great scholar with a multitude of well-informed and intelli- gent people. It was a store of learning, an end rather than a means. Those of you who are engaged in library organization appreciate that we have not yet entirely gotten away from the traditional notion of the library in the towns and smaller cities. The ghost frequently materializes in the form of a board, which insists that the important thing is to get books and books. And too frequently it assumes the form of a librarian who sees the circumference of her mission in marking up book lists, cata- loging new purchases, charging the high-school girl and the dilletante with the latest novels — so new that the binder's paste is yet green — in crediting patrons with books returned, and fussing at children who apply because they leave finger prints on pages divine. But this traditional notion is passing away. A new function is being recognized. The librarian sees new possibilities. She appreciates that books are valuable in proportion to their use. The library has become active, democratic. The dissemination of knowledge is made the primary function. Books are selected and shelved and cataloged in view of their use. The library is becoming propulsive in the community, and forma- tive. It not only endeavors to satisfy the wants of the reading public, but has begun to form and reform those wants, to cultivate taste, and stimulate culture. This, I take it, is the spirit of modern library management, and it certainly is peculiarly the function of the public library. The public library may and should be an educative agency. That it is not always so is patent to the casual observer, and to be deplored. Its failure to improve opportunity is especially prevalent in towns and small cities. We have become so accustomed to the various ladies' and club libraries which .are maintained wholly for purposes of amusement that it is difficult to permit the public library to assume greater dignity. It is difficult for the public to learn that the library is not an institution for public entertainment, an agency for assisting unoccupied people to while away time, a substitute for the old-time quilting bee, with its buzz of neighborhood gossip, and taking about the same place in the lives of one class of people that the clubhouse takes in the life of the other class. If the public library is to take its proper place in the community, the people must be taught to regard it as an integral part of the educational system. The library must be organized with^this spirit and purpose. It must be organized and regarded as an indispensable part of the educa- tional machinery, a special agency with a function which no other agency can perform. The librarian should regard herself and be regarded primarily as an educator ; not a class-room teacher, not a vender of alphabets and beginnings of culture, but an educator in the larger sense of insight into 4he educational needs, means, and ends. She should combine wide scholarship, knowledge of books, and the possession of I I Department] THE LIBRARY AS AN EDUCATOR 801 culture with an apprehension of the cultural conditions of the com- munity, its intellectual impulses, the lines of development needed, and the ability to arouse and direct these impulses toward greater sanity and truer culture. She should be trained not only in the art of library administration and the matters that pertain to her routine of duty ; she should be conversant with educational problems and situations. She should apprehend these problems from the larger standpoint of social progress. Dr. Small says that the teacher should regard herself as more than a hearer of lessons ; that she must regard herself as a community builder. So must the librarian. She must rate herself as more than a shopkeeper. She, too, must be a community builder. And more, the librarian must insist that she is the larger factor in the library. Boards of control and books are quite valuable as tools with which to do the work in hand, but the real efficiency of the library is measured by the wealth of the librarian in her own right. Hawley Smith says in his own fashion : " When the stage carpenter becomes the star performer the drama is sure to suffer." The librarian must be the star performer if she would reach the measure of her opportunity. We have learned in the schools that the teacher is in herself more than houses and books and equipment. Librarians are subject to the same law. The work of the school is threefold : 1. To awaken aspiration, both general and specific. 2. To give the alphabet of learning and activity — that is, to give the child such introduction to the several lines of learning, art, and enter- prise as will reveal to him and nourish his special aptitudes, and at the same time put him into position to live sympathetically with those who follow other activities than his own. 3. To train the powers of thought and expression. Or, looking at the function of the school from the standpoint of the library, it is responsible for awakening in the child ambition to be well developed, to be a somebody ; to awaken the impulse to know what the world has thought and done ; for teaching him to read, and, to some extent, for developing taste for proper literature. When the school has accomplished these requirements it has reached its limitations. When the child has been equipped with the rudiments of science, history, lan- guage, and mathematics, has been awakened to the possibilities of culture and is ambitious to possess it, when he has learned how to read and think, the school has done the most that it can do. Its primary business is to equip him with the tools of learning and culture and the impulse for larger attainments. Beyond this point library, press, pulpit, platform, and practical life must take the boy. The school is but one of many educational agencies, and cannot, if it would, undertake to do the work of other agencies. The school can teach the children to read and stimulate the impulse to read, and to some extent the right books, but 8o2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library the library must see that they continue to read, that they read well, and that they do read the right books. In one respect the library is supplementary to the school. To a large extent the public library should stand in the same relation to the public school that the college library sustains to the several departments of the college. The best teachers are coming to see that the text-book in the hands of the pupil is at the most merely a working guide or manual, rather than a compendium of information on the subject in hand. They feel the need of access to fuller sources of information than the meager contents of text-books and schoolroom helps. With the growth of this feeling on the part of the school, the library has a large opportunity for effectively reinforcing and enriching the instruction of the school by placing within the reach of teachers and pupils additional information on the subject under study. Particularly is there an opportunity for this enrichment in the courses in history, science, geography, and literature. It is quite possible thru co-operation of teacher and librarian to make this supplementary service of the library as effective in the elementary school as the college library contributes to the completing and rounding out of the work of the higher departments of instruction. In another respect the library and school are complementary. Each conditions and helps the other. This complementary relation is quite evident in the contribution which each makes to the other in a practical way. But there is a higher and deeper phase of co-ordination. Aside from the home, library and school are the chief educational agencies. Together they cover fairly well the whole of the educational field, yet each has its own particular sphere. In some particulars these may over- lap, but in the main they are distinct. The school awakens wholesome personality and social impulses, both general and specific, trains the indi- vidual in the elements of the social arts, trains him to think and to study, equips him with the elements of learning. The school endeavors to train the individual for a larger and more permanent growth to come from activities beyond its doors. It supplies him with the implements with which he may attain to culture. The promotion of this larger growth beyond the school is the special field and the larger opportunity of the library. Putting it from the viewpoint of social science, the library is the agency specially organized and maintained by the comniunity to pro- mote its culture. And by culture is meant more than reading and more than information. It is that compounding of learning, taste, judgment, wisdom, and peculiar mental tone that come of being in sympathetic acquaintance with what has been thought, felt, and done in the world, and of companionship, even remote, with the men and women who have thought, felt, and accomplished. This is the field, I take it, of the library and the librarian. She is the agent, the library her instrument, her kit Department] THE LIBRARY AS AN EDUCATOR 803 of tools. I am aware that this function presupposes ability and leader- ship of no mean order, and yet the fact remains, I think, that the really effective service of the public library is to be measured by the character of the taste, intellectual tone, and literary impulse of the community in which it is maintained. It is this deeper cultivation of community spirit, of taste, judgment, and intellectual tendency, which is of real con- cern. The number of books on the shelves, and whether the circulation is larger than last year or not, are of little consequence, expect as they indicate the condition of the community in respect of its culture and aspiration for a larger culture than it now possesses. Whether the library succeeds in making perceptible improvement of this community tone from year to year must, within the profession and without, be the test of its efficiency and of the wisdom of its maintenance ; for with the com- munity, as with the individual, it is the measure of the inner man which prevails. The work of the library is largely with the adult population, and should be ; yet in order to reach this population effectively it is necessary to begin with the children, that is, in the schools. As soon as the child can read the library must get him to reading suitable matter. It must see that he forms the reading habit early, and that he reads matter of literary merit. It must see that the admonition of Dr. Holmes is obeyed — that the child shall grow up in the atmosphere of good books. Com- munities are reformed by the proper formation of their children. All culture tendencies have their beginnings in childhood. Standards of taste and judgment are formed in the growing generation. It is in pro- moting right literary beginnings in children at school that the librarian most surely controls later cultural conditions. The library should also encourage masterly study by facilitating research in all lines of school work, and it must see that pupils are taught how to use books. If the use of the library is made a vital feature of their school life, it certainly will continue necessary to them after they have gone from the class-room. There are yet some things which teachers have to learn. Important among these as bearing on the efficiency of the library are : 1. That reading is the primary subject of instruction. 2. The need of greater familiarity with books on the part of teachers, and of better literary taste. 3. The introduction into the school of the spirit, method, and habit of research ; greater and wiser use of books, maps, charts, and other reference matter. 4. That aspiration for culture is the motive which effectively deter- mines the pupil's future growth, and that in giving the pupil such aspira- tion the teacher is doing her noblest service. But there are also some things which librarians have to learn : I. That the librarian's work is primarily educational. 8o4 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library 2. That she should hold herself reasonably responsible for the char- acter of the reading and taste of the community, and particularly of its youth. 3. That her worth is to be measured by the quality of taste and men- tality resulting, rather than by the quantity of reading done. 4. That it is a part of her office to correct wrong literary tendencies in her community. 5. That the literature placed in the hands of children should always be literary, and suited to their stage of development physically and spiritually. There are at this time two serious problems common to school and library. One is the danger of too much reading, and too rapid reading, by all classes of people, but especially by young people. While thou- sands are strangers to books because they do not read, there are other thousands who are just as truly strangers to the same books because with all their much reading they read not. Haste, high tension, flitting images, conspire to leave but slight impression. Our people are gorman- dizing on books. An examination of the volume of reading done by the young girls especially in the grammar and high schools in communities having access to free libraries will reveal astonishing conditions. Dr. Gil- man has referred to the prevalent excess of reading as a national vice, and Mr. Howells thinks that " we are in danger of spoiling our literary digestion, and of becoming a nation of mental dyspeptics;" that "our excessive reading may be a vice or a mania ; it is certainly a disease." The second of these urgent problems is the alarming extent to which pe_ople, young and old, read without purpose, or at least without such purpose as brings any growth with the activity. An activity is educative in proportion as it is purposed, as it is determined by a particular end to be reached. The grave danger of mental, and possibly moral, dissipa- tion by intemperate and motiveless reading is so well put by Mr. Vaile in a recent editorial that his warning should be read with care by teacher and librarian : The importance of motive in this reading and library problem is being overlooked. Librarians and teachers alike feel that if the boy or girl and the book are brought together the problem is solved. There is the mistake. The boy or the girl without genuine motive and earnest purpose, though surrounded with the most attractive books, is further away from the end which books and reading should accomplish than is the boy or girl with proper motive but without easy access to books. Motive is everything in this matter. In its absence, whether in the country or city, both books and reading habit are worthless or even worse. It is urgent that school and library shall meet these problems intel- ligently and promptly, in order that the abundance of literature with which we are surrounding our youth shall not become a source of literary and intellectual dissipation. Department] LIBRARIES AND SCHOOLS 805 LIBRARIES AND SCHOOLS; A TWO-FACED QUESTION MISS EMMA J. FORDYCE, TEACHER OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY, HIGH SCHOOL, CEDAR RAPIDS, lA. In this day of strenuous industrial competition there is great danger that our educational ideals shall be made too strongly industrial. There is no doubt that a large number of people in the United States think this impossible, for the reason that education could not, in their opin- ion, be too strongly industrial. It is the old, old debate between the dreamer of dreams and the car- rier of burdens. A two-faced question — one of silver, looking toward training, the other of gold, looking toward ideals. The future must make this a composite face, looking toward the highest good. It must embody what truth there is in the motto, "Teach a child only those things by which he may earn his own living," and the altruist's plea, " Give a child ideals and he'll earn his living." Neither is wholly right; neither wholly wrong. No one doubts that the education of the past has not trained the trinity, heart, hand, head, as it should ; but let us hope the future does not hold as the motto of any school, " The training of the hand makes the perfect man." Time must teach us the wise balance. The pressing question of the moment is, how are the dreams, the strivings, the achievements of the past, as stored in books, to be made the heritage of the child of the public school ? It is not necessary to argue with such an audience as this that the soul that goes thru this world carrying the burden of labor without the help of any book must be a weary one indeed before the journey's end. Nor will the soul who listens to the books, but carries no burden for others, be less weary. How shall the voice of the book in stately verse, in heroic prose, in gentle pleading, in inspiring song, in the tale of the Divine love that gathers the world to its heart, be made audible to the child who leaves home and nature, with her green fields and blue skies, to stay within grim walls to learn of life ? We take it for granted that all are agreed that literature is to be a most potent help to life, a revealer of it; that all believe that no more "practical" thing can be done for a child than to give him the keys of the storehouses of the best friendships of the best men and the greatest men of all the world — the ideals and strivings of the ages. Two things every soul that ever lived in this world has longed to do : To fashion with his hands tangible things, or images of them, and to know what is the mind of the soul akin to his. Technical training, in its broadest sense, does one ; the library, properly used, does the other. 8o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library K look into the past of the republic's school life shows a most griev ous neglect of literature as an ally to educational life, and a glance at the present shows signs of awakening to its vast value and force. Chicago reads " Macbeth " with its fifth-grade children, and Boston Robert Browning with her seventh grades. In most schools some sort of literature work is essayed. Every thoughtful superintendent tries many plans to overcome the difficulties incident to the slender endowment of material and the poor training of men the past has given us. Class-room work on standard authors by magnetic teachers cannot have its value overestimated ; yet, no one knows better than this same magnetic and earnest teacher how dangerously inadequate it is. She knows that the key to the literature storehouse is not given when the ability to read is acquired if the child is left to the tender mercies of chance print. The republic has already suffered much from such work, and will suffer until the priceless heritage of not only how to read, but what to read and when to read, shall also be entered upon. Each soul chooses its books when it has opportunity, by its inner ideals. No set and unbreakable law can be made. Yet within certain limits people of certain temperament, condition, and ages will choose. In the near future each teacher must know these limits, and will be required to do so quite as matter-of-course as she is now required to know certain arithmetic and geography. The training schools will supply such teachers, and the public libraries supply the books. As our new schoolhouses are built let an outer room, easy of access from school and street, be arranged as reading-room and library, open to pupils and parents alike. Let the books be supplied from the public library and be in charge of a teacher-librarian, one who has had training and experience both as teacher and librarian. She shall assist teachers and pupils, and be responsible for as wide circulation of the books as possible before they are returned to be exchanged for others at the parent library. Let the neighborhood understand that they ^re thoroly wel- come, and will have someone who understands their wants to serve them. People who could not find time to go to the public library could go to the school library, and parent and child could read and enjoy together. The fact that there are not many teacher-librarians will disappear when it is once understood that such people are needed. Teacher and teacher-librarian together shall plan and tempt the stirring, glow- ing, eager soul of the child with the information, the story, the song, the dream, the inspiring thing that shall make that child soul take step after step upward — shall put into its reach what will whisper such beauty of doing and being as shall stir the soul to endeavor beyond the happiest dreaming. When the child's school life is finished, early or late, in his heart shall be that which shall forever make impossible complete Department] AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION GREETING 807 surrender to the selfish or base, and shall make him for life the friend of that which shall help him to bear, to strive, to achieve, as his living friends are doing and his book friends have done. Is life so easy that we shall say books are a luxury and for only the leisurely classes ? Is it worth while to take into enchanted lands the soul that shall toil and lose ? Shall the best that all of the ages have brought us lie beyond the ken of the child of the public school, while he is given only the ability that any decent horse has to earn his own living ? Or shall the public school take unto itself this great and beneficial ally, the public library, and together work out the problem of how literature shall be given opportunity to lend her healing and enchanting touch to one to be " oft sore wounded " — the child ? Action should be instant and wise. Let us realize that a nation with only material ideals is a weak nation indeed ; but that one strong in material resources, high in home, civic, and spiritual ideals is to rule the world, and we should be that nation. Says some practical soul : " This sounds well, but what good has really been done by your library?" Let Billy answer: Poor, homeless, neglected, active Billy, with his ideals so hopelessly upside down that to be arrested more times by the policeman than any other boy is his most coveted distinction ; Billy who " sassed " the long-suffering city librarian, humiliated the library board, disgusted the reading patrons, scorned the teachings and attendance of the public schools except upon some particularly exciting occasion ; who worshiped the beautiful young assistant from afar and worried her life out when near; who said, " Aw, them fellers in books don't do nothing!" But Billy reckoned without realizing, for the deeply earnest city librarian and the tired teacher turned into Billy's darkened soul the light of books. One after another, carefully, cautiously, vigilantly, they tried them, until the slumbering forces of good stirred, and Billy grew a little less obnox- ious, a little nearer the common courtesies of life, a little nearer life itself, day by day as the books led him into lands of which he had never dreamed. Such service should school and library do for every child that crosses the portals of our great public schools. GREETING FROM THE AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION ANDERSON H. HOPKINS, ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN JOHN CRERAR LIBRARY, CHICAGO, ILL. It has now been several months since I was named to be the official representative of the American Library Association at this meeting. If it had been known at that time what would be the action of the American 8o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library Library Association at its election less than a month ago, you might have been spared this infliction and I some natural embarrassment at the situa- tion in which I find myself. Three weeks ago, in general conference assembled. Dr. James K. Hosmer, librarian of the Minneapolis Public Library, was elected president, and Dr. James H. Canfield, librarian of Columbia University Library, and president of that department of the National Educational Association which I now address, was elected first vice-president. Surely my services as official representative cannot be sorely needed under such circumstances ; but I had in good faith engaged to act, and here I am in good faith acting. I bring you greeting, joyous, earnest, and real. It is no empty word I bring. Spontaneity is the keynote, and its harmony with that same tonic of all that is best in our educational world is perfect and complete. Three weeks ago, in Boston, and at that beautiful spot beside the sea named for its choicest plant, Magnolia, were gathered a thousand earnest men and women. They are the patrons, I fear it might almost be said the devotees, of the printed book. Their cry was, educate, educate, educate! And their query was, how, how, how? Today are gathered here, shall I say, eight thousand earnest men and women, and as their united voices reach my ear I hear them intone the same cry: Educate, educate, educate! followed by the same earnest query: How, how, how ? To the voice of this throng I would fain join mine. But when the cry has sounded and resounded, followed by its persistent query, I would add another question : Why, why, why are we not working together ? Is not our quest the same ? Are we not seeking the same light? Why do we stagger on alone? Why do we not join hands to support each the other ? Would that I might answer this last query in a straightforward manner, without offense ; but that may not be. The utmost that I can hope to do is to suggest one or two possible causes for the slowness in growth of this co-operation between teacher and librarian, a joining of forces and of interests which, on the face of things, is so much to be desired. We know that each is busy with the details and small perplexities of his own par- ticular office. Let me submit that a prime fault is that he is overbusy with these and fails to look about him, thus breeding an insularity that reminds one of Lowell's characterization of a certain condescension in foreigners. It must not be forgotten that truth is many-sided. It is well some- times to establish one's seat so close to truth itself that the human eye can see but one of its infinitude of faces ; but it must be remembered that, before the whole of truth can be seen, the human soul must recede as facet after facet comes into view until the magic of infinity is reached, the sign is changed, and new glories greet the eye on the other side. We are too prone, you and I, too prone to be so bound up in our Department] AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION GREET ING 809 callings that we overlook the others, that we forget there are many other callings as important as our own, and that some of them are of quite as great force educationally and for the betterment of the world as ours. But, as I conceive it, there are not many that might be united to better advantage than ours. And now why does not this union come about more rapidly ? Let me say — not in the way of fault finding or recrimi- nation or reproach, but merely as pointing out — that it is more your fault than ours that our union is not closer. The organization of your institution is much older, more complete, and powerful than is that of ours. Indeed, while it is correct to say that the public school is an organ- ized educational force, it is not correct to make the same statement con- cerning the public library. It is not organized at all as an educational force, except by that voluntary association which is so great a thing indeed ; but it is not sufficient. We now have before us the curious sight of two great educational movements in action. Yours, the stronger, serves directly the individual thru a small number of years. Ours, the weaker, serves directly the individual thru almost the whole of his life period. The weaker stands facing the stronger at this moment with out- stretched hands and ready will. The stronger looks impassively on. If this seems abstract to you, let me cite a concrete instance : There are many departments in the National Educational Association, and among them is one called the " Library Department." There are librarians not engaged in the profession of teaching who attend its sessions and transact much of its business. There are many sections in the American Library Association. These sections are to the American Library Association what the departments are to the National Educational Association, but among them no teachers' section is to be found. And in my experience as a member of the American Library Association I do not remember to have met at its meetings any teachers who were not engaged in library work professionally. By what initiative was the Library Department of the National Educational Association inaugurated; by that of teachers or of librarians ? If a teachers' section of the American Library Association comes into existence, by whose activities will it be created; that of teachers or of librarians ? And if it does not come into existence, why not ? In a state which shall not be named, but which has a large and elabo- rately organized teachers' association, and also a smaller and perhaps less elaborately organized library association, an attempt was made some years ago to organize a library section in the teachers' association. I cannot and do not wish to recount the circumstances. It will be sufficient to say that the attempt all but failed because of the insistence by the larger association that the smaller should sink and lose its identity in the forma- tion of a section of the larger. The section was formed, but it has never yet drawn the breath of life. These are melancholy things. I do not like to say them, and do not 8lO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library say them because of any liking or disliking, but because I believe they ought to be said — and said to you. In a brief talk with Dr. G. Stanley Hall, at the meeting of the Depart- ment of Superintendence in Chicago last winter, in reply to my question about the possibility of a closer organic relation between schools and libraries, he stated it as his opinion that such a relation ought to exist, but that no one yet seemed to have suggested an effective plan. But a plan seems lying already at hand waiting to be used. The school has a well-developed organization thru its central bureaus, beginning with the bureau of education at the seat of federal government and extending down to the community thru these successive steps: the state superin- tendent of public instruction, the county superintendent, the township trustee, the district school-teacher. These are linked together, forming a fairly compact organization. Now the public library is following the same historic road in its development, and the signs are already clear in the sky heralding the approach of the first two of these central bureaus. Are we — you and I — to sleep the time away and let these two educational forces parallel each other with separate organizations for the same pur- pose, or shall we join hands and stand together ? The people are ready and waiting for these economic combinations in the educational world as well as in the realm of commerce. Consider for a moment the clumsy processes thru which we must go to produce a printed page from the spoken words. Think for a moment of the strength which has been expended in this Association in the hope that a smiplified English spelling may be secured ; and then remember that only a single short step remains to be taken by some patient mechan- ical genius, and with a little time all this difficulty melts away like the mist of early dawn. Let me make more clear what I mean. We have now certain symbols by which is translated to the eye the thought that is translated to the ear by the spoken word. We have now machines in plenty by which the spoken word is received, translated into, and recorded in symbols natural to it, but to which our eyes are unaccustomed. There remains but a single step, namely, to discover the selective principle whereby the one symbol is mechanically translated into the other symbol and the problem is solved. When this mechanical step has been taken, as it will be, the writer may sit at his desk and dictate his thought to the machine — not a human machine — at his side, and behold it faithfully reproduce in type his blunders as well as his accuracies. Then, and not till then, will our spelling become simplified and our speech no longer slovenly. If this great change may be wrought by one so short step in the mechanical world, what may be wrought in the educational world by the longer steps that lie squarely before us in our pathway? The world is waiting, waiting. Shall we doze the time away? Or shall we join hands and take the forward steps together ? Department] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY DISCUSSION Reuben Post Halleck. — It has seemed to me that most teachers, in their anxiety to master the details of definite subjects, have overlooked the life which might be imparted to their instruction by the literature of these subjects, and it is almost an indis- putable fact that many otherwise good teachers are woefully lacking in their knowledge of books in general, and particularly those which may be called the great books, and even the great characters of history and literature are unknown to teachers who would be helped by a closer acquaintance with them. There is a great need for more information on the part of the, teachers about great people and great books. J. I. Wyer, Jr. — Librarians have early recognized the trend away from restrictions in libraries. Age limits, guarantors, strict rules, and many other restrictions tending to keep children at a distance from librarfes, are in many cases abolished. The greatest stress is now laid on making easier of access to pupils the books in the library relating to their work. O. H. Bakeless. — In my experience with libraries it seems to me that of all the people who come to the public library the most to be dreaded are the teachers. They have a secret contempt for the librarian, and this contempt is expressed in such ways as to make the teacher a dread to the librarian. A. H. Hopkins. — It is easy to find some schools and some libraries to which sharp criticisms may be applied, but we must beware of drawing too hasty conclusions from single instances. To be sure, such criticism may perhaps be profitably indulged in here, but it is after all not the kind of thing we are striving after. The thing that gives you your effective working force is your effective organization, and it is that same thing we are seeking. You are so much stronger than we that you should be helpful to us. WHAT THE SCHOOL MAY PROPERLY DEMAND OF THE LIBRARY J. M. GREENWOOD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. This is a thorny subject, that needs to be handled with circumspection. ''Demand" is an arrogant word, and implies a threat, supported by a dis- play of violence or force in such an amount as to compel acquiescence, provoke a combat, or to bring about a state of haughty, but dignified, silence. For the sake of perspicuity, as well as fair dealing to both parties involved in this connection, the proposition will also be so stated that it faces both ways, namely, what the school may properly demand of the library, and what the library may properly demand of the school. It is a law of the more advanced mathamatical sciences that when one variable depends upon another variable, so that any change in the one produces a corresponding change in the other, they are said to be func- tionally related, or that one of these variables is a function of the other. Under a contrary supposition of absolute independence, each variable, whether human or mathematical, must be treated as unrelated to another so far as this special investigation is concerned. Granting this assump- tion, it is the province of this paper to point out, in a rough sort of way, what kind of functional relations ought to subsist between these two inde- 8l2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library pendent variables — the librarian and the school-teacher— to emphasize this relationship and to suggest a tentative working basis. The writer fully appreciates the magnitude and the difficulty of the task, and he recognizes that a layman should speak cautiously upon a subject that has been so generally evaded in discussions hitherto. Under such strained relations, it may be assumed that neither interested party will be anxious to reveal critically and in a cold-blooded fashion the poverty of his own mind in the presence of the other, whom he may regard with a degree of suspicion. This assertion is based solely upon the belief that when each is working behind cover, and not in the open, and endeavoring to con- ceal rather than to reveal defects, it is diffcult to get at the facts. Such being the case, there are two alternatives : that of abstention or a frank conversation covering the situation. The latter method of procedure with reasonable people will usually result in a satisfactory agreement. Progress cannot be assured to the pupils unless the teacher and the librarian work harmoniously at every point along the line. Slipping cogs in the mental machinery of either is hazardous, jerky, unsatisfactory. If the ideas of the librarian and of the teacher be concurrent as to what boys and girls should read, or if their ideas should run in the same general direction, without considering by whom they were first set in motion, it greatly simplifies the situation, facilitates the work, and would probably require only a few preliminary observations to dispose of the subject. Unfortunately such is not the case, and it does not appear, judging from present indications, that these functionaries as distinct classes will come to a hearty agreement at an early date. Too often each appears to be officially supersensitive of his own worth, importance, and dignity for the benefit of the children. The writer believes that each ought to take his readings from the same mental level and read forward and backward. To get a better idea how these states of mind have been produced, let us get back into the intellectual workshops of these purveyors of public intelligence, and examine the motives of each, and determine whether it be possible to find a common ground upon which they may stand so that their thoughts will flow in the same channel and that they may work for the accomplishment of the same object. It is conscien- tiously believed by a large number of librarians that only a few teachers are well read, and consequently that a very large majority read little that is useful or stimulating. On the other hand many teachers feel that librarians are a pedantic, captious, fault-finding clique, who take special delight in pointing out how little teachers really know, and in exaggerat- ing their eccentricities, and judging them as a class by a few erratic teaching freaks. There is some truth and much error in both positions. It is a lamentable fact, however, that a vast majority of teachers do not continue to improve in knowledge after leaving school, and few keep fully Department] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY 813 abreast in the subjects they studied in high school or college, or even enter a new field of intellectual activity after graduation. Perhaps most teachers are no more dilatory in this respect than other graduates engaged in different vocations. Ordinary human nature is a weak affair at best, and much of it is satisfied to get along with as little exertion and serious thinking and reading as is possible in order to retain an air of " learned respectibility," while only a few rise to loftier heights and continually strive to enlarge the boundaries of knowledge or add to their stock of information. Most are guided by a species of deceptive reasoning, and are content to reject the law of continuous growth and to accept instead that of diminishing intellectual returns ; and upon this hypothesis it is easy to account for the non-progressive and the retrograde condition of so many teachers. The few earnest men and women that are influenced by higher and nobler purposes should not be confounded with the ever- lasting sons and daughters of rest. Let us keep these classes apart in thinking on this subject; but it is indisputable that in all grades of schools, from the lowest to the very highest, there are those who get into positions and just manage to hold on without having hardly a new intellectual mental sensation once a year; and if one strong sensation should get in by accident it would produce a Mount Pelee shock in the brain centers; and were the facts correctly reported from all parts of the country, the assertion would be fully substantiated. That it is so is not an obscure question when one considers that of the large majority of the teaching force of the nation only a few have been qualified for the work, while the vast body follow low educational ideals. Keen, sharp-witted men and women in the libraries soon become acquainted with- the men and women in every community who are intelligent and strong readers. A micro- scope is not needed to find them; neither does it require a lifetime for one in such a position to find out one's mental characteristics. What one reads himself or recommends children or young people to read is a good index to one's literary taste. It is perfectly natural for the librarian to judge of the literary tastes of the recommendors and the width and depth of their attainments. Literary judgments are common in all other professions, and that of the librarian is no exception. Richly endowed and noble minds are so constituted that they naturally seek contact with those of a still higher and more solid order, while those of meager attainments, if suspicious and narrow, frequently avoid everything of a disquieting nature or that would expose mental deficiencies. Librarians as a class, however, are more willing to help teachers promote the welfare of school children than the teachers are to work in conjunction with librarians. Each class looks at the matter differently, yet librarians put themselves to great inconvenience in assist- ing teachers and pupils to become better acquainted with books bearing on certain subjects, and by their kindly sympathy and excellent advice 8 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ' [Library they do much for the children, and lighten the work of the teachers; but their best-intentioned efforts are not always crowned with success. Not mutually understanding each other, they work at cross-purposes. T/ie influence of books. — Books in some strange manner are regarded as sacred things, and confusion may also arise from the fact that a pupil is directed to pick out information from a heterogeneous collection of authors, all strange to him. In his text-books he knows where to find much of what he wants, but in the library the multiplicity of authors con- fuses rather than clears up any one point. Young people do little in the way of generalizing. They work with individual and simple conditions at first and for a long time ; hence, instead of general and widespreading questions being given to them to investigate, they should be taught how to concentrate their efforts on specific and well-authenticated instances. In a literary sense, it is always better for a reader to get a bird's-eye view of the present state of a subject or science rather than to spend a great deal of time in finding out what has been written in all the past, begin- ning with myths and folklore, and probably at the end of a lifetime get- ting down to the close of the eighteenth century or the beginning of the nineteenth. Encyclopedic knowledge should not be exacted of immature minds. A delicate point. — Another matter of rare occurrence is that a teacher from his desk in school recommends books that only a few persons ever read — and never in the sitting-room or parlor — and the boys and girls in the high school come to the library and insist that the books be handed out, because the teacher had recommended them. Under the circum- stances the mild protest of the librarian is not understood, and if he insinu- ates that it is not pious Sunday-school literature, the announcement at the school produces an upsetting of the teacher's equilibrium that is not reas- suring to the pupils. The breach is widened, the teacher feels chagrined, humiliated, and oftentimes is offended. Had the teacher consulted the librarian beforehand, such incidents would not occur. A case in point : Once I knew a well-meaning teacher to recommend a class of boys and girls to read "Selections from Leaves of Grass." That teacher did not know from personal knowledge that Walt Whitman used all the leaves in the forest in most of his poems except "fig leaves." It is perfectly plain to everyone that books of doubtful propriety should never be recommended to high-school pupils to read, much less to grade pupils. The librarian is a far safer guide in all such matters than teachers who get their information thru round-about channels, or thru traditional sources. There is only one sure test of a book's value to the reader, and that is, in what condition does it leave the mind after reading it ? Duplicating books. — Library books should be duplicated to satisfy the demand made by pupils for books bearing on certain lines of work — not in the nature of text-books, but for collateral reading. Should a % Department] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY 815 pupil wish to investigate a particular line of library work in order to make a report to his class, and he wants to consult the best authorities, he should apply to the librarian for supplementary reading. It would always expedite matters if the teacher would send word a day or two in advance to the librarian when pupils are expected to consult library books, in order that the books may be selected and put on tables in the consulta- tion room ready for use, and an attendant is there in charge to give proper directions to the class. A personal experience. — A strange, inexplicable feeling is always pro- duced on my mind when I first enter a large library. I feel my own poverty and ignorance in such a presence. The first time I went into a large library was in St. Louis. There the books stood in rows on shelves. Their titles I did not know. Each volume to me represented some important truths, and it was valuable for some purpose. I felt my utter helplessness, was bewildered, dumfounded. I wanted to stay there and read always, yet I knew no one. Perhaps it is only certain sensitive natures that are impressed in this manner, yet it is my belief that there are many such who look for and feel the need of guidance in the presence of all earthly greatness. Sending high-school pupils to the library. — For one to search for what he wants in a blind sort of way, groping, as it were, in the dark, without any light to guide him except the injunction to "hunt and he will be rewarded," is not far from adding insult to injury. An experienced hunter by reason of his knowledge of landmarks can thread his way over rugged mountains, or across wide expanses of prairie ; but the unskilled in bibliography is simply a wanderer in a strange land without a single mark to guide him. He is a feeler in Egyptian darkness. But the question of how to make pupils feel at home in the library when they first begin to go there to consult books is one that is far reach- ing for attraction or repulsion. Having thought over this subject con- siderably, the writer is clearly of the opinion that one of the most successful ways of removing these confused mental states is for the teacher to take up a library catalog in the recitation room and to have the pupils study it and become familiar with the simpler methods of classifying books. This should be the first preliminary instruction given in the line of reading, outside of pupils' text-books, and not from a selected list of books made up from a teacher's list or some other ideal collection. Then when the pupils go to the library, mutually confidential relations should be established between the teacher and the librarian, so as to avoid fric- tion at every point. This presupposes on the part of the teacher a toler- able familiarity with the resources of the library, and at least a general knowledge of what the library contains along special lines in which the teacher or pupils may be interested. This is not a violent presumption. 8i6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library Too often the teacher knows nothing or next to nothing of what the library contains, and in consequence of this defective information the pupils blunder along in search of information. The pupils, when directed by the teacher to go to the library to examine a particular book, should be directed to get information on that particular subject. In this way they will get the best the library contains. Owing to a misconception of the real function of the library and its resources, the pupil is frequently placed at a disadvantage, and he becomes disgusted with the entire manage- ment, and leaves the library with a feeling of bitter disappointment. Thus antagonism is often engendered when it could have been avoided by using a little tact at first. First impressions are usually the most lasting. Ward-school pupils and the library. — I purpose giving somewhat more explicit directions in regard to ward-school pupils who go to a place where books are kept in an orderly manner. To study printed catalogs and systems of classification, to examine books on the shelves in the most superficial manner, will foster a sort of literary atmosphere, oftener of deeper impression than mere book talk. The innumerable questions and conundrums that school boys and girls are called upon to find out is another way of familiarizing them with library books. It is a hopeful sign. In rummaging over so many pages and thru so many books some real knowledge is gained, a mere habit, perhaps, and yet it is cer- tainly a great thing to know where information may be found. When pupils first go to the library they should be introduced to the librarian or assistant librarian, who ought to welcome them with a firm grasp of the hand and with a few words of sympathy. Upon their arrival the librarian' would do well to take them thru the library and give them a few brief explanations, and soon they will reach the fact that knowledge is somewhat arbitrarily mapped off into departments, and it helps to bring order out of confusion for the young to grasp this idea early in life; and later, when one starts out to find a bit of information, he has some vague notion, at least, of the direction in which he must look. Not only young people, but many of mature years and of considerable experience, wander into a library looking around in an aimless sort of way. They see too much and too little. There should be no artificial or natural barriers imposed between children and the reservoirs of knowl- edge. The gateways should be wide open. Of course the best way to have ward-school children visit the library is in company with their teachers; or, if this be impracticable, the teacher should give them a letter of introduction to the librarian or assistant, stating each pupil's name, address, school, and the object of their visit. Thus they are able to feel at home at the outset, and they will gladly return at the first opportunity. Little children trained in this way soon feel as much at home in the library as elsewhere, and if the bond of sympathy is once Department] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY 817 I established between a child and the librarian or the assistant, then the child knows that he can go in all confidence and ask for what he wants, and that he will be sure to get it if it is to be had. Women librarians succeed usually much better than men in directing children's reading. Supplementary reading and juvenile lists. — In regard to supplemen- tary reading, it is not the function of the library to furnish it to the pupils in the grades or in the high schools, but rather that it should be supplied to each school as other supplies are furnished — by the board of education — or by some other agency devised by the school for that purpose. On general principles I am opposed to all "juvenile book lists" that are dished up for children to read, altho I admit freely the disinterested motives for making such lists. Reading is an individual affair,'and is a retail business at that. Children do not select such books when left to themselves, altho they may read a few profitably. Boys prefer books of action, strong and vigorous. Girls will be interested in those chiefly of a less exciting character, perhaps with a considerable admixture of poetry. Hashed victuals, especially literary hash, should be taken by goats rather than fed to children. Literary examinations. — For years I have been fully, convinced that all grade and high-school teachers, as well as principals and city and town superintendents, should be required to pass an examination in cur- rent standard literature, and this examination should be chiefly oral, and embrace at least three hours in questioning and exchanging opinions by the applicant and examiner. This would afford an opportunity to reach out in several directions and to test the applicant's knowledge of books in general, and to ascertain how well he had read, and whether he had his knowledge well in hand. A friendly conversation covering two or three hours would be far preferable to a set of written replies to a few specific questions; but the written examination would indicate the quality of scholarship versus the quantity. Each method has its value. Courtesy of librarians. — Some years ago 1 was engaged in preparing a bibliography of American arithmetics, and I visited personally a large number of libraries in all sections of the country, and everywhere I went the librarians and assistants showed me every courtesy by putting all the treatises in each library before me on tables in reference rooms, or they took me to the shelves where I could inspect each book. In conclusion — I have endeavored to point out in a spirit of kind- ness the differences that sometimes exist between teachers and librarians, and to show how a better understanding may be established on a perma- nent basis of good feeling, and how the pupils can be made to feel at ease and self-poised in a library, believing that "it is the office of dis- crimination to detect errors, but of good nature to excuse them." 8i8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library DISCUSSION K. H. Emberspn. — I cannot agree with Mr. Greenwood that teachers do not read. They read a great deal, but they do not read to advantage, or with any system. It is more like brows'ing than studying. I would emphasize heartily the point that the best results come from the hearty and constant co-operation of teacher and librarian. May H. Prentice. — Dr. Greenwood's paper did not exactly tell us what the schools should demand from the library, but rather the reverse. Are not librarians doing more for schools than they are ready for? I am rather of the opinion that book lists are a help. Children do use them to choose from. It is not so much the teacher's business as the librarian's to concern herself intimately with what the children are reading. The teacher's efforts should be directed more toward sympathetic, thoro work in the school- room. Don't teachers read as much as other professionals, even if not as much as they should? Dr. Greenwood. — I do not mean that teachers do not read something, but that they do not read the great books. Juvenile book lists without sympathetic and earnest help from teacher and librarian are of no use. A. H. Hopkins. — We do not blame the teacher because she does not read more ; perhaps she cannot. The thing we do blame the teacher for is that she will not or does not join hands with the librarian in helping the children to read to better advantage. SCHOOL LIBRARIES LN THE RURAL DLSTRICTS MISS AGNES ROBERTSON, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHEROKEE, lA. " The Public Library," says Mr. Melvil Dewey, " forms one side of a grand trinity as a means of public advancement — the library, the school, and the church ; its base, the public school ; the church, with its moral teachings and care for the spiritual man, forms one of the sides; the public library forms the other, by its broad and general training of all classes and sects." The late Matthew Arnold, in one of his lecturing visits to this country, said that he saw nothing in America that impressed him so much as the sight of a ragged and almost shoeless little boy sitting in the reading room of one of our public libraries, studying his book or newspaper with all the sang froid oi a member of a West End London club. The growth of the public library movement has been phenomenal dur- ing the last century. One hunderd years ago public libraries were almost unknown. Prior to 1810 there were but ten in existence, and these were chiefly subscription and society libraries collected and used by those who were able to pay for the privilege. To America belongs the honor of founding and perfecting the free library system, which reaches all classes of people, carrying light and hap- piness into homes lofty and lowly, into jails and prisons and reforma- tories, opening its doors to the dwellers of the slums, leading them into Department] SCHOOL LIBRARIES IN RURAL DISTRICTS 819 purer avenues of thought and feeling; fitting all for better citizens in this great commonwealth of ours. The first movement toward a free public library was made by a citizen of New Lebanon, N. Y., so that to New York state is due the honor of instituting the real initiatory movement. This was in 18 17, when, according to a writer in The Nation, Dr. Jesse Torry published a pamphlet on the subject, bearing the somewhat high-sounding title of The Intellectual Torch, purporting to develop **an original, eco- nomical, and expeditious plan for the universal dissemination of knowledge and virtue by means of a free public library." He urged the legislatures, both national and state, to establish public schools and judiciously selected public libraries in every part of the republic. The matter was a subject of much discussion and many fruitless efforts for years, until in 1835 a law was passed by the state legislature of New York which permitted the voters in many school districts to levy a tax of $20 to begin a library, and a tax of $10 each succeeding year to provide for its increase. Later, other laws were passed, but for various reasons the work was not wholly a success. Interest declined, books were scattered and lost, and ultimately the libraries were almost entirely unused. This was chiefiy because of the poor selection on the part of the committees and unbusinesslike methods on the part of the librarians. Massachusetts, under the leadership of Horace Mann, also early took up the work, and other states rapidly followed the good example, until today libraries are as common as public schools, and there is no town or village of any consequence that cannot boast of one or more libraries. Even mining towns, which spring up within a single round of the moon, as soon as pockets are sufficiently well lined to warrant it, begin to clamor for some more solid intellectual food than that furnished by the daily paper. It has been estimated that there are in the United States over 23,000 school libraries, containing 45,000,000 books, which is 12,000,000 more than are found in all the public libraries of Europe. This estimate was made several years ago. Probably today there would be found at least one book for every inhabitant of this country of an age to be able to read it. But the library movement in the rural districts is of more recent date, especially in the West and Middle West and South. Many states are still without a law by which rural schools must be provided with books. The state superintendent of Illinois, in his biennial report for 1900, says there are in that state 5,000 schools without libraries. And the same is true of other states. Many districts have no reading matter aside from that found in the ordinary text-book. Under these circumstances, the best results cannot be obtained. It is said that the amount of reading matter in one set of ordinary school readers does not exceed that in one of 820 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library Dickens' novels. Just think of a boy or girl spending from six to eight years on one set of readers containing selections having no relation to each other, and selected without regard to the needs of the child's heart! It has been well said : " If a piece were cut from the canvas of a painting and given to us to admire, it would be no surprise if we found no beauty in it; nor should we expect the child to be interested in the middle of a story which has lost the pervading spirit of the whole." Such discon- nected fragments cannot form a basis for future growth. Right here the library fills a long-felt want ; it is the link that binds the home and the school life. That it is necessary and desirable, even indispensable, is not to be questioned, for children so often leave school before they reach the stage of self-education. It has been estimated that four-fifths of the school children pass out into active life before reaching the high school ; hence the importance of an early taste for reading being formed, which becomes a safeguard and lifelong means of edu- cation. The methods of obtaining rural-school libraries vary with the needs of the district and the state laws governing expenditures of public money, each state making its own laws. In Iowa, a few years ago a law was passed providing for $25 being taken from the contingent fund each year for each school for the purchase of books and apparatus. Many counties did not take advantage of this law, and in 1900 another law was passed making it mandatory upon the treasurers of rural-school districts to with- hold annually not less than five cents, nor more than fifteen cents, from the apportionment for every person of school age. The law has been in operation now two years, and the results are very satisfactory. Last year nearly $50,000 were expended out of the district funds for library books, and in addition to this $28,426 have been raised by voluntary efforts on the part of patrons, pupils, and teachers. In Iowa, over 9,400 school districts have school libraries, containing 453,554 books; 110,815 were purchased during the past year. Minne- sota, Wisconsin, and South Dakota have laws similar to the Iowa library law. In some states, if the districts have raised $20 each by subscription, the state gives the same sum, and $10 every year thereafter on the same conditions. The rural-school library movement in Iowa, started some years ago by teachers, thru the influence of county superintendents, deciding that instead of giving cards to each pupil at the close of school, as had been the custom, they would give one or more books to the entire school, which would go toward starting a library. This system of itself is bound to build up a library slowly; but the wide-awake teacher soon thought of other ways of arousing an interest in this important work. Within the last two or three years, thru the munificence of a friend of the public schools, George W. Schee, of Primghar, la., the-schools of about twenty Department] SCHOOL LIBRARIES IN RURAL DISTRICTS 821 counties in northwestern Iowa have received large sums of money to be expended for school libraries. Some counties received as high as $1,500. This money was given as prizes to the school raising a certain amount. The school in each county raising the largest amount was to receive a prize of $30 for books, and each school that raised $20 would receive $10 more. The money, aside from the gift, was raised principally by sub- scription, donation, entertainments, sociables, and in some instances by the work of the teachers and pupils in cleaning the schoolroom. Thru this stimulus it is safe to say that from 1,400 to 1,600 rural school districts have established libraries. The influence of this movement extends beyond the schoolroom. It is a silent and powerful stimulus which is given by them to the cultivation of the community in which they stand, and will brighten many lives for years to come. Great improvements are now apparent in schoolrooms and surroundings ; framed pictures, copies of masterpieces, adorn the walls, making the schoolroom more cheerful and attractive. Bookcases are now a part of every rural schoolroom. Boards have become more liberal in the purchase of maps, globes, and other necessary apparatus. Some are apt to think rural life very dull and monotonous, but with access to a good library the young people. in the country have all the advantages of their city brothers and sisters, without any of the dis- advantages of city life. In a Farmer's Institute report we find the fol- lowing : A man well along in years, living on a ranch in the West, one hundred miles from a railroad, and twenty miles from the nearest neighbor, was asked how he could endure such isolation and solitude. " I am not lonely," he replied. " Have I not nature all around and close to me everywhere? Besides, I have the best of company. Thoreau comes and talks to me of Waldon Pond and Boston, its environments and people ; Burroughs and Audobon make trips with me to the mountains and the woods ; Charles Dickens brings his friends and acquaintances to see me, and they have become my friends. When I feel the need of a change, I explore Africa with Livingstone or Stanley, or talk with George Kennan about the hardships of Siberia. The travelers from " The Wayside Inn " drop in and recite their tales to me anew ; I have reserved seats for Shakespeare's plays for any night in the week. I awaken every morning to the matin-song service of the birds, and am never lonely. But I pity the poor fellows in the city who are crowded and hurried by people everywhere, and yet have no time to know any one, and who do not read any books. If the reading of good books can have such an influence upon one life, why should not every boy and girl in our rural districts be surrounded with like privileges ? No school district is too poor to buy a few good books. The library need not be large to begin with; in fact it is better to begin with a few books, and let the library grow as the books are needed. After a library is begun, some system of arrangement and manage- ment must be adopted. A system of loaning and some elementary rules 82 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library and records are almost necessary. The selection of books becomes a study, and it is an art which all teachers should cultivate. It should be kept in mind that the school library is to supply books which will interest and instruct the youthful mind, but not necessarily to furnish amusement. In states where the law requires books to be purchased from public funds, the books must be selected from lists prepared at the state department, but the responsibility of selecting books to be purchased with money raised by voluntary effort falls upon the teacher, with the assistance of the county superintendent. Instruction upon simple library methods and the choice of books should be given in the county normal institutes and teachers' meetings. There are many useful lists of books which will help in making a selection, and even the best of them are to be had for almost nothing. The Ameri- can Library Association has printed a select list of books for children, compiled by Miss Hewins, of Hartford Public Library. The Buffalo Public Library has issued a good graded list of books for children up to eighteen years of age. The Bulletin of Bibliography, No. 13, gives an excellent list of fairy stories. The report of the Committee on the Rela- tion of Public Libraries to Public Schools is a most interesting, com- prehensive, and practical list, and it does not include an undesirable volume. McMurraf s Special Methods in History and Literature, and the Elementary School Record, of the Chicago University, contain good lists of books. Every library should contain a good international dictionary and an encyclopedia. There should be history stories and biographies to sup- plement the history; books of travel to supplement the geography; and masterpieces in prose and poetry to supplement the reading. The teacher should not only know the books contained in the library, but should also know his pupils and their need, and thus be able to guide him in the selection of books, rather than to let him select at random or from hearsay. Pupils should be required to make a report of books read. I would suggest the following questions, which have been used with good results in some of our schools : 1. Name of book. 2. Name of author. 3. Name other books you have read by same author. 4. Write what you know about the author. 5. Character of book — history, biography, adventure, romance, science, etc. 6. Give a brief description of the book, locality, time, season, character, incidents, etc. 7. Which was the strongest character? Why? Which character did you like best? Why? 8. Did it pay you to read the book? How? 9. What class of books do you like best? 10. If given $5 with which to purchase books, what would you select? I Department] SCHOOL LIBRARIES IN RURAL DISTRICTS 823 To the teacher whose heart is in the worlc, a thousand ways of making the library useful will suggest themselves. Some of our teachers have organized reading clubs, which have proved very interesting and of great benefit to the members. An imaginary journey may be taken, or a noted character studied, and the pupils allowed to search the library for informa- tion. Often pupils whom it seemed impossible to interest in their regu- lar school work have been the most active in the club work, and led to take a greater interest in their lessons. A day may be appointed as "nature day," when the pupils shall report upon what they have observed on some particular branch of nature, and the books treating of this branch set aside for inspection and listing by them. Many magazines and papers have now very worthy, and in some cases fine, reproductions of famous paintings, cathedrals, and noted people, and the children could be encouraged to preserve them for use in scrapbooks or portfolios to be kept in the library. Old numbers of children's maga- zines may be called in, sorted, and bound. St. Nicholas, Harper's Yomig People, and Wide Awake, form a library in themselves. There is no greater blessing for a boy or a girl than a good library. The books lived in furnish ideals higher than their own and often than those of other homes. Parents also read the books brought home by the children, and are refined and elevated by their tone. One noble book may change a whole life — yes, many lives. How many boys have been influenced for good by Tom Brown at Rugby! How many girls have built their ideals of true womanhood on Miss Alcott's or Miss Whitney's stories of sweet girl life ! Mr. George Ticknor's idea of the library was that it should be as free as possible, and as attractive to all classes, especially for those whose tastes for reading were not yet formed. The habit of reading is the -first and indispensable step. Once established, it is a recognized fact that readers go from the poorer to the better sort. As a rule, children choose a better class of books than older persons. They are eager to learn about the world, and what the world has been doing all these years. Their eyes are wide open to the wonderland of science, which, in these days of vivid writing, is made a veritable home of fairies. Jean Andrews, with her stories Mother Nature Told, and Ten Boys from Long Ago till Now, Miss Morley, with her Bee People, Miss Buckley, with her Fairy Land of Science, and many other writers of the same character, make knowledge a rich mine they are eager to explore, and, what is better, the stories are quite as interesting to their elders as to them, as any really good child's book always is. 1 cannot add more fitting closing words than by quoting from an address of Sidney Smith's delivered at the Royal Institute in London 824 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library and which has been emblazoned on the walls of several of our public libraries : Therefore, when I say, in conducting your understanding, love knowledge with a great love, with a love coeval with life, what do I say but, love innocence ; love purity ; love that which, if you are rich, will sanctify the bland fortune which made you so, and teach men to call it justice ; love that which, if you are poor, will make poverty respect- able and forbid the proudest to mock at the meanness of your fortune ; love that which will comfort you and open to you the kingdom of thought and all the boundless regions of conception ? Therefore, if any young person has embarked his life in the pursuit of knowledge, let him not be daunted by her cheerless beginning, or by the difficulties hov- ering around her. Let him rather follow her as the angel that guards him and the genius of his life. She will bring him out at last into the light of day, and exhibit him to the world comprehensive in argument, strong in reasoning, paramount above his fellows in all his relations and offices of life. DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July g, 1902 The department was called to order at 2 : 30 P. M., in the Hennepin Avenue Metho- dist church, with Dr, Alexander Graham Bell, president, in the chair. A vocal solo by Mrs. Maud Ulmer Jones, accompanied by Miss Margaret Gilmore, introduced the regular program of the department. Dr. C. M. Jordan, superintendent of schools, Minneapolis, Minn., delivered an address of welcome, which was responded to by the president. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell; Dr. Wm. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education; and Professor Augustus H. Kelley, Boston, Mass. Upon motion of Dr. J. C. Gordon, of Jacksonville, 111., the secretary was authorized and directed to send a telegram to the convention of Instructors of the Blind, in session at Raleigh, N. C, conveying greetings, with a cordial invitation to participate hereafter in the proceedings of the department. A paper was read by Mr. F. W. Booth, editor of the Association /Review, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, on " The Lesson to be Learned by the General Teacher from Teaching Language to the Deaf." Music — vocal solo, Mr. D. Alvin Davies. Mr. James N. Tate, superintendent of the School for the Deaf, Faribault, Minn., read a paper on the subject, "What is Minnesota Doing for her Deaf Children ?" This was followed by a paper by Mr. B. P. Chappie, instructor in the School for the Blind, Faribault, Minn., on " What Minnesota is Doing for her Blind Children." Dr. A. C. Rogers, superintendent of the School for the Feeble-Minded, Faribault, Minn., next addressed the department on " What Minnesota is Doing for the Feeble- Minded." The president, upon motion of Professor W. D. Parker, state inspector of schools for the deaf, Madison, Wis., appointed the following Committee on Nominations : W. D. Parker, Wisconsin. J. C. Gordon, Illinois. A. C. Rogers, Minnesota. J. J. Dow, Minnesota. Miss Cornelia D. Bingham, principal of the McCowen Oral School, Chicago, III., gave illustration of work of the pupils of the McCowen school with the pupils of the school present. On account of the lateness of the hour and the brevity of the exercises just witnessed, it was decided to devote Thursday morning to the presentation of school work by the children of the McCowen school. SPECIAL SESSION. — Thursday, July 10 A special session of the department was held on Thursday morning from 9 : 30 to 12 o'clock, during which time Miss Cornelia D. Bingham, principal, assisted by Misses Andrews, Cannon, Pearse, Taylor, and Freedman, gave an exhibition of school work with thirteen pupils of the McCowen Oral School, Chicago, 111. The exercises covered four grades, from the kindergarten to the advanced work of the school. 825 826 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July ii The department convened at 2 : 30 P. M., President Bell in the chair. The president suggested that a committee on resolutions be appointed, and a motion in accordance with the suggestion was passed. The following named persons were appointed as the committee : Dr. Joseph C. Gordon, Jacksonville, 111. Mr. J. J. Dow, Faribault, Minn. Dr. A. C. Rogers, Faribault, Minn. Miss Alice Damon, Mystic, Conn. Miss Jennie C. Smith, Eau Claire, Wis. Music — vocal solo. Miss Inez Adell Davis, accompanied by Miss Eulalie Chenevert. The following telegram received from the vice-president of the department, Mr. Edward E. Allen, attending the convention of Instructors of the Blind, in session at Raleigh, N. C, was read : Blind convention indorses report of Committee on Reorganization. Congratulations. The president introduced Signor G. Ferreri, ex-vice-principal of the School for the Deaf at Siena, Italy, who addressed the department, giving his impressions of the work of the instruction of the deaf as carried on in American schools. A paper on "The Organization of Associations of Parents of Deaf Children as an Aid to Schools," was read by Mrs. Helen M. Hefferan, president of the Illinois Mothers' Congress. Discussion followed, participated in by Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Professor W. D. Parker, state inspector of schools for the deaf, Madison, Wis., Senator J. D. Stout, of Wis- consin, and Miss Mary McCowen, supervising principal of the day schools for the deaf, Chicago, 111. The next paper presented was by Mr. James J. Dow, superintendent of the School for the Blind, Faribault, Minn., on " Necessary Evils." This paper was discussed by Professor H. R. Sanford, of New York ; Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Professor W. D. Parker, Miss Jennie C. Smith, principal of the day school for the deaf, Eau Claire, Wis., and Mr. J. N. Tate, superintendent of the School for the Deaf, Faribault, Minn. A paper by Miss Mary McCowen, supervising principal of the Chicago day schools for the deaf, on " A Comparison of Kindergarten Methods for the Deaf and the Hearing Child," was followed by exercises by the four grades present of the McCowen Oral School, Chicago, under direction of Miss Cornelia D. Bingham, principal, and her assistants. BUSINESS MEETING The department, at 5 : 30 o'clock Friday afternoon, at the close of the regular pro- gram, continued in session as a business meeting. Professor W. D. Parker, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, presented the following report : For President — Edward E. Allen, Overbrook, Pa. For Vice-President — Mary McCowen, Chicago, 111. For Secretary — Miss Sarah Fuller, Boston, Mass. Upon motion the report was accepted and the persons nominated were elected as officers for the ensuing year. Dr. J. C. Gordon, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, presented^the following report : I. Resolved, That this department approves of the action of the Board of Directors, changing the name and defining the scope of the department, and recommends the adoption of the report of the Committee upon reorganization, which is as follows : a. The name of the department shall be, " Department of Special Education — Relating to Children Demanding Special Means of Instruction." Department] SEC RE TARY'S MINUTES 8 2 7 b. The object of this department shall be to bring persons engaged in the education of children requiring special methods of instruction into contact and affiliation with teachers in general, for the interchange of ideas for mutual benefit. c. All communications shall be non-technical in character, for the purpose of securing an interchange of ideas between those engaged in general and those engaged in special education. d. To secure from specialists papers of general interest for presentation to the general convention or its sections. e. To secure from prominent educators the presentation of papers before this department. /. All matters to be presented at any meeting shall be approved in advance by the Executive Com- mittee. 2. Whereas, The usefulness of this department in its work calls for information and statistics gathered systematically from a large field, and Whereas, It is desirable that this information be made available at the next meeting of the National Educational Association, Resolved, That a committee be appointed and authorized to confer with the National Bureau of Education with a view to securing a compilation of existing statistics relative to children in the public schools who need special methods of instruction, and the gathering of more complete returns from the large cities of the United States. 3. Resolved, That the efforts of the school authorities of the city of Boston to provide special instruction in special classes for pupils whose mental development is impeded by such physical conditions as partial deaf- ness, imperfect sight, etc., is worthy of commendation. 4. Resolved, That the graduation of persons deaf from birth or from early childhood with academic degrees from Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and the University of California, as well as from Gallaudet College for the Deaf, and of blind students from many colleges, is worthy of note by this body as an encouragement to high endeavor on the part of pupils and teachers alike. 5. Resolved, That the larger and freer use of written language and of speech from year to year by pupils in schools for the deaf is a progressive step worthy of note and of commendation. 6. Resolved, That day schools for young deaf children, with efficient teachers and competent super- vision, should be encouraged, especially for such children as cannot be reached by institutions or boarding schools, which, with their manifold advantages, cannot cover the entire field in many states. 7. Resolved, That the thanks of this department be extended to Wm. T. Harris, LL.D., United States Commissioner of Education, and other prominent educators who have addressed this department; also to the local Committee on Arrangements and to the ladies and gentlemen taking part in the musical program ; also to Miss Cornelia D. Bingham for the living exhibit from her school in Chicago, and to A. Graham Bell, LL D., our president, for invaluable services rendered to this department. Upon motion the resolutions were adopted by the department as read. In conformity with the second resolution the president appointed Mr. F. W. Booth, editor of the Association Review, to compile and gather statistics relative to children in the public schools who need special methods of instruction, to report at the next meeting of the National Educational Association. Upon motion, the department adjourned. Department headquarters were maintained thruout the sessions of the National Edu- cational Association at Parlor 222, West Hotel. An interesting and impressive exhibit of products of the industrial work carried on at the School for the Feeble-Minded, Faribault, Minn,, was shown in the parlors of the Hennepin Avenue Methodist Church. The occasion of a dinner given on the evening of Friday, July 1 1, at the West Hotel, to the members and friends of the department by Dr. and Mrs. Alexander Graham Bell, was rendered doubly enjoyable and memorable by the fact of its being the twenty-fifth anniversary of Dr. and Mrs. Bell's wedding day. F. W. Booth, Secretary. 828 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, WASHINGTON, D. C. [STENOGRAPHICALLY REPORTED] ' We have arrived at an important and critical period in the history of the department. This department originated with the teachers of the deaf. The blind and feeble-minded had no part in the original plan ; they were brought in as a concession. For many years teachers of the deaf had felt an isolation, and they had a feeling that they wanted to come into affiliation with other teachers of the country that they might gain something of value from them. But when, on their first application to the officials of the National Educational Association, they found that they could not be received as a department for the deaf, because all other special classes would ask to be likewise set off, others were included with us, and we were labeled with the name, " Deaf and Dumb, Blind, and Feeble-Minded." Thus we were constituted of incongruous elements, with little in common. Teachers of the deaf did not like these associa- tions, nor did teachers of the other classes. They did not wish to be known as defectives, or classified by a defect. A number of names were proposed for the department, but none seemed to satisfy. Finally, at the Detroit meeting last summer, a committee was appointed consisting of the executive officers of the department, to reorganize the department and to make effort to have its name changed. This committee acted and it adopted the following platform : 1. The name of the department shall be: "Department of Special Education — Relating to Children Demanding Special Means of Instruction." 2. The object of the department shall be to bring persons engaged in the education of children requiring special methods of instruction into contact and affiliation with teachers in general for the interchange of ideas for mutual benefit. 3. All communications shall be non-technical in character for the purpose of secur- ing an interchange of ideas between those engaged in general and those engaged in special education. 4. To secure from specialists papers of general interest for presentation to the gen- eral convention or its sections. 5. To secure from prominent educators the presentation of papers before this department. 6. All matters to be presented at any meeting shall be approved in advance by the executive committee. At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the Association yesterday, the request for the change of the name of the department was presented, Dej-artment] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 829 and it gives me pleasure to announce that the request was granted by unanimous vote. So we are now and will hereafter be known as the " Department of Special Education." The special idea of the department is to secure an interchange of ideas. Heretofore our papers have been technical. Teachers of the deaf have written addressing themselves to teachers of the deaf, and the teachers of the blind to teachers of the blind, etc. But teachers of the deaf and blind and feeble-minded have their own conventions for all this. At this moment the teachers of the blind are having a convention, and our vice- president is now absent in attendance at that convention. Now, we do not want at our meeting papers that may be presented by special teachers at their own conventions. The first object of the department is that our members may attend the meetings of other departments. There is one special point on which we can all come together. A large number of pupils are in the public schools who have defective sight or hearing, or are backward. The number having defective hearing probably outnumbers the total deaf-mute population. These pupils are not deaf enough for special schools. What is done with them, or for them ? They are drifting along in the public schools, and teachers do not know what to do with them. Now cannot we, who teach the totally deaf, give you information who are teaching the partially deaf ? And the teachers of the blind and of the feeble-minded, can they not help teachers who have children in their schools who are partially blind, or who are backward ? This department should give special attention to these pupils. The basal idea of this department is the interchanging of ideas between specialists and ordinary teachers. So when we listen we want men, not specialists like ourselves, but some great, broad men to come to look down upon our little fields, like Dr. Butler, and Dr. Harris, whom we have with us today. It used to be that schools for the deaf were shut off from all affiliation with other schools, but now we are graduating our pupils into the public schools. Columbia College, New York, has the distinc- tion of having graduated the first congenital deaf student. And now, at the last commencement. Harvard University graduates three deaf men. These men received their preparatory training at the Horace Mann School for the Deaf, Boston, and the Clarke School for the Deaf, Northampton. We are progressing in these matters, and the line of progress is for affilia- tion between special schools and their work with the ordinary educational system. There is no limit to which the blind cannot aspire, and it is beginning to be so with the deaf, and with the deaf-blind, as witness the case of Helen Keller, both deaf and blind, and yet now successfully pur- suing a college course among the hearing and seeing. ^3° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION f Special RESPONSES TO THE ADDRESS OE WELCOME AT THE OPENING SESSION DR. WM, T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION [STENOGRAPHICALLY REPORTED] It seems to me that this meeting will be considered an epoch, not only to the teachers of the deaf, of the blind, and of the feeble-minded, but to teachers of all other classes of children. I enter heartily into Dr. Bell's plan by which mutual benefit will result to special and general teachers alike. The special teacher focuses his mind on special diffi- culties; then invents methods and devices by which the difficulties are removed ; then he gives papers relating to these devices and general teachers learn for their own uses. There are various defects over which we must lift our pupils ; if they are not attended to, the children become morose and disheartened. What a stream of reforms will come in the methods of special education thru the meetings of this department and thru hearing your papers ! A visit to a School for the Feeble-Minded in Lincoln, that \ once made, was worth more to me than much that was gained from normal study of normal children. The will power is a necessary factor in developing the intellect, and the feeble-minded child is especially lacking in will power. He is trained upon the line of his lack. Control of the will is the first step ; this taken, other steps may be taken in education. The German poet gives answer to the query, what makes life worth living ? **Life is worth living if you can only do something by which you make others better." This body, by specializing, will systematize the matter of lifting defective children over the thresholds of difficulty. Then by detailing their methods to general teachers, they multiply twenty- fold, and more, the great benefits they confer. PROF. A. H. KELLEY, BOSTON, MASS. • [STENOGRAPHICALLY REPORTED] I remember with what delight I listened to Dr. Bell at the Horace Mann School, where the product of the work is the same as in our fields in a different way. I am asked to speak of Helen Keller, but about all that could be said of her has been said by Dr. Bell in speaking of her and of the three young deaf graduates of Harvard. The work being done by special classes is in line with what you are proposing in this depart- ment. In my district in Boston I have one of these special classes, and we have adopted the name of your department. We have in fact three of these classes. . Why not more ? It is exceedingly difficult to secure just the right kind of teachers to lift these children over the threshold of Department] TEACHING LANGUAGE TO THE DEAF 831 difficulty of which Dr. Harris speaks. Our method is to visit — with the teacher — the homes of parents. I picked up little Harry S., nine or ten years of age, ragged and out at the toes. I turned him over to one of our bright, sympathetic teachers. I took her to his home and found a younger brother even more defective. We took Harry and the little brother away from home, to Waverly, where they are being cared for and trained. But these children, when in the same classes with other children, are the stumbling-blocks of the class. We must develop the motor power of the brain before the other powers. A boy as long as his teacher sat by could do anything he was asked, but without the teacher he would do nothing. We brought in the manual-training bench, the saw, the plane, etc. At once the boy was happy. Something was brought into his life that meant happiness. I believe this is one of the grandest movements that has been started, and Dr. Bell's name will be handed down as one who has done much to bring into these darkened lives light and new power and new life. Dr. Bell has asked the question if we have statistics as to the proportion of pupils that have defective powers. To a certain extent they have been collected, but not to such an extent as to give definite facts. But the start has been made. With sixty pupils in a room, in order to do good work they ought to be pretty much alike. If we could only get classes down to normal size, the work could be more specialized. We have made request of teachers that they send us names of all pupils considered as defective. Upon these cases being investigated, some are found not seriously defective; others are segregated. What effect has such an inquiry upon parents, I am asked ? We get around that by adopting the name "special school," "special teacher," the latter specially qualified, avoiding the name "feeble-minded" in any connection. LESSONS TO BE LEARNED BY THE GENERAL TEACHER FROM TEACHING LANGUAGE TO THE DEAF F. W. BOOTH, MT. AIRY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. It is a well-understood fact that principles are discovered, or are most easily apprehended, in cases of their extreme application ; for it is then they stand out in bold relief, unconfused and unincumbered,'and the mind readily conceives them and accepts them as fundamental, persistent, and essential. Again, it is well understood that the conditions of health, for securing it or preserving it, are best made known thru the study of various conditions and degrees of illness. Thus the student of medicine attends the medical college, not so much to study books and to receive instruction from able preceptors, but because he there finds in the clinics, the laboratories, and the dissecting rooms diseases, disorders, maimings, 832 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special and deformities centered and massed, and he gains in brief time in their study, and the study of remedial and corrective agents applied, knowl- edge and skill that he could not by any possibility gain elsewhere and in other ways in a lifetime. But what of the science of education, and what of the schools where this science is taught ? There are normal schools and colleges, and normal institutes and associations, small and large, in countless number, but in them all, without exception, the center of their work and study is the normal child. But as the normal person in full health would be but a poor subject for a medical clinic for purposes of study or demonstration, it would seem that the normal child cannot be the best material, or suffi- cient material at least, for the normal school for purposes of experimental study and practice. When we consider that the normal child acquires much the larger part of his knowledge without the aid or art of the teacher, and that this self-acquired knowledge is a potent and necessarily a variable factor as entering into all formal and directed study, it ceases to be remarkable that the old pedagogical problems continue so per- sistently with us unsolved, and that solutions offered from time to time prove so inconclusive and generally unacceptable. There is scarcely an educational theory that may be conceived that cannot be exploited and proven with the normal child as its subject, for, learning so much without teaching, he naturally learns much thru teach- ing, regardless of the method employed; so all methods are equally proven — or are equally unproven — in the considerable progress made. There are too many teaching forces involved in the development of the normal child to make possible the clear tracing of any one of them thru its successive stages to its ultimate and invariable effect; hence the very slow advancement in all the centuries in educational science. We educate in larger numbers and in more subjects than they did a thousand years ago, but it may well be questioned if we educate to better knowledge and larger power than when the ancient philosophers and scholars held sway. But if the normal child, the child who follows teaching easily upon almost any line it may take, is not proper, or the best, material for experimental study, the question forces itself, where can proper or better material be found ? In algebra we solve problems by process of elimina- tion, by ridding the equation of one factor after another until it is brought to its simplest terms and thus to the condition of easy solution. May we not do this in education — eliminate factors, one and another of the learning factors, from our problems, thereby rendering them simpler and easier for our study and solution? With the normal child this is impossible, for with him we may not eliminate or shut off from operation any important learning power or teaching influence. Nature is nature, and she will not be balked or far diverted by the pigmy devices and tem- Department] TEACHING LANGUAGE TO THE DEAF 833 porizing expedients that our crude theories suggest. So we turn from the normal child, in whom nature reigns with her even sway, to a dis- tinctive class or to distinctive classes of abnormal or sub-normal children in whom nature has herself, in some vagary and in heroic and irrevoca,ble sacrifice, simplified our problems by the removal of one or another of the chief learning factors, leaving the remaining factors thereby and in that much unobscured and unconfused for purposes of didactic research and study. Why not, then, to the end that there may be developed a true philosophy of education, an exact science, if may be, of pedagogy, turn to the defective classes for the material and the conditions needed, and that they provide freely and abundantly for our purposes ; to the deaf child, with the elimination in him of the greatest of the educative senses, to study and learn wherein, and how, and how much the sense of hearing, and by the contrasts afforded, the remaining senses are severally contributive in the great educative processes; to the blind child, with the closing of still another great learning channel with the effects of it on the mind and character; and finally to the deaf-blind, who, for the purpose of our pedagogical clinic, is undoubtedly the case extreme, and therefore the case that presents the greatest possibilities for didactic study and experi- mentation ? It would seem, then, that it is to the field of special education that we must come to find the soil and material and conditions for the growth and construction of a true and exact science of pedagogy. It is axiomatic that as you increase the difficulty you must in like measure increase the efficiency of the method employed for its over- coming. In the teaching of the deaf, the blind, the deaf-blind, or the feeble-minded, difficulties as they present themselves are extreme; it fol- lows that the methods employed, to be effective of the ends that they aim at and attain, must be superlatively excellent. And they are. I am thoroly convinced that in all cases where measurable success is attained in the instruction of the special classes the methods employed are superior to the methods used to secure the same general results in the work of the instruction of the normal child. Turning to our subject, we are to inquire what lessons the general teacher may learn from the work of the instruction of the deaf, and more specifically from the work of teaching language to the deaf. The subject is a large one, for the teaching of language to the deaf involves for this class practically the whole work of education. To gain an edu- cation the deaf child learns language, and in learning language he per- force acquires education ; and thus for our purpose today language may be conceived of for the deaf as the whole aim and end of instruction. To save misconception in the beginning it should be said that language for the deaf is not speech ; it may be, and usually is, speech in part. Speech, however, is only a mode of expression ; another equally impor- 834 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special tant, and far less difficult to learn, is writing. But language in the whole and in its su^bstance is a psychological problem far more than one either of vocal or graphic mechanics. Passing over, then, the work of mere articulation teaching in the instruction of the deaf and the very practical lessons that may be learned from it by the general teacher to aid him in correcting faults in the speech of hearing children, and with only a passing reference to the phonetic method of spelling and reading in common use by teachers of the deaf, and which is now so rapidly supplanting the A, B, C method in the schools for the hearing, to the great benefit and the much more rapid advancement of the children in acquiring the art of reading, we may bring ourselves at once to the work of language teaching in its essence, as it presents itself to the teacher of the deaf and of the hearing alike in its psychological-pedagogical aspects. It will be accepted that language learning is not the accumulation of vocabulary. That is to be sure a part of it, and a not unimportant part, but vocabulary may be likened to the dead body without the spirit. Our aim in language teaching must be to give vocabulary, but much more than that, to give power to use it — to give the art and graces of expression. The lack of the art of expression is the great lack of the deaf upon entrance to school, and it is the teacher's ever-present task to lessen it thruout the school course. It is also the great lack, as I count it, of the hearing child under present educational methods thru the school course, and continuing necessarily thru life. We then have the common lack in the two classes, that of the art of graceful, free, and forceful expression. And it is here that we find the great difference in the methods of instruction employed with the two classes, and it may be suggested that we also find the essential element of superiority of the methods employed with the deaf over that employed with the hearing. The deaf child starting with nothing, with no language, with no means or facility of expression, the aim from the beginning and con- tinuously is to meet the great lack, and the school curriculum is one unending program of talk and write, write and talk, with all else subordi- nate and contributive, with the result that the deaf child has power at every stage of his progress to say or write a very considerable part of what he knows and thinks. Instruction is centered and intensified along this one line of development, to give ability for full and free and effective expression. There is reading, the using of text-books, the acquiring of facts, but these are all incidental to the main thing, which is to give practice in quantity in the use of language for the giving forth of the child's own thought and knowledge. The success attained in giving lan- guage to the deaf, coupled with fair facility in its use, thus thru abundant practice in composition work, is evidence of the excellence of the method employed, as it is suggestive of its superiority. I Department] TEACHING LANGUAGE TO THE DEAF 835 The hearing child enters school with already a certain power of expres- sion, and so neglect to develop or train the power is met by the plea of lack of necessity. The teacher accepts this present power of expression and uses it, but rarely with the aim or thought to cultivate and increase it. The (ihild learns to read that which he already knows as spoken lan- guage ; to write, the mechanical part of it \ and to cipher. If his educa- tion proceeds farther, it is for the most part but an enlargement of acquaintance with text-book knowledge in the absorption of the facts that they contain. This is education, so far as it goes : it is the education of the schools of today as they give it, and it serves the purposes of life fairly well. But it is not enough, and not enough because a fuller and truer and far more serviceable education is possible in the time spent and with the material and the means employed. The high-school principal of today considers it unnecessary to have his pupils prepare and read graduating essays, so little do they characterize and illustrate the work of the school curriculum as pursued and completed. The writer knows of an instance of this omission at a recent high-school commencement, where a professional entertainer was brought in to fill in the lack. Is it any wonder, when the art of composition is thus discredited and neglected, that the school children of today leave school practically in the same condition as they entered with relation to the great art of free, graceful, and forceful expres- sion ? How many men or women met with in business or social circles can even tell a story effectively, and of the few vho can, how many acquired this delightful accomplishment as, in any part of it, a result of school training ? How many, again, can speak or write with any appreciable effect upon other minds, outside the limits of business intercourse ? Except those trained in certain professional lines and the few self-developed, the world is practically made up of men and women wholly lacking in the art of ready and forceful expression. Measured in terms of vocabulary, it may be believed that in but few cases does the speaking or writing vocabulary approximate the half of the reading vocabulary. Most of us find exceeding great difficulty in expressing our thoughts in words and conveying them clearly to others, and in this the illiterate man not seldom excels, being self-trained to it. Why should we not all, without exception, be able to clothe our thoughts in graceful and expressive words as easily as we clothe our bodies in graceful and becoming garb, since in the former case we have unlimited wardrobe to draw upon ? Is there any possible answer to this that is not a condemnation of our public-school methods ? Homer, it is said, was untaught, and recited without the aid of literary models, and Shakespeare even has need in these days to prove his schooling ; but measured by truer standards, who will deny them their place and rank among the truly educated and scholarly ? They were not taught, as they needed not to be taught, the art of expression in the schools; but right instruction would scarcely have harmed them, while 836 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCLATION [Special wrong, misdirected educative methods might indeed have had effects fatally blighting. A man counts in. a community, not as he controls himself, his own mind alone (he is a cipher who does only that, and he is not missed when he dies), but as he controls others, thus increasing himself 'in his power and influence two, ten, ten thousand fold. Should not our public schools aim at making something more than educated ciphers? The great lesson that we may draw, then, is that in our curriculums with normal children, as with deaf children, the common lack must be recog- nized, audit must be met by the same methods. We must emphasize and intensify all teaching to give the art of composition, of free and forceful speech and writing, well knowing that in giving this we give all, for it implies and includes all. Expression is a fundamental educative force. The more a man speaks or writes the more he thinks ; and the more he thinks the more he is induced to read and study and seek out knowledge. Expression is thus retroactive in its effects. Expression measures education, as it gives to it its efficiency and power and usefulness. May we not hope, then, that with absolute demon- stration of this as a principle in the work with the deaf, the inquiring spirit of the age will turn to the work and accept from it the lesson that it teaches, and make profit from it for remodeling methods to even greater possibilities of accomplishment for the hearing ? May the day, indeed, not be distant when the school curriculum for our children, hearing as well as deaf, shall be in its sum and substance, and from its beginning to its end, practice, practice, practice in expression, in composition, in the use of language for all its purposes, to please, to inform, to persuade, to con- vince, giving therein and thereby mind culture the highest and mind power the greatest attainable, and thus giving the truest education, as useful as it may be in any instance and degree complete. WHAT IS MINNESOTA DOING FOR HER DEAF CHILDREN? J. N. TATE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, FARIBAULT, MINN. In answering the question, "What is Minnesota doing for her deaf children?" we presume we may claim that she is doing as much as any of the commonwealths. We think we are not presumptuous in this; tho when we realize that the United States leads the nations of the world in the training she is giving the deaf, both in an intellectual and indus- trial way, we can readily understand that our claim is not a small one. The Act Establishing the Minnesota School for the Deaf was approved March 4, 1863. The location is ideal. The city of Faribault, the site of the three state schools, for the Blind, Feeble-minded, and the Deaf, and a Department] MINNESOTA AND HER DEAF CHILDREN 837 number of Church schools, is acknowledged to be one of the most attract- ive towns in the state. There are something over sixty acres of land connected with the School for the Deaf. This, one of six state and church schools, is located along the bluffs on the east side of Straight river, the town being upon the west. The grounds of these institutions form a beautiful park. There are now 268 pupils in attendance. Of these 149 are boys and 119 are girls. The school is absolutely free to all deaf children from eight to twenty-five years of age. The cost of clothing and traveling expenses only are to be paid by parents or counties from which the pupil comes. The minimum course now is eight years, and the maximum is thirteen. During the thirty-nine years of the existence of the school, 947 pupils have received instruction. The school has sent 22 students to the college. This constitutes about 13 percent, of the number of regular graduates. I think it can be shown that a larger per cent, of those who entered the college graduated than from any other school. I copy the following from a paper read by Mr. J. L. Smith before the Fifth Convention of the Minnesota Association of the Deaf. As this data applies to the 947 pupils who have attended this school I think it applica- ble and interesting : Not one of these is the occupant of a state prison, only one known as the inmate of a poorhouse, and only one is in an insane asylum. Nearly all who have attained to adult age are independent citizens of the state. They are found in all occupations side by side with their hearing brothers and sisters. Following is a partial list of occupations that are now followed, or have been followed, by the deaf of Minnesota : Architect, artist, barber, bookkeeper; book agent, bicycle repairer and manufacturer, carpenter, col- lege student, collector, cutter, cooper, cigar-maker, dressmaker, domestic, editor, fireman, superintendent of school, supervisor, seamstress, saw-mill employe, paper-mill employe, shoemaker, fruit seller, farmer, farm laborer, government clerk, glass stainer, grocer, harness maker, inventor, janitor, machinist, merchant, matron of school, painter, printer, photographer, poultry raiser, rattan worker, teacher, tailor, teamster, wood turner. While it is true that pupils after leaving school often do not follow the trade learned while there, still they have acquired the habit of application and ideas as well, I deem the industrial training given at state institu- tions for the deaf to be hardly second to the intellectual in fitting a student for practical life. You may be interested in knowing something of the means of a gen- eral nature employed in developing our pupils — devices not all found in other institutions of the kind, at least in the form used in our school. Blank books, comprising several hundreds of pages, are issued to the teachers of beginning classes, and, to start the scheme, to all teachers, A summary of all work done is supposed to be copied into these books. The book goes with the class and is a guide to the succeeding teacher. In the end it is a complete history of the class during its entire period in school. 838 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special We have found the daily summary of news, as written by teachers assigned to the work, on large wall-slates, one for the boys and one for the girls, a fruitful source of information. This, added to the daily papers generously sent to us free, and the numerous weekly and monthly publications placed in the reading rooms of the pupils, has been a source of entertainment and help, not only in the acquisition of information, but of language as well. For some years past we have had our pupils keep summer journals, or diaries. A large per cent, of them come back to school in the fall with well written diaries comprising a daily recital of their experiences during the vacation. Since the practice was initiated we have seldom heard any complaints to the effect that pupils have grown rusty during vacation. The library is well patronized, the older pupils selecting books accord- ing to the advice of their teachers, and the various teachers of primary grades selecting books for and directing the reading of their pupils. In all cases teachers are supposed to be familiar with the contents of these books and to discuss them with their pupils. Besides, our pupils have two meetings each month of the Noyes Literary Society under the super- vision of the teachers. Their exercises consist of debate, essay, declama- tion, and dialogue. Monthly socials are held in the parlors of the institution. To those the pupils of the advanced classes are admitted. On these happy occa- sions pupils are instructed in matters pertaining to the civilities of life, and such events are looked forward to with much pleasure by the partici- pants. Monthly lectures in the chapel are delivered to the pupils. Much time and thought are given to these addresses, and they are heartily enjoyed by the audience. Current history of our country and of the world is assiduously studied by the advanced grades. The Cof?ipanton, with the child's department, is issued weekly. Frequent illustrations for the latter are furnished by our art department. The whole paper is eagerly read by the pupils. Extra copies of the children's page are issued for schoolroom use. The Companion is copied as largely, perhaps, as any of the numerous family of institution papers. A brief chapel service in signs is held every morning, except Saturday. In addition, on Sunday, classes spend a few minutes in their class-rooms. On Sunday afternoon, a brief lecture is delivered upon Bible history. Pupils of advanced classes are expected to reproduce these lectures in written form and to present them to the teachers for correction. All ■ moral instruction is of a wholly unsectarian nature. Pupils are allowed to attend the churches of the town when parents wish them to do so. Every pupil in school has instruction in free-hand drawing. Ninety pupils have received special instruction. Teachers are being more and more impressed with the fact that to be able to illustrate, even in a crude Department] MINNESOTA AND HER DEAF CHILDREN 839 way, is helpful to them at almost every turn in their work. I believe that we cannot think clearly without forming pictures ; hence the value of a teacher's ability to make the picture for the undisciplined mind. We are seeking to direct the art training along lines bearing upon the trade of the pupil. In the trades department we may say that the discipline, the mental and the moral benefits incident to this branch of the training of the deaf, is fully acknowledged by all progressive educators. Our work in this line has been fairly commendable. There is much yet to be done before our industrial department can be called ideal. Instruct- ors in this branch should, we think, rank as teachers and receive teachers' salaries. Every pupil has had — the boys, 163^, and the girls, 16 hours a week at work. It will be seen that pupils will have to remain at their trades about five years in order to get one year's apprenticeship. In. view of these facts, it would seem desirable that pupils be allowed a year or two after graduating in which to pursue their trade, reversing the time for- merly spent in trades; that is, giving six hours to trades and two to liter- ary work. In the case of those pupils who come from rural districts and who are best adapted to farming, it seemed reasonable to make some provision for them, such as a course at the agricultural school, a branch of the State University. The authorities of that institution have agreed to open their doors to our graduates, the only provision to be made by this insti- tution, in so far as the university is concerned, being an interpreter. As tuition at the school is free, and the actual living expenses are reduced to a minimum, we had hoped that some of our graduates would avail themselves of such an opportunity. As yet none have applied for admis- sion. There has been the impression that there is a greater tendency among the deaf than the speaking to congregate in the large cities. This is likely true of the deaf of our state. Dr. E. A. Fay, of Gallaudet College, who is perhaps the best authority on statistics of the deaf in America, is responsible for the very gratifying statement that there is a smaller pro- portion of the deaf flocking to the cities than of the speaking population. The domestic department is not of minor importance. To say noth- ing of feeding, washing, clothing, and nursing so many children, the responsibility for the safety of body and character is understood only by those who have undertaken the task. One of our chief duties is to see that our pupils develop correct motives of action. To see that no tares are sown requires eternal vigilance. A little leaven may leaven the whole lump. Only those who experience it have any correct conception of the mag- nitude of the obstacles to be encountered in educating the deaf. Tho exactly like other children, they come to us, as a rule, densely ignorant of any regular language. Their English must be acquired largely in the 840 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special schoolroom. If it is difficult to build a house without a foundation, so is it to impart language to those who have no foundation in language. This institution has been fortunate in employing almost wholly teachers, matrons, and caretakers of experience. No school of this kind can attain to or preserve a high standard of excellence without absolutely rigid adherence to this policy. Our methods are eclectic. They admit of every known way. Ours is known as the "combined system." We have no pet theories to advocate, hence we adapt the method to the child. Some pupils can make satis- factory progress by the oral method. Others, equally bright, progress best by the manual. We have never lost sight of the one object — the preparation of the pupil for life's battle. One central thought which dominates us from the time the pupil enters school till his course is com- pleted is to give him a knowledge of the English language, in all cases written, and, where possible, also -spoken. A child who cannot acquire spoken language may be just as bright as one who can learn to speak and read the lips, so much depends upon quickness of perception and ability to imitate. Such large claims are being made by the advocates of speech and speech reading that silence might be taken as acquiescence in those extreme views. There is a happy mean. This we have tried to strike. We should, and do, aim to give every pupil the opportunity to demonstrate his ability to be successfully educated orally. We have now six classes taught orally and twelve manually. We have a complete course of study. The excellence of this institution may be attributed to several causes. Among them maybe enumerated: (i) The hearty support of the citi- zens of the state; (2) freedom from political domination ; (3) the care exercised in the selection of the instructors. I may say that this institu- tion stands for all that is best in preparing its students for taking their position among their hearing brothers. WHAT MINNESOTA IS DOING FOR HER BLIND CHILDREN B. P. CHAPPLE, INSTRUCTOR IN SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND, FARIBAULT, MINN. The Minnesota State School for the Blind is located at the beautiful little city of Faribault, fifty-two miles south of St. Paul. The school is open to all '-esidents of Minnesota between the ages of six and twenty- five years having defective sight. Board, tuition, and books are provided by the state without cost to the pupils; the pupils or their friends fur- nishing the clothing and traveling expenses. It is a school, and not an asylum or home, as none but the young and the teachable are admitted, and then only for a term of years and while pursuing definite work. The work of the school is divided into three departments — the literary, music, and industrial departments. Department] MINNESOTA AND HER BLIND CHILDREN 841 The literary work extends thru twelve years. In the primary grades (including four years' work) kindergarten work, point reading, point writing, spelling, number work, mental arithmetic, and beginning geog- raphy are taught. In the intermediate grades (also of four years) reading, spelling, mental arithmetic, practical arithmetic, geography, grammar, composition, etymology, primary United States history, and physiology are taught. In the high-school grades^ of four years, the work broadens, and three courses are offered — the language course, the German course, and the English course. The courses are as follows : First year of language course. — Algebra, physiology, geography, general history, and Latin lessons. In this year the German and English courses substitute advanced English for the Latin. Second year of language course. — Algebra, civics, and United States constitution, physics, Latin — Caesar. The German and English courses substitute zoology and botany for the Latin. Third year of language course. — Geometry, English and American literature, Ger- man, Latin — Cicero. The German course begins German, and substitutes botany, astronomy, and geology for the Latin. The English course makes the same substitutions for Latin, and also political history and chemistry for the German. Fourth year of the language course. — Solid geometry, political economy, psychology, ethics, German, Latin — Virgil. The German course continues German, and substitutes rhetoric and sociology for the Latin. The English course makes the same substitutions for the Latin, and also English history for the German. Work in elocution is elective thru the high-school course, and many students avail themselves of the opportunity to improve their expression, to gain a better appreciation of literary selections, and to store their memories with choice literature that may be used for entertainment. Thru the whole course the aim of the school is to do systematic, thoro work, that the student, if he stops here, may have a substantial preparation for his life work ; if he goes farther, a good foundation on which to pursue a college course. The loss of sight, it is true, makes it impracticable to pursue into their details such subjects as chemistry, geology, botany, zoology, and astronomy; but an effort is made to give the student a general idea of each subject and its relations to other subjects, thereby extending and broadening his ideas of nature and of life. In connection with their literary work and correspondence nearly all the students learn to use the typewriter, and many of them with consid- erable facility. The music department embraces work thru the whole twelve years of the course, giving instruction in vocal music, instrumental music, includ- ing piano, pipe organ, violin, and other orchestral instruments; and also in musical history, harmony, musical ^.coustics, counter-point, tuning, and repairing. 842 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special The chorus work begins the first year and continues thruout the course. For this work the junior and senior singing classes are organ- ized, each meeting twice a week for instruction and drill ; also all sing together at chapel exercises every day of the school year. In addition to learning to sing, the pupil stores his memory with songs, hymns, and patriotic songs that are entertaining, stimulating, and inspiring. Piano work is begun the second year of the course, and if the student shows talent and n^akes profitable progress the instrument is continued thru the course. The violin is begun about the sixth year by those that choose it. Elementary harmony is taught in the seventh and eighth grades, and advanced harmony in the ninth and tenth grades. Pipe-organ instruction is given the last three years of the course to those whom it will profit. Musical history is studied two years — during the eleventh and twelfth grades. This includes study in epochs of music, research into the origin, development, and merit of the various musical instruments, a study of the lives and works of the leading com- posers and performers of the world, different kinds of musical composi- tion, etc. Instruction is also given in orchestral instruments, and the school has had a good orchestra for a number of years. Attention is given in the music department to mechanical work, as the details of piano and pipe-organ construction, practical work in piano and pipe-organ repairing, and special attention to piano and pipe-organ tuning. The aim in the music department is to make the work thoro, accurate, scientific, and practical, that the pupil may use it not only for his enjoy- ment and that of others, but that he may put it to practical use as a teacher, a performer, or a tuner, in gaining a livelihood. A number of the graduates are now doing good work in these callings and supporting themselves well. Work in the industrial department proper extends thru the first eight years. It begins with bead work, which is continued four years. This work consists in stringing small and variously colored beads on brass wire, which is looped and tied so as to form various articles, as vases, pitchers, baskets, boxes, napkin rings, etc. — articles ornamental and more or less useful. But this work is given, not for the value of the product, but for training in skill and deftness of hand and fingers, and attention and patience in accomplishing a definite object in a systematic way. Bead work is followed by hammock making and netting work. In this work both the training and the product are valuable. Then rattan work is taken up, baskets and boxes being made of this material. This work continues the hand training and aids in developing ideas of form. In the intermediate grades, sloyd is taught, the pupils learning to use tools, as the saw, plane, square, hammer, chisel, file, etc., with some Department] MINNESOTA AND HER BLIND CHILDREN 843 degree of skill. The hand training is valuable, ideas of form improved, and the product ornamental and useful. An important and practical part of the industrial work is mattress making and repairing, and broom making. The older and stronger boys in the intermediate grades, and some in the high-school grades, devote a period each day to this work. Here, again, the training and product are both valuable, and the boys learn a trade by which to make a living after leaving school. During the past year nearly forty-five hundred brooms were made and sold at the market price. Another branch of the industrial work taken up by the girls of the intermediate and high-school grades is sewing and embroidery. They learn to use the needle with skill and to operate the sewing machine in making garments. The fact that some of them can thread a common needle by the sense of touch alone shows that deftness of fingers is acquired. This knowledge of sewing, in cases of necessity, can be turned to good account in making clothing for themselves and others. In the high-school grades, the young men who expect to give special attention to music pass from the industrial work proper to the mechan- ical work in music, as repairing and tuning, the industrial work having been excellent preparation for this work. Others not interested in music may continue the industrial work thruout the course. Thus it will be seen that the school offers advantages to pupils of different aptitude. If a pupil enters early and has good faculties, he may take the complete literary course ; if he has talent in music, he may take a part or the whole of a music course with the literary work ; if he lacks taste for music, he may take more industrial work with the literary work ; if he enters late and has little aptitude in either literary work or music, he may devote most of his time to industrial work. As to morals and religion, the school aims to inculcate and to require strict moral living. Each pupil is urged to select some church, the choice of his parents, and attend there regularly ; all of suitable age being expected to attend every Sunday, the girls being accompanied to and from church by one of the teachers of the school. Sabbath school is conducted in the chapel each Sabbath by the superintendent. All the pupils attend, receiving non-sectarian instruction in Bible history and Bible truths. What is the state doing for the blind ? To appreciate this it is well to understand the conditions that do exist and the conditions that would exist without the school, remembering that the number of students has increased from three pupils, at its inception thirty-six years ago, to ninety, at the present time, and that the near future is certain to add many more. One young man came to the school six years ago, having lost his sight by an accident when about 20 years of age. Having received little train- ing, he came gloomy, despondent, feeling that there was nothing he 844 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LSpecial could do or be; that all cheerful living for him was past; in fact, that life was not worth the living. He learned to read and write the point system, and took a part of the literary course, giving special attention to the industrial work. He became more cheerful, hopeful, industrious, and forward looking. On coming back to the school last fall to do more industrial work, he stated, in the course of a conversation, that when he became blind he did not possess more than five dollars, but then (last fall) he had five hundred dollars in the bank drawing interest. He took a hopeful view of the future, and felt confident, with health, of being able to make his way in the world. He had saved five hundred dollars in five years, altho the greater part of his time had been spent in school. Several young men, graduates of the school, have positions as tuners with music houses in the city. They are doing good work and earning good living salaries. Another graduate earned money enough in a few years to take a course in law at the university. He has finished with credit two years of the course and expects to complete it next year. By a law passed by the legislature last winter all tuition and fees are remitted to the graduates of the School for the Blind. One graduate also completed a college course at one of the colleges of the state, then took the degree of Ph. D. at Yale, and is now a clergyman. So far as known, he is the first blind man to take such a degree. Another graduate took several years' work at the university, then a course at a Chicago medical school, and went out to practice. A recent young lady graduate made for herself, while in the school principally, over three hundred point books containing outlines of many subjects, biographies, poetry, and other choice literature. She also copied for her own use the whole of an abridged English dictionary, and is now preparing to edit a paper for the blind. Another graduate earned money to send a younger brother thru the university, and is now paying the way of a second younger brother thru the university. Other young men and women go out to the smaller cities, towns, and rural districts of the state to become teachers of music, performers, tuners, etc. These facts are mentioned, not from any desire of laudation of the school, but to give a just idea of what the school is doing and is trying to do ; also as an incentive to others of this class who seek a higher life and higher fields of usefulness, for consciousness of achievement in the past helps to achievement in the present. This is what the state has been doing for the blind. It has been liberal toward them in the past. It has provided beautiful grounds, commodious buildings, necessary equipments, and a competent corps of officers and teachers. The state has expended for the education of the blind in the last ten years over two hundred thousand dollars. Department] FEEBLE-MINDED AND EPILEPTICS OF MINNESOTA 845 WHAT MINNESOTA IS DOING FOR HEB FEEBLE-MINDED AND EPILEPTICS DR. A. C. ROGERS, SCHOOL FOR FEEBLE-MINDED, FARIBAULT, MINN. The Minnesota School for Feeble-Minded was organized in 1879. Twenty-two children were taken from the hospitals for the insane and placed in a frame building rented for the purpose by the board of trustees of the Minnesota School for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind. This work was only as an experimental school. The following legislature made an appropriation for permanent quar- ters, and the institution has grown steadily until at the present time there are 876 feeble-minded and epileptic persons under the care of the institution. Fifty-six per cent, are males. They are classified as follows : Training, 325; custodial, 382 ; epi- leptics, 169. From this small rented frame building it has grown to a large institu- tion, representing the investment of nearly half a million dollars, and to the support of which Minnesota cheerfully grants an annual appropriation that at the present time equals $136,000. The care and management require a corps of 150 people. The direct objects of this institution are the care, training, and treat- ment of feeble-minded and idiotic persons and epileptics. The indirect object is to remove from homes the abnormal- and defective children who cannot be properly cared for in these homes, and whose presence interferes with the proper training of normal brothers and sisters. The backward child can make little or no progress in the common schools. He is apt to be the object of ridicule, and thus the tendency is to acquire an irritable disposition and nervous habits. As such children grow older, their incompatibility with normal children in normal homes becomes more marked. In poor homes the attention which such chil- dren require interferes disastrously with the breadwinning function of the family. The institution is intended to become a pleasant home for all the classes mentioned that may need it. The training consists of organized school work from the kindergarten to what would correspond with the intermediate grades of the common schools, reinforced by and co-ordinated with various manual-training exercises and employments. Colonization of the adults into small industrial groups all in one large village community is to be the tendency of developmental progress. Epileptics are closely related to feeble-minded from the fact that the disease once thoroly established tends to produce mental deterioration. Regular habits, selected diet, abundant occupation for mind and body. 846 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special freedom from the anxiety attendant upon exposure to danger, with judi- cious medical treatment, are the factors that improve the epileptic's condition. Colonization into pleasant homes, which should secure the above conditions, should be the predominating thought in institutional devel- opment. CAUSATION It is a very difficult matter to obtain reliable data concerning the etiology of the defective conditions with which we have to deal. As a general statement, it is an exhausted condition of the nerve force in the parents that is largely responsible for this causation. Worry and trouble in some cases, the strenuous life in many, physical overwork or social ambition, and dissipation in a few cases, result in defective progeny. Only the collection of all facts pertaining to the family history of these people covering a period of many years will produce data that will be of genuine value in the study of etiology. Minnesota has contributed something to the study of experimental psychology among the defectives, and the studies of Dr. Wylie as to the measurement of the sense-perception among the feeble-minded as com- pared with normal children are published in the Journal of Psycho- Astheyiics. I am glad to state that he is continuing his investigations along these and similar lines. Minnesota has developed, in a modest way, a system of training for attendants and nurses for feeble-minded, being the first state to attempt this work. Whatever success these institutions have attained in either of these lines has been largely dependent upon her progressive, public-spirited citizenship represented in the management of the institutions by the intelligent, loyal board of trustees and board of control. VICTORIOUS AMERICA! G. FERRERI, EX-VICE-PRINCIPAL OF THE SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, SIENA, ITALY An Italian writer, who visited the United States at the time of the Cuban War, sent a series of interesting articles to Italy for publication in a newspaper. Afterwards he collected these articles in a book with the title, U America Vittoriosa (Victorious America). I am visiting this country, as you know, for quite a different purpose, and in a time of peace ; but I also have the intention of writing a report, in order to give an. answer to my European colleagues who wish to know ''what the United States is doing for the education of the deaf." Well, I Department] VICTORIOUS AMERICA 847 every time that I think over my future report I cannot free myself from the suggestion of that title — L 'America Vittoriosa. Yes ; America is vic- torious also in the national educational work, because here the instruc- tion of all citizens is provided for, and, before all, of those who cannot become useful citizens without a special education. Altho I am now in a favorable position for making comparisons, yet I am not quite sure of being able to express in words ray particular impressions. However, I do not wish to lose this opportunity for express- ing my general impression that, in regard to the education of the defect- ive children, in Europe we are idealists, while in America you are practical; as great a difference, you see, as that which lies between "to be " ,and "not to be." In Europe we speak and write much — too much perhaps — and we have the best ideas and the finest theories on the general education of the child, and particularly of the deaf, as well as of the feeble-minded ; but we have not the means to put these ideas and theories into practice. Here I find the contrary. The Americans put into practice our ideas, and they make every effort to do it well. In Europe we have a large and rich special literature on the education of defective children, but there I have never seen put into practice so largely and liberally the suggestions of science in regard to the care and education of these children as is done in every state of this American union. And here I find also the best schools for the deaf. When I say this to my European colleagues they will certainly ask me also for the reasons of this great difference. During my journey from Boston, I was reading the American Notes of Rudyard Kipling. At the end of the first chapter the author observes that " in America money is everything." You know better than I with what wit and meaning Kipling made such an observation, but I am glad to complete the sentence, saying, if not with wit, at least with truth : In America money is everything, because only with money is it possible to put theories into practice ; and this is true of every kind of knowledge and energy. What else but the lack of material means prevents the majority of the civilized nations from spreading the benefits of primary instruction ? Money is, in this case, the first and fundamental condition ; and I could illustrate my proposition with a quantity of facts and comments. I am sure of not exagger- ating when I say that, comparatively speaking, there is not another country in the world where so much money is spent for the national educa- tion as in the United States. But I must add another reason ; I have had many opportunities to realize that in America there are, besides money, also the best moral means. Among them I am glad to enumerate the following ones : I. A great sympathy and active charity for all unhappy children. 848 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special 2. A Strong desire and great energy for putting into practice what science suggests in order to help them. 3. Intelligence, training, and study in those persons who are called to teach in and to direct the special institutions. Therefore, to the inquiry of my European colleagues, what are the Americans doing for the education of the deaf ? I can answer without any hesitation : They are doing the best which it is possible to do in the pres- ent conditions of science ; and in a not far distant future they will be our guides in the progressive development of our special line of education. ** Victorious America ! " THE ORGANIZATION OF ASSOCIATIONS OF PARENTS OF DEAF CHILDREN AS AN AID TO SCHOOLS MRS. HELEN M. HEFFERAN, CHICAGO, ILL., PRESIDENT OF THE ILLINOIS mothers' CONGRESS The two great institutions which contribute most to the life of the child are the school and the home, and the two elements in this environment that influence him most for good or evil are the mother and the teacher. I believe the best educational results cannot be obtained with- out the co-operation of these two. Many organizations have been formed in the last ten years for purely philanthropic purposes — to alleviate human suffering — and they have work enough to do ; but what we need most at the present time are organizations that will get at the root of the evil in our social system. We know that there are many social evils which have their origin in the mismanagement of childhood, and we need organizations to study the child in every possible way. I am convinced that the first and most important study for both mother and teacher is the study of the child ; there is no more important study. It is gratifying to feel that this zest for child study, this attempt to make the child's mind an open book, is taking the precedence of all other studies in our educational circles, because it is the basis for all edu- cational work. The greatest obstacle, I believe, to educational progress today is the profound apathy and indifference to real education on the part of the parents. Many a mother who would die for her child will not and can- not be made to think intelligently of that child's nature, to study the child and use all possible means at hand for that study. These mothers are like the fisherman's wife who was feeding her eight-months-old baby a herring. Someone who knew more about nourishing children remonstrated with her. "Don't tell me how to bring up children! " she replied angrily, ** haven't I buried ten ? " Department] ASSOC! A TIONS OF PARENTS OF DEAF CHILDREN 849 The teachers feel this indifference keenly. They say we are content to put our children in one end of the educational oven and take them out at the other end "done." If they are " underdone" we blame the teacher and the method and the school, and if they are "overdone" we blame the teacher and the method and the school; but if they are just "well done'/' we say it is inherited genius. Many " parents' organizations " now exist in connection with schools for the hearing and the deaf. The methods at present in use for the deaf, which are in advance of former methods, all parents should become acquainted with. The new movement of sending the schools to the people, of having schools as near to the homes of the pupils as possible, that association with hearing children may contribute to the success and happiness of a deaf child, should be impressed on the parents. The parents should realize that the home influence must always be the best for the future as well as the present welfare of the deaf child, and the nearer we bring the small community of the deaf school to the great fundamental community of the home the better for the child. Then, too, parents are responsible for very many wrongs done the deaf child in the past. He has been encouraged to shun publicity, and has been made supersensitive by being individualized and set apart for undue sympathy, being allowed to dwell in a little universe by himself. Popu- lar tradition had it that deaf children were all cast in one mold and very unlike normal children. We know that this is not so; we have them with strong individualities, each unlike, as results of environment and degrees of deafness, as well as temperament and mental endowments. We therefore have among those deprived of hearing, just as among those who hear, the bright child, the average, the dull, the feeble-minded, and the occasional genius. But they all share alike the inability to speak and the lack of the knowledge of language, which formerly led to the belief that the deaf were incapable of being educated. But educators have proven to us that this is not so, and are bringing parents to a realiza- tion of this fact. And now to the help of the individual parent has been added the help of the parents' associations to bring about a knowledge of the importance of the teaching of speech and lip reading to the deaf, of motor training, and of all forms of expression. Many such parents' organizations exist now thruout the country, and are bringing comfort, help, and hope into many homes. I know of one such organization in Chicago, the "Little Deaf Child's League," a federation of small clubs. It has encouraged home instruction in lip reading; aided in raising funds for the schools for the deaf; helped deaf children financially, so that they might attend the public school in the neighborhood. It has brought deaf children into more extensive social relations with hearing persons; brought about a visiting habit in the 850 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Special schools, SO that every day parents may be seen in these departments ; but above all it has been teaching parents that all the pedagogical princi- ples pertaining to the education of the normal child are applicable to the deaf also. The period of childhood is short, but the greatest work intrusted to parents is to be done within that time, and these organizations will have done a good work if they result in sympathy, co-operation, and entire harmony between parent and teacher so that both will have a good knowledge of child-need and child-nature. DISCUSSION Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, the president. — There is no other thing more important than this of bringing the parents of deaf children into close touch with the work being done for their children. There are associations of parents, in Boston, Chicago, Milwaukee, Los Angeles, Halifax, Cincinnati, and other places. Why should there not be associations of this kind in connection with the public-school work? Mrs. Bell took up the work of organizing an association at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, and it has been of inestimable advantage to the Baddeck Academy. Why should there not be an association of parents in connection with every public school in the country? A member stated there was such an association in St. Paul. W. D. Parker, state inspector, schools for the deaf, Madison, Wis. — Some years ago there was organized in Milwaukee what is known as the "Phonological Society" in connection with the school for the deaf. This society has extended its work and influ- ence to other cities in Wisconsin, and there are now in successful operation eighteen day schools for the deaf in the state, a number of them with parents' associations as adjuncts. There should be encouragement to the idea of joint effort of parent and teacher in the education of the child. Senator J. H. Stout, of Menomonie, Wis. — We should bear in mind that our school work will go much better if we interest the parents in that work. The schoolhouse door should be open to parents at all times. More than that, school boards and teachers should meet frequently. Finally, it should be on the program that the school children should visit the industries of the town. Miss Mary McCowen, supervising principal, Chicago day schools for the deaf. — We began organizing parents in Chicago as a matter of necessity. The hours of the children before and after school had to be utilized for the benefit of the children, so we had to bring in the parents. We taught them how to help the deaf children out of school. In our meetings we taught the mothers by questions and answers. After the first six months the mothers organized local mothers' classes. We have nine local mothers' classes in Chicago. They hold meetings at various times — some on Sundays as the only time possible. In some districts the parents are mostly foreigners, some not understand- ing English, or seeming not to. But we talked to them and soon we found that they did un. M. McCowan, superintendent of Chilocco Agricultural School, Chilocco, Okl. Secretary — Miss Estelle Reel, superintendent of Indian schools, Washington, D. C. The department then adjourned. Estelle Reel, Secretary. PROGRAMS OF ROUND TABLES SUPERINTENDENTS' CONFERENCE Chairman, Mr. E. A. Allen, assistant superintendent, Carlisle Indian School, Penn- sylvania. Tuesday, July 8 1. " How to Impress upon the Indian the Use and Value of Money " — Superintendent James C. Staley, Yankton Indian School, South Dakota. 2. " The Present System of Employing Indians in the Service Simply Because They are Indians, and upon Non- Competitive Examinations, is Unwise" — Superintendent Calvin Asbury, Western Shoshone Indian School, Nevada. 3. "The Place of Athletics in Indian Schools" — Dr. W. H. Winslow, superintendent Genoa Indian School, Nebraska. Wednesday, July 9 1. " Industrial Departments Should be Conducted upon Principles of Industry and Thrift " — Superin- tendent Caspar Edwards, Ponca Indian School, Oklahoma. 2. "The Necessity of More and Better Equipped Day Schools " — Superintendent Charles E. Bur- ton, Moqui Training School, Arizona. 3. "The Need of Better Equipped and More Experienced Industrial Teachers" — Superintendent Charles L. Davis, Ft. Totten, N. D. Thursday, July 10 1. " The Advisability of More Practical Training for the Indian Child in Order to Enable Him to Become Self- Supporting as Soon as Possible " — Superintendent W. H. Cox, Pierre Indian School, South Dakota. 2. " Best Method of Teaching Indian Children to Speak English" — Mr. M. M. Murphy, teacher King- man Day School, Arizona. 3. " Stock Raising and Dairying " — Superintendent George W. Nellis, Pine Ridge, S. D. MATRONS' CONFERENCE Chairman, Mrs. S. M. McCowan, matron, Chilocco Agricultural School, Oklahoma. Tuesday, July 8 1. " How to Make Details for Instruction in Cooking Classes to Secure the Greatest Benefit to the Largest Number of Girls " — Mrs. S. M. McCowan, matron, Chilocco, Okl. 2. " Means Whereby a Certain Amount of Work Will Be Equivalent in Value to the Articles Issued from the Wareroom, thus Making the Pupils Realize the Value of the Articles Which, under the Present Sys- tem, They Appreciate so Little and so Freely Destroy " — Miss Bertha Macey, matron, Oneida Indian School, Wisconsin. 3. " Best and Most Practical Way of Teaching Indian Girls to Cook " — Mrs. Emma Duclos, teacher, PhcEnix Indian School, Arizona. Wednesday, July 9 1. " In What Way May Returned Students Render Their Services Valuable to Themselves and to Their People " — Miss M. E. Blanchard, matron. Crow Creek Indian School, South Dakota. 2. " Productive Industries for Indians " — Miss Pauline Colby, Leech Lake Agency, Minnesota. 3. " The Physical, Moral, and Spiritual Development of Indian Children" — Mrs. Nannie E. Sheddan, matron, Riverside Indian School, Oklahoma. Thursday, July 10 1. "How to Teach Pupils to Plan and Go Ahead with Work without Being Told " — Miss Delia Meriwether, matron. Red Moon Indian School, Oklahoma. 2. " Best and Quickest Methods of Teaching Plain Cookery that the Pupil May Be Able to Prepare a Family Meal" — Mrs. Emily L, Johnson, housekeeper, Haskell Institute, Kansas. PRESIDENT 'S ADDRESS 86 1 TEACHERS' CONFERENCE Chairman, Allie B. Busby, teacher Crow Creek School, South Dakota. Tuesday, July 8 1. " How May the Schoolroom Exercises Inculcate Habits of Thrift and Economy" — Miss Carrie A. Walker, White Earth Indian School, Minnesota. 2. " How May the Training of the Indian Child be Made Such that He can Take Advantage of it on the Reservation after Leaving School " — Mrs. Laura H. Ratliff, teacher, Omaha Indian School, Nebraska. 3. "Teachers in the Indian Service Should Keep Abreast of the Times in Their Methods of Instruction and Management" — Mrs. Tama M. Wilson, teacher, Cantonment Indian School, Oklahoma. 4. "The Practical Advantage of More Oral and Less Written Work on the Part of older Pupils" — Miss Lydia E. Kaup, teacher, Mt. Pleasant Indian School, Michigan. Wednesday, July 9 1. " How can We Impress Indian Students with the Thought that Industry and Economy are Necessary to Their Future Existence, Individually and as a Race?" — Miss Allie B. Busby, teacher. Crow Creek Indian School, South Dakota. 2. "More Practical and Less Mechanical Work in the Grades" — Miss Ella H. Gilmore, teacher, Cheyenne River Indian School, South Dakota. 3. " How to Make the Indian See the Importance of Industry and Economy " — Miss Clara McAdam, teacher, Pipestone Indian School, Minnesota. 4. "Teaching Little Children Housekeeping with Dolls as Suggested in the Course of Study" — Miss Jessie Mattoon, teacher, Oneida Indian School, Wisconsin ; Mrs. Mollie J. Robbins, teacher. Pine Ridge Agency, South Dakota. 5. "How May the Social, Moral, and Religious Training in an Indian School be Made Equal to that of a Good Home" — Sister M. Catharine Buckley, teacher, St. Mary's Indian School, Wisconsin. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS^ PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS S. M. McCOWAN, SUPERINTENDENT, CHILOCCO INDIAN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL, CHILOCCO, OKLA. The Indians cannot understand our civilization in a minute, or a generation ; and not understanding it they cannot appreciate it, and will not follow it. Why should we wonder at this condition ? If we, the actual workers among the Indians, will perform our duty to the best of our knowledge, we need not mind the criticisms of those whose mission it seems to be to taunt and denounce. The hardships and toil of the pioneer must be irksome always; and this is especially true of civilization's pioneers. But, by following the policy now in practice of educating the younger generation of our red brothers in industrial pur- suits, the fruitage of our toil will be large and comforting. The only danger in this policy is the inclination of some to idolize and idealize the Indian. This danger is real, and present, and fearful. It is a danger I cannot understand, because I can see nothing in him to either idolize or I The following papers have neccessarily been abbreviated by the department secretary, for want of room for publication in full. 862 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian idealize. To me he is simply a crude bit of humanity, intensely human, intolerant of restraint, leisure-loving, dreamy-eyed, mildly antagonistic, passive, non-progressive. My mission seems to me to be to take this crude bit of humanity and by my counsel and example help to make it better, happier, and self-supporting. THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE WITH REFERENCE TO FUTURE EMPLOYMENT L. M. COMPTON, SUPERINTENDENT, TOMAH INDIAN SCHOOL, WISCONSIN There should be a course of study and a systematic arrangement of the work on the farm, the same as in any other industrial department of the school. This should not only be adapted to the particular locality in which the school is located, but should be so arranged that boys may be given a broader instruction, so that they may apply the knowledge gained on any land that they may happen to own. Climatic conditions should be studied and simple tests of soil made, so that pupils can deter- mine what crops may be raised to the best advantage. I think there is no man in the service in charge of a farm who cannot find time during some part of the year to get his older boys into a class and give them such instruction as will enable them to determine this for themselves with reference to any particular locality in which they are likely to live. Instruction can be given at the same time in regard to clearing, draining, and fertilizing land, which will be of inestimable value to them in the future in this kind of work. What we must do is to teach our pupils to think and plan for themselves. If pupils live in a country where dairying is the most profitable industry, let them study that intensely, and not leave a stone unturned to get the best possible results. . If the location is remote from markets, where farming is impossible, but where there is plenty of range, teach them what the best breeds of beef cattle are and how to produce them. What is true in these particular lines is true in all other work in agriculture, no matter what the soil and location may be. The farmer of the present time who is successful is the one who is using his brains as well as his muscle, and this is what we must teach our Indian pupils to do. DRAWBACKS TO CIVILIZATION AND CITIZENSHIP H. G. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT, SAN CARLOS INDIAN SCHOOL, ARIZONA The individual Indian immersed in American civilization acquires in a very few months the English language, and as quickly participates in the industries about him. One of the greatest drawbacks to the civiliza- Department] HOW TO TEACH THE INDIAN BOYS AND GIRLS 863 tion and citizenship of the Indians has been, and will continue to be, their segregation on reservations apart from association and experience in civi- lization. To uncivilize a civilized white man, the best way is to put him into an Indian camp, or to allow him to drift into it and live there. Whenever we can get rid of reservations and the special care and special treatment, and give the Indian full opportunity to associate with, compete in industry and every other way with the civilized people of the country, his civilization will be quickly accomplished. If the reservation system is to be continued, day schools should be provided for the smaller children. A day school, properly managed, is an object lesson for the older Indians. The ration system is another drawback. As long as Indians are fed they will not see the necessity of work. Another is the making too much of an Indian who has a smattering of an education; the remedy is, don't. Other drawbacks are the opposition of the old Indians to progress ; the practice of giving away so much of their property ; dancing, and kindred ceremonies ; and the prevalence of gambling. The application of natural laws to the Indian, forcing him to live among whites and to suffer the usual penalties for indolence, improvi- dence, and carelessness, will in time undo the damage our paternalism has done. HOW TO TEACH THE INDIAN BOYS AND GIRLS 10 BECOME HOMEMAKERS, ESPECIALLY FROM AN AGRICULTURAL STANDPOINT R. D. SHUTT, INDUSTRIAL TEACHER, TULALIP INDIAN SCHOOL, WASHINGTON In my opinion, farming and gardening in an Indian school should be conducted in the same manner as on a well-regulated farm ; or, to put it in a different way, an Indian school should be fashioned after a well- regulated farm, with some additions, but with no subtractions. After he has secured a good piece of land, the keynote to a farmer's success is intelligent work, work, work, and then a little more work. While we are making the hotbeds in the spring I try to instill into each boy's mind that the plants are his, and for his garden, not for mine, and that if we raise an abundance of garden truck, in addition to bread, beans, syrup, meat, and gravy, he can have onions, carrots, beets, tur- nips, lettuce, radishes, and so on thru the list of the more common vege- tables. These talks help materially in getting cheerful work from the boys. I usually have the girls, as well as the boys, help care for the hot- beds. I have had my boys in the garden before sunrise digging cutworms from around cabbage plants, and I have had them in the garden at sun- down taking advantage of the cool evening either to irrigate or to trans- 864 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION^ [Indian plant some tender plants which could not be planted with safety in the heat of the day. When I want some boys to help me after supper, I call for volunteers, and I have no trouble in getting them. I find that a great inducement to get work from the boys is to give each a few of the seeds for himself. I did this at Fort Hall more than at any other place, and in consequence there were dozens of miniature gardens in almost every conceivable place. THE VALUE OF THE OUTING SYSTEM FOR GIRLS MISS LAURA JACKSON, GIRLS' MANAGER, CARLISLE SCHOOL, PENNSYLVANIA At present Carlisle has 331 girls and 375 boys scattered about in families over eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, and a few other states. The families into which these children are sent are very carefully selected, each new applicant being obliged to furnish three good references unless he is known to the school, and it is under- stood that these boys and girls are sent out as students to be trained in right ways of living, as well as right ways of working. They are sent out to become members of the families into which they go, and to attend school with the children of the family. At the present time there are so many more applicants for students than the school is able to supply that less than one-half can be considered. After a girl is placed in a family a monthly report of her progress and conduct is sent to the school, and she is visited by someone from the school in the family where she lives at least twice a year, if she remains out that length of time. The girls are usually found happy in their country homes, and some prefer to remain out rather than to return to the school. On their return they come back a laughing, happy band, almost invariably in better health than when they went out ; they are usually fleshier, with clearer, better complexions, and, with the new clothes they have earned and usually made themselves, they have quite the appearance of a party of white girls. While absent from the school at Carlisle, students are required to attend the public school at least one hundred consecutive days in the year, and many of them go the whole school year. This is certainly invaluable to an Indian girl. She is the constant companion of her white sister, and forms many warm friendships among the white girls. There is another important benefit arising from the system. The girls are earning wages that vary from board and car fare to sixteen dollars a month, according to age and ability. Of their earnings they are at present required to save one-half, while they are allowed to spend, under the supervision of the school, the other half. The well-directed use of money which they themselves have earned teaches them what is Department] TUBERCULOSIS 865 most needful for them to learn, namely, to depend upon themselves. As soon as they have twenty dollars it is placed at interest for them, and added to from time to time as they earn more. In this way many of them have quite a sum of money to take with them when they leave school. THE NEED OF HOME SOCIETIES FOB THE ENCOURAGE- MENT AND PROTECTION OF INDIAN YOUNG MEN AND WOMEN JOSEPH C. HART, SUPERINTENDENT, ONEIDA INDIAN SCHOOL, WISCONSIN The first problem of the young Indian is that of existence. That he will return to his home and people when his education is completed is natural, and, moreover, is fitting. After preparing these young people for living useful lives it is still desirable that some means be found to continue th'e mental and moral growth begun in the schools. It is at this time, when they have begun to think and act for themselves, that the young people need societies for mutual improvement, assistance, and protection. They have become accustomed to a different life from that of their parents, and they need encouragement to continue the new man- ner of life. They will still need to keep in touch with the advancing civili- zation with which it is the aim of the schools to acquaint them. It is not expected that all students will be equally expert in all branches; but if a group of young men have received a fair agricultural training, and one is especially skillful in the management of cattle and knows how to select and care for the best animals, and another is expert in the care of poultry, and a third in potato culture, it is easy to see that an association of such students, by a little friendly co-operation, may share the results of their training and each benefit by the knowledge of the others with a very small expenditure of time, which will be more than repaid by the increased efficiency of each, to say nothing of the intellectual advantage of the opportunity for meeting with a common purpose and of reviving and perpetuating the influences under which such training was received. With such societies it will also be easy for those interested in these young people and anxious to encourage and assist them to meet them and keep up the enthusiasm for better things which is apt to wane or be lost altogether if not frequently revived. TUBERCULOSIS—HOW CAUSED AND HOW PREVENTED I. DR. JAMES S. PERKINS, TRUXTON CANON INDIAN SCHOOL, ARIZONA I believe all agree that the tubercle bacillus is the sole exciting cause of tuberculosis, and that the disease is contagious, and therefore prevent- able. It attacks human beings and lower animals alike, and may exist in 866 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian any tissue of the body, but most frequently involves the lungs, and in this locality is known as consumption. I said the sole exciting cause is the tubercle bacillus. There is, how- ever, another cause, namely, that peculiarity of constitution known in scientific circles as the tuberculous diathesis, which predisposes the tis- sues to this kind of infection. These two causes must go together in order to produce the disease. When the bacilli become anchored in the body of a susceptible animal they congregate in large numbers and form small new growths called "tubercles," which feel under the fingers like small shot. These small ones coalesce as the disease advances, and form larger ones filled with a cheesy substance, which is coughed up, contain- ing the bacilli, often in enormous numbers. . They do not multiply outside the living body, except under favor- able artificial conditions. I have proved in the laboratory to my entire satisfaction that they are destroyed in two hours by the direct action of the solar rays. I would like to emphasize this important fact, that sunlight is the arch enemy of these bacilli, and conversely they live in darkness and dampness and retain their virulence for an indefinite period. When the sputum containing the bacilli dries, powders, and blows in the air as dust, it becomes the most prolific source of infection, and we see how easily the air of a room occupied by a consumptive patient may become contaminated, unless the sputum has been destroyed. The best way to destroy it is by fire. As a rule, I do not believe that children inherit the disease itself, but they do inherit the tuberculous diathesis, which predisposes them to tuber- culous infection, and then they contract it. This diathesis may be inherited or acquired. How is it acquired? By unhealthy occupations, requiring long confinement indoors in a viti- ated atmosphere, without sunshine and exercise, and the lack of proper food. A prolonged existence in a low, damp country, with a damp soil, bronchial and pulmonary inflammation, and all agents which lower the tone of tissue building too much ; all these act as important factors in the production of the tuberculous diathesis. An abundance of proof may be brought forward to show that the dis- ease is rare among those who live an outdoor life. I append below a table which I specially commend to the serious consideration of all per- sons in authority in the school service. It is accurate and reliable. Out of 1,000 deaths among farmers, 103 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among fishermen, 108 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among gardeners, 121 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among agricultural laborers, 122 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among grocers, 167 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among shoemakers, 240 are from consumption Department] JUDICIOUS DIRECTION FOR THE INDIAN 867 Out of 1,000 deaths among tailors, 290 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among drapers, 301 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among printers and compositors, 461 are from consumption Out of 1,000 deaths among Cornish miners, 600 are from consumption Indians are specially liable to consumption. I have studied it among them in all of its varied manifestations, with the microscope and without. People in authority in the school service should heed the fact that the indoor life is an exceedingly bad thing for many Indians, and always consult the physician before one is detailed to the shoe shop or tailor shop or printing office, and many will be saved from this cruel scourge. I II. DR. J. G. BULLOCH, CHEROKEE INDIAN SCHOOL, NORTH CAROLINA The Indian race seems to be especially one in which the seeds of this dangerous malady find a fitting soil for its propagation. In a general way it is recommended that for all those affected sanitariums be estab- lished on each reservation, where the afflicted ones can be comfortably housed and well fed. They should be under a competent nurse, who will force them to go into the fresh air at suitable times, also to take appropriate exercise and in every way arouse them from that lethargic condition so prone to seize upon them. Nurses should go among the Indians with power to enforce cleanliness, sunning of bedclothes and whitewashing of premises; and someone should see that the tepees are well built, extra rooms being built for kitchen and storeroom. Now, as to the school : We must keep out children who are affected with scrofula, and put them in a separate school with a hospital ward attached. Every school should have a hospital and trained nurse, for otherwise it is impossible to give patients proper food and care. More attention should be paid to the feeding of the children, for, tho the gov- ernment gives enough, it is not prepared in sufficient variety. Floors should always be sprinkled to prevent the danger from dust. Stables and pens should be a considerable distance from the dormitories, and kept clean. Cattle should be examined for tuberculosis. Water-closets in the dormitories are a most pernicious evil. OPPORTUNITY AND JUDICIOUS DIRECTION FOR THE INDIAN MR. C. W. CROUSE, UNITED STATES INDIAN AGENT, WHITE RIVER, ARIZ. Opportunity, for the Indian, is a suitable combination of conditions from which he may succeed; but success means to sacrifice, and this he must make to succeed. Ninety per cent, is a fair estimate of the Indians who must find an opportunity to earn a living in farming and herding. The conditions suitable to afford him an opportunity to succeed as a 868 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian farmer are good soil, heat, and moisture. The factor good soil is not so necessary in the herding industry, for wild grass will grow among the rocks on the mountain side almost as well as in the valley. I know of no other factor or means more effective to change such con- ditions than the service of a healthy, determined, patient, intelligent field matron. With a matron of tact, a Dutch oven becomes a cook stove or a range ; a washtub, board, and flatiron become a washing machine and mandril ; with a few simple remedies in her hands she becomes a physi- cian ; if she is enthusiastic in her work and really sympathizes with them in their ignorance and poverty, she becomes an effective moral guide. Judicious direction for the Indian implies that you must get close to him; secure his confidence and his good will; then the training becomes easy and pleasurable. Believe me in this: no industrial teacher can succeed if he gives his directions across the fence from an easy carriage, or from the saddle; and neither can he succeed well in the garden or field if his dress is suitable for the pulpit or the platform while giving the directions. THE ADVANTAGES TO THE PUPIL OF CLASS-ROOM WORK AS OUTLINED IN THE COURSE OF STUDY MRS. LUCY P. HART, TEACHER, ONEIDA INDIAN SCHOOL, WISCONSIN The great advantage of having the industrial work taught in the class- room and with the class-room work is that both parents and children soon get the idea that to be a good cook, laundress, or seamstress requires study and preparation. They are not doing it solely to get so much work done that has to be done, but are really learning to do it, and there must be something to learn or the teacher would not spend time in teaching it. The idea is given that to become a good cook or to do any kind of domes- tic work well requires study and thought as well as to become a teacher or a clerk. In this way the child gradually loses the idea that domestic work is degrading and not to be learned if it can be helped. The liter- ary and industrial work go hand in hand and soon lead the child to see that it is quite as important that she learns to cook, wash, and iron as that she learns to read, write, and work in arithmetic. By being made a part of the schoolroom work the industrial features are raised in the esti- mation of the child and are thus made more attractive. THE EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN SHOULD BE ADAPTED TO HIS NEEDS MISS ALICE ROBERTSON, SCHOOL SUPERVISOR, CREEK NATION, I. T. We should not try to make the Indian too much of a white man. Instead of tearing up the native plant by the roots and planting entirely anew, we should endeavor to take it as it is and graft upon it a new life Department] AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL IN THE INDIAN SERVICE 869 that shall blossom and bear rich fruit. Let the Indian retain all of his native ways that do not interfere with his becoming a good, industrious citizen. Endeavor to make the children appreciate the opportunities they are being given in the schools. Too many of them consider their education as a right to which they are naturally entitled from the government. Again, be careful not to lead the Indians to despise or be ashamed of their race, but rather encourage them to take pride and glory in the prowess of their past, that they may be inspired to do themselves and their race credit in the future. They will be the best citizens who are proud of the blood that courses thru their veins. A§ every Indian will be a landowner, it is to farming, stock raising, dairying, and their supplementary industries, such as carpentry, that we should give most attention in training them for happy, successful futures. THE VALUE OF A LARGE AGRLCULTURAL SCHOOL LN THE LNDIAN SERVLCE S. M. Mc COWAN, SUPERINTENDENT, CHILOCCO INDIAN SCHOOL, OKLAHOMA Childhood is a condition of human clay thoroly moldable or mar- rable. If we would mold aright, we should follow as nearly as possible the child's natural desires and inclinations as to his future vocation, and develop along simple evolutionary lines. Here, then, is where a large agricultural school is valuable. If properly conducted, such a school can and will inculcate habits of thrift, awaken ambition, put the spurs of energy to the lagging will, purify the passions, enthuse the mind, and banish sloth. The Indian is successful as a farmer, and his success is due to his wisdom (the fruit of long experience) in the selection of soils. Soon the Indian will settle on his allotment, and it is here where more scien- tific knowledge than he naturally possesses will become essential to suc- cess. He must know, if his home be in an irrigated country, when to apply water, and how much. He must know what kind, and how much, of seed to sow ; how to prepare the seedbed ; how to nurse the struggling plants ; and when to cultivate. The Indian as a permanent abider on his land must know how to rotate his crops, and why. An agricultural school should stimulate the Indian's natural inclina- tion and desire to raise grain and stock, and prepare him to realize the most from his labor of hands and brain. You cannot chain the Indian child to books and graduate a successful farmer ; but daily practice at hand labor, intelligently directed, will not only produce a skillful work- man, but will develop and profit his miiid as well. It will change a pauper into a producer. 870 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian Country life is conducive to virtue and quiet, peaceful family associa- tions; and in the family rests the surety of progressive civilization. The school that does the best for the Indian is the one that cuts away all edu- cational millinery, that discourages an easy life, that compels hard man- ual labor, and holds out the promise of competency to those who toil. The most valuable school will bring its student body up as our farm boys and girls are reared. CORRELATION OF THE SCHOOLROOM AND FARM WORK E. C. NARDIN, SUPERINTENDENT, MT. PLEASANT SCHOOL, MICHIGAN The schoolroom aims to give to the pupil facility in number combi- nations and to cause the discovery of number relations for the sake of the power to control environment which definiteness in expressing quantity and accuracy in measurement makes possible. When the farm and schoolroom are correlated the first problem in assigning to each pupil a garden plot is one of number. The first lesson in agriculture for the year comes with the approach of spring. While the temperature of the outdoor air is below the freezing point, the farmer makes a hotbed and maintains a summer temperature beneath his glass which lengthens the season of plant growth six weeks or more. The pupil counts the plants on a unit area of his hotbed and com- putes the number of plants in the whole. Every measurement of seed per acre, growth per day, yield per acre, per cow, or sheep, is a bet'ter problem for the development of power than those of the text-book in arithmetic. The study of agriculture provides the serious phase, a real end to be gained for every exertion. A pupil in possession of seeds and a rich gar- den spot has the essentials which, if properly combined and directed, will produce pocket money. Writing in the schoolroom is a mechanical exercise unless the pupil is recording facts of value which he puts into writing for preservation or to convey to others. The discoveries which the pupil makes in the study of farming are precisely of this valuable nature, requiring careful record that may not be lost. WHAT IS OUR AIM? E. A. ALLEN, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, CARLISLE SCHOOL, PENNSYLVANIA The president of one of the largest schools for colored youth in the South, a man born a slave, and, as he says, a "full blood," said in our chapel last winter: " My big hands have never been in my way; my flat 1 p Department] SCHOOLS OF MODERATE SIZE 871 nose has never been in ray way; my kinky hair has never been in my way; my black skin has never been in my way — nothing is in the negro's way but himself." If this is true of the black man who so lately bore the owner's brand, there must be hope for the Indian, who is subject to none of the social discriminations of the other man, but is welcomed among the best people and given all the opportunities that the twentieth century brings to us. The red man is an American; let us put him where the American should be placed for his training — into our public-school system, where he may, nay must, sit at the feet of the same teachers and in the same environment learn the lessons that have made the men of our race. He must meet our industrial conditions. Let him learn how to take the waves and rise with them, from those who know how. He cannot live on the memory of what he once has been. A decayed aristocracy endeavoring to subsist on the proceeds of a farm rented to a white man with the cer- tain prospect that his children will have nothing to rent is a condition that should move us to positive action, heedless of the dreamer's talk of an artistic life. All that is worth preserving of the native American will endure and gather strength, and the rest will quickly perish from the earth it cumbers. THE ADVISABILITY OF HAVING SCHOOLS OF MODERATE SIZE IN ORDER THAT PUPILS MAY REGIE VE MORE INDIVIDUAL TRAINING H. M. NOBLE, SUPERINTENDENT, GRAND RIVER INDIAN SCHOOL, NORTH DAKOTA Indian children require more individual attention than white children, both in and out of the schoolroom, owing to ignorance of the language and larger need of soul culture. The day-school teacher and his wife gathering their little brood of from twenty to twenty-five about them every day and instilling into their minds the elements of a new civiliza- tion, language, cleanliness, order, necessity for work, love of home, etc.; visiting the parents' homes saddened by sickness and death, thereby creating a mutual^ bond of sympathy between the pale face and the red at a time when every human heart craves sympathy — this is the individual training that counts. It is the proper method of establishing a right understanding of the true relationship which should exist between the Indian parent and child and the civilizing agencies which the white man thrusts upon him. Thus the parent comes to understand the aims and purposes of the school, they grasp small scraps of civilization, and the transition to the small boarding school in the proximity of home is made naturally and easily, for the parent's heart can still be gladdened by the sight of the child occasionally. As the pupil advances in knowledge in 872 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian the reservation school, portions of his knowledge will continually find expression in the home, as a table made for the father, repairs on his harness, etc. As sister Murphy expressed it, " after all we are training the child for the home." This admitted, that school which trains most effectually for this life is the school which does most toward uplifting the tribe, the school in living sympathy with the reservation, the reserva- tion school. NEEDED CHANGES IN INDIAN SCHOOLS A, O. WRIGHT, SUPERVISOR OF INDIAN SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. When Indian schools began to be organized in earnest, it was perfectly plain that the Indian children should be taught how to work as well as how to read, and the effort has been made to furnish in the schools the industrial training and the home life which the white farmer boy or girl gets out of school hours. Habits of industry and cleanliness have been taught, and new wants for better clothing, food, and housing have been created, which are the beginning of a deep desire for civilized life. Many of the younger children can be educated in the day schools at their homes. In some few cases these are public schools in which white and Indian children meet; in others such schools might be organized with little trouble. A large number of the Indian children under twelve years old could now be sent to day schools. At the age of twelve or thereabouts children have reached the stage where they can take up indus- trial work and instruction. These can best be taught in large schools. Enough industrial work should be given to fit the pupils for farmers and housekeepers. The non-reservation schools should not receive any little children, except where there are no day or reservation schools; and it would be wise to have a general rule forbidding non-reservation schools ■ from receiving any children under twelve, except as specially authorized by the commissioner. Properly, all transfers from reservation to non-reservation schools should be in the nature of promotions. The most advanced pupils should be transferred from reservation and day schools, and their places supplied from the children on the reservation not in school. BEST METHOD OF AFFECTING TI^ANSFERS OF PUPILS A. J. STANDING, CARLISLE, PA. As a preliminary measure I would say that from the first entering school the prospect of a future chance at a higher grade of school should be presented as something desirable and honorable, to be accomplished when a certain age or degree of advancement has been reached. There Department] RULES AND REGULATIONS 873 should be a proper understanding as to who shall be eligible for transfer and who not, as to health, age, blood, and grade, but with some latitude to meet special cases. A register of eligibles for transfer should be kept at each agency or school, parent's consent obtained, and the desired school designated. Non-reservation schools should transfer to training schools those who give promise of using to advantage the greater opportunities when they have finished their term or course at such school. No better method at present appears than co-operation between agents of non-reservation schools and local agents and superintendents, the visiting agent proceed- ing only on authorized lines, and using discretion. TO WHAT EXTENT DO AGENTS AND SUPERINTENDENTS READ THE RULES AND REGULATIONS? THOMAS W. POTTER, SUPERINTENDENT, SALEM INDIAN SCHOOL, CHEMAWA, ORE. The rules of the department were made for the protection of the interests of the government and of the Indian, and for the successful and systematic conduct of its business. It is our imperative duty as faithful servants to obey cheerfully orders and rules, whether written twenty five years ago or yesterday, so long as they relate to our work. When we consider the great variety and magnitude of business which the Indian office must control, the large number of employes with more or less business ability and good judgment who are trusted to do this work at long range, and the different conditions and requirements that must be met in different reservations and localities, we are forced to see the wisdom and necessity for every rule made. Probably the chief fault of ambitious agents and superintendents is in making improvements and purchases without first obtaining authority, and, after failing to get the approval of the office, in endeavoring by various irregular methods to settle the indebtedness thus incurred. This is a very dangerous practice. The rules and regulations make ample provision for all emergencies. They do not, however, permit officials to make other than emergency purchases without first obtaining the approval of the office. Therefore, it is very necessary that we endeavor to cultivate the ability of looking ahead and correctly estimating the future needs and requirements of our schools. To carry out these rules it is, of course, necessary that we read and study them carefully and diligently, determined to master them fully and understandingly. 874 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian THE VALUE OF DAY SCHOOLS JAMES J. DUNCAN, DAY-SCHOOL INSPECTOR, PINE RIDGE, S. D. The day school is, I think, the most powerful factor in Indian civili- zation. The teacher and housekeeper have opportunities for exerting a moral influence by instruction and example that none else have. The Indian learns by visiting the school and the teacher's house to love the beautiful and appreciate the orderly arrangement of things and the value of promptness. His children carry home to him each day the lessons they have learned at school. They put in practice what they have learned at school in the way of home decorations and arrangements in keeping the home neat and clean. The day schools reach the home and affect everything there, doing it so quietly and unobtrusively that the parents and older members, who would resist active influences, yield and find themselves falling into a better life without knowing it. By visiting the different homes and studying their conditions the teacher and housekeeper may be the means of greatly influencing these conditions, either directly or thru the pupils. The gardening and dairy ing that can be successfully carried on at a day school can be just as suc- cessfully carried on in the vicinity of the school. The day schools are intensely practical. The common bath-tub, and washboard and tub, flatiron, needle, hoe, and rake, are made use of, and the parents see the practical results of their use. Children go home at night in citizens' dress, thus introducing it into the camp. THE NECESSLTY FOR BOOKS ESPECLALLY ADAPTED TO INDIAN CHILDREN CLAUDE C. COVEY, TEACHER, INDIAN SCHOOL, PINE RIDGE, S. D. After careful study and observation in the field of Indian work, the superintendent of Indian schools has prepared a course of study espe- cially adapted to Indian education. This is indorsed by the best educa- tors. Since, then, we need and have a special course of study for Indian schools, it must follow that we should have text-books in line with this course and especially adapted to Indian children. Many books pre- pared for use in white schools may meet the requirements of the Indian school. The first essential is simplicity — simplicity of language, style, and subject-matter. Another is interesting subject-matter and method of presentation. This is a requisite of all texts ; but what would interest the white child would often be dull to the Indian, and vice versa; hence again the necessity for specially prepared texts. Department] NEWSPAPERS IN INDIAN SCHOOLS 875 In the Indian school — especially the lower grades — some of the best results obtained are from home-made text-books ; that is, lessons worked out by the teacher and pupils. These lessons include stories of industries, geographical excursions, and nature-study lessons. This gives an opportunity to learn words that actually occur in the everyday life of the child. The lessons should be talked over, written, read, and preserved. The child is thus given a vocabulary fit for everyday use. It is almost impossible for teachers to prepare these home-made text- books properly, because of their lack of time and the necessary reference books. If we had books specially prepared, giving subject-matter in con- venient form, and models of presentation in nature study, geography, history, etc., for the lower grades, it would save teachers much extra work and also improve the teaching. NEWSPAPERS IN INDIAN SCHOOLS HON. W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION One of the most important, perhaps the most important, object in the school of modern times is to prepare the pupils to read the printed page. No eloquence on the part o! the teachers, no talking or demon- stration, no pouring out of information, is or can be a substitute for teaching the child how to read and how to understand what he reads. The child who learns how to read becomes his own teacher. By reading the printed page he can find the most systematic and the most accurate presentation of the knowledge that he seeks. He can look up information in the encyclopedia, in a history, or in an elaborate treatise. On acquiring skill in using the printed page the pupil emanci- pates himself from dependence on a living teacher. The lecturer goes from paragraph to paragraph, and the hearer does not have sufficient time to recall and understand. The book waits on the pupil's leisure. If he does not understand on the first reading he reads it a second time, and a third time. If he finds himself weary and dull-minded he lays aside the book and resumes it in the fresh period of the morning. There are two kinds of attention : that of alertness and that of absorption. In listening to the lecturer one must be alert. He must keep up with the reading and not allow his mind to dwell on the sentence that he hears so long as to lose the sentence which follows it. This is all well enough for half of the purposes of attention. But the other half is at least quite as important. The student must learn to give an analytic attention, forgetful of what is present before him, but going down step by step into the depths of the subject, tracing back the casual chain of explanation down to the tenth, the twentieth, the fortieth step. The printed page encourages this cultivation of absorptive attention, whereas 876 • NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian the oral method of teaching encourages alert attention, which watches carefully what is going on before it, but does not go down step by step into a consideration of the causes and explanations of what it sees and hears. In reading the printed page one becomes "eye-minded" as well as " ear-minded." The eye-minded person thinks in printed or written words. The ear-minded person recalls sounds and tones. The eye- minded person can think accurately because he finds and learns in print a technical vocabulary that is not used in colloquial speech. The news- paper brings the citizen into a greater world of public opinion than he can find in the oral speech of his village or community. The newspaper elevates village gossip into world gossip. It follows that the newspaper reader acquires a habit of adjusting himself daily to a view of the world. The person who does not read the newspaper limits his adjustment to his immediate community. It is a wonderful education to be able to think sympathetically on great human events. The laborer in the city of Minneapolis, thru the printed page of the daily newspaper, acquires an interest in the life of the inhabitant of China, or of Russia, or of South Africa. It is one of the best ways to educate the heart to get the person interested in his fellow- men, for sympathy follows a knowledge of their deeds. . The newspaper gives one a reflection of the sympathies of his fellow-men. He notes that one person has one class of sympathies and another a different kind. When the pupil can motive the different and strange ideas, and under- stand how that which is not his own method of doing things may really seem to be the best method to his fellow-men, he broadens his mind into toleration. He reinforces his mind with the ideas of other people, and the newspaper is one of the best means of this kind of education, because it continues thru the year. It makes the citizen a spectator in the great drama of life that is unfolding before him on the world-stage. Every Indian school should have the newspaper. The pupil should read first that which interests him. He will go from that to the far-off events of the world, according as he grows in intellectual capacity. Pictorial newspapers are a great help to those coming up from a tribal form of government to the most civilized form. The most civilized gov- ernment makes most of the individual and teaches him how to think and act for himself in the light of all human experience. Before the news- papers came into so much vogue there was more village gossip in regard to small and personal things. The worst novel is not so bad as village gossip, even the gossip that one finds in the best families. Let the Indian child read the newspapers. He works from day to day acquiring a knowledge of the public opinion of the Anglo-Saxon race, and then he comes to see how the other races think. Thru presentation by picture and by word great events can reach all classes of intellects. Department] ABSTRACTS OF GENERAL ADDRESSES 877 You may teach the Indian scientific facts; you may teach him history and literature ; but if he does not get interested in the newspaper and become a reader of it he will not come into the Anglo-Saxon world of public opinion. He will not become educated in the highest sense of the word. ABSTRACTS OF GENERAL ADDRESSES I. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY It is a pleasure to come before this department to testify publicly to my profound personal interest, and that of university students and teachers in general, in the valuable and significant work which you have made your own. Your work has for us an interest both pathetic and inspiring — pathetic, because of the many things we should have done and the many things we should have done differently; inspiring, because you are applying the most modern educational methods to the uplifting of the descendants of the aboriginal people of this country. I should like to emphasize just one fact in relation to this work. Every professionally minded person in our modern life is prone to exaggerate the importance of his own work and that portion of the field into which he him- self is called to labor. The teacher is apt to treat the school as an end in itself and to try to make it bear the entire burden of the educational pro- cess. My view is that the function of the school in education is rather restricted and definite, and that we must depend for the completion of its work upon the educational influences of those other great human institu- tions which work in alliance with the school — the church, civil life, and the family. The child who comes to school to be educated, whether Indian, Teuton, or Anglo-Saxon, is not thereby taken out of all his natural and inevitable relationships and made a new unit in a new mass. He carries with him his family relationships. All of these relationships are educa- tional in the highest sense. We only get a sound and scientific view of the task of the educational profession when we understand that those other institutions must co-operate with the school and assist it in the per- formance of its functions. We are apt to err in overloading the school with non-scholastic duties and thinking that if the school does not do a thing it will not be done at all. It is of the highest importance not to deprive other educational influences of their proper parts in this process. II. DR. MICHAEL E. SADLER, DIRECTOR OF INQUIRIES AND REPORTS, EDUCATION OFFICE, LONDON, ENGLAND. The very problem the solution of which the Indian educators have come together to promote is all over the world the question to which statesmen and educators are giving their closest thoughts. The Indian 878 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian must be educated not only thru books, but by doing things with the hand — by industrial training. And not only is industrial training impor- tant for Indians, but it is also equally essential to the best results among white people. Working with the hands develops character and mental strength. Several centuries ago the villagers of England were skillful and artistic smiths and artisans, and made all their implements. During that period they were the mental giants of the age. III. DR. A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON Systematic education is useful only as a preparation for the school of life. The test of what a boy accomplishes in school is what he proves to be on the street. No school is good that sends bad boys on the street. This is equally true in the city and country, in the parochial and Indian school. The test of work among the Indians must always be the industry, thrift, and character of the Indians. The way they learn in the school of life determines what they have learned in the organized school. It is useless for anyone to teach the Indians who does not believe that they can be fully prepared for the school of life. IV. MOST REVEREND JOHN IRELAND, ARCHIBISHOP OF ST. PAUL I have always believed that the general intention of the national government in regard to the Indian was for fairmindedness and justice. But not always, in the westward rush of population, was the government able to see that its kindly intentions were faithfully carried out. Today, as at no previous time, the American people have the consciousness of their duty to the Indian. The intentions, both of the people and of their government, are the best. The amelioration of the condition of the Indians is earnestly sought out. Educational agencies are set to work,; money is spent without stint. We are encouraged to look forward with bright hopes to excellent results. May we not be disappointed ! I honor you, ladies and gentlemen, teachers in the Indian schools : you are engaged in a great and noble work. The future of a whole race is in your hands. The Indian needs a practical education. It is well for him to know that he must live as the white man, and, consequently, that he must learn to work. He must be taught industry. The love of work is at the basis of all civilization. Tell me how much a people love work, and I will tell you how high they may rise. Teach the Indian to love work, to love the kind of work that is before him, to learn how to do it; how to beget in himself a sense of self-reliance. Teach the boys a trade of some kind ; teach them farming, which, of Department] ABSTRACTS OF GENERAL ADDRESSES 879 course, is for them the most important trade of all. Teach the girls the ordinary industries for which they are fitted, and which they should practice. I believe that teaching the girls will do more for the elevation of the race than teaching the boys. Let the spirit of the home be what it should be, and the father, the brother, the son, will be all right. Teach the girls to take care of the home, to make it attractive. Teach them cooking; teach them neatness; teach them responsibility. Teach the girls to milk the cow, to care for it, and to make butter ; teach them to have a vfegetable garden and to rear poultry ; teach them how to serve a nice appetizing meal for the family — do this and you will have solved to a large extent the question of Indian civilization. Teach your pupils good morals. At the basis of all social elevation, of all civilization, there must be good morals ; else, the structure you fain would build is in the air without support upon which to rest, and it quickly topples over and is shattered to pieces. How useful, how necessary to good morals — indeed to all elements in a true civilization — religion is I need not strive to prove. It is not the province of instructors in the employment of the government to teach formally religion. This much they should do : to inspire respect and love for the fundamental principles that underlie religion, for the feelings of the soul that are its life's blood. This they should do — as the government does — allow pupils free access to authorized teachers of religion, never encroaching upon the rights of individual conscience, never discouraging, always encouraging, fidelity to the voice of con- science. There is no conflict, there should be none, between church and government. Church and government have each a special sphere, that of the one helps the other ; both tend to the greater good of the wards upon which love and labor are being spent. v. HON. ALFRED BAYLISS, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION OF ILLINOIS "If you know how, teach them (the boys) to be good workers," pleaded an eloquent Indian orator, addressing an assembly of teachers. "One typical thing in the modern school movement is that which passes under the name of 'manual training,' " says Mr. Dewey. Teach the Indians to become good citizens. Home-making, cleanli- ness, beauty of person and surroundings, cooking, sewing, sawing, driv- ing nails, industry, economy, accumulation of capital, are elements in good citizenship. The young Indians should be trained to these, and somehow be made to feel that they are citizens of this country and as such have duties as well as rights under the law which as mere wards of the government they did not have. Because home is the fundamental insti- tution of civilization, and vocation the fundamental condition of good 88o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian citizenship, I would impress them very strongly with the idea that when lands are allotted to them in severalty they should hold fast to their titles. Teach them that the "finest country in the West," as the young orator I have referred to termed Indian Territory, should be held by the people to whom it belongs. I would saturate them with that idea, for quarter-sections of good land will never be so cheap again. The significance of the elementary branches as ordinarily taught need not be lost sight of. There, as elsewhere, they are keys and instru- ments, indispensable to efficient participation in civilization. Like every school, the Indian school should have its library, but more than others it should have its garden, shop, tools, textile industries, and kitchen. VI. Z. X. SNYDER, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, GREELEY, COLO. In determining a course of education for the Indian, it is necessary to study him from the historic and comparative standpoints. It is neces- sary to study him from the historic standpoint in that it will find his place in the evolution of races — humanity. And it is necessary to study him from the comparative standpoint as it enables the similarities to and differences from other races to be considered. The Indian is living largely in the nomadic and military periods of his life, and self-preservation is fundamental and very persistent in his nature. Between soul and intelligence there is a difference. The soul of the Indian is different from that of the Caucasian, and a generation cannot change it. A gen- eration cannot change the soul of any person much ; it may change his intelligence, but it takes generations to work intelligence up to soul. The fundamental impulses in a human being, the Indian as well as any other, are : self-preservation, activity, wonder, wander, ownership, knowledge, and sympathy. In the training of the Indian his nature should be considered ; not only the nature of his soul, but the nature of his impulses. Industrial education should be the central notion in his training, and should include the useful trades, the native handicrafts, farming, and nature study. In the training of the intellectual nature the industrial work is very important in conjunction with such literature as touches his sympathies ; while in the training of his social nature, give him a chance to do the things that he likes that are helpful toothers, and have him plan with others. One who attempts to teach an Indian should be filled with the spirit and love of humanity, and be able to merge his life into that of the Indian. He must live with the Indian and must be an Indian in spirit, that the true process may go on. The government should establish nor- mal schools especially organized to prepare teachers for the Indian service. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 88 1 VII. AUGUSTUS S. DOWNING, PRINCIPAL OF TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS, NEW YORK CITY In discussing tlie Indian question we must use the positive and definite information which we have in regard to what is being done. The question in my mind is whether or not, in the attempt that is being made to civilize the Indian, we are trying to make a white man of him instead of developing in him as an Indian that which is best. I cannot see any reason why an Indian should not be proud that he is an Indian. I believe in work. I believe in teaching the Indian to work ; but I believe in teaching him to work among and with his own people, within his own surroundings. Don't undertake to remove the Indian from the reser- vation and put him into some civilized community. Leave him where he is and give him a chance to be a great big man, a great Indian among his people, rather than a great politician among the white people. Let the Indian woman endeavor, not to be the highest society lady among the whites, or the most beautiful dancer, but the most graceful, loving Indian wife, or Indian sister, or Indian mother on the reservation. We often hear that the government is doing too much for the Indian — giving him land and schools and making him a lazy man. The gov- ernment is doing too much for the Indian only when it undertakes to put upon him the peculiar civilization of the white man. I thank God that it is the good fortune of the Indians to have placed in charge of Indian education a woman who believes that the Indian should be taught those things which will make him more useful as a worker among his own people; that will enable him to contribute something to the wealth of his particular nation — not necessarily wealth of money, but wealth of life. If the Indian boy can be taught to do something in the right way, so that his life will be richer and the life of his nation will be richer for his having lived, a great work will have been accomplished for him. ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES SUPERINTENDENTS' CONFERENCE [abstracts of discussions] HOW TO IMPRESS ON THE INDIANS MIND THE USE AND VALUE OF MONEY JAMES STALEY, SUPERINTENDENT, YANKTON INDIAN SCHOOL, SOUTH DAKOTA No tribe or group of people has ever acquired habits of thrift while given a gratuitous support. The colonies established by Baron Rothschild in Palestine, where homes and money were furnished the settlers, and by Montifiore in North Dakota, where there was 882 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian tillable land in abundance, and money furnished to aid in building houses, both ended in failure. Contrast these with the Salvation Army colony established by Booth Tucker in Colorado, where each man was required to pay interest on all money borrowed, the principal to be paid back in ten years. At the end of three years many had paid for their homes. Why this difference ? Because in the latter case the people knew that their future welfare depended on their own efforts, and not upon the munificence of others. The pursuance of the policy adopted by the ofifice of Indian affairs during the past year has been productive of more good than all the theories that have been advanced during the last century. The man who shovels gravel all day to earn a dollar and a quarter needs no instruction as to the "value of a dollar," or the "use of money." THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF EMPLOYING INDIANS IN THE SERVICE UPON NON-COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION IS UNWISE CALVIN ASBURY, SUPERINTENDENT, WESTERN SHOSHONE INDIAN SCHOOL, NEVADA In our treatment of the Indian I think it is our duty to do for him what will tend most to the development of his independence and courage to meet the difficulties of life as he he finds it; and we hold that this can never be done so long as he is treated differently from other men by reason of his being an Indian. A position in the Indian service is the goal to which many young Indians, men and women, have looked while going thru school, and this position they have expected to secure by their blood rather than by their preparation. To any such, an irreparable injury has been done by diverting them from the noble end of striving to meet the world as men and women and not as pampered Indians. The standard and requirements for positions in the service should be the same for the Indians as for the whites. The employe should be chosen and retained solely with a view to his inclination and ability to render efficient service. THE CONDUCT OF INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENTS CASPAR EDWARDS, SUPERINTENDENT, PONCA INDIAN SCHOOL, OKLAHOMA Farming and stock raising is the all-important subject for the Indian. It is the primary and primeval occupation of man. It is the only resource of at least nine-tenths of the Indians. All of his property is land and live stock. He should be expected to utilize his own property first. The work as laid out in the course of study can be supplemented in reservation schools very nicely and very profitably. The individual work at school is excellent for younger pupils. But in many places market for garden vegetables is poor, and the larger boys need something more profitable. Why not send him direct to his own farm ? If that is too far, rent it and lease land near the school. If land can possibly be had, each large boy should be required to cultivate a moderately large crop. Require the same that is required of him on the school farm. This will give him some returns for his labor. After a pupil is worth more than his board and clothes, he should be paid for it. Keep them at school, furnish them employment, drop them from the gratis-roll, compel them to work, and let them bear their own expenses. That would be real training in economy. To secure economy and thrift, let there be furnished competent industrial employes ; let the superintendent hold the employe responsible for all waste ; inspect him closely on this point; require an account kept in each industrial department for materials used, salaries, allowance for pupils' services, tools, etc. Set against that the output of that industry. Close the account at the end of each quarter. If the accounts show a loss for the entire year, without good cause, it is time something should be done. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 883 THE PLACE OF ATHLETICS IN INDIAN SCHOOLS W. H. WINSLOW, SUPERINTENDENT, GENOA INDIAN SCHOOL, NEBRASKA It is now a well-recognized principle that the first requisite of success in life is to be a good animal. Physical health aids in mental and moral health. The first requirement is to develop bone and muscle; to develop sound, strong lungs that will purify a large blood supply; to secure a healthy stomach; to train a heart that is regular, and strong enough to supply every cell with pure blood. This is needed as a basis upon which to build manhood and womanhood that will stand hard work. Girls should be given the training equally with the boys. Indian boys are too liable to get a wrong idea of the importance of games. The applause of a good play in baseball or football is taken for more than it means. Again, games as at present very largely conducted do not serve their proper purpose. Only the physically perfect, the strongest, can hope to win a place. Of necessity, the boy that needs the training worst must be left out. Running, jumping, vaulting, etc., should be a part of the regular training. But the school should direct them ail, and none of them should be allowed to assume control of the institution. Too great ambition to meet those of an entirely different class should be care- fully curbed. Games in the school are of prime importance, and the best games for our purpose are those which put the greatest number in training. THE NECESSITY FOR MORE AND BETTER EQUIPPED DAY SCHOOLS CHARLES E. BURTON, SUPERINTENDENT, MOQUI INDIAN SCHOOL, ARIZONA The Indian day school is like the common public school of the white people. It touches the pulse of the Indian village, and uplifts, to a greater or less extent, the public conscience and public pride of the adult Indian. The Indian mother gets lessons of thrift and cleanliness from the teacher and his family. The father gains ideas from the teacher which benefit him along the lines of better farming, better stock raising, better clothing, better living. Many savage practices and ceremonies are abandoned because of the proximity of a Christian teacher and family whose sense of modesty and propriety would be shocked. I believe that a man and wife should preside over each day school. The man reaches the men of the village, and his wife reaches the women. It is an undeniable fact that a large majority of the people of the United States get all the education they ever get in the "little red schoolhouse," and so the great majority of the Indian youth will be educated in the little day school or forever remain without education and practical training which will fit him to take his place in the American citi- zenship— the goal of all our efforts. THE NEED OF BETTER EQUIPPED INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYES CHARLES L. DAVIS, SUPERINTENDENT, FT. TOTTEN INDIAN SCHOOL, NORTH DAKOTA When the native Indian child enters school it is necessary to begin at the bottom — to instill habits of industry, to impart skill and readiness in work and the use of appli- ances, and oftentimes to break down native prejudices which a child may bring with him against doing certain kinds of work. All this must be done that each child may be pre- pared to earn an honest livelihood in later years. To accomplish the desired result requires employes of the utmost patience and of ample skill. I would not recommend that the schools seek the services of professors, 884 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian but they should be thoroly skilled workmen in their particular line of work, and be able to teach others. To promulgate any rule by which to select suitable employes would be quite impos- sible. But when we meet with an industrial instructor who within a few months enables his pupils to do with their own hands work such as he does himself, and can tell why they do it, then we know success has been obtained. Girls who cut and make their own clothes have been instructed by a competent seamstress. The cook who can take a day off, leaving girls in charge, and without the other pupils observing her absence, has shown commendable skill as an instructor. When the boys on the farm detail can tell you when and how to plow to preserve the fertility of tiie soil ; can distinguish between different breeds of cattle as to their suitableness for dairy or beef purposes; can and do keep the work going and look after the multitudinous duties of that department when the farmer is absent — such boys prove the efficiency of the instructor better by far than a diploma from the best agricultural college. THE ADVISABILITY OF MORE PRACTICAL I RAINING FOR THE INDIAN WILSON H. COX, SUPERINTENDENT, PIERRE INDIAN SCHOOL, SOUTH DAKOTA There must come a time in the history of the Indian when he must be placed upon his own responsibility. Many Indians are offering their services to work on farms, thus showing that they are beginning to realize that self-support is the ultimate condition to which they must attain. The present great dem.and in Indian education is industrial education, a training that will bring self-support, learning how to do those things which will furnish clothing, food, and shelter. The central thought in all our school work should be to impress upon the minds of the pupils the dignity of labor. This they do not learn at home. Each pupil should be taught at school that he has duties of his own to perform, which are necessary to his own success ; that thru his and others' successful performance of duty comes the success of the school. Teach this so practically that the lesson will be carried into home life. THE BEST WAY TO TEACH ENGLISH TO INDIAN CHILDREN MATTHEW M. MURPHY, TEACHER, MARICOPA DAY SCHOOL, ARIZONA If I had my own way I would begin with the Indians' own home. Reforms may be introduced into small communities that would be inapplicable to large ones. For that reason I would divide every agency into communities of a few hundred each. In each community I would place a day school corresponding to the white district school ; I would place there a teacher and such other employes as conditions indicated ; I would place the community in charge of the teacher or other employe, and make him respon- sible for the community as well as for the school. Then I would begin the teaching of English. It would be to the interest of every family to learn English, as discrimination would be made in favor of those speaking English. Returned students would be wel- comed into the homes and would be looked up to, instead of being ridiculed, as at present. In the Kingman Day School I encouraged my pupils to teach the little children at home in the camps. The children told me they were doing so, and the policeman cor- roborated their statements. The result was that every new pupil the second year could speak enough English to be understood, and could understand what was said to him. I know it was the work of the other children, because the new ones had such sentences as, " Please, may I leave the room ? " " Please, may I have a slate pencil? " etc. Besides the children said that many children too small to come to school had been taught to speak English. Department! ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES STOCK RAISING AND DAIRYING GEORGE W. NELLIS, SUPERINTENDENT, PiflE RIDGE INDIAN SCHOOL, SOUTH DAKOTA Farm life, and particularly that part of it which pertains to stock raising, is the ideal life for the Indian. His life has been one of freedom, and he loves animals. His chances of success are much greater in such work than in the professions or trades. The course of instruction need not be extended, but it should be thoro and practical. Pupils should be taught the distinguishing characteristics of different breeds of cattle, so that they may be able to select intelligently stock suitable to the localities in which they live, and for the purposes for which they are to be used, whether for dairy, for beef, or both. The value of cattle in comparison with Indian ponies should be made clear to them. They should be taught the necessity of providing shelter, of putting up sufficient quantities of hay, the proper method of rearing calves, etc. I see no reason why in the larger reservation schools, where sufficient hay and pasture land is available, this industry can- not be developed to the extent of at least furnishing all the beef needed for the sub- sistence of the school. 1 am confident it would prove a good investment from a financial as well as educational point of view. Sheep raising can be made a profitable business for the Indians, and should be given attention in the schools. Many of the reservations are peculiarly adapted to this industry. It is a desirable occupation for the Indian, because it can be entered upon without a great amount of capital. Poultry raising should be a part of the industial training of every school. It should be carried on by the girls under the direction of the matron. The girls take to it with delight. The poultry yard is valuable, not only because of its educational worth, but because of the much-needed variety of food it furnishes for the school table. To get the Indian interested in dairying will go very far toward the solution of the home question. He can raise cattle for beef purposes and still do a great deal of roving about, but he cannot keep cows for dairy purposes without remaining quite closely at home. To be profitable they must be sheltered, and they must be milked and fed regularly. A herd of good dairy cows, with suitable buildings for their care and protection, and with facilities for the proper care of milk and the making of butter and cheese, should form a part of the equipment of every school. The boys should be taught how to care for and feed dairy cattle so as to obtain the best results, and both boys and girls should be taught to milk, and to do so in a cleanly and sanitary manner. Girls should be carefully instructed as to the care of milk and the making of butter and cheese. TEACHERS CONFERENCE HOW MAY SCHOOLROOM EXERCISES INCULCATE HABITS OF THRIFT AND ECONOMY? MISS CARRIE A. WALKER, PRINCIPAL TEACHER, WILD RICE RIVER SCHOOL, MINNESOTA The underlying principles of thrift and economy are : A place for everything, a time for everything, cleanliness, and thoroness. Example being greater than precept, teachers should see that their own desks and belongings are kept in order. Each child should have pencil, pen, tablet, books, etc., and be held responsible for each article and the general appearance of his or her terri- tory. A friendly spirit of rivalry will tend-to make care of personal property a pleasure. 886 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian Beginning with the lowest grades, see to it that each task is done to the best of the child's ability. P'ollow this plan in all grades, and a habit will be formed that will prove a benefit to the child always. Show that a piece of .work, no matter how trivial, if well done, is in itself a recommendation for the doer. All excellence depends upon thoroness. Commend all good work. A word of praise or a look of approval costs little, and is worth much to the pupil. In the sewing lessons economy in cutting should be clearly demonstrated. Small pieces left over are just what are needed by the thrifty little people who are making quilts, rugs, or carpets for the doll's house. In our nature-study lessons in the fall we note the preparations made everywhere for the winter. We see the farmers gathering their crops, storing what is needed for the family and for seed the next spring, and taking the remainder to market. In talks we bring out the need of saving part of the income thus derived. In our own little garden beds we see the application of our talks, for we gather and save seeds needed for use the coming spring, and thus avoid an expenditure for new seeds. The child learns to save by saving. In number work take problems from real life with which the child is familiar. Give practical problems in buying, selling, and saving to put in the bank. Require pupils to bring in original problems involving a bank account. Higher grades should learn prac- tical lessons along the same lines. In all schoolroom exercises the teacher must be the living pattern which the child unconsciously imitates. If she practices true economy the children will tend to form right habits. If she is wasteful, they will be more so. TRAINING OF THE INDIAN BOY AND GIRL FOR LIFE ON THE RESERVATION AFTER lEAVING SCHOOL MRS. LAURA H. RATLIFF, OMAHA INDIAN SCHOOL, NEBRASKA When the pupil goes home he goes from superior to inferior surroundings and condi- tions ; he goes from the preparation for a task to the task itself ; he goes to a very real and to a largely degenerating environment. The teacher should consider first the home, the surroundings, influences, conditions, and appliances to which the pupils return, and then consider how to prepare them to approach these conditions to the best advantage. As habits form the greatest bulwark against adverse influences, we should give our earnest attention to cultivating right and strong ones in our Indian pupil. Those which he will need most are habits of industry, forethought, and character, and when he has fully acquired these the pupil will be well fitted to lead a successful life on his allotment. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT MRS. TAMA M. WILSON, TEACHER, CANTONMENT INDIAN SCHOOL, OKLAHOMA We ought not be content with fair, or even good, results, but ever watchful for the very best. Observation and habits of industry should be cultivated, good books and educational journals should be read and studied, with an endeavor to pick something out of the thoughts and experiences of other educators that we can make our own, to the advantage of the Indian boys and girls intrusted to our care. The employment of some of our leisure time in original thinking and planning would add much to the practical value of our work. Careful attention should be given to the arrangement of exercises in which the teacher has not full control. In the presence of the children the instructor should not be careless in anything. Taut methodical and especially accurate and right in all things ; setting an example that all would do well to emulate. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES THE PRACTICAL ADVANTAGE OF MORE ORAL WORK MISS LYDIA E. KAUP, PRINCIPAL TEACHER, MT. PLEASANT SCHOOL, MICHIGAN It is not implied tliat written work is of no value. It is a necessary part of a pupil's education, but Indian pupils need a far greater amount of oral than of written work. Oral work is necessary to teach language correctly. Being of a quiet disposition, Indian pupils are quite contented to work for hours at a written discussion of some subject, which, when finished, will have some words poorly arranged, unnecessary words added, and many necessary ones omitted. The fault lies in the fact that they do not understand the English well enough to arrange the words in a correct manner and to give a pleasing expression. Oral work also creates self-confidence, which the Indian pupils need so much. Every class room teacher knows how reticent they are. The whispered low-toned mono- syllabic answer is a general characteristic. The Indian must come in contact with the white man in order to progress. The better he commands English the more rapid will be his advancement. He will, however, keep aloof to the degree measured by the difference in ability tcexpress himself orally. A valuable means by which oral expression can be secured from the older pupils is discussion of historical and current events. They are especially interested in the events of the day, and will discuss them more readily because they are occurring at the present time. MORE PRACTICAL AND LESS MECHANICAL WORK IN THE GRADES MRS. ELLA H. GILMORE, TEACHER, CHEYENNE AGENCY, S. D. Spencer says : " Education should develop the power of providing for one's family. It is the basis of good citizenship." If this be true, how important it is that the Indian child should be taught those subjects which will be of most value to him in providing his livelihood and making him a useful citizen ! The conditions from which the child comes and to which he must return should be thoughtfully studied. The teacher should know something of the tribe, country, and probable occupation of his future life, to be able to direct his thoughts, work, and study in such a manner as to arouse a desire for a self- supporting, intelligent manhood. Practical everyday problems should be taught thruout the grades. Girls should learn to measure cloth and estimate the cost of a dress or other article of clothing ; to measure milk, vinegar, and oil in gallons, finding cost by the pint and quart, and the reverse. Boys should measure corn, beans, potatoes, and other farm products, and ascer- tain the cost at the market price. They will be surprised to learn the cost of potatoes used in the school for one year. Let them measure the wood-pile, not only in cords, but in fractions of the cord in the higher grades, and tell how many there are and find the value of the same. They will be interested and work with a will very different from the spiritless way they plod over prob- lems in their books. INDUSTRY AND ECONOMY ARE NECESSARY TO THE INDIANS, INDIVIDUALLY AND AS A RACE MISS ALLIE B. BUSBY, PRINCIPAL TEACHER, INDUSTRIAL BOARDING SCHOOL, CROW CREEK, S. D. By frequent talks in the class-room on this subject, I have endeavored to impress this thought on the minds of the pupils by referring to Indians, and other persons known to them, who have well-stocked and productive farms and comfortable homes as a result of 888 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian their own industry, and comparing their condition with those who have made little use of their opportunities. Industry should be the watchword in every department of the school, but, as there is light and shade in life as in pictures, this may be carried too far. Too constant employ- ment will not only have a disastrous effect physically, but cause the children to dislike their school, and throw such a baneful influence on their future that when they are free from the restraint of the school they will shun that which made it distasteful. As industry without economy avails but little in the struggle for existence, the Indian boy and girl must learn economyin the school. They cannot learn it from their people. I would teach the pupils that the value of anything depends on the benefit derived from it. Require both pupils and Indian assistants to save a portion of thfe money they earn, and tho it may be very little, the habit will eventually be formed. Discourage waste in every department. Let everything be used for a good purpose. Encourage the girls to make rugs and cut carpet-rags from old clothing. The result of such work will be of practical value in their homes. The boys should be taught economy in the care of implements used on the farm, in not allowing any of the produce to be wasted, in the care of their clothing and other things they use. HOW TO MAKE THE INDIAN SEE THE IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRY AND ECONOMY MISS CLARA C. MCADAM, MT. PLEASANT, lA. Nowhere more than in the Indian service are well-rounded, broad-minded teachers needed ; those who can make even the washing of windows appear at the time to be the pleasantest thing in the world. There is strength in the union of industrial and class-room instruction. Interest has been awakened, and I hope a desire to economize, by familiarizing pupils with the approximate cost of school supplies, then having them report money received, and calcu- late what would remain after paying for their school equipments, or how much more would be required to pay for them. As it is our duty to teach economy for individual well-being, the advisability of hav- ing cooking classes is apparent. Pupils can thus learn frugal management for the family; also to avoid useless expenditure. Pupils should be taught to plan meals and be allowed to carry out their plans, and thus learn by experience that method economizes labor; that punctuality, system, and order economize time. When possible, girls should be taken to the grocery and meat market and taught to buy economically. Above all things we should keep in mind that we are, or should be, training homemakers. The idea should be impressed upon boys and girls that they should avoid going in debt ; that present pleasure should be sacrificed to future good; and also the good old proverb, " Who goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing." TEACHING LITTLE CHILDREN HOUSEKEEPING WITH DOLLS, AS SUGGESTED IN THE COURSE OF STUDY I. MISS JESSIE MATTOON, TEACHER, ONEIDA INDIAN SCHOOL, WISCONSIN Childhood, like every age, needs its duties, tho these must be simple, within the child's range of experience ; something in which his interest can be aroused. No part of an undertaking is ever more important than the beginning ; hence when we teach little children housekeeping or homekeeping, tho it is with dolls and done in the play spirit, we are teaching them to work, to make homelike the tiny house by putting paper on the walls, making the rugs and carpets for the floor, the chairs, table, bed, etc. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 889 The doll's clothes give opportunity for instructive as well as interesting lessons in sewing. The way things are made is of intense interest to children. Teach them to cut out clothes by accurate patterns of dolls' clothes; to lay the pattern the right way of the cloth, and how to twist and turn the different parts to cut the garment in the most economical manner from the least material. Careful attention should be given to the kitchen. Endeavor to .teach neatness, which is order. Also teach the little housekeeper to wash her doll's clothes properly. In our little household the social side of life should receive its full share of atten- tion. LittJe parties may be given. Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners are events from which the children derive much pleasure. II. MRS. MOLLIE J. ROBBINS, TEACHER, PINE RIDGE AGENCY, S. D. Children must learn by doing, and the best device I know of with which to teach housekeeping is the dollhouse. The house and furnishings might be made on the scale of one inch to a foot, and this will give the children many lessons in measuring. Have written on the board a list of articles needed for the house ; then let them be made from paper by folding and cutting ; and finally have them made substantially from wood, tin, or other suitable material, I would next have one pupil collect everything and arrange a sort of house -furnishing store, with values placed on everything. Then I would tejl the children a story something like this : " Mr. and Mrs. Redpaint have been living in a small, poor house with large cracks in it, and they want a better one. Mr. Redpaint has been working and has saved his money. Mrs. Redpaint has sold eggs and butter and saved her money also, and now they have enough to buy the lumber, window glass, and other material for a new house, with four rooms. Children, let us play that this is their new house. Wallace, you may go to the house-furnishing store and buy a good bed ; Minnie, go and buy a mat- tress; and Jacob, you may buy a cook-stove" — and so on until all the necessary articles are placed in their proper places. This may be varied and extended as the judgment of the teacher may suggest. I appoint each week two of the younger girls to keep the house in order, systematically doing the round of work each day. In this way the children become familiar with every article in the house and learn a great deal about homemaking. The work for each day is well planned in our new course of study. b HOW MAY THE SOCIAL, MORAL, AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING IN OUR INDIAN SCHOOLS BE MADE EQUAL TO THAT OF A GOOD HOME? SISTER CATHARINE BUCKLEY, SUPERINTFNDENT, ST. MARY'S INDIAN SCHOOL, WIS. The Indian child comes to us with little or no home training, and happy are we if he be in his tender years . There will be much forming to do, but it is easier than reforming. Let us meet the difficulties to be overcome with the two prime factors of a good home training : a mother's love and a mother's watchful eye. To be found wanting in this regard, whatever other qualifications an employe may possess, is to lack an essential ; and no child discovers the sincerity or falsity of an affection more quickly than do our Indian youth. This genuine affection consists chiefly in the desire to do good, lasting good, to our pupils ; all other affections are worse than useless. Such employes every school should have, and where they are found wanting, good training is lacking in proportion. Employes should act as good parents who must habitually economize in order to meet all the demands upon their purse, and each one should take a personal interest in all that pertains to the school, as he would were he the actual possessor of the property. 890 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian MATRONS CONFERENCE HOW CAN WE LEAD PUPILS TO REALIZE THE VALUE OF THE ARTI- CLES ISSUED FROM THE WAREROOM? MISS BERTHA A. MACEY, MATRON, ONEDIA INDIAN SCHOOL, WISCONSIN It has been my experience that clothing brought from the homes, no matter how poor, is carefully cherished by the child, because it represents to him the labor of the par- ent, and he knows that it cannot easily be replaced ; whereas articles from the government wareroom, altho of greater value, are freely destroyed, simply because there is plenty more to be issued from the same place, and because they do not represent to the child any value in labor or sacrifice. Just what plan would be best to adopt in bringing about the needed reform I am not at present prepared to state. It might be wise to place the older children on the pay-roll, paying them for the work performed for the school, and then require them to buy their clothing and such material as they would use in manufacturing it. In addition to the monthly stipend, there would be many little ways in which pupils could add to their income by rendering service to employes, such as the care of their rooms, laundry work, or sewing. Let us give the boys and girls a chance to use more independence in providing for themselves, but let them have the watchful care of an older head as to the best use to make of their money until such time as they will have more mature judgment. The best way to help our young people is to give them a chance to help themselves. COOKING FOR THE INDIAN GIRL I. MRS. EMMA E. DUCLOS, TEACHER, PHCENIX INDIAN SCHOOL, PHOENIX, ARIZ. At Phoenix we try to give the cooking class-room the atmosphere of a well-regulated home. The planning, cooking, and serving of two regular meals each day (dinner and supper) by a detail of five of the girls, six scholars from outside being invited to each meal, contributes materially to the homelike character of the work. The menu includes as large a variety of dishes as possible during the year. The need that has appealed to me most forcibly is that of adapting the course of study to the future needs and present capacity of the pupil. To attempt too much is to fail in all. The time of training is short. Let first things come first. Good bread is a necessity, and every girl should learn to make it; then lessons should be given in mixing and baking of biscuits; gems, rolls, etc., some of which, however, with the cooking of meats, potatoes, and other vege- tables, are included in the daily preparation of dinner and supper. All work is actually performed by the girls themselves. I should like to emphasize the need of teaching economy. The likelihood of a necessity for close economy in the future, when the strug- gle for civilized existence may be bitter indeed, should impress the teacher with a feeling of responsibility in this matter. In our class work we use plain recipes, often substitut- ing lard for butter, and cautioning pupils to use the exact amount called for in the recipe, and no more. In preparing the daily supper the food left over from dinner is utilized for hash, croquettes, etc., so there may be as little waste as possible, II. MRS. S. M, MCCOWAN, MATRON, CHILOCCO INDIAN SCHOOL, OKLAHOMA The extent of an Indian girl's knowledge of cooking is confined generally to the stewing and roasting of meats, boiling of beans and potatoes, the boiling and parching of corn and wheat, and the manufacture of a very simple and poor quality of breadstuffs. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 891 Let us have cooks capable of preparing meats and potatoes in half a dozen simple and appetizing ways; of making good, wholesome bread and biscuits, mushes, etc. Every girl of twelve years and upward should spend some time each week in a modern cooking class. In these classes pupils should learn cooking, setting the table, the making and care of the table linen, and other dainty things that go to make home cheerful and attractive. From eight to twelve students should be placed in each class. Details for these classes should be taken from each department, so as to not interfere more than is necessary with the regular work of that department. Each class should have a whole day for a lesson. Especially is this true when they have completed the elementary work and undertake the actual preparation of meals, cooking meats and bread. It is not wise tohave one class set the yeast, another knead the dough, and still another bake the loaves. Every girl in every class should do all this work, and do it often. All the work of preparing meals should be practiced so often and thoroly that the work becomes natural and easy. Much care should also be given to washing the dishes, scour- ing knives and silverware, scrubbing floors and sweeping, setting tables, and to the dispo- sition of table linen. At least one lesson per week should be given until a complete practical course is finished, and each lesson should occupy a whole day. III. MRS. EMILY L. JOHNSON, HOUSEKEEPER, HASKELL INSTITUTE, KANSAS Why teach cookery? To possess a sound body, an active mind, a noble spirit, which are an "indivisible trinity " — this is the first reason why we teach cookery. How to teach cookery ? If you cannot do as you would, do as you can. One of the happiest faculties of woman is the ability to adjust herself to her surroundings, so we find cookery taught in a variety of ways, according to conditions and materials available. The lesson i< brought before the pupil either by an outline placed upon the board or by reference to a lesson-paper, and by prepared dishes illustrating the subject. This method is now in use at Haskell, and pupils are detailed for two months, thereby getting forty consecutive lessons. In addition to the class work, the dairy work, laundry, and mending, and (so-called for want of a better name) a responsibility department are carried on, two girls taking up each line^of work for a week. To learn responsibility the girls plan and prepare meals for sixteen pupils, who come from the general dining room to the small dining room where the meal is served. This is a very helpful lesson in self-reliance. Many a girl has come into the class with a positive dislike for housework, and has gone out with a liking and respect for its duties that have ennobled both the duty and the doer. She has felt it a privilege to go into families to do housework to put into prac- tice what she has learned and to observe and compare methods from a student's point of view. IN WHAT WAY MAY RETURNED STUDENTS RENDER THEIR SER- VICES VALUABLE TO THEMSELVES AND TO THEIR PEOPLE? MISS M. E. BLANCHARD, MATRON, CROW CREEK SCHOOL, SOUTH DAKOTA The returned student's earliest service may be the encouragement and example of industry. He is the admiration of the pupils in the home school, because of his superior attainments. He has the ability to be of service to the boys. The real interest he can take in their work will increase its importance to them. They will view details in a new light if the student has done similar work in the big far-away school, where the ball teams win victories over the white universities, and where as well there are shops for the manu- facture of finely-finished articles and more industries than they can understand. There is encouragement in the thought that he can wear overalls and heavy boots, and do some of the best ditching, plowing, and cultivating ever seen, and hundreds of other things that must be done in working the land. Where several students are returning to the »92 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indian same reservation, each might make a special study of some industry, and do his best to cultivate it. They might have an occasional meeting, to which others could be invited, and where an exchange of ideas could give all the benefit of the experience of each. Poultry is such an industry, as is also the raising of sheep, cattle, the management of a dairy, and the raising of hogs. All of these provide for the farmer's table, and also afford much for the market. The useful trades can also be fostered in this way. THE PHYSICAL, MORAL, AND SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN CHILDREN MRS. NANNIE E. SHEDDAN, MATRON, RIVERSIDE SCHOOL, OKLAHOMA. We, as instructors of the Indian children, are responsible for their physical, moral, and spiritual development, and our instruction must be first by example, then by precept. Exercise and cleanliness will not only keep the child in good health, but will often repair inherited and acquired defects. Habits of dress, diet, sleep, sports, etc., are all of so much importance to the physical development of our pupils that special care should be given to them. Train the children in good habits; habits of self-respect, self-help, industry, integrity, and decision, perseverance, and self-reliance. Teach them the dignity of labor, and that success comes to those who are thoroly in earnest. Show them your personal interest, which often inspires with the courage necessary for success. The most hopeful work is with the little children. The moral development of the child begins as soon as the mental, and the two march hand in hand. HOW TO TEACH CHILDREN TO GO AHEAD WITHOUT BEING TOLD DELLA MERIWETHER, MATRON, RED MOON INDIAN SCHOOL, OKLAHOMA. The matron must be industrious, firm, and kind, and she must be a mother to the pupils, if she expects them to love and obey her. Do not tell children what to do, and do not talk too much. Endeavor to let them discover what is needed to be done, and tell you. Impress upon your pupils the importance of industry and cleanliness in housekeeping. PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRIES FOR INDIANS— LACE MAKING MISS PAULINE COLBY, LEECH LAKE AGENCY, MINNESOTA. Among the various productive industries which civilization has brought to the Indian, that of lace making has been among the most successful. This is proved by the fact that the lace has always found a ready market, and that the demand is steadily increasing. Its value as a moral factor among the Indians should not be overlooked, as it enables the woman to be the principal breadwinner of the family, in which position she commands more respect and consideration than under the old order of things. It checks also the tendency to roam, and emphasizes the necessity for personal cleanliness. A woman can sit in her own home and keep a general supervision of her family while doing this work, which is an undoubted advantage over the work which takes her abroad con- tinually, forcing her to neglect her home and drag her little ones about with her in all sorts of weather. The articles made include caps, collars, boleros, centerpieces, edgings, table covers, handkerchiefs, etc., and they compare favorably with work of the same kind done else- where, thus proving conclusively that skill and patience are native qualities in the Indian character. IHecrolog? r Reports of the death of the following named life and active members have been received during the past year : W. H. Baker ^ - Savannah, Ga. Nathaniel L. Benham - - - - Niagara Falls, N. Y. Henry Benner ... .... Albion, Mich. George Stockton Burroughs . . . . Oberlin, O. WiLLARD Harris Chandler - - - - Sun Prairie, Wis. Watson Cornell Philadelphia, Pa. Robert Curry - Allegheny, Pa. Jehiel Kitteridge Davis Chicago, 111. William H. Glascock . - - - Bloomington, Ind. Frank Valentine Hubbard - - - Red Wing, Minn. John Scull Irwin ----- - Lafayette, Ind. Henry Martin James - Portland, Ore. Laura Lucas Monsarrat . . . . Louisville, Ky. John G. Nageler -" - - - - - Milwaukee, Wis. John Daniel Orr Kansas City, Kan. Francis Wayland Parker Chicago, 111. Calvin Smith Pennell - - - St. Anthony Park, Minn. Charles Collins Rounds - - - - New York, N. Y. Kate Taubman -..-._ Deadwood, S. D. Henry J. Taylor Sioux City, la. Edward Gender Ward Brooklyn, N. Y. William Clarke Whitford . . - - . Milton, Wis. John D. Yerby - - Mobile, Ala. The brief sketches that follow^ have been prepared from data obtained, so far as pos- sible, from relatives of the deceased. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. flatbanicl 1L. 3Benbam Nathaniel L. Benham, superintendent of schools at Niagara Falls, N. Y., was born in Seneca Falls, N. Y., October 29, 1851, He received his education in the public schools of Seneca Falls, and later in Seneca Falls Academy. At the age of seventeen he began teaching school, and continued in the work for eight years . In 1875 he was admitted to the bar and began the practice of law, removing to Buffalo in 1880. In 1884 he was appointed principal of the Niagara Falls Union School, and remained in that position until i8gi, when he was chosen superintendent of schools at Niagara Falls, which position he held at the time of his death, which occurred August 3, 1901. His wife and three children survive him. He became a member of the National Educational Association at the Denver meet- ing in 1895. lit has been impossible to secure data for a sketch of W. H. Baker, who became a life member at the St. Paul meeting in 1890. 893 894 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Denrg :fi3ennet Henry Banner, Ph.D., was born in Milford Township, Bucks Co., Pa. The early part of his life was spent on the farm, working during the summer and attending school during the winter months. At the age of fifteen he began teaching in a district school. After teaching for sev- eral years he attended and completed a course of study in the State Normal School at West Chester, Pa., and on graduation was elected instructor in mathematics and English in his Alma Mater. This position he resigned to pursue higher studies in mathematics in the State University of Michigan, from which he received the degree of M.Sc. He was University Fellow in Mathematics at Clark University, Worcester, Mass., in 1889-90; in charge of the Department of Mathematics, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111., 1890-92; instructor in mathematics, Chicago Training School, 1892-95. He then resigned to go abroad for study and travel. While abroad he studied at the University of Berlin and at the University of Erlangen, where in June, 1897, he passed examinations magna cu7n laude, and received the degree of Ph.D. In June of the same year he was elected to the chair of mathematics in Albion Col- lege, Mich., which position he held at the time of his death, August 12, 1901. Professor Benner never married. A brother and sister are the only surviving relatives. Professor Benner was a member of various scientific societies in Europe and America, and became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1901. ©eorge Stocftton 3Burrougb6 Dr. George Stockton Burroughs, professor of the Old Testament language and litera- ture in Oberlin Theological Seminary, died at Clifton Springs, N. Y., October 22. He leaves a wife and three children, who will continue to make their home in Oberlin. Born in 1855, Professor Burroughs received from Princeton the following degrees : A.B. in 1873; A.M. in 1876; B.D. in 1877; Ph.D. in 1884; D.D. in 1886. His degree of LL.D came to him from Marietta College in 1893. He held pastorates in Slatington, Pa., 1877-79; Fairfield, Conn., 1879-83; and New Britain, Conn., 1883-86. From 1886 to 1892 he was college preacher and professor of biblical literature at Amherst College ; and from 1892 to 1899 he was president of Wabash College. His work in Oberlin Theological Seminary thus covered but two years. He became an active member of the National Educational Association at the Denver meeting in 1895. muiarJ) 1barrl6 CbanDlcr Willard H. Chandler was born in Brattleboro, Vt., in 1830, and obtained his early education at his home school. In 1854 he removed to Wisconsin, and settled first at Delavan; later he removed to Windsor, near Madison; and in 1868 he located on a farm at Sun Prairie village, where he resided until his death, in 190 1. Altho his school training practically closed at fifteen years of age he was a lifelong student, and an earnest, independent thinker, and had a large part in building up a great and connected public-school system in his adopted state. In 1856 he taught a rural school near Windsor, Wis.; later he was town superintend- ent, and for four years was a county superintendent. In 186 1 he became a member of the state legislature, and for the following years of his membership of that body a leader in all matters of educational legislation. In 1 87 1, at the opening of the first Wisconsin state normal school at Platteville, he became a member of the board of regents of NECROLOGY 895 normal schools, a position which he held continuously for twenty-one years. From 1 88 1 to 1890 he held the position of assistant state superintendent of public instruction, and was largely instrumental in organizing and conducting the state teachers' insti- tutes. He was for four years state inspector of high schools. He became a member of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences in 1872, and a life member of the National Educational Association at the Madison meeting in 1884. TKHateon Cornell Dr. Watson Cornell was born near Richboro, Bucks Co., Pa., in 1845. He graduated from the Millersville State Normal School in 1868, and received the degree of Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1897. After teaching for a time in rural schools of Clearfield county he removed to Phila- delphia in 1870 to become the principal of Point Breeze School. In 1879 he organized the grammar school at Twelfth and Jackson streets. In 1885 he was made supervising principal. In 1889 he became supervising principal of the Logan Grammar School, which position he held at the time of his death, which occurred at his home in Philadel- phia, March 16, 1902. His wife and three children survive him. He became an active member of the National Educational Association at the Buffalo meeting in 1896. I IRobcrt Curcg Dr. Robert Curry, the founder of Curry College, Pittsburg, Pa., was born in West- moreland Co., Pa. He graduated from Jefferson College in 1848, receiving from the college the degree of A.B. in that year, of A.M. in i85i,and of Ph.D. in 1873.. In i860 he founded Curry College ; in 1873 he was appointed deputy state superin- tendent of public instruction; in 1 876 he was elected principal of the Nebraska State Normal School, and was president of the Nebraska State Teachers' Association in 1880. He was the author of various pamphlets, addresses, and reports on educational topics. In 1895 he had a stroke of apoplexy, from which he did not fully recover. He died at Allegheny, Pa., December 13, 1901. He became a life member of the National Educational Association at the Madison meeting in 1884. 5ebfel fcittcrlDQe 2)avl0 Principal J. K. Davis died at his residence in Chicago, February 5, 1902. He was born in 1848, at Troy, Oakland Co., Mich. He spent his early life on a farm, excepting for short periods when attending the city schools at Pontiac. In 1865 he graduated from Eastman's Business College, Poughkeep- sie, N. Y., and in 1874 from the State Normal College at Ypsilanti, Mich. He began teaching immediately after graduation, at Concord, Mich. Later he taught for a number of years in various states. He spent two years in the southern states among the schools for colored people, sustained by the American Baptist Home Missionary Society, and for a time was principal of the Baptist Bible and Normal Institute, at Memphis, Tenn. After a few years of business life in Michigan and Arizona, he accepted the principalship of the Audubon School in Chicago, in which position he had served for three years at the time of his death. His wife, a son, and a daughter survive him. He became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1900. 896 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION MilUam D. Olascocft William H. Glascock was born near Greenfield, Ind., in 1857. His boyhood was spent on a farm in Hancock and Tipton counties, and his early education was received in the rural schools. At the age of twenty years he began teaching a country school, and graduated from the Central Normal College at Danville, Ind., in 1885. He graduated from the Indiana State University in 1898, and took his master's degree at the University of Chicago in 1899. He was county superintendent of the schools in Hancock county for four years, and later became superintendent of schools of Greenfield, Ind. He later became superintend- ent of the Indiana State School for the Blind, and was elected to the superintendency of the schools of Bloomington, Ind., in 1899, which place he held at the time of his death. He also held a position as associate professor of pedagogy in the Indiana State University. Mr. Glascock had written two books for children, and was expecting soon to com- plete a more extensive work. His death occurred December 26, 1901. He became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1899. IFranft IDalentfne l)ubbarD Frank Valentine Hubbard was killed by an accident at his home in Red Wing, Minn., on August 27, 1901. He was born in southern Wisconsin February 14, 1855. His boyhood was spent on the farm, where, in the rural schools for a few months each year, he secured his early education. He taught in the country schools at an early age, and later completed a course at the State Normal School at Whitewater, Wis. He served as principal of schools at Dundas, Minn., and as superintendent at Redwood Falls, Waseca, and Red Wing. He took a prominent part in the various country, district, state, and national educational gatherings, and was recognized thruout the state as one of the leading and progressive educators. He became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1895, and served as state director in 1899. 5obn Scull Hrwin John Scull Irwin, LL.D., was born of Scotch-Irish parentage at Pittsburg, Pa., April 4, 1825. He graduated from the Western University of Pennsylvania with the degree of A.B., in 1842, and from the University of Pennsylvania with the degree of M.D. in 1847. In 1875 he was granted the degree of LL.D. by the State University of Indiana. Because of ill-health he abandoned the practice of medicine and removed in 1853 to Ft. Wayne, Ind., where he engaged in the banking and insurance business for twenty years. In 1875, having served ten years as school trustee, he was elected superintendent of the Ft. Wayne schools, which position he held until 1896. Retiring from active life at that time, he removed a year later to Lafayette, Ind. His death occurred in that city August 19, 1901. He became a life member of the National Educational Association at the Chautau- qua meeting in 1880; NECROLOGY 897 Ibenrg /Obartin Barnes Henry M. James was born in the town of Troy, Geauga Co., O., March 3, 1837. His early life was spent on a farm and in attendance on a rural school during the winter months. In 1850 he entered the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, four miles from his home. He and his sister, with Burke A. Hinsdale and his sister, united in boarding themselves while attending school at Hiram. He taught his first school near Hiram. For several years following he was alternately teacher and student. Under the advice and encouragement of James A. Garfield he studied at Oberlin College, and afterwards at Williams College, where he graduated in 1861 with the degree of A.B. The degree of A.M. was granted to him by his Alma Mater in 1864. After graduation he taught school at Hudson, Mich. In 1864 he was called to the Kentucky Street School in Cleveland, O. Mr, James was associated with Andrew J. Rickoff in the Cleveland schools for the following sixteen years. In 1882 he became superintendent of the city schools of Omaha, Neb., which position he held for nine years. After a year of travel visiting schools in Europe he became superintendent of city schools of Tacoma, Wash., in 1893, where he remained three years. Later he served as principal of the high school at Portland, Ore., for a short time, but resigned on account of ill-health. His last months were spent with a married daughter at Chapel Hill, S. C. He died August 5, 1901. His wife and two daughters survive him. He became a life member of the National Educational Association at the Madison meeting in 1884. Xaura Xucas ^onsatrat Mrs. Laura L. Monsarrat, whose maiden name was Laura Lucas, died April 12, 1900. She was a native of Louisville. Her early education was obtained in public and private schools of that city. In 1850 she was appointed teacher in the Female School at Fourteenth and Jefferson streets. In 1852 Miss Lucas became principal of the Female Grammar School, which position she held until 1856, when she was elected assistant in the Female High School. In 1 86 1 Miss Lucas was married to Mr. Monsarrat, a teacher in the high school. A year later she became assistant in one of the male high schools, and in 1862 was again elected assistant in the Female High School. In 1881 she became principal of a district school, and in 1 882 was transferred to the Seventh Ward School, where she remained until the time of her death. An evidence of the esteem in which the children of Louisville held Mrs. Monsarrat appears in the fact that the monument erected over her grave was paid for by money donated by the children. Mrs. Monsarrat became a life member of the National Educational Association at the Louisville meeting in 1877. 5obn (5. mageler John G. Nageler was born in Oldenburg, Germany, March 27, 1858. At the age of fifteen he removed with his parents to New Holstein, Wis. Later he attended the Chil- ton High School, and afterward taught in the rural schools of the town of New Holstein. He completed a four years' course of study in the Oshkosh State Normal School, gradu- ating with the class of 1885. For four years following he was instructor in English in the German-English Academy of San Antonio, Tex. He then returned to Wisconsin and 898 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION became principal in the Janesville High School for two years, and later of the Chilton High School until 1896, when he was appointed principal of the Nineteenth District School of Milwaukee, Wis., which position he held until the time of his death, September 25, 1901. He became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1896, at the Buffalo meeting. 5obn Daniel ©rr Principal J. D. Orr, of the Central School, Kansas City, Kan., died at that city November 2, 1901. He was born near Ft. Scott, Kan., in 1865, He was educated in the common schools of Bourbon Co., Kan., and in the Kansas Normal College at Ft. Scott, from which he graduated in 1895. He held the principalship of schools in Ft. Scott for eight years. He next took charge of the schools at Big Timber, Mont., where he remained two years. Returning, he again became a principal of the Central School, Ft. Scott. This position he resigned to take charge of the Central School of Kansas City, Kan. His wife and two children survive him. He became an active member of the National Educational Association at the Toronto meeting in 1891. 3Francla 1KIlaslan& iparfter For an extended memorial sketch of Colonel Parker by Wilbur S. Jackman, dean of the School of Education, University of Chicago, and tributes by members of the National Council, see pp. 399-408 of this volume. Calvin Smitb Pcnncll Professor Calvin Smith Pennell, whose death occurred at St. Paul, Minn., on March 16, 1 90 1, was well known in St. Louis for many years as a teacher in the high school and in Washington University. He was born in Colrain, Mass., January 24, 18 16, but in early boyhood went to Franklin, Mass., where he came under the influence of his uncle, Horace Mann, fitting for Waterville College, Me., from which institution he graduated in 1 84 1. He then became the principal in succession of the academies at Wrentham, Chicopee, Charlestown, and Lawrence, Mass. In 1853 Professor Pennell joined his uncle at Yellow Springs, O., where Mr. Mann was then president of Antioch College, and contributed much to the brilliant reputation which that institution enjoyed. In 1856 Professor Pennell went to St. Louis, Mo., where he took charge, first, of the high school, and later of Mary Institute, the girls' department of Washington University, in which position he remained for thirty-one years. In 1887 Professor Pennell left St. Louis to make his home in Minnesota, where his life has been passed quietly in the enjoyment of his literary pursuits and in the pleasures of a country life. He leaves one daughter, Mrs. C. C. Hoyt, of Greenfield, Mass. He became a life member of the Association in 1864 at the meeting in Ogdensburg N. Y. Cbarles Collins IRounOs For an extended memorial sketch of Dr, Rounds by Henry Sabin, of Des Moines, la., and tributes by members of the National Council, see pp. 391-399 and 405-408 of this volume. NECROLOGY 899 •Rate XTaubman Miss Kate Taubman was born in Cedar Falls, la., in 1863, She received her pro- fessional training as a teacher in the State Normal School at Cedar Falls, She was county superintendent of schools of Aurora county, South Dakota, for four years ; prin- cipal of the schools of Plankinton, S. D., for several years ; principal of the schools of Aberdeen, S. D., for four years ; and was assistant principal of the Deadwood High School at the time of her death, January 27, 1902. She was president of the State Teachers' Association of South Dakota for several consecutive years. She became an active member of the National Educational Association at the meet- ing at Asbury Park in 1894. 1benr^ 5. ^a^lor Henry J. Taylor was born at Blue Mounds, Wis., April 8, 1855. He received his common-school education at Black Earth, Wis., where he lived the life of a farmer's boy. At the age of seventeen he entered the University of Wisconsin, and graduated with first honors in 1878, receiving the degree of A.B. The following year he was an instructor in oratory in his Alma Mater, and later became an instructor in Latin and Greek. In 1879 he entered the law department of the university, and the following year was graduated with the degree of LL.B. From 1882 to 1885 he was county superintendent of schools of the western district of Dane county. In 1884 he completed a special course of study in Greek and received from his Alma Mater the degree of A.M. In 1885 he entered upon the practice of law in Sioux City, la., where he lived until the time of his death, which occurred July 21, 1902, in Auckland, N. Z., where he had gone with Mrs. Taylor in a fruitless search for health. His wife and four children survive him. Mr. Taylor became a life member of the National Educational Association at the Madison meeting in 1884. :65war5 (BcnDer MarD Edward G. Ward, borough superintendent of schools of Brooklyn, N. Y., died in Brooklyn, September 13, 1901. He was born in Williamsburg, N. Y., in 1846. His early education was obtained in the public schools of New York city and Hoboken Later he attended the New York Normal School and the New Jersey State Normal School at Trenton. He began his career as a teacher at the age of seventeen as vice-principal of a grammar school in Hoboken, N. J. Later he became principal of a grammar school in Bergen, N. J., and afterward principal of Grammar School No. 2 in Jersey City. A few years later he was made instructor in mathematics and grammar in the Jersey City Nor- mal School, where he remained until 1879, when he was appointed principal of Grammar School No. 19 in Brooklyn. He was the first of a line of educators who have become prominent in the school system of that city. Superintendent Ward was a writer of high reputation on educational subjects. In 1898, on the consolidation of the boroughs into the city of New York, Mr. Ward was elected borough superintendent, which position he held at the time of his death. He became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1899. 900 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION William Clarftc 'WabittorD President William Clarke Whitford, D.D., was born in 1828 in Edmeston, N. Y. His early education was obtained in the Brookfield Academy at Brookfield, N. Y., and in the De Ruyter Institute. His later education was obtained in Union College and Union Theological Seminary. He was president of Milton College from 1867 until his death, on May 20, 1902. He was state superintendent of public instruction of Wisconsin for four years, and foi" nine years was a member of the board of regents of normal schools. For four years he was editor of the Wisconsin Journal of Education. President Whitford became a life member of the National Educational Association at the Madison meeting in 1884. 5obn 5). l^crbg John D. Yerby, late superintendent of public schools of Mobile, Ala., was born in Greensboro, Ala., in i860. He received his primary education in a school taught by his father, and completed his course at the Southern University at Greensboro, Ala., receiv- ing the degree of A.B. at eighteen years of age ; later his Alma Mater conferred on him the degree of A.M. At nineteen years of age he became teacher in the Boys' Senior Grammar School of Barton Academy ; later he became principal of the school, which position he held until he was elected superintendent of the public schools of Mobile in 1895. His death occurred August 10, 1900. His wife and one daughter survive him. Superintendent Yerby became an active member of the National Educational Asso- ciation at the Denver meeting in 1895, ^.nd was treasurer of the Southern Educational Association at the time of his death. I LIST OF LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS ARRANGED BY STATES, CLASSES, AND YEARS OF CONTINUOUS MEMBERSHIP REVISED TO NOVEMBER 15, 1902 The marginal figures indicate the year of enrollment as active members by those whose names immediately follow. The indented figures indicate year of appointment to present educational position. The value of this list as an educational directory depends upon its accuracy and completeness ; all members are invited to contribute to this end by furnishing corrections of errors, however slight, and by supplying omitted data. The institutions enrolled as members will be found grouped at the end of the list for each state ; the arrangement is alphabetical in the order of enrollment. Extra copies of this list may be obtained by remitting twenty-five cents to the Secretary of the National Educational Association, Winona, Minn. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS ENGLAND 1898 Miss Dorothea Beale, LL.D., '02, Univ. of Edinburgh, Associate of Queen's ColL, London. First Lady Mathematical Tutor, 1850-57; also Latin Tutor; Principal of the Chelten- ham Ladies' College since 1858; Oflficier d'Academie of Paris, 1889; President of the Association of Head Mistresses, 1895; Tutor in Letters of the Univer- sity of Durham, 1896; Author of various Reports, Essays, and Text-Books. Address: Ladies' College, Cheltenham. Sir Joshua Fitch, A.M., '52; Fellow, '75, of the Univ. of London; LL.D., St. Andrews' Univ. Formerly Principal of the Training College of the British and Foreign School So- ciety; Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools and Chief Inspector of Training Colleges, 1863; Knighted for Public Services on his Retirement from Office, 1896; some time Examiner in Cambridge and London Universities and for the Civil Service ; Author of Lectures on Teaching delivered before the Uni- versity of Cambridge, 1880, and other Books and Essays. Address: 13 Leinster Sq., Bayswater, W., London. Michael Ernest Sadler. A.M., Trinity Coll. and Christ Church, Oxford; LL.D.. (honorary) . '02, Columbia Univ. Secretary of the Oxford University Extension Delegacy, 1885-95 ; Student and Ste- ward of Christ Church, Oxford, 1890-95; Member of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, 1893-95; Director of Special Inquiries and Reports to the Board of Education (England and Wales) since 1895. Address: Board of Education Library, Canon Row, Whitehall, London, S. W. Hon. E. Lyulph Stanley, A.B., '62, A.M., '63, Oxon. Member of the Royal Commission on Education, 1886-87; Member of the London School Board since 1876, and present Vice-Chairman of that body. Address: 18 Mansfield St., London, W.. 1901 Cloudesley S. Henry Brereton, A.B., '96, A.M., '90, St. John's Coll.. Cambridge; B. es L., L. es L., Univ. of Paris. Examiner in Modern Languages to the Joint Scholarship Board, 1899-1901 ; Exami- ner in French to the Cambridge University Local Syndicate, 1898-1901; Examiner in Modern Languages to the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board, 1899-1901; Vice-President of the International Jury for Primary Education at the Paris Exposition, 1900; Appointed to inquire into the Teaching of Modern Languages in Ireland. 1901; Writer on Education in "Fortnightly Review," "The Times," "Saturday Review," etc.; Author of various Re- ports; Addressed the National Educational Association of the United States at Detroit, Mich., 1901, on "The Educational Crisis in England." Address: Briningham House. Melton Constable. Fabian Ware. Inspector of Secondary Schools for the Board of Education of London; Assistant Director of Education for the Transvaal. Address: 54 Goldhurst Terrace, Hampstead, N. W., London; colonial address: Pretoria, S. A. 901 90 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Hungary SCOTLAND 1898 Simon Somerville Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Univ. of Edinburgh, F.R.S.E.; Hon. Fellow of the Educational Institute of Scotland, and of the Comenius Society, Germany. Professor of the Institutes and History of Education, Edinburgh University, since 1876; Visitor and Examiner to Dick Bequest (educational) Trust since 1856; Secretary to the Endowed Schools (Scotland) Commission, 1872; Secretary to Association for Promoting Secondary Education in Scotland, founded 1876; at one time President of Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland; Member of Edinburgh University Court; Author of various Philosophical and Educational Books and Articles. Address: 22 George Sq., Edinburgh. FRANCE 1898 Ferdinand Buisson Professor of Education at the Sorbonne. Address: Paris. J. J. Gabriel Compayre, Ph.D., 1873. Professor of Philosophy, Lycees de Pau, 1865 — de Poitiers, 1868 — de Toulouse, 1871; Professor of Philosophy, Faculty of Letters of Toulouse, 1874; Pro- fessor of History of Education, Normal School of Fontenay aux Roses, 1880 — Normal School of St. Cloud, 1881 ; Member of Chambre des Deputes, 1881-89; Rector of the Academy of Poitiers, 1890-95; Rector of the Academy and University of Lyons, 1895; Corresponding IVIember of the Institut de France, 1901; Rector at the University of Lyons. Address: Lyons, France. Pierre Emile Levasseur, Doctor (ad Honoris), Univ. of Columbia and Univ. of Budapest; Litt. D., '56. Professor of Letters and Rhetoric, and of History, at several Lyceums, 1868; Pro- fessor at the College of France since 1868; Professor at the Institute of Arts and Trades, 1871-96; President of the Association for the Secondary Instruction of Young Girls at the Sorbonne since 1881; President of the Statistical Commission of Primary Instructors since 1876; Corresponding Member of the Academies of Prussia, Sweden, Hungary, and of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Address: 26, rue Monsieur-le- Prince, Paris. 1901 Charles Bayet. Professor of History and Archaeology of the Middle Ages at the University of Lyons, 1876; Rector of Academy of Lille, 1891; Director of Primary Educa- tion to the Minister of Public Instruction, 1896; Member of the Higher Council of Public Instruction, 1900; Author of various works on Archaeology and History of the Middle Ages; of a volume on Byzantine Art; of various articles on Teaching. Address: 27, rue Gay-Lussac, Paris. Leon Bourgeois. Formerly Minister of Public Instruction; Member of the Chamber of Deputies. Address: rue Palatine, Paris. Elie Rabier. Fellow in Philosophy, 1866-69; Professor of Philosophy in the Lyceum of Mon- tauban, 1869-72; of Cours, 1872; of Charlemagne at Paris, 1873-81; Master of the Department of Philosophy at the Superior Normal School, 1881; Director of Secondary Education in the Ministry of Public Instruc- tion, 1889; Author of various Educational Treatises. Address: 24, rue de Fleurus, Paris. Camille See. Counselor of State; Author of the Law of December 21, 1880, which created the Secondary Instruction of Young Women; Author of the Law of June 29, 1 88 1, which created the Normal School; Member of the Committees and Jury at the Universal Expositions of 1878, 1889, and 1900. Address: 65, avenue des Champs-Elys6es, Paris. GERMANY 1898 Friedrich Paulsen, Ph.D , '71, Berlin. Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogics, University of Berlin, since 1877. Address: Steglitz Fichtestrasse 31, Beriin. ITALY 1898 LuiGi BoDio, LL.D. Counselor of State; Commissioner General of Emigration; President of the Superior Council of Statistics; Member of various Statistical Societies in France, England, Germany, and America. Address: Rome. RUSSIA 1901 Engraph p. Kovalevsky. Member of the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of Public Instruction and Officer of the Special Missions at the University of Moscow, 1890; Secretary of the Imperial Senate, and delegate to the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 1893; Director of the Pedagogical Section of the National Exhi- bition at Nijni Novgorod, 1896; same at Stockholm. 1897; Director of the Pedagogical Commission at the Paris Exposition and member of the Inter- national Jury of Awards, 1900; Author of various papers on Educational Subjects. Address: Catherine Canal 14, St. Petersburg. HUNGARY 1901 Bela de Tormay. Graduate of Budapest College and Royal University; Professor of Zoology in Agri- cultural School, 1865; Director, 1869; Director Budapest Veterinary Acad- emy, 187s; Counselor in Royal Hungarian Ministry of Agriculture, 1886 to d9,te; Author of various papers on Agricultural Topics; Corresponding Mem- ber of the Royal Academies of Hungary and Italy. Address: V. Nador Utcza, Budapest. Costa Rical LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 903 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 1901 Joseph Benjamin Zubiaur, LL.D., '84, Univ. of Buenos Ayres. Professor and Assistant Supervisor of Normal Schools and National Colleges, 1881- 84; Inspector of the Normal Schools and National Colleges, 1885-91; Dele- gate sent by the Minister of Public Instruction to the World's Exposition at Paris in 1889; Principal of the National College of Concepcion del Uruguay, 1892-98; Director of the Section of Education, 1899; Member of the National Board of Education, 1899; Delegate to the Pan-American Exposition from the Province of Entre Rios and General Board r.f Education of the Pro- vince of Corrientes, also Commissioner to Study the Elementary Schools and Adult Evening Schools of the United States, 1901 Address: Buenos Ayres, Argentine Republic UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 1901 Alcides Medrado. Address: Care of Legation of the United States of Brazil, Washington, D. C. A. FONTOURA XaVIER. In Consular Service (various appointments), 1885-97; Consul General from Brazil to the United States, 1897; Plenipotentiary to Universal Postal Congress at Washington, 1901; Delegate to Second Pan-American Congress, Mexico, 1901. Address: Rio Janeiro, Brazil; consular address: 17 State St., New York, N. Y. REPUBLIC OF CHILE 1901 Julio Peres Canto, LL.B., '90. Secretary of the Society for the Industrial Development of Chile. Santiago, 1891- 96; Commissioner of Chile at the Central American Exposition, 1897; Consul General of Chile to the Central American Republics, Guatemala, 1898; Delegate Secretary to the Pan-American Exposition of Buffalo (special commission), 1901. Consular address: Guatemala City, Guatemala, C. A. Carlos Silva Cruz, Graduate University of Chile, 1899. Professor of Spanish and Composition at the "Liceo Miguel Luis Amunategui," Santiago, 1895; and at the "Institute Nacional de Chile," 1898; Chief of Section of Secondary, Superior, and Special Instruction of the Ministry of Public Instruction of Chile, 1899; Commissioner in charge of the Educa- tional and Library Department of the Chile exhibit at the Pan-American Exposition of Buffalo, N. Y., and to study the organization of Educational Service of the United States, 1901. Permanent Address: 351 Breton St., Santiago, Chile; United States Address: Castle Inn, Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y. • Giullermo Freudenburg Cristi, Ph.B., '97, B.L., '00, Univ. of Santiago, Chile. Director and Chief of the School Department, Patronato Santa Filornena. 1896; Commissioner Assistant of Chile to the Pan-American Exposition (educa- tional department); Special Commissioner to Study the Educational Sys- tems in the United States and Europe, 1901. Address: Casilla 841, Santiago, Chile; United States address: Castle Inn, Niagara Sq., Buffalo, N. Y. REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA 1901 Dr. Joaquin Yela. Physician and Surgeon of the Faculties of Guatemala and San Francisco, Cal.; Founder and ex-Dean of the Guatemalan College of Pharmacy and Medi- cine; Guatemalan Commissioner to the Paris (1878) and Buffalo Exposi- tions; Delegate to the Second and Third Pan-American Medical Congresses; Member of the Caballeros Hospitalarios Espafioles of Madrid, Spain; Mem- ber of the Academic Nationale of Paris, France. Address: Guatemala City, Guatemala, C. A.; consular address: 4 Stone St., New York, N. Y. REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA 1901 Don Alejandro Bermudez, M.T., T.E., A.M., '92, Inst, of Granada, Nicaragua. Professor of Literature, National Institute, Guatemala, 1893; Member Pedagogical Congress of Guatemala; Inspector General of Finance of Nicaragua, 1898; Assistant Secretary of Promotion and Public Works of Nicaragua, 1899; Secretary of Legation of Nicaragua in Washington and Special Commissioner to Pan-American Exposition, 1901. Address: Care of Legation of Nica- ragua, Washington, D. C. Don Ramiro Gamez. Address: Care of Legation of Nicaragua, Washington, D. C. REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA 1901 Don Joaquin Bernando Calve. Address: Care of Legation of Costa Rica, Washington, D. C. 904 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Alabama LIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS ALABAMA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1881 John Massey, A.B., '62, A.M., '75, LL.D., '79, Univ. of Ala. 1876 President of Alabama Conference Female College, Tuskegee. 1882 Julia Shudwick Tutwiler. 1886, Principal of Alabama Normal College, Livingston. 1888 John Herbert Phillips, A.M., Marietta Coll., O.; Ph.D., Southern Univ., Ala. 1883, Superintendent of Schools, 2231, 7th Ave., Birmingham. 1894 LuciEN V. La Taste. General Agent, University Publishing Co. of New York; Box 564, Mont- 1895 Mary A. Cahalan. 1884, Principal of the Powell School, 231 1, 4th Ave., Birmingham. J. B. Cunningham. 1898, Principal of High School, 1030 S. 21st St., Birmingham. Robert Alexander Mickle, A.B., '86, Davidson Coll., N. C. Principal, Jefferson St. Primary and Grammar Schools, loi Georgia Ave., Mobile. James Knox Powers, A.M., '73, LL.D., '97, Univ. of Ala. 1901, Representative, B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., 619 Wesleyan Ave., Florence. 1898 Robert Venable Allgood, B.Sc, '90, So. Univ., Greensboro; A.M., '93, Univ. of Nashville. 1894, Superintendent of Public Schools, 4312, 2d St., Avondale, Birmingham. Charles A. Brown, C.E., A. & M. Coll. of Ala. 1897, Principal of Henley School, 2130, 6th Ave., Birmingham. J. F. Elliott. 1900, Superintendent of Schools at Brookwood and Searles, Brookwood, Tusca- loosa Co. J. D. Matlock. Representative of American Book Co., 21 12 N. 7th Ave., Birmingham. 1899 Daniel Pinkney Christenberry, Pd.B., '87, A.M., '88, Southern Univ., Greensboro, Ala. 1892, Professor of English, Southern University, Greensboro. 1900 John W. Abercrombie, A.B., '86, Oxford Coll.; LL.B., '88, Univ. of Ala. 1902, President, University of Alabama. University. Lucien p. Giddens. Greensboro. Charles B. Glenn, M.Sc, '92, Ala. Polytechnic Inst.; A.B., '96, Harvard Univ. 1899, Principal, Paul Hayne School, 709 S. 20th St., Birmingham. Willard J. Wheeler. 1896, President, Birmingham Business College, 1909K-1917K. ist Ave., Bir- mingham. Marshall Clark Wilson, C.E., '76, Univ. of Va. 1897, President, State Normal College, 648 Poplar St., Florence. 1901 Joseph M. Dill, A.M., Howard Coll., Ala. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 124, 22d St., Bessemer. Isaac W. Hill, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Emory Coll., Georgia. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, Gadsden. James Alex. Moore. Secretary, Alabama Girls' Industrial School, Montevallo. H. O. MuRFEE, B.Sc, '92, Marion Mil. Inst.; A.B., A.M., '97, Univ. of Va. Assistant Superintendent and Professor of Physics, Marion Military Insti- tute, Marion. John Lake Parker. 1900, Member, Board of Education, 191 3, ist Ave., Birmingham. Francis M. Peterson, A.M., D.D., '00, Southern Univ., Green.sboro, Ala. 1899, President of Alabama Girls' Industrial School, Montevallo. Mrs. J. H. Phillips. President, Free Kindergarten Association, Birmingham. 1902 Ernest F. Fenollosa, A.B., Harvard Univ. Ex-Professor of Philosophy, University of Tokio, Japan; 159 Church St., Mobile. Charles Lewis Floyd, A.B., Univ. of Ga. 1889, Superintendent of Citv Schools. 205 High St., Montgomery. H. C. Gunnels, A.B., '86, LL.B,, '91. 1902, State Superintendent of Education. Capitol, Montgomery. institutions 1897 Alabama Polytechnic Institute. President, Charles Coleman Thach; Acting Librarian, William O. Scroggs, Auburn. 1899 State Normal School at Jacksonville. President, William Clarence Daugette, Jacksonville. 1901 Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama. President, W. H. Councill: Librarian. Loretta V. Brownlow, Normal. State Normal College. Principal, E. M. Shackelford, Troy. Arkansas] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 905 ARIZONA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1890 Ferris S. Fitch, A.B., '77, Univ. of Mich. 1902, Chancellor of the University of Arizona, Tucson. 1899 Frank Yale Adams, A.B., '88, A.M., '97, St. Lawrence Univ. 1902, President of University of Arizona, Tucson. William J. Anderson, B.Sc, '97, National Univ., Chicago. 1899, Territorial Normal School, Tempe; res., S. 12th Ave., Phoenix. Edward J. Berringer. 1901, Principal Teacher, Indian School, Ft. Mojave. Mrs. Sidney C. Botkin. Matron of Indian School, Mohave City. William B. Creager, A.B., '95, Ind. State Univ. 1895, Superintendent of City Schools, CaHfomia Ave., Phoenix. A. J. Matthews. 1900, President, Territorial Normal School, Tempe. 1900 Milton J. Needham. 1 90 1, Superintendent and Special Disbursing Agent, Western Navajo School. Algert. 1901 William W. Ewing. Principal Teacher, Moqui Indian Training School. Keams Canon. Laura Howe. 1898, Government Indian Service, Sacaton Horace G. Wilson. 1902, Superintendent of San Carlos Indian School, San Carlos. 1902 R. A. Cochran. Superintendent of Indian School, Talklai. Sherman M. Woodward, M.Sc, '93, Washington Univ., St. Louis. Mo.; A.M., '96, Harvard. 1896, Professor of Mathematics and Mechanics, University of Arizona, Tucson. institutions 1901 Normal School of Arizona. President, A. J. Matthews, Tempe. Northern Arizona Normal School. President, A. N. Taylor, Flagstaff. University of Arizona. President, F. Yale Adams; Librarian, Howard J. Hall, Tucson. ARKANSAS active members 1887 Thomas A. Futrall, A.M., West Tenn. Coll.; LL.D., '00. Univ. of Ark. 189s. Examiner Public-School Teachers for Lee Co., Marianna. 1895 George B. Cook. A.M. Superintendent of City Schools, 200 Garden St.. Hot Springs. W. W. Rivers, A.B.. '86, A.M., '89, Univ. of Miss. 1 90 1, President of Central College, Conway. 1896 Howard Gates. 1902, Principal of Peabody High School, 517 W. 5th St., Little Rock. J. H. HiNEMON, A.M., '94, Arkadelphia Coll., and '02, Univ. of Nashville. 1902, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 815 Center St., Little Rock. Alfred Lee Peacher, A.M., '92, Wooster Univ., O. 189s, Superintendent of Schools, 806 Broadway, Van Buren. 1897 John Hugh Reynolds, A.B., '93, Hendrix Coll.; A.M., '97, Univ. of Chicago. 1902, Professor of History and Political Science, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville. 1898 Joseph Carter Corbin, A.M., '60, Ph.D., '99, Ohio Univ. 1873, President of Branch Normal College, 1821 W. 2d Ave., Pine Bluflf. T. P. Murrey. Representative of American Book Co., 212 Main St., Little Rock. J. R. Rightsell. Superintendent of City Schools, Little Rock. 1899 J. J. DOYNE. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock. James H. Witherspoon, A.B., '92, Univ. of Tenn. 189s, Principal of High School, 302 W. 17th Ave., Pine Bluff. 1900 J. D. Van Winkle. District Manager, B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., 1023 N. 14th St.. Ft. Smith. 1901 Christopher Columbus Black. 1902, Principal of High School, Mulberry. B. H. Caldwell. 1901, President, Normal College, Pea Ridge. J. H. Caldwell. Superintendent of City Schools, Harrison. J. Wilson Pettus, A.B., '97, Fisk Univ. 1897, Assistant Principal of Howard High School, 912 N. G St., Ft. Smith. E. O. Trent. Principal of Howard High School, 901 N. 9th St., Ft. Smith. 1902 B. W. TORREYSON. Superintendent of City Schools, Ft. Smith. institutions 1897 Hendrix College. President, Stonewall Anderson, Conway. 1901 University of Arkansas, Library. President, Henry S. Hartzog; Librarian, Mrs. Neil Carothers, Fayetteville. 9o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [California CALIFORNIA life members 1877 Mrs. Anna Kalfus Spero. Berkeley. 1879 James Harmon Hoose, A.M., '64, Ph.D., '73, Syracuse Univ. 1896, Department of Philosophy and History, University of Southern California, 255 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena. 1882 Harriet N. Morris, A.M., '86, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1520 Cedar St., San Diego. 1886 C. Y. Roop, A.B., '77, Univ. of 111. Editor "Co-operative Journal," 634, i8th St., Oakland. 1888 Rebecca F. English. 1891, Critic Teacher, State Normal School, 141 S. loth St., San Jos^. Joseph O'Connor. 1898, Principal of Mission High School, 310 Pine St., San Francisco. 1889 Mrs. Augusta W. Classen. 1633 Hyde St., San Francisco. ACTIVE members 1888 J. P. Greeley. 1889, Superintendent of Schools of Orange Co., Courthouse, Santa Ana. 1889 Sanford a. Hooper, A.B., '72, A.M., '82, Beloit Coll. Alhambra. Edward T. Pierce, LL.B., '77, Union Univ.; Pd.D., '94, N.Y. Nor. Coll. 1893, President of State Normal School, 631 W. 5th St., Los Angeles. . 1891 Elmer Ellsworth Brown, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich.; Ph.D., '90, Halle. 1898, Professor of Theory and Practice of Education, University of California, 2344 Telegraph Ave., Berkeley. 1892 Frederic L. Burk, B.L., '83, Univ. of Cal., A.M., '92, Stanford Univ.; Ph.D., '98, Clark Univ. 1899, President of State Normal School, Powell St., near Clay, San Francisco. 1893 James A. Foshay, A.M., Univ. of So. Cal.; Pd.D.. '98, N. Y. Nor. Coll. 189s, Superintendent of Schools, 2341 Scarff St., Los Angeles. 1894 Ellwood p. Cubberley. A.B., '91, Ind. Univ.; A.M., '02, Columbia Univ. 1898, Associate Professor of Education, Iceland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. Joseph C. Templeton, A.B., Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 611 Hickey St., Santa Ana. Charles C. Van Liew, Ph.D., '93, Jena. 1899, President of State Normal School, Chico. 1895 D- R- Augsburg, B.P.. '84, Syracuse Univ. 1898, Director of Drawing, Public Schools, 1261, 6th Ave., East Oakland. Lewis B. AyERv, B.Sc, '83, Tabor Coll.. la. 1895, Principal of Union High School, Redlands. Walter J. Bailey, A.M., '00, Bates Coll. 1 90 1, Principal, Los Angeles Military Academy, Commonwealth Ave., Los Angeles. Samuel T. Black. 1898, President of State Normal School, San Diego, Theodore B. Comstock, B.Agri.. '68, Pa. State Coll.; B.Sc, '70, D.Sc, '86, Cornell Univ. 827 Beacon St., Los Angeles. Melville Dozier, Ph.B., '67, B.Pd., Furman Univ., S. C. 1895, Vice-President of State Normal School, 825 W. nth St., Los Angeles. Charles Edward Hutton, A.B., '53, A.M., '61, St. John's Coll., Md. 1890, Instructor in State Normal School, 1007 W. 21st St., Los Angeles. Thomas J. Kirk. 1899, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento. George R. Kleeberger. 1902, Principal of High School, 103 N. W. 3d Ave., Visalia. J. B. MoNLUX. A.M., '81, Iowa State Univ. 1896, Principal of 28th St. School, 434 E. Adams St., Los Angeles. 1896 E. Morris Cox, A.B., Haverford Coll., Pa. 1897, Principal of Public Schools, 625 Johnson St., Santa Rosa. Harriet M. Scott. 1902, Acting Professor of Pedagogy in Throop Polytechnic Institute, 22 W. Cali- fornia St., Pasadena. Henry Morse Stephens, A M., '92, Oxford. 1894, Professor of History and Director of University Extension, University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley. 1897 Frank H. Ball. 1900, Director of Manual Training, Throop Polytechnic Institute, 162 Oakland Ave., Pasadena. Christine M. Benson. 1898, Teacher of Primary Grade, Hotel Lillie, Los Angeles. Arthur Henry Chamberlain. 1896, Professor of Education, and Principal of Normal School, Throop Polytechnic Institute, 377 N. Los Robles Ave., Pasadena. Florence Lawson. 1896, Director of Kindergarten Training Department, State Normal School, Belle- vue Terrace Hotel, Los Angeles Fernando Sanford. 1 891, Professor of Physics, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. 1898 James A. Barr. 1801, Superintendent of City Schools, 1407 E. Channel St., Stockton. Morris Elmer Dailey, A.M., Ind. Univ. 1900, President of State Normal School, San Jos^. David Starr Jordan, M.Sc, Ph.D., M.D., LL.D. 1891, President of Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. Californiaj LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 907 CALIFORNIA— Ccm/iwMerf i8g8 Anna E. Lemon. 1894, Teacher in First Primary, Lincoln Building, 50 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena. Cecil Wirt Mark, B.Sc, '88, Univ. of Pacific, Cal. 1900, Member of Board of Education, 1007 Dolores St., San Francisco. Julius Irving Read, A.B., '94, Dartmouth Coll. 1902, Vice-Principal of Union High School, Box 245, Oroville. 1899 OsMER Abbott, A.B., '90, Oberlin Coll.; Ph.D., '98, Jena. 1899, Principal of Washington Union High School, Rural Route 2, Fresno. James E. Addicott. 1891, Teacher of Manual Training and Mathematics, 55 George St., San Jos^; tem- porary address, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Lulu Claire Bahr. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 223 7th St., San Bernardino. Thomas Pearce Bailey, Jr.. A.B., '87, A.M., '89, Ph.D., 'gi, Univ. of So. Cal. 820 W. iTth St., Los Angeles William Howard Baker, A.M., P.T., St. Nor. Sch., Kirksville, Mo. 1900, Instructor of Mathematics, State Normal School, 322 S. 7th St., San Jos^. Hugh J. Baldwin. 1899, County Superintendent of Schools, Courthouse, San Diego. Miss Lew A. Ball. 1898, Teacher in Garfield School, ssS, 13th St., Oakland. Honora D. Cannon. Primary Teacher, Public Schools, Oxnard. Frederick H. Clark, A.M., '86, Univ of Cal. 1889, History Department, Lowell High School, San Francisco; res , 141 8 Myrtle St.. Oakland. F. A. CooLEY, A.B., '92, Stanford Univ. 1901, Principal of Union High School, Clovis. Minnie Coulter, A.B., '98, Stanford Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools of Sonoma County, Santa Rosa. Jessk George Cross, A.M., '68, McKendree Coll. 1900, Professor in Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena; res., Monrovia. Frank P. Davidson, A.B., '78, A.M., '80, Wittenberg. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, Sefton Block, San Diego. Anna E. Edwards. 1890, Teacher of Eighth Grade, City Schools, 1837 3d St., San Diego. Walter A. Edwards, A.B., '83, A.M., '86 LL.D.,'02, Knox Coll. 1897, President of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena. W. S. Edwards, A. M., Alfred Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Santa Barbara Co., Santa Barbara. Richard Douglas Faulkner, B.L.. '77, Univ. of 111. 189s, Principal, Franklin Grammar School, San Francisco. J H. Fra-ncts. Head of Commercial Dept., High School, 1701 New England St., Los Angeles. E. F. Goodyear, A.B., '92, Univ. of Cal. 1896, Pacific Coast Agent of The Macmillan Co., 325 Sansome St., San Francisco. Hattie P. GOWER. 1896, Assistant Teacher of Sloyd, 3003 Minnesota St., Los Angeles. James D. Graham, A.B., '88, A.M , '92, Toronto Univ. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, 500 Ellis St., Pasadena. Lyman Gregory, M.D., '87. Chicago Hom. Med. Coll. 1899, Teacher of Physiology in High School, 400 W. 30th St., Los Angeles. A. F. GuNN. Representative of American Book Co., 204 Pine St., San Francisco. Julius C. Hammel, A.B., '94 Stanford Univ. Principal of George Dewey School, Fruitvale. Lillian D. Hazen. 1899, Principal of Vernon School, 544 Ruth Ave., Los Angeles. T. L. Heaton, B.L., LL.B., '80, Univ. of Mich. 1897. Instructor in Education, University of California, 2432 College Ave., Berkeley. W. H. Housh. 1895, Principal of High School, 1534 Ingraham St., Los Angeles. Agnes E. Howe, A.B., '97, Stanford Univ. 1897, Instructor in History, State Normal School, San Jos^. A. D. Hunter. 1873, Director of Music, PubUc Schools, 440 West Holt Ave., Pomona. Frank H. Hyatt. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Pomona. O. P. Jenkins. A.B., A.M., Moore's Hill Coll.; M.Sc, Ph.D., Ind. Univ 1 89 1, Professor of Physiology, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford Uni- versity. Burt Ornon Kinney, A.B., '97, Stanford Univ. 1901, Head of Department of History and Economics, High School, 2802 Menlo Ave., Los Angeles. C. A. KuNOU. Supervisor of Manual Training, 422 So. Avenue 19, Los Angeles. J. W. McClymonds, A.B., '71, Westminster, Pa. 1888, Superintendent of City Schools, 447 34th St., Oakland. Frederick H. Meyer. 1902, Instructor in Drawing, Univ. of California, 420 Montgomery St., Berkeley. Ernest Carroll Moore, A. B., '92, LL.B., '94, Ohio Nor. Univ.; A.M., '96, Columbia Univ.; Ph.D., '98, Univ. of Chicago. 1899, Instructor in Philosophy, University of California, Berkeley. 1899 Frank Morton, A.B., '80, Dartmouth. 1888, Principal of Lowell High School, 3331 Washington St., San Francisco. 9o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [California CALIFORNIA— Cow/inw^d Ernest H Mosher. 1897, Principal of Schools, Benicia. F. O. Mower, A.B., '78, Bates Coll., Lewiston, Me. 1897, Principal of High School, 715 3d St., Napa. M. M. Parker, A.M., '78, Wesleyan Univ. 516 E. California St., Pasadena. Minnie E. Rees. Teacher in City Schools, 632 Britannia St., Los Angeles. Mrs. Julia Cole Sherwood. T902, Principal of School, Lower Lake. Mrs. Hattie Burdick Shorkley. 578, 17th St., Oakland. David S. Snedden, A.B., '97, Stanford l/niv.; A.M., '01, Columbia Univ. 1901, Instructor in Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford Univ. Edwin Diller Starbuck, A.B., Indiana Univ.; A.M., Harvard Univ.: Ph.D., Clark Univ. 1897, Assistant Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. F. W. Stein, Jr. 1899, Principal of Harper School, 1350 Newton St., Los Angeles. Anna M. Stovall. 1 89 1, Principal of Free Norrnal Training School of Golden Gate Kindergarten Association, Hearst Kindergarten Building, 560 Union St., San Francisco. John Harvey Strine. 1898, County Superintendent of Schools, Room 47, Courthouse, Los Angeles; per- manent address, Monrovia. Francis A.Swanger M.S.D., '92, Mo. State Nor. Kirksville; A.M., '98, "Willamette Univ., Ore. 1899, Principal of High School, Woodland. John Swett, A.M. (honorary), Dartmouth Coll. Martinez. G. S. Trowbridge, B.Sc, '80, A.M., '82, Iowa State Univ. 1902, Principal of Union High School, Santa Paula. Louis K. Webb, B.Sc, '78, Univ. of Mich.; A.M., '98. Stanford Univ. 1 90 1, Principal of John Swett Union High School, Crockett. Reginald Heber Webster, A.B., '77, A.M., '82, Univ. of Cal. 1897, Superintendent of Schools in and for the City and County of San Francisco, City Hall, San Francisco. Daniel H. White. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Solano County, Fairfield. M. Ida Williams, A.B., '99, Stanford Univ. 1899, Teacher in Public Schools, 139 N. Delacey St . Pasadena. 1900 Arthur W. Gray, A.B., '96, Univ. of Cal. 1900, Teacher of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics, Merced County High School; P. O. Box 183, Merced. George Arthur Merrill, B.Sc, '88, Univ. of Cal. 1894, Principal of California School of Mechanical Arts, and (1901) Director Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, i6th and Utah Sts., San Francisco. 1901 Estelle Carpenter. Supervisor of Music, City Schools, and in State Normal School, 1626 O'Farrell St., San Francisco. Mrs. Jessie W. Cook. 1902, Teacher in Sherman Institute, Riverside. Benjamin Marshall Davis, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, '92, Butler Univ. 1897, Professor of Biology, State Normal School, Los Angeles. Jerdina Faber. 1899, Teacher in Government Indian School, Perris. Efner a. Farrington, A.B., '86, Oberlin Coll., Ohio. Principal of Los Nietos Valley Union High School, Downey. Frank Kyselka, LL.B., LL.M. Columbian Univ., D. C. 1900, Superintendent and Special Disbursing Agent, Hoopa Valley Indian School, Hoopa. Mary A. Lang. Principal of Griffin Ave. School, 3003 Minnesota St., Los Angeles. Irving E. Outcalt, A.B., '96. A.M 4\i, Stanford Univ. 1 90 1, Principal of Merced County High School, Merced. Harry M. Shafer, B.Sc, '87, M.Sc, '90, Eureka Coll.; A.B., '99, A.M., '00, Harvard Univ. 1901, Professor of Psychologv and Education, State Normal School, San Diego. P. S. WooLSEY, B.L., Univ. of Cal. Representative of American Book Co., 204 Pine St., San Francisco George Harold Burwell Wright, A.B., Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Teacher of English and Latin, Los Banos. IQC2 James C. Bryant, A.B., '00, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Principal of Sherman Heights School, 541 20th St., San Diego Harley P. Chandler, B.Sc, '02, Univ. of Cal. 1902, Principal of Lincoln School, 221 N. Euclid Ave., Pasadena. Edward Hohfeld, A.B., '98, Univ. of Cal. 1902, Principal of Placer County High School, Auburn. Mary Forman Ledyard. 1898, Supervisor of Kindergartens, City Schools, West Lake Hotel, Los Angeles. Hasbrouck O. Palen. Educational Department , Milton Bradley Co .,122 McAllister St . ,ISan Francisco . Mrs. Georgia Wiard. Teacher in Graded School, Chula Vista. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, A B., '75, A.M., '78, Brown Univ.; Ph.D., '85, Heidelberg Univ.; LL.D., '96, Princeton; '00, Harvard and Brown; '01, Yale; '02, Johns Hopkins. 1899, President of the University of California, Berkeley Colorado] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 9^9 C ALI FO RN I A— CoM^mwed institutions 1895 University of California. President, Benjamin Ide Wheeler; Librarian, J. C. Rowell, Berkeley. 1897 Leland Stanford Junior University. President, David Starr Jordan; Librarian, Melvin Gilbert Dodge, Stanford University. Public Library of San Francisco. Secretary, George A. MuUin, San Francisco. State Normal School at Chico. President, C. C. Van Liew; Librarian, Susan T. Smith, Chico. State Normal School at Los Angeles. President, Edward T. Pierce; Librarian, Elizabeth H. Fargo, Los Angeles. 1898 State Normal School Library, San Jose. President, Morris Elmer Dailey; Librarian, Ruth Royce, San Jose. 1890 Pomona College, The. President, George A. Gates; Acting Librarian, F. A. Bissell. Claremont. State Library of California. Librarian, J. L. Gillis, Sacramento. 1000 Public Library, Los Angeles. Librarian, Mary L Jones, Los Angeles. COLORADO life director i88s EzEKiEL Hanson Cook, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Bowdoin Coll.; Ph.D., '89, Colgate Univ. 2429, 12th St., Boulder. 1888 Aaron Gove, A.M., '78, Dartmouth Coll.; LL.D., '88, Univ. of Colo. 1874, Superintendent of Schools, District No. i. High School, Denver. life member 1886 Frank Howard Clark, B.Didac, '83, Univ. of Kan,; A.M., '01, Univ. of Colo. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Spruce St., Central City. active members 1884 James H. Baker, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, LL.D., '92, Bates Coll. 1892, President of University of Colorado, Boulder. Robert H. Beggs, B.Sc. '68, 111. Coll.; M.Sc, '00, Ft. Worth Univ.; A.M., '00, Denver Univ. 1880, Principal of Grammar School, 2427 Ogden St., Denver. 1887 Charles V. Parker, B.Sc, '97, Denver Univ. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 601 Baca St., Trinidad. Z. X. Snyder, B.Sc, '76, A.B , '78, Ph.D., '85. Waynesburg Coll.. Pa. 1 89 1, President of State Normal School of Colorado, Greeley. 1892 Lewis C. Greenlee, '78, State Nor. Sch., Edinboro, Pa.; A.M., '95, Waynesburg Coll., Pa. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 2, 549 S. Tremont St., Denver. William Henry Smiley, A.B., '77, Harvard Univ. 1892, Principal of High School, Dist. No. i, 21 12 Lincoln Ave., Denver. 1893 Charles A. Bradley, '77, U. S. Military Acad. 1894, Principal of Manual Training High School, 1341 Corona St., Denver. James W. Scott, A.B., Duquesne Coll. 1899, Principal of Garfield School, 2030 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs. 1894 Edgar Rollin Downs, A.B., '76, A.M., '81, Williams Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 822, 3d Ave., Durango. S. Arthur Johnson, B.Sc, '91, M.Sc, '95, Rutgers Coll. 1896, Instructor in Science, High School, Dist. No. 2, 55 S. Washington Ave., Denver. 1895 H. M. Barrett, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Allegheny Coll. Teacher of Latin and English, High School; Editor "Colorado School Jour- nal," 526 Charles Building, Denver. A. E. Beardsley, B.Sc, '78, Cornell Univ ; M.Sc, '98, Univ. of Colo. 1892, Professor of Biology, State Normal School, 141 2, loth St., Greeley. George Lyman Cannon, A.M., '00, Denver Univ. 1887, Instructor in Geology and Astronomy, High School No. i, Denver. William V. Casey. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 820 Pine St., Boulder. Charles Ernest Chadsey, A.B., '92, A.M., '93, Stanford; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '97, Columbia. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, N. S., 2927 W. 36th Ave.. Denver. Fred Dick, A.M., Hamilton Coll.. N.Y. Principal of Normal and Preparatory School, 1 543-45 Glenam St., Denver. John Dietrich. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, 922 N. Weber St., Colorado Springs. E. Waite Elder, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, Princeton. 1900, Instructor in Physics, High School, Dist. No. i, Denver. John B. Garvin, B.Sc, '86, Univ. of Illinois. 1892, Instructor in Chemistry, High School, Dist. No. i, 2536 W. 34th Ave., Denver. John Francis Keating, A.B., '92, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, South Side, 1627 Carteret Ave , Pueblo. Charles Joseph Ling, B.Sc, '90, Cornell Univ.; A.M., '00, Ph.D., '02, Univ. of Denver. 1894, Instructor in Physics, Manual Training High School, Denver. Clara Louise Little. 189T, Teacher in Public Schools, Delgany School, Denver. J. S. McClung. 1879, Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. i, 421 W. nth St., Pueblo. 9IO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Connecticut COLORADO— Cow/WMed 189s Dora M. Moore. 1893, Principal of Corona School, 1031 Emerson St., Denver. Charles Skeele Palmer, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Amherst; Ph. D., '86, Johns Hopkins. 1902, President of Colorado School of Mines, Golden. Emanuel Stuver, B.Sc, '77, M.Sc, '85, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O.; M.D., '80, Ohio Med. Coll.; Ph.D., '95. Wyo. Normal and Scientific Coll. Rohling Block, Ft. Collins. 1896 O. J. Blakesley, B.Sc, Pd.D. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, La Junta. Mrs. Z. X. Snyder. Greeley. 1897 IzoRA Scott, A.B., '87, Kan. Nor. Coll. 1899, Principal of High School, 220 Pitkin St., Pueblo. 1898 Cecelia Adams, '88, Chicago Froebel Ass'n. Supervisor of Kindergartens, Dist. No. i, High School, Denver. Emily H. Miles. 1893, Supervisor of Drawing, Dist. No. t, 2432 Lincoln Ave., Denver. H. W. ZiRKLE, A.B., '83, Polytechnic Inst., Va.; A.M., '00, Univ. of Colo. 1892, Principal of Elmwood School, 357 Lincoln Ave., Denver. 1899 Arthur Allin, Ph.D., '95, Univ. of Berlin. 1898, Professor of Psychology and Education, University of Colorado, Boulder. A. B. Copeland. 1882, Superintendent of City Schools, 1228 Main St., Greeley. Edward C. Elliott, B.Sc, '95, A.M , '97, Univ. of Neb. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 311 Harrison Ave., Leadville. Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1452 Elizabeth St., Denver. Herbert Griggs. 1884, Director of Music, Box 765, Denver. Ellsworth Gage Lancaster, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Amherst; Ph.D., '97, Clark Univ. 1897, Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, Colorado College, 1511 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs . H. S. Philips, Ph.B., '83, Oskaloosa, Coll. 1890, Principal of Logan School, Dist. No. 2, 57 S. Washington Ave., Denver. Elizabeth Skinner. 1900, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2500 Boulevard, Denver. Henry B. Smith, A.B., '94, Harvard; A.M., '96. Moores Hill Coll. 1897, Instructor in Latin, High School, District No. 2, 137 W. First Ave., Denver. 1900 Robert Armstrong, M.D., Jefferson Coll., Philadelphia, Pa. Author and Publisher of "Glossography," Springdale, Boulder Co. Edwin F. Dyer, A.B , '91, LL.B., '92, Ind. Univ. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Loveland. Daniel E. Phillips, A.B., '93, A.M., '94, Univ. of Nashville; Ph.D., '98, Clark Univ. 1898, Professor of Philosophy and Education, University of Denver, University Park. 1901 Emma M. Herey. 1900, Superintendent of Schools of Arapahoe County, 1305 S. 13th St., Denver. Martha Hyde 1901, Supervisor of Primary Work, Public Schools, 223 E. 8th St., Leadville. Carena M. Lee, Ph.B., '96, Ph.M., '99, Univ. of Wooster. 1900, Head of Department of English, High School, 13 10 9th St., Greeley Walter H. Nichols, B.Sc, '91, Univ. of Mich.; A.M., '01, Columbia Univ. Department of History, University of Colorado, Boulder. Colin A. Scott, Ph.D.. '96, Clark Univ. 1 901, Superintendent of Training School, State Normal School, Greeley. Daniel Pomeroy Taylor, A B., '00, Univ. of Colo. 1902, Graduate Student and Assistant in Pedagogy, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder. William Triplet. 1887, Superintendent of City Schools, Golden. 1902 John V. Crone, Pd.B., '01, Colo. St. Nor. Sch. Assistant in Biology and Curator of Museum, State Normal School, Greeley. Thomas R. Croswell, A.B., '01, Bowdoin Coll., Ph.D., '99, Clark Univ. Superintendent of Training School, Colorado State Normal School, 1114, 9th St., Greeley. C. Valentine Kirby. 1902, Instructor in Art and Manual Training, Manual Training High School, 1455 Emerson St., Denver. C. E. Smedley, A.B., '99, A.M , '00, Univ. of Colo. Teacher in Columbian School, 3525 Clear Creek Ave., Denver. institution 1897 State Normal School at Greeley. President, Z. X. Snyder; Secretary, Vernon McKelvey, Greeley. CONNECTICUT ACTIVE members 1889 Charles W. Deane, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '92, Allegheny Coll. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 355 Noble Ave., Bridgeport. 1892 David N. Camp, A.M., '53, Yale. 1855, Manager of New Britain Library, 9 Camp St., New Britain. James Winne, A.B., '77, A.M., '79, Hamilton Coll. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Mason St., Greenwich. 1894 Frederick A. Curtiss. 1892, Principal of Old Saybrook High School, Saybrook. Delaware] I TFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 911 CONNECTICUT— Con<»n*«rf 1895 Nathan Lee Bishop. 1877, Superintendent of Central District Schools, 7 Huntington PI., Norwich. Charles H. Keyes, A.B., '78, St. Johns Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, South District, 82 Weathersford Ave., Hartford. 1896 E. Hermann Arnold. M.D., '94, Yale. 1895, Director of New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, 46 York Sq., New Haven. Francis E. Howard. 1890. Supervisor of Music, 526 West Ave., Bridgeport. 1897 Berlin Wright Tinker. A.B., '88, A.M., '89, Bates Coll 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 30 Fairview St., Waterbtiry. 1898 Arthur Deerin Call, Ph.B., '96, Brown Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 74 Gardner St., Ansonia. • Wilbur Fisk Gordy, A.M., '02, Wesleyan Univ 1884, Supervising Principal of North School District, 104 Gillett St , Hartford. Stuart H. Rowe, A.B., '90, Yale; Ph.D., '95, Jena Univ., Germany. 1898, Supervising Principal, City Schools, and (1901) Lecturer in Pedagogy, Yale University, 285 Willow St., New Haven. Sarah J. Walter. 1895, Principal of Training Department, State Normal School, Willimantic. 1899 Isaac M. Agard, A.B., '79, A.M., '84, Amherst Coll 1888, Principal of Rockville High School and Superintendent of East District Graded School, Vernon; res., Rockville. Waterman Rufus Burnham. 362 Main St., Norwich. Watson Nicholson, A.B., '92, Stanford Univ.; A.M., '95, Harvard Univ. 1902, Fellow in English, Yale University, 438 Elm St , New Haven. William North Rice, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Wesleyan; Ph.D., '67, Yale; LL.D., '86, Syracuse. 1867, Professor of Geology, Wesleyan University, 31 College PL, Middletown. Giles Alfred Stuart, A.B., '77, A.M., '80, Bates Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 31 Emmons PI., New Britain. 1901 Hans Ballin, M. Phys. Tr., '90, Nor. N. Am. Gym. Union. Director of Hartford Turnerbund and New Britain Turn Verein, 94 Park St., Hartford. Frederick S. Hitchcock. 1900, Supervisor of Manual Training, Connecticut School for Boys, Meriden. Harry Houston. 1896, Supervisor of Penmanship, Public Schools, 403 Edgewood Ave., New Haven. Mrs. Helen Brown Keyes. 82 Weathersford Ave., Hartford. Willis I. Twitchell, A.B., Middlebitry Coll., Vt. Principal of West Middle School, 31 Atwood St., Hartford. 1902 Mrs. Mary R. Davis. Supervisor and Teacher of Psychology, Normal Training School, 971 Fair- field Ave., Bridgeport. Mrs. Martha Krug Genthe, Ph.D., '00, Heidelberg, Germany. 1002, Instructor in Beacon School, 20 Buckingham St., Hartford. Frank Owen Jones, A.B., '97, Brown Univ. 1900, Supervising Principal of Dwight District, 387 Edgewood Ave., New Haven. William E. Mead, A B., '81, Wesleyan Univ.; Ph.D., '89, Leipsic. 1890, Professor of English Language, Wesleyan University, 165 Broad St., Middle- town. Harry Preble Swett, A.B., '93, Amherst Coll. 1899, Principal of School, Farmington. institutions 1899 Connecticut Agricultural College. President, George W. FHnt, Storrs 1901 Board of Education, New Haven, Conn. Superintendent, F. H. Beede, 21 Center St., New Haven. Free Public Library, New Haven. Librarian, W. K. Stetson, New Haven. Yale University Library. President, Arthur T. Hadley; Secretary, Anson Phelps Stokes, Jr.; Librarian, Addison Van Name, New Haven. 1902 New Britain Institute, Care of David N. Camp, New Britain. DELAWARE ACTIVE members 1890 George W. Twitmyer, A.M., '83, Franklin and Marshall Coll.; M.Sc, '90, St. Nor. Sch., Mansfield, Pa. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 1023 Adams St., Wilmington. 1891 Edwina B. Kruse, A.m., '00, Lincoln Univ. 1876, Principal of Howard High School, 206 E. loth St., Wilmington. 1892 Albert N. Raub, A..M., '67, Princeton; Ph.D., '79, Lafayette; LL.D., '95, Ursinus Coll. Author and Publisher, Newark. 1896 A. H. Berlin, A.M., '88, Hamilton Coll. 1888, Principal of High School, 822 Adams St., Wilmington. institutions 1901 Principals' Round Table, Wilmington. Librarian, Mary I. C. Williams, Wilmington. Wilmington Institute Free Library. Librarian, George F. Bowerman, Wilmington. 912 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [Dist. of Col. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA LIFE DIRECTORS 1876 William Torrey Harris, A.M., '69, Yale; LL.D., '70, Univ. of Mo.; '94, Univ. of Pa.; '95, Yale; '96, Princeton; A.M., Ph.D., '93, Brown Univ.; Ph.D., '99, Univ. of Jena, Germany. 1889, Commissioner of Education of the United States 1303 P St., N. W., Wash- ington . 1880 James Ormond Wilson, A.M. ,.'74, Dartmouth Coll. 1892, Secretary of American Colonization Society, 450 Pennsylvania Ave., N. W., Washington. LIFE members 1870 John "VS^esley Hoyt, A.M., Ohio Wes.Univ.; M.D., Eclectic Med. Coll., Cincinnati, O.; LL.D., Univ. of Mo. Chairman, National University Committee of 400, The Victoria, Washing- ton. 1880 John Hitz. 1887, Superintendent of Volta Bureau, 1601, 3sth St., Washington. 1884 Alex. Graham Bell, LL.D., Ph.D., M.D. 1 33 1 Connecticut Ave., Washington. ACTIVE members 1889 W. F. Powell. Minister to Haiti, American Legation; address. State Dept., Washington. 1892 Mrs. Sara A. Spencer. 1 89 1, President of Spencerian Business College, Academy of Music Building. 403 9th St., N. W., Washington. 1893 John Eaton, Ph.D., Rutgers Coll.; LL.D., Dartmouth Coll. Ex-U. S. Commissioner of Education, The Concord, Washington. 1894 Arthur Cary Fleshman, B.Sc, '84, M.Sc, '92, N. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. Teacher and Institute Conductor, 117, 7th St., N. E., Washington. Susan Plessner Pollock, Grad. of Kg. Nor. Inst., BerUn. Principal, Kindergarten Normal Institute, 1426 Q St., N. W., Washington. 1895 Allan Davis, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, '96, Columbian Univ.; LL.M., '93, Nat. Law School, Wash- ington. 1890, Principal of Business High School, ist St., between B and C Sts., N. W., Washington. Anna Tolman Smith. Bureau of Education, Washington. Sidney Fuller Smith, Grad., '84, U. S. Naval Acad.; M.Sc, '01, Columbian Univ.; LL.B., '02, Nat. Univ. 1724 Oregon Ave., Washington. 1896 Powhatan W. Robertson, M.Accts., '82, Eastman Nat. Bus. Coll. 1894, Columbian University, 2232 Q St., N. W., Washington. Rebecca Stoneroad, Grad., Oswego Nor. Sch. 1889, Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, Webster School, loth and H Sts., Washington. 1897 Court Foster Wood, LL.B., '84, LL.M., '85, Columbian Univ.; LL.D., '01, Ark. Nor. Coll. 1885, Principal of Wood's Commercial College, 311 E. Capitol St., Washington. 1898 Elias Brown. 1895, Teacher, Deanewood. Elizabeth V. Brown. Method and Training Teacher, Normal School, 1357 Roanoke St., Washington. Ellis W. Brown. 1896, Supervisor of Public Schools, 924 24th St., N. W., Washington. John T. Freeman, B.Sc, '83, M.Sc, '87, Dartmouth Coll. 1890, Supervisor, Washington Public Schools, Wallach School, S. E., Washington. Nathaniel P. Gage, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Dartmouth Coll. 1874, Supervising Principal of Schools, 11 26, sth St., N. W., Washington. Amanda Leaman Grant. 1887, Principal of Brent School, 507 E. Capitol St., Washington. William Hamilton, A.B., '84, Moravian Coll., Bethlehem, Pa.; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '01, Col- umbian Univ. 1890, Agent, Bureau of Education for Alaska, Bureau of Education, Washington. Mrs. Nora Lindenberg Hoegelsberger. 1887, Teacher of German, Central High School, 1338 Q St., Washington. Mrs. Louise E. Hogan. Author of books for and about children, ■ and Editor-in-chief of "The Children's Library," Box 205, Washington. HosMER M. Johnson. 1900, Supervising Principal, Public Schools, Washington; res., Chestnut St., Ana- costia. Artemas Martin, A.M., '77 Yale; Ph.D., '82, Rutgers; LL.D., '85, Hillsdale; Fellow of the A. A. A. S., Member of the London, Edinburgh, and N. Y. Mathematical Societies. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 915 N. St., N. W., Washington. E. E. McCaslin, A.B., '92, A.M., '95, Antioch Coll. Superintendent of Industrial Home School, Wisconsin Ave., Station A, Washington. Kelly Miller, A.B., '86, Howard Univ. 1890, Professor of Mathematics, Howard University, Washington. WiNFiELD Scott Montgomery, A.B., '78, Dartmouth; M.D., '90, Howard Univ., Med. Dept. 1900, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 191 2, nth St., N.W., Washington. LoviCK Pierce, A.B., '60, Emory Coll. 1893, Chief Clerk in Bureau of Education, 46 New York Ave., N. W., Washington. Alex. Summers, B.Sc, '76, A.M., '93, Univ. of Tenn. 1894, Statistician in U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington. Florida] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 913 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA— Co«39 MASSACHUSETTS— Co«/tnM«d [898 Edward O. Clark. 1902, Agent for Milton Bradley Co., 180 Berkeley St., Springfield. George Wells Fitz, M.D., '91. 483 Beacon St., Boston. » Frank Fuller Murdock, A.M., '00, Williams Coll. 1896, Principal of State Normal School, 375 Church St., North Adams. Herbert Myrick, B.Sc, '82, Mass. Agri. Coll. President of Orange Judd Company and Treasurer Good Housekeeping Institute, New York; 27 W. Worthington St., Springfield. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, A.B., '70, A.M., '73. Vassar Coll.; S.B., '73, Mass. Inst, of Tech. 1884, Instructor in Sanitary Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. [899 William A. Baldwin, B.Sc, '97, Harvard. 1897, Principal of State Normal School, Hyannis. Frank F Coburn, A B., '70, Amherst. Principal of State Normal School, 277 E. Merrimac St., Lowell. William Morris Davis, B.Sc, '69, M.E., '70, Harvard. 1899, Sturgis-Hooper Professor of Geology, Harvard University, 17 Francis Ave., Cambridge. Edwin H. Hall, Ph.D.. '80, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1895, Professor of Physics, Harvard University, 37 Gorham St., Cambridge. Charles H. Haskins, A.B., '87, Ph.D., '90, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1892, Professor of History, Harvard University, Cambridge. May E. Murray. "Kindergarten Review," 51 Acushnet Ave., Springfield. Louis Philip Nash, A.M., Amherst Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Morgan St., Holyoke. J. Asbury Pitman. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 62 Greenwood St., Marlborough. William T. Sedgwick, Ph.D., '81, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1883, Professor of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and 1897, Curator of The Lowell Institute, Boston. Elmer E. Silver, A.M., '88, Brown Univ. Educational Publisher, 219 Columbus Ave., Boston. Maurice B. Smith, A.B., '95, Amherst Coll. 1901, Sub-Master of High School, Quincy. Charles F. Warner, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Colby Coll. 1898, Principal of Mechanic Arts High School, 837 State St., Springfield. Elizabeth Josephine Woodward. Associate Principal of Private School, 319 Marlborough St., Boston. [900 Ellor E. Carlisle. 1898, Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Wellesley College; Hotel Kempton, 237 Berkeley St., Boston. Charles F. A. Currier, A.B., '87, A.M., '88, Harvard Univ. 1 89 1, Professor of History, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Sarah Fuller. 1869, Principal of the Horace Mann School for the Deaf, 178 Newbury St., Boston. Sterrie a. Weaver. 1888, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 61 Western Ave., Westfield. 901 J. W. Armington. 1893, Principal of Centre School, 15 Hampshire St., Everett. F. A. Bagnall, A.B., '90, Wesleyan Univ. 1 901, Superintendent of Schools, 47 Summer St., Adams. Ralph L. Baldwin. 1899, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, s Pomeroy Terrace, Northampton. Madge D. Ballou. 1901, Teacher in Public Schools, Quincy; res., 204 Metropolitan Ave., Hyde Park Stratton D. Brooks, A.B., '96, Univ. of Mich.; Pd.B., '90. Pd.M., '99, Mich. St. Nor. Coll 1902, Supervisor of City Schools, School Committee Building, Mason St., Boston. Frank P. Davison. Superintendent of Schools, Montague; res.. Prospect St., Turner's Falls. Arthur D. Dean, B.Sc, Mass. Inst, of Tech. First Assistant, Mechanic Arts High School, 837 State St., Springfield. Edward R. Goodwin, A.B., A.M.. D.C.L., Bates Coll. 1894, Principal, Classical High School, 22 Boynton St., Worcester. Edwin Arthur Jones, A.B., '76, Dartmouth Coll. 1890, Supervisor of Schools, 37 Walnut St., Stoughton. Henry Lefavour, A.B., '83, Ph.D., '86, LL.D., '02, Williams Coll., Mass. 1901, President of Simmons College, 30 Huntington Ave., Boston. Frank H Palmer, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Amherst Coll 1900, Managing Editor, " Education," 50 Bromfield St., Boston. Frank Edson Parlin, A.M., '89, Bates Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Quincy, Mass.; res., 19 Winthrop Ave., WoUaston. Alfred L. Saben, A.B., '93, A.M., '96. Dartmouth Coll. 1899, Principal of High School, Manchester. William H. Snyder, A.M., '88, Harvard Univ. 1890, Master in Science, Worcester Academy, 125 Penn Ave., Worcester. [902 Richard Cobb, A.B., '92, Harvard Univ. Instructor in English, Harvard University, 16 Quincy St., Cambridge. H. F. Cutler, A.B., '86. Amherst Coll. 1890, Principal of Schools, Mt. Hermon. Irving H. Gamwell, A.B., '96, Brown Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools and Principal of the High School, 255 Dean Ave., Franklin. Frank M. Gillby, A.B., '80, Harvard Univ. Instructor in Physics and Chemistry, High School, 100 Clark Ave., Chelsea. 940 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Michigan MASSACHUSETTS— Co^iWM^d 1902 Theodore Hough, A.B., '86, Ph.D., '93, Johns Hopkins Univ. Assistant Professor of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Augustus H. Kelley, A.M., '75, Colby Univ. 1888, Principal of Lyman School, 57 Montview St., W. R. District, Boston. Henry Smith Pritchett, Ph.D., Munich; LL.D., Pa. Coll., Harvard, Yale, Johns Hopkins. President of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Kate Stanley. 1902, Teacher of English, Mechanics Arts High School, 60 Sherman St., Springfield. Charles E. Stevens, A.B., '86, A M., '89, Bates Coll., Maine. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, Stoneham and Saugus, 9 Cedar Ave., Stoneham. Thomas Tapper, Fellow Am. Coll. of Musicians, Univ. of the State of N. Y. Editor, "Musical Record and Review," 162 Boylston St., Boston. institutions 189s Harvard College Library. President, Charles W. Eliot; Librarian, William C. Lane, Cambridge. 1897 Amherst College. President, George Harris; Librarian, W. I. Fletcher, Amherst. Boston College. President, W. G. Read Mullan; Librarian, Thomas I. Gasson, Boston. Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind. Director, Michael Anagnos, East Broadway, South Boston. Westfield State Normal School. Principal, Clarence A. Brodeur, Westfield. Williams College Library. President, Henry Hopkins; Librarian, Charles H. Burr, Williamstown. The City Library Association, SpringfieCd. Librarian, H. C. Wellman, Springfield. Free Public Library of the City of Worcester. Librarian, Samuel Swett Green, Worcester. Smith College. President, L. Clark Seelye; Librarian, Miss L. W. Lyon, Northampton. State Library of Massachusetts. State Librarian, C. B. Tillinghast, State House, Boston. ^ State Normal School, Fitchburg. Principal, John G. Thompson, Fitchburg. 1900 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. President, HenryS. Pritchett; Secretary, H.W.Tyler, 491 Boylston St., Boston. Public Library of the City of Boston. Librarian, James L. Whitney, Copley Sq., Boston. Public Library, Malden. Librarian, Miss L. A. Williams, Maiden. Salem Public Library. Librarian, Gardner M. Jones, Salem. Somerville Public Library. Librarian, S. W. Foss, Somerville. State Normal School, Salem. Principal, W. P. Beckwith, Salem. Wellesley College, Library. President, Miss Caroline Hazard; Librarian, Lydia B. Godfrey, Wellesley. 1901 Adams Public Library. Librarian, Lucy C. Richmond, Adams. College of the Holy Cross. President, Rev. Joseph F. Hanselman. S.J.; Rev Thomas E. Murphy, S.J., Prefect of Studies, Worcester. Forbes Library. Librarian, C. A. Cutter, Northampton. Free Public Library, New Bedford. Librarian, George H. Tripp, New Bedford. North Adams Public Library. Librarian. Mabel Temple, North Adams. Public Library of Fitchburg. Librarian, George E. Nutting, Fitchburg. Public Library, Lynn Librarian, J. C. Houghton, Lynn. 1902 Mt. Holyoke College. President, Miss Mary Emma Woolley; Librarian ,!Miss B. E .Blakeley, South Hadley. Taunton Public Library. Librarian, Joshua E. Crane, Taunton. MICHIGAN life directors 189s Hugh A. Graham, A.B., '87, A.M., '92, Albion Coll.; A.B., '90, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Commissioner of Schools, Isabella Co., Mt Pleasant. Charles G. White, A.B., '80, A.M., '81, Ph.D., '90. 1884, Superintendent of Schools, Lake Linden. active members 1884 John A. Stewart, A.B., '75, Univ. of Mich. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 908 Van Buren St., Bay City. 1887 William Austin Ellis, LL.B., '95, Detroit Coll. of Law; Grad., '83, Mich. State Nor. Coll. 1885, Principal of Dufheld Grammar School. 307 Merrick Ave., Detroit. 1889 Lewis Henry Jones. 1902, President of State Normal College, Ypsilanti Michigan] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 94 1 MICHIGAN— Coti. E. Minneapolis. EL. Arndt. 1897. Professor at Concordia College, 1280 St Anthony Ave , St. Paul F L. Barker, A.B. '98, Colgate Univ. Instructor in Science, High School, Duluth. George S. Beane, A.B.. B.Sc, '88, Victoria Univ.; Ph.D i8g6, Instructor in North High School, 1918 Laurel Ave., Minneapolis. Lafayette Bliss, A.B., Carleton Coll , Minn. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, Waseca E. W. Bohannon, A.m., '92, Univ. of Ind. 1901, President of State Normal School, Duluth. E. N. BoNNELi , B.Sc. '96, Iowa St. Coll.. Ames. 1900, Instructor in Central High School, j68 Nelson Ave., St. Paul. Florence A. Burlingame, Pd.M., '00, N. Y. Univ. 1901, Teacher of English, High School, Two Harbors; home address, McKinney. N. D. S. A. Chaliman. A.B., '88, A.M.. '98, Augustana Coll., Rock Island, 111. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, Montevideo. LuciEN W. Chaney, A.B., M Sc, Carleton Coll., Northfield, Minn. 1882, Professor of Biology, Carleton College, 717, 2d St., Northfield. Mrs Mary Le Due Chapin. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, Hastings. Mary B. Cutler, B.L., Carleton Coll., Northfield, Minn. 1896, Teacher of German and French, Albert Lea College, Albert Lea. Nettie C. Doud. St. Cloud. A. M. Dresbach. Superintendent of Schools of Olmsted Co., 1009 W. Zumbro St., Rochester. Esther Erickson. Clarkfield. F. H. Evans. Principal of Commercial Department, Windom Institute, Montevideo. Katie L. Fiske. Teacher in Graded Schools, Marshall. James T. Fuller, A.B., '97, Carleton Coll., Northfield, Minn. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Le Roy. Simon Ward Gilpin, M.E., B.Sc, Bucknell Univ. Lewisburg Pa 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Virginia. Christine Goetzinger, Grad., St. Nor. Sch., Moorhead, Minn. 1901, Superintendent of Schools of Otter Tail Co., Sheridan St., Fergus Falls. Sarah B. Goodman. ' , „ , , o ,^, j Principal of Kindergarten Department, State Normal School, bt. Cloud. Christopher W. Hall, A.M. . . , ,. -t • 1880, Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, University of Minnesota, 803 Uni- versity Ave., S. E., Minneapolis. H. S. HiLLEBOE, A.M., '8?, Luther Coll., Decorah, la. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Benson. Waldo W. Hobbs. _ . ^^ ,,. 1892, Principal of North High School, 2318 Fremont Ave., N., Minneapolis. J. Corrins Hutchinson, A.B. ,,,.,„» »r- i- 1896, Professor of Greek, University of Minnesota, 3806 Blaisdell Ave., Minneapohs. Louis N. Isaacs. . . 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Blooming Praine. Clara E. Jennison. , ^^ ^,. 1896, Principal of Logan School, 2300 James Ave., N., Minneapolis. Charles W. Johnson. .,,.„,, General Representative, Silver, Burdett & Co., Hotel Berkeley, Minneapolis. 948 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Minnesota MINNESOTA— Cow^iMwerf Maxwell W. Johnson. 1902, Principal of Schools, Vesta. Laura Kennedy. 1900, Principal of Irving School, 220 W. 3d St., Duluth. J. T Keppel, M.Sc, '00 Upper Iowa Univ. 1902 Instructor in Physical Science State Normal School, St. Cloud J. W. Klinker, A.B., Ohio Nor. Univ. Sijperintendent of Schools, Hibbing. Lilian C. Klossner, B.L., '98, Carleton Coll., Northfield. Minn. 1 90 1, Assistant in Grammar Department, State Normal School Mankato; res., New Ulm. William Frederick Kunze, B.Sc, '97, Univ. of Minn. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, St. James Hotel, Red Wing. Lora Levens, Ph.D., '02, Univ. of Chicago. 701 Park Ave., Albert Lea. Annie D. Lewis, A.B., '89, Ph.D., '96, Carleton Coll., Northfield, Minn. 1 901, Professor of Mathematics and Science, Albert Lea College, Albert Lea. Edward A. Lindgren, A.B., Gustavus Adolphus Coll. 1901, Teacher in Public Schools, Mattson. J. M. McCONNELL. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Winnebago City. E E. McIntire, A.B., '84, A.M., '86, Colby Univ. 1890, Principal of Stevens Seminary, Glencoe. Frank McIntyre, B.Sc, '98, Univ. of Minn. 1902, Superintendent of City Schools, Glenwood. Ethel M. Monroe. 1901, Principal of Schools, Flood v/ood. Thomas Montgomery. Superintendent of Ramsey County Schools, P. O. Box 2, Court House, St. Paul, Minn. William John Barr Moses, Ph.B., '00, Hamline Univ. Alexandria. Frank F. Neville, A.M., '80, Univ. of Pa. Representative of the C. A. Nichols Co., Publishers; 1002 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis. Charles Watson Newhall, A.B., '93, Johns Hopkins Univ. Head of Department of Mathematics, Shattuck School, Faribault. Cyrus Northrop, A.B., '57, LL.B., '59, LL.D., '86, Yale Univ. 1884, President of University of Minnesota, 519, loth Ave., S. E., Minneapolis. Katie Lucinda Owen. 1902, Teacher in Third Grade, Fosston, Minn.; home address, Beaulieu. Andrew T. Park. 1901, Superintendent of Schools of St. Louis County, 5103 Ramsey St., W., Diiluth. Mrs. Minnie Sweetland Parry. 1898, Training Teacher, State Normal School, Mankato. J. E. Painter. 1893, Supervisor of Manual Training, Public Schools, 1604 Clinton Ave., Minne- apolis. C. E. Payne, Ph.B., '98. Superintendent of Schools, Stewartville. Mary O. Pollard, A.B., '96, A.M., '00, Middlebury Coll., Vt. 1902, Principal of High School, Sherburne C. W. Porter. 1896, Principal of Schools, Frazee. Edgar L. Porter, A.B., '87, Carleton Coll., Northfield, Minn. Superintendent of Schools, Worthington. Martin L. Pratt. 1898, Principal of Graded School, Wood Lake. Anton Quello. Teacher in Northwestern College, Fergus Falls. Carolyn M. Robbins. 1889, Training Teacher, State Normal School, 313 Hickory St., Mankato. Edward Van Dyke Robinson, A.B., '90, A.M., '91, Univ. of Mich.; Ph.D., '95, Leipzig. 1899, Principal of Central High School, St. Paul. Hans W. Schmidt. 1894, Instructor in Chemistry, Central High School, 24 Iglehart St., St. Paul. C. G. Schulz, A.m., '98, Agustana Coll., Rock Island, 111. Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, 725 Holly Ave., St. Paul. Conrad G. Selvig. 1 90 1, Superintendent of Schools, Harmony. A. D. Smith. Superintendent of Schools of Murrav County, Slayton A. J. Smith, A M., '86, McCune Coll 1902, Superintendent of City Schools, New York Life Bldg., St. Paul. Charles Ai.den Smith, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Amherst Coll. 1899, Principal of Central High School, Hunter's Park, Duluth. Simon W. Smith, M.B., A.M , '81, Edinburgh. 1900, Physician, White Earth Agency, White Earth. W. C. Smith. General Agent, American Book Company, 202 E. 13th St., Minneapolis. Selden F. Smyser, Ph.B., '92, De Pauw Univ.; A.M., 1901, Ohio St. Univ. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Morris. Charles M. Stevens. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Eveleth. P. C. ToNNiNG, B.Sc., '96, Univ. of Minn. Superintendent of City Schools, Madison. Missouri] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 949 MINNESOTA— CoM 1899, Superintendent of County Schools, Valley City. P. S. Berg, B.Sc, '93, Mt. Union Coll. 189s, Superintendent of Schools, Larimore. E. R. Brownson. 1897, Principal of High School, Williston. Charles Logan Davis. 1898, Superintendent of Indian Schools, Ft. Totten. Mrs. Mattie M. Davis. 1896, Superintendent of Schools of Cass Co., Fargo. J. M. Dillon. Instructor in Business Department, State Manual Training School, Ellendale. A. E. DUNPHY. Director of Manual Training, State Manual Training School, Ellendale. O. J. Hagen, B.Sc, Valparaiso Coll.; A.M., Nor. 111. Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Schools of Richland Countv, Wahpeton. A. A. Love, A.B., '88, Oberlin Coll. Manager of the Love Teachers' Agency, Fargo. J. F. McLain. Superintendent of County Schools, Grand Forks. Robert T. Muir, A.B., '02, Univ. of N. Dak. Principal of School, Reynolds. 968 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ohio NORTH DAKOTA— CoM/wwed 1902 C. C. Schmidt, B.Sc, '84, M.Sc, '93, Univ. of Minn. 1894, Superintendent of City Schools, Jamestown. George S. Thomas, A.M., '79, Univ. of Va.; Ph.D., '88, Univ. of Leipzig, Germany. 1893, Professor of Greek and Latin, University of North Dakota, University. Clyde R. Travis, Ph.B., '02, 111. Wes. Univ. Professor of Mathematics, State Normal School, Mayville. institutions 1896 Educational Association of North Dakota. President, Supt. W. E. Hicks, Ellendale; Secretary, Superintendent George Martin, St. Thomas. 1899 State University of North Dakota. President, Webster Merrifield, Grand Forks; Secretary, A. E. Morrison, Uni- versity. 1900 State Normal School, Mayville. President, Joseph Carhart, Mayville. OHIO life directors 1870 *Emerson Elbridge White, A.M., '58, Western Reserve Coll.; LL.D., '76, Ind. Univ. and Marietta Coll. Author and Lecturer, 387 E. Broad St., Columbus. 1887 Oscar T. Corson, A.M., '87. Editor "Ohio Educational Monthly" and Institute Lecturer, 57 E. Main St., Columbus. LIFE members 1866 Ulysses Thompson Curran, A.B., '56, Miami Univ.: B.L., '72, Cin. Law Coll. Member Board of Examiners, City Teachers, 622 Columbus Ave., Sandusky. 1870 Mrs. Delia Lathrop Williams, Pd.D., '94, N. Y. State Nor. Univ. 62 S. Liberty St., Delaware. 1880 J. J. Burns, A.M., '76, Washington and Jefferson Coll.: Ph.D., '86, Ohio State Univ. 1896, Corresponding Secretary of Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle, 628 Holgate Ave., Defiance. Charles C. Davidson, A.M., '87, Ohio Univ. 1891, Trustee of Ohio University, 59 W. Ely St., Alliance. Bettie a. Dutton. 1870, Principal of Kentucky Street School, 94 State St., Cleveland. Mrs. Reuben McMillan. 218 Spring St., Youngstown. John Bradley Peaslee, A.B., '63, A.M., '66, Dartmouth; LL.B., '66, Cincinnati Law Coll.; Ph.D., '79, Ohio State Univ. 3218 Warsaw Ave., Cincinnati. Esther A. Widner. 1 23 1 N. Main St.. Dayton. 1882 James A. Robert, A.M., "67, Yale; Ph.D., '83, Denison Univ. Rushsylvania. 1883 E. W. Coy, A.M., '58, Brown Univ.; Ph.D., '86, Princeton. 1873, Principal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati. 1884 C W. Bennett, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ohio Wes. Univ.; Ph.D.. '89. Moore's Hill Coll., Ind. 1874, Superintendent of Schools, 218 W. Ash St., Piqua. 1894 Jacob Albright Shawan, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Oberlin Coll.; Ph.D. (honorary), '94, Musk- ingum Coll. 1889, Superintendent of City Schools, 11 22 Bryden Road, Columbus. ACTIVE members 1879 William Nicholas Hailmann. A.M., '64, Univ. of Louisville; Ph.D., '85, Ohio State Univ. Educational Author, Dayton. 1884 Richard G. Boone, A.M., De Pauw Univ.; Ph.D., Ohio Univ. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, City Hall, Cincinnati. Edmund A. Jones, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Amherst Coll. 1869, Superintendent of Schools, 138 E. Tremont St., Massillon. 1889 Edwin B. Cox, A.B., '74. Ohio Wes. Univ. 1881, Superintendent of Schools, 205 W. Church St., Xenia. Nathan L. Glover. 1872, Teacher of Music, Public Schools, 627 E. Mill St., Akron. 1890 Lewis D. Bonebrake, A.M., Ph.D. 1898, Commissioner of Schools of Ohio, 13 15 Forsythe Ave., Columbus. Mrs. Ada E. Laird. 1892, Principal of Waverly School, 457 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. Anna M. Osgood. 1893, Principal of Avondale School, 1348 Oak St., Columbus. J. P. Sharkey. 1898, Superintendent of Schools; 1893, Member of State Board of Examiners, Van Wert. Sophie Vance. 1229 East Ridge Road, Van Wert. William H. Vogel. 1 899^ SuperintendentlofiDrawing, Public Schools, 1028 Linn St., Cincinnati, *Died October 21, 1902. Ohio] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 969 01^\Q— Continued 1891 Arthur Owen Jones, B.Sc, '99, Univ. of Cincinnati. 1901, Art Master, Woodward High School, 2315 Highland Ave., Walnut Hills, Cin- cinnati. Ellen G. Reveley, Pd.D., '94. N. Y. State Nor. Coll. 1892, Supervisor of Public Schools, 91 Rose Building, Cleveland. Charles William Super, A. B., '66, Dickinson Coll.; A.M., '82, Syracuse Univ.; Ph.D., '74, 111. Wes. Univ.; LL.D., '94, Dickinson Coll. 1879, Professor of Greek, Ohio University, no Union St., Athens. Frederick Treudlev, A.B., '78, Univ. of Ind. 1902, Professor of Educational Methods, Normal College, Ohio University, 97 E. State St., Athens. 1892 Virgil G. Curtis, A.M., Tufts Coll. 1902, Principal of Toledo University, 218 "The Monticello," Toledo. C. C. Miller, A.B., '83, Ohio State Univ. 189s, Superintendent of Schools, 701 W. North St., Lima. N. Cob Stewart, F.C.M. 1867, Director of Music, Public Schools, 71 Jennings Ave., Cleveland. Matilda L. Walke. 1873, Teacher in Public Schools, 471 Riddle Road, Cincinnati. 1893 Charles Haupert, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Heidelberg Univ.; Ph.D., '00, Wooster Univ. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, and (1894) Member of State Board of Examiners, 9 College Ave., Wooster. M. A. KiMMEL. 1880, Superintendent of Schools. Poland. Mrs. Caroline Newhall Lathrop. 1 90 1, Teacher of English, Woodward High School, "The Somerset," Avondale, Cincinnati. H. H. Raschig. 1874, Principal of loth District School, 618 Prospect PI., Avondale, Cincinnati. S. D, Sanor, A.m., '98, LL.B., '99, Western Reserve Univ. 1900, Instructor in English, East High School, 150 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland. William Henry Scott, A.M., '65, Ohio Univ., LL.D., '84, Ohio Univ. and Ohio Wes. Univ. 1883, Professor of Philosophy, Ohio State University, 131, isth Ave., Columbus. Lucia Stickney, A.M., '95, Oberlin Coll. 1900, Teacher in East High School, 840 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. 1894 James Whitford Bashford. A.B., '73. A.M., '76, Univ. of Wis.; S.T.B., '76, Ph.D., '81, Bos- ton Univ.; D.D., '90. Northwestern Univ. 1889, President of Ohio Wesleyan University, 23 Oak Hill Ave., Delaware. J. Remsen Bishop, A.B., '82, Harvard. Principal of Walnut. Hills High School, 2136 Main St., Mt. Auburn, Cin- cinnati. W. W. Boyd, A.B., '84, A.M., "86, Marietta Coll. 1902, High School Visitor for Ohio State University, Columbus. Emma C. Davis. 1893, Supervisor of Public Schools, Rose Building, Cleveland. Arnold J. Gantvoort. 1894, Director of College of Music, Cincinnati. Edward L. Harris, A.B., A.M., Ph.B. 1889, Principal of Central High School, 2211 Euclid Ave., Cleveland. Julia A. Harris. 1873, Teacher in Primary Grade, 4240 Floral Ave., Station H., Cincinnati. Harriet L. Keeler, A.B., '70, A.M., '00, Oberlin Coll. 1878, Assistant, Central High School, 92 Olive St., Cleveland. Charles P. Lynch. A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Ph.D.. '97, Allegheny Coll. 1902, Assistant Superintendent of Instruction, 99 Windermere St., Cleveland. William O. Thompson, D.D., '91, Muskingum Coll.,; LL.D., Western Univ. of Pa. 1899, President of Ohio State University, Columbus. George R. Twiss B.Sc, '85, Ohio State Univ. 1894, Head Science Teacher, Central High School, 56 Mayfield Road, Cleveland. Anna J. Wright, A.B., '72, Oberlin Coll. 1879, Teacher, High School, 94 State St., Cleveland. 189s Charles E. Albright. 1899, Principal of Central High School, 449, 5th Ave., W., Columbus. C. G. Ballou, B.Sc, O. Wes. Univ. Principal of High School, 2105 Warren St., Toledo. Charles S. Barrett, B.Sc, '85, Hopedale Coll., O. 1900, Principal of South High School, 78 W. 9th Ave., Columbus. Mary Blakiston, Ph.B., '93, Ohio St. Univ. 1899, Head of Department of Languages, East High School, "The Normandie, Columbus Charles E. Carey, Ph.B., Wesleyan Univ. 1897, Superintendent of Public Schools, 306 Park Ave., Warren. William Wallace Chalmers, A.B., '87, Univ. of Mich.; A.M., '89, Eureka Coll.; B.Pd . '91, Mich. State Nor. Coll. 1898, President of Toledo University, 2220 Maplewood Ave., Toledo. Stephen Trimble Dial, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Ohio Wes. Univ.; Ph.D., '94, Syracuse Univ., N. Y. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 116 Hillside Ave., Lockland. Clavton L. Dickey. 1893 County School Examiner, Franklin Co., N. Broadway, Clmtonville. George A. Howard. With American Book Co., Cincinnati. Herbert T. Kincaid. A.B., '83. Dartmouth Coll. Classical Department Steele High School, 39 W. McPherson St., Dayton. 970 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ohio QYilO— Continued 189s Anne H. King, B.L., '92, Univ. of Cincinnati. 1894, Teacher in Grammar Grade, Linwood School 3675 Heekin Ave., Station C, Cincinnati. Julia C. Kolbe. 1893, Primary Teacher and Teacher of German in Norwood, 337 Milton St., Cin- cinnati. , Annie Laws. President of Cincinnati Kindergarten Association 818 Dayton St., Cincinnati. S. Herrick Layton, B.Sc, B.L., A.M., Ph.D 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Utica. William R. Lazenby, B.Agri , Cornell; M.Agri., Iowa Agri. Coll. 1 881, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Ohio State University, and Secre- tary, Ohio Medical University, 348 W. 8th Ave., Columbus. Charles L. Loos, Jr., A.B., '69, A.M., '71, Bethany Coll., W. Va. 1900, Principal of Steele High School, 132 Salem St., Dayton. S. H. Maharry, A M., '90, Muskingum Coll., New Concord, O. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, E. Jackson St., Millersburg, Holmes Co. S. K. Mardis, Ph.B., Pd.B., '93, Ohio Univ., Athens; Pd.D. 1 90 1, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy in Scio College, Scio. George C. Maurer, Ph.M. '93, Univ. of Wooster. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 409 W. Ray St. New Philadelphia. W. W. McIntire, Ph.B., Ph.M., Univ. of Wooster. 1902, Teacher Norwood High School, Cincinnati; res , 151 Beall Ave., Wooster. Carrie E. Moores. 1896, Teacher in College, College Hill, Hamilton Co. Henry M. Parker, A.B., '59, A.M., '65, Marietta Coll., O, 1874, County School Examiner. Elyria. Edward H. Prichard. Principal of Fourth Intermediate School, Baymiller, North of Dayton St., Cincinnati. Robert Edgar Rayman, M Sc, A.M 1897, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 320 Avondale St., East Liverpool. William Sherman Robinson, B.Sc, '91, M.Sc, '93, Mt. Union Coll. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 327 Perry St., Fostoria. Horace A. Stokes, A.B., '87, Ohio Wes. Univ.; A.M , '96, Denison Univ. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 70 Lincoln Ave., Delaware. Margaret W. Sutherland. 1889, Principal of Normal School, 102 Wilson Ave., Columbus. Charles F. Thwing, D.D., '88, Chicago Theol. Sem.; LL.D., '94, 111. Coll. and Marietta Coll. 1890, President of Western Reserve University, 55 Bellflower Ave., Cleveland. 1896 J. J. Bliss, A.B., "81, A.M., '86, Oberlin Coll. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 512 Rensselaer St.. Bucyrus. G. B. BOLENBAUGH. 1901, Principal of Fourth District School, 565 Delta Ave., Cincinnati. Granville Webster Brumbaugh, M.E., '89, Juniata Coll., Pa. 1896, Principal of Seventh District School, 1601 W. 2d St., Dayton. Marie L. Bruot, B. Oratory. 1889, Teacher of Elocution and Oratory, Central High School," Cleveland. Howard Champlin. 1892, Superintendent of Writing in Public Schools, Lane Seminary Grounds, Sta- tion D, Cincinnati. Frank B. Dyer, A.B., '79. Ohio Wes. Univ. 1 90 1, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati; and Dean, Ohio State Nor- mal School, Oxford. August Frederic Foerste. A.M., Ph.D., '90. Harvard Univ. 1893, Teacher of Physics, Steele High School, 1017 Grand Ave., Dayton. Warren L. Fulton, B.Sc, '95, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Alvordton. M. A. Henson. Superintendent of Schools, McArthur. J. W. Jones, B.Sc, N. Nor. Univ.; B.P.. O. Univ., A.M., '02, Gallaudet Coll. 1805, Superintendent of the Ohio Institution for the Deaf, Columbus. Frederick Alwin King, A.M. Teacher of Latin and Greek, Hughes High School, no Huntington PL, Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati Mrs. Frances W. Letter. 1890, Superintendent of Physical Education. Department of the National W. C T. U., 220 W. Park Ave., Mansfield. Anna E. Logan. Training Teacher, State Normal School, Oxford. J. V. McMillan. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Marietta. George M. Plumer. Principal of Ward School, 623, 4th St., Marietta. Samuel Lee Rose. 189s, Superintendent of Public Schools, 219 N. 2d St., Hamilton. John H. Rowland, A.M. General Agent, American Book Co., 240 N. Main St., Delaware. Joseph H. Snyder, B.Sc, '83. Ohio Cent. Coll.; A.M., '94, Heidelberg Coll., O. 1902, Superintendent of Public Schools, Fourth St., Martin's Ferry. Harriet E. Terrel. 1890, Principal of South Case School, 410 Sibley St., Cleveland. Charles Liggett Van Cleve, A.B., A.M., O. Wes. Univ., Delaware. 1902, Superintendent of Public Schools, 42 Sturges Ave., Mansfield. Ohio] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 971 OHIO— Conit««ed i8g6 William M. White, A.B.. McNeely Nor. Sch. 1868, Superintendent of Union Schools. Mt. Pleasant, Jeflferson Co. 1897 Ella Beistle. 1888, Principal of School, loth District, 31 E. McOwen St., Dayton Rose Morrison. 1894, Kindergartner and Assistant in City Normal School, 270 Commonwealth Ave , Cleveland. Mabel L. Pray. 1893. Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, "The Monticello." Toledo. Rev. Sylvester F. Scovel, A.B., '53, A.M., '56, Hanover. 1883, Professor of Morals and Sociology, University of Wooster, Wooster. Edward M. Van Cleve, A.B., '86, A.M., '89. Ohio Wes Univ. 1892, Superintendent of City Schools, 124 W. Main St., Greenville. T. Howard Winters, A B.. '96, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1 90 1, Principal of Kingsbury High School, Ironton. 1898 James M. Carr, B Sc, '01, Muskingum Coll. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, Frazeysburg. H. D. Grindle, A.B., '91, Ohio Wes Univ.; A.M., '98, Defiance Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Columbus Grove L. J. House. 103 Olive Court, Akron. J. Ross Huffman 1 90 1, Superintendent of Public Schools, Gibsonburg. Jesse S. Johnson, Ph.B., '92, De Pauw Univ., Greencastle, Ind. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 57 Lincoln Ave., Salem. Edmund D. Lyon, A.B., '82, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1 90 1, Superintendent of Schools, Madison villa. Gillespie K. Lyons. Agent for American Book Co., 2130 Lawrence Ave., Toledo. David R. Major, B.Sc, '90, Wabash Coll.; Ph.D., '96, Cornell Univ. 1901, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus. Harvey V. Merrick, A.B., '80, A.M , '83, Mt. Union Coll. 1900, Superintendent of The Boys' Industrial School, Lancaster. James E. Randall. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, Camden. W. C. Reeder. 1893, Teacher of English and History, Steele High School, 1253 W. ist St., Dayton. William E. Roberts. Supervisor of Manual Training in Public Schools, 464 Rose Bviilding, Cleve- land. F. J. Roller, A.M., '83, Mt. Union Coll. 1888, Superintendent of Public Schools, 34 Main St., Niles. John M. Sarver, A.M., Ohio Nor. Univ. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 3136 W. Tuscarawas St., Canton. Leander William Sheppard. 1898, Teacher in High School, 79 E. nth Ave., Columbus. J. F. Smith, A.B., '85, A.M., '90, Kenyon Coll. 1888, Principal of High School, 130 Hancock St , Findlay. Mary Walter. Primary Teacher, Public Schools, Pomeroy. Miss M. A. Woodmansee. 1899, Director of Drawing, City Schools, Hotel PhilUps, Dayton. O. A. Wright, A.B., '01, Western Reserve Univ. 1 90 1, Graduate Student, Western Reserve University, 45 Knox St., Cleveland. 1899 Howard Ayers, B.Sc, '83, Harvard; Ph D., '86, Freiburg, Germany; LL.D., '99, Mo. State Univ. 1899, President of University of Cincinnati, 3240 Burnet Ave., Avondale, Cin- cinnati. J. A. Beattie, A.m., '76, Bethany Coll.; LL.D. 1902, President of Hiram College, Hiram. C. L. Cronebaugh, B.Sc, '87, Nat Nor. Univ., Ohio. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Colonial Building, Cambridge. Harrison L. Frank, A.M., '79, Otterbein Univ., Ohio 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 314 S. State St., Marion. John A. Heizer, B.Sc., '90, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1900, Principal, Hoffman School, 2016 Hudson Ave., Norwood, Cincinnati. Robert W. Himes. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Covington. W. D. Lash, A.M., '74, Ohio Univ. 1878, Superintendent of Schools, Zanesville. T. B. Pinkerton. Superintendent of Township High School, Monclova. E. A F. Porter. Representative of American Book Co., 317 Walnut St., Cincinnati. Christian F. Rapp. Principal of Harrison School, Hotel Princeton, Cincinnati. Frank M. Shelton, B.Sc, '99, Mt. Union Coll. 1902, Teacher of Mathematics, High School, 2043 Lake St.. Canton. Frank P. Shumaker, M.Sc, '86, A.M., "88, Mt. Union Coll. 1902, State Agent for Ohio, Butler, Sheldon & Co., Educational Publishers, Cha- grin Falls. Wilbur S. Strickland, B.Sc, '87, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1901, Principal of Sherman Public School, 2005 Hudson Ave., Norwood Station, Cincinnati. 972 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ohio OYHO—Continwd 1899 John W. Swartz, A.B., '96, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Tippecanoe City. David Stanton Tappan, A.B., '64, Miami Univ.; A.M., '78, Wooster Univ.; D.D. '87, Lenox Coll.; LL.D., '99, Wooster Univ. 1899, President of Miami University, Oxford. Fannie E. Thomson, Ph.B., '95, Oberlin Coll. 1887, Principal of High School, Medina. John S. Weaver, A.B., '67, A.M., '70, Wittenberg Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield. 1900 A. D. Beechy, A.B., '80, Mt. Union Coll.; Ph.D., Wooster Univ. 1 89 1, Superintendent of Schools, 60 S. Linwood St., Norwalk. La Fayette Bloom. Principal of 27th District School, 949 Clinton St., Cincinnati. G. W. Burns, A.B., Bethany Coll., W. Va.; A.M., Farmers' Coll. 1879, Principal, District School No. \8, 4402 N. Hamilton Ave., Cincinnati. N. H. Chaney, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Wilmington Coll.; A.M., '92, Ph.D., '93, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1902, Superintendent of City Schools, 341 Lincoln Ave., Youngstown. J. A. Culler, A.B., '84, Wooster Univ. 1 90 1, Superintendent of Public Schools, 47 East Court St., Bowling Green. J. P. Cummins. Principal of 22d District School, Clifton, Cincinnati. Nettie Fillmore. 1879, Teacher in Woodward High School, 611 Richmond St., Cincinnati. Franklin Paul Geiger, B.C.S., A.B., '94, Mt. Union Coll. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, 800 Walnut St., Canal Dover. Albert B. Graham. Superintendent of Township Schools, 89 Rice St., Springfield. I. C. GuiNTHER, B.Sc, '90, AM., '00, N. W. O. U. Superintendent of Public Schools, 323 W. Main St., Galion. J. M. Hamilton, A.B., '93, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, Ohio. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, Lebanon. H. V. HoTCHKiss, Ph.D., Allegheny Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 562 E. Buchtel Ave., Akron. W. F. Hughes. Superintendent of Covedale School, Station F, Cincinnati S. P. Humphrey, B.Sc, '95, Rio Grande Coll., Ohio. 1897, Superintendent of Public Schools, 222 Park Ave., Ironton. Norman Edward Hutchinson. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Bryan. A. B. Johnson, A.M., '53, Oberlin Coll. 1854, Ex-Superintendent of Avondale Schools, 524 Forest Ave., Station I., Avon- dale, Cincinnati. Resigned after forty-eight years of consecutive service. LuRA B. Kean, Ph.B., '89, Univ. of Wooster. 1897, Principal of High School, 153 N. Buckeye St., Wooster. Lee R. Knight. 1889, Principal of Perkins Normal School, 210 Kent St., Akron Allen Norman Krieg, B.Sc, A.M. 1900, Superintendent of Arcadia and Washington Township Schools, Arcadia. Charles A Krout, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Wittenberg Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 121 Sycamore St., TifTin. Herbert R. McVay, Ph.B., '90, Ohio Univ. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Sidney. William Henry Meck, A.B., '94, Ohio Wes. Univ.; A.M., '98, Miami Univ. 189s, Teacher of History, Civics, and Mathematics in Steele High School, and (1898) Member State Board of School Examiners, 231 W. 4th St., Dayton. R. W. Mitchell. Superintendent of Public Schools, 814 Clinton St., Defiance. John Evans Morris, B.Sc, '84, M.Sc, '87, Mount Union Coll. 1892, Superintendent of Public Schools, 208 E. Oxford St., Alliance. H.W. MUMMA. Superintendent and Principal of High School, of Randolph Township Schools, Englewood. Alfred Tyler Perry, A.B., '89, A.M., '91, D.D., '01, Wilhams Coll. 1900, President of Marietta College, 210 sth St., Marietta. Arthur Powell, A.B., '80, A.M., '85, Oberlin Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 421 N. 7th St., Steubenville. Edward D. Roberts, A.B., '99, Univ. of Cincinnati. 1901, First English Assistant, Whittier School, 1620 Dudley St., Cincinnati. Ella A. Rothe. Teacher in Third Intermediate School, 2351 W. McMicken Ave., Cincinnati. Albert Hugh Sherer, A.B., '99, Ind. Univ. 1 90 1, Superintendent of Public Schools, Oxford. William McKendree Vance, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1 89 1, Superintendent of Public Schools, Miamisburg. O. Perry Voorhes, B.Sc, '79, N. Nor. Univ. 1901, Principal of Oyler School, Cincinnati. William Campbell Warfield. With Rand, McNally & Co., Box 654, Cincinnati. Arthur H. Wicks, A.B., '95, Baldwin Univ., Berea, Ohio. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 708 Cherry St., Clyde. E. W. Wilkinson. 1900, Principal of First Intermediate School, 3661 Russell Ave., Cincinnati. Homer B. Williams, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, O. N. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 129 Central Ave., Sandusky. Ohio] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 973 OYilO— Continued iQoi Walter H. Aiken. Superintendent of Music, Public Schools, Station K Cincinnati. Peter D. Amstutz. 1898, Superintendent of Riley Township Schools and High School, Pandora. F. E. AssENHEiMER, A.B., 'ps, Capitol Univ., Ohio. 1902, Principal of Normal Department, Lima College, Lima. J. K. Baxter, A.M., '93, Hiram Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 107 W. Hamtramck St., Mt. Vernon. Thomas H. Bell. Director of Schools, 176 Cleveland St., Cleveland. Alice L. Betts. 1898. Walnut Hills High School, 1762 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati. W. H. Block B.Sc. Pd.B. 1 901, Superintendent of Schools, Huron. T. W. Bookmyer, B.Sc, '80, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, Ohio. Principal of Business College, 432 Jackson St., Sandusky. Charles J. Brooks. 1902, Principal of Avondale School, 1530 Westminster Ave., Cincinnati. Edwin N. Brown, A.M., '84, LL.B., "87, Ph.D., "02, Univ. of Mich. 1902, Superintendent of City Schools, Dayton. R. A. Brown, A B., '95, Marietta Coll., Ohio. Superintendent of Schools, Cedarville. Forrest Baker Bryant, A.B., '09, Otterbein Univ., Westerville, Ohio 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Richwood. James William Carnahan, A.B., '96, Ky. State Univ. 1 901, Professor of Natural Science and Latin, Berea College, Berea, Kv.: res., 117, loth St., Toledo. Edward P. Childs. B.Sc. '94, Denison Univ., Granville, Ohio. 1 90 1, Principal of High School, 242 Granville St., Newark. Thomas C. Coates. Principal of High School, Lancaster. Helen Hutchinson Cowing, B.L., '92, Western Reserve Univ.. Cleveland, Ohio. 1902, Teacher in West High School. 840 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. F. E. Crane. Principal of Columbian School. 3000 Vine St., Cincinnati. Warren Darst, A.B., '74, A.M., '83, Nat. Nor. Univ., Ohio. 1902, Lecturer on Pedagogy and English, State Normal School, Oxford, Ohio; home address, Warsaw, Ind. • Frederick William Dearness. 1901, Principal of 12th District School, 2654 Harrison Ave., Cincinnati. Charles F. Dutton, Jr , A.B., '93, Oberlin Coll. 1894, Teacher of Science, West High School, 64 W. Roy Ave., Cleveland. Frank R. Ellis. With American Book Co,. 317 Walnut St., Cincinnati. C. M. Erkenberry. Superintendent of Monroe Township Schools, West Manchester. Elizabeth G. Evans, A.B., '97, Wellesley Coll. t8o7 Instructor in English, Steele High School, 570 W. 2d St., Dayton. Charles S. Fay. Superintendent of Schools, Reiley Ave., Wyoming. J. R. Fortney. Representing American Book Co., 317 Walnut St., Cincinnati. J. M. H. Frederick, A.B., '86, Amherst Coll. 189s, Superintendent of Schools, 62 Elm wood Ave., Lakewood. Wells L. Griswold, Ph.B., '94, Oberlin Coll. 1 90 1, Principal of Royen School, 22 West Wood St., Youngstown. Miron Elisha Hard, A.M., Ohio Wes Univ. Superintendent of Public Instruction and Clerk of State Board of School Examiners, 150 Caldwell St., Chillicothe. B. B. Harlan, B.Sc, '76. 1894, Teacher of Mathematics, High School, 39 Babbitt St., Dayton. Henry Harrison Helter, A.B., '91, O. Wes. Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, W. Anglaize St., Wapakoneta Ashley J. Huffman, A.B , Wooster Univ., Ohio. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Attica. Anna P. Johnson. Teacher in Sixth Grade. Public Schools, Toledo; res., W. Front St., Perrysburg. I. N. Keyser, Ph.B.. '90, Baldwin Univ. 1 901, Superintendent of Public Schools, 314 Lafayette Ave., Urbana. " J. E. Kinnison, am. 1 88 1, Superintendent of Schools, Jackson. W. H. Kirk, A.B., '87. A.M., '90, Baldwin Univ., Berea, Ohio. 1 89 1, Superintendent of Schools, 28 Grassmere St , East Cleveland. Joseph Krug. 1872, Teacher of German, Central High and Normal School, 51, 4th Ave.. Cleveland. John P. Kuhn. Principal of Normal School, Box 1311, New Philadelphia. Henry S. Lehr, A.M., '74, Mt. Union Coll.; Ph.D., Wooster Univ.. Ohio. 1 87 1, President of Ohio Normal University, 71 Gilbert St.. Ada. William McClain, Jr., A.B., '93, A.M., '95, Ohio Wes. Univ 1 90 1, Superintendent of Schools, E. High St , London. J. E. McGiLVREY, A.B., '91;, Ind. Univ. 1898, Principal, Cleveland Normal School, 41 HayWard St., Cleveland. J. E. McKean, A.M. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 87 S. Main St., Middletown 974 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ohio OHIO — Continued 1901 Henry C. Muckley. 1902, First Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 148 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland. J. C. Oldt, A.B., '90, A.M., '93. 1890, Superintendent of Public Schools, Put in Bay Cordelia L. O'Neill. Assistant Principal of Brownell School, 163 Wade Ave., Cleveland. F. B, Pearson, AM., '88, Wooster Univ., Ohio. Principal of East High School, 125 Wilson Ave., Columbus. John William Perrin, A.M., '89, .Wabash Coll.; Ph.D., '95, Univ. of Chicago. 1899, Professor of History, Western Reserve University, Cleveland. Thomas P. Pierce. Superintendent of Schools, Harrison. Jennie Warren Prentiss. 1896, Director of Laurel Institute, '2165 Euclid Ave., Cleveland. Ada Marcy Ritchie. 1880, First Assistant in High School, 2138 Robinwood Ave., Toledo. Alan Sanders. Instructor of Mathematics, Hughes High School, 2918 Montana Ave., Cincin- nati. Harry L. Senger, A.B., '98, Univ. of Cincinnati. First Assistant in 19th District School, 116 E. Macmillan St., Cincinnati. John B. Shotwell. Author of History of Schools in Cincinnati, 502 Main St., Cincinnati. Oscar M. Soule. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 9 Lake Ave., Franklin. C. E. Stevens. 1900. Teacher in Commercial Dept., So High School. 253 Commonwealth Ave., E. Cleveland. J. L. Trisler, Ph.D.. Heidelberg Univ., Tiffin, Ohio. Superintendent of Schools, Hartwell. Lucy B . Tucker 1901, Teacher in 8th Grade, Ohio Avenue School, 181 W. 10th Ave., Columbus. F. D. Ward, M.Sc, N. W. Ohio Nor. Univ. 1890, Superintendent of Public Schools, 922 E. Erie Ave., Lorain. • G. A. B. Wyly. 1901, Principal of High School, 203 W. Ray St., New Philadelphia. John A. Wright, B.Sc, '01, Valparaiso Coll. • Superintendent of Schools and County School Examiner, Liberty Center. Lewis Edwin York, B.Sc, '94, Ph.B., '02, Mt. Union Coll., Alliance, O. 1902, Superintendent of Public Schools, Lock Box 79, Barnesville. J. W. Zeller, Ph.M., Mt. Union Coll., Ohio; Ph.D., Findlay Coll. 1877, Superintendent of Public Schools. 311 E. Lincoln St., Findlay. 1902 M. F. Andrew. 1902, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Cincinnati. C. B. Austin, A.M., '81. Ohio Wes. Univ. 1884, Professor of Mathematics, Ohio Wesleyan University, Monnett Hall, Delaware. John M. Bardan, A.B., Ph.D., Yale Univ. Virginia St., Toledo. Guy Potter Benton, A M , DD.., Baker Univ. President of Miami University, Oxford. H. H. Cully. 189s, Superintendent of Schools, 318 Doan St , Glenville. A. W. Drushel, B Sc, '96, A.B . '97, Nat. Nor. Univ. Principal of High School, Lebanon. Elizabeth K. Fairweather. Teacher of French and English, Norwood High School, 820 Locust St., Nor- wood, Cincinnati. Minerva G. Harris. 1886, Teacher in Primary Department, Public School, Finneytown; address, R.F.D. No. 2, Mt. Healthy. George W. Knight, A.B., '78, A.M., '83, Ph.D., '84, Univ. of Mich. i88s, Professor of American History and Political Science, Ohio State University, 169 W. nth Ave., Columbus. Ross Masters, Ph.B., '92, Ph.M , '96, Scio Coll., Scio, Ohio. 1902, Principal of High School. 315 Race St., Canal Dover. Margaret A. O'Connor. Principal of Graded School, 86 Mecca St., Cleveland. May H. Prentice. 1899. Instructor in City Normal Training School, 126 Courtland St., Cleveland. Mary A. Venable 188s, Teacher in Primary Grade, Lakewood Schools, 175 Archwood Ave., Cleveland. Lake G. Watson, Ph.B., '00, Earlham Coll.; A.M., '02, Columbia Univ. 1902, Supervisor of Primary Schools, 600 W. 5th St., Canton. INSTITUTIONS 1895 Miami University. President, David Stanton Tappan; Librarian, Rev. Wm. J. McSmely, Oxford. 1897 Cleveland Public Library Librarian, WilUam H. Brett, Cleveland. Ohio State University. President, William O Thompson; Librarian, Olive Jones, Columbus. 1898 Normal School, Dayton. Principal, Grace A. Greene, Dayton. I Pennsylvania] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 975 OYilO—Contimied 1899 The Western College for Women. President, Leila S. McKee; Librarian, Eliza Lamb, Oxford. 1900 Denison University, Library. Librarian, H. H. Tuttle, Granville. OKLAHOMA life member 1886 G. I. Harvey. 1 90 1, Superintendent of Pawnee Training School, and Special United States Dis- bursing Agent, Pawnee. ACTIVE members 1892 David R. Boyd, A.B., '78, A.M.. '81, Univ. of Wooster: Ph D., 'oo. 1892, President of University of Oklahoma, Norman. 1895 H. Edgar Thompson, B.Sc, '88, So. Nor. Sch.. Bowling Green, Ky. Ralston. 1900 Elmira R. Greason. 1892, Principal Teacher,^ Indian School, Kaw Agency. James R. Campbell, A.M., '81, Muskingum Coll. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, 623 E. Cleveland Ave., Guthrie. 1901 Mrs. Adaline Evans. Teacher of Sewing, Indian School, Chilocco. S. M. McCowAN. 1889, Superintendent of Indian School, Chilocco. J. H. VOSBURGH. Oklahoma City. institution 1899 The University of Oklahoma. President, David R. Boyd; Librarian, Mr. Jay Ferguson, Norman. OREGON LIFE director 1888 Charles Carroll Stratton. A.M., D.D. '80, Willamette Univ., Ore.; D.D., '79, North- western Univ., 111., and '80, Ohio Wes. Univ. Ex-President of Portland University, University Park, Portland. active members 1892 Edwin DeVore Ressler, A.B., '91, Otterbein Univ.; A.M., '97, Ohio State Univ. 1902, President, State Normal School, Monmouth. 189s J. H. Ackerman. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem. 1897 Charles Friedel, A.B., '82, Univ. of Wis ; Ph.D., '95, Leipzig. 189s, Professor of Physics in University of Oregon, Eugene 1898 Frank Rigler. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 533 Yamhill St., Portland. 1899 J. S. Landers, B.Sc, '87, Nor. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, The Dalles. 1901 Mrs. Agnes C. McElroy. 460 Laurence St., Eugene. 1902 Josephine Miller. 1901, Teacher in First Primary Grade, Baker City. institutions 1899 Tualatin Academy and Pacific University. Dean, W. N Ferrin; Librarian, Joseph W. Marsh, Forest Grove. 1901 State Normal School, Monmouth. President, E. D. Ressler; Librarian, J. B. V. Butler, Monmouth. PENNSYLVANIA LIFE director 1891 Eliphalet Oram Lyte, M.Sc, Millersville ; A.M., Ph.D., Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1887. Principal of First Pennsylvania State Normal School, Millersville. life members 1876 Edward Brooks, A.M., '58, Union Coll.; Ph.D., '76, Lafayette Coll., and Wash, and Jeflf. Coll. 1891, Superintendent of Public Schools, 5971 Drexel Road, Philadelphia. Alexander Forbes, A.M. Editor-in-Chief for Butler, Sheldon & Co., Philadelphia. 1879 Rachel Foster Avery. Somerton Philadelphia. Simon Gratz, A.M., Univ. of Pa. ■ t,, ., , , , . Ex-President of Board of Education, 1919 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 976 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Pennsylvania PENNSYLVANIA— CoMimMed 1879 Edward Shippen. Ex-President of Board of Education, 1207 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 1880 Edgar Arthur Singer, Ph.D., '96. Univ. of Pa. 1887. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4662 Penn St., Station F, Philadelphia. ACTIVE members 1879 George Morris Philips, A.M., '74, Ph.D , '84, Bucknell Univ. 1 88 1, Principal of State Normal School, West Chester. 1881 Andrew J. Morrison. A.M., Ph.D., '01. 1898, Principal of Northeast Manual Training School, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia. 1884 George H. Stout. 1888, Supervising Principal of Newton Boys' Combined School, 3746 Powelton Ave., Philadelphia. 1887 Nathan C. Schaeffer, LL.D., '95, Western Univ. of Pa. 1893, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg; home address, 546 W. James St., Lancaster. 1891 Earl Barnes, A.M., '89, Ind. Univ.; M.Sc, '90, Cornell Univ. Staff Lecturer for The American Society for Extension of University Teach- ing, 4401 Sansom St., Philadelphia. 1892 Eliza A. Bishop. Teacher, 211 Pine St., Harrisburg. R. K. Buehrle, A.m., '78, Ph.D , '87, Franklin and Marshall Coll., Lancaster, Pa. 1880, Superintendent of Schools, 408 Manor St., Lancaster. W. Wilberforce Deatrick, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Mercersburg Coll. 1 89 1, Professor of Psychology and Higher English, Keystone State Normal School, Kutztown. H. W. Fisher, Grad., State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa. 1875, Supervisor of 17th Ward Schools, 350 Lehigh Ave., E. E.. Pittsburgh. Joseph K. Gotwals, A.M. 1872, Superintendent of Schools, 19 E. Chestnut St., Norristown. Mary J. Lamberton. 1891, Supervising Principal of George W. Childs School, 4403 Osage Ave., West Philadelphia. Enoch C. Layers, A.M., Ph.D., Pd.D. 1894, Teacher of Mathematics and Pedagogy, Public and High Schools, 324 Cattell St., Easton. Herman T. Lukens, A.M., '88, Univ. of Pa ; Ph.D., '91, Jena. 1898, Head Training Teacher of State Normal School, California. John A. M. Passmore, M.Sc, '60, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa.; Ph.D., '00, Richmond Coll., O. Philadelphia Manager for American Book Co., 318 S. 42d St. Philadelphia. S. C. Schmucker, A.M , '85, M.Sc, '90, Muhlenberg Coll., Pa.; Ph.D., '93, Univ. of Pa. 189s, Professor of Biological Sciences, State Normal School, 610 S. High St., West Chester. H. H. Spayd. 1883, Superintendent of Public Schools, Box 310, Minersville. J. Liberty Tadd. 1884, Director of Industrial Art School, 319 N. 32d St., Philadelphia. 1893 C. A. Babcock, A.m., '77, LL.B., '83, Hamilton Coll. 1883, Superintendent of Schools, no Bissell St., Oil City. M. G. Brumbaugh, A.M., '93, Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Pa. 1902, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Pennsylvania, 3324 Walnut St., Phila- delphia. James A. Dewey, M.E., '84, State Nor. Sch.. Mansfield, Pa. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, Newport Township, Wanamie. Loyal Freeman Hall, B.E.D., '91, State Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa. 1893, Supervising Principal of Centre Ave. Schools, 412 Lookout Ave., Butler. William Henry Samuel, Ph.D., '92, Univ. of Pa. 1878, Supervising Principal of Public Schools, 2<;os N. 12th St., Philadelphia. Andrew Thomas Smith, Pd.D., '93, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of N. Y. 1899, Principal of State Normal School, Mansfield. Pauline W. Spencer. 1893, Teacher of History of Education, Girls' Normal School, 3421 Race St., Phila- delphia. Joseph Swain, B.L., '83, M.Sc, '85, Ind. Univ.; LL.D., '93, Wabash Coll. 1893, President of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore. 1894 Franklin B. Sawvel, A.M , Hopedale Coll.; Ph.D., '86, Wittenberg Coll. 1890, Professor of English Literature and Philosophy, Thiel College, 109 Shenango St., Greenville. Henry T. Spangler, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ursinus Coll.; D.D., '94, Heidelberg Univ., O. 1893, President of Ursinus College, Collegeville. Charles K. Witmer, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1902, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; res.. Main St., Palmvra. 189s W. G. Gans. 1898, Principal of Union High School, Turtle Creek. James Mac Alister, A.M., LL.D., Brown Univ.; LL.B., Univ. of N. Y.; Officier d'Academie, Paris. 1891, President of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. Rt. Rev. J. W. Shanahan, D.D. Bishop of Harrisburg, Harrisburg. Sydney T. Skidmore, A.M., '71, Amherst Coll.; D.Sc, '01, Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1893, Director of Science Laboratories, Philadelphia Normal School, 1706 N. i8th St., Philadelphia. H. M. Trask. Manager for Silver, Burdett & Co., 1328 Arch St., Philadelphia, . Pennsylvania] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 977 PENNSYLVANIA— Con/inMerf 1896 J. George Becht, M.Sc , Lafayette Coll. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, Lycoming County, Muncy. R. M. Cargo. 1868, Supervising Principal of Mt. Washington School, 212 Virginia Ave., Pittsburg. Lemuel O. Foose, A.M.. '78, Penn. Coll., Gettysburg. 1879, Superintendent of City Schools, 121 Chestnut St., Harrisburg. John Arthur Gibson, A.B., '91, Allegheny Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 701 N. McKean St., Butler. George Howell. Superintendent of Schools, 175 Bromley Ave., Scranton. William Leroy MacGowan, A.B., Allegheny Coll.; Ph.B., Ph.M. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 9, 5th St., Warren. C. B. McCabe. Principal of North Braddock Schools, Bell Ave. School, Braddock. Theodore B. Noss, A.M., '82, Ph.D., '83, Syracuse Univ. 1883, Principal of State Normal School, California. W. Riddle. Educational Author, 13 14 N. Line St., Lancaster. JuDSON Perry Welsh, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '93, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa. 1890, Principal of State Normal School, Bloomsburg. Margaret Catharine Zillafro, M.E.D.. '89, St. Nor. Sch., Edinboro, Pa. 1902, Student in University School of Pedagogy, 39 Washington Sq., W., New York; res., Rixford. 1897 Francis Burke Brandt, A.B.. '92, Harvard; Ph.D., '95, Columbia. 1896, Professor of Pedagogy, Central High School, 631 S. 49th St., Philadelphia. Clyde Ernest Ehinger, M.D , '80, Chicago Hom. Med. Coll. 1890, Physical Director and Instructor in Hygiene, State Normal School, 15 Normal Ave., West Chester. Mary S. Garrett. 1893, Founder and Principal of Home for the Training in Speech of Deaf Children before School Age, Belmont and Monument Aves., Philadelphia. M. A. Grove. 1897, Principal, Department of Commerce. High School, 229 Briggs St., Hamsburg. Henry Houck. Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg. Eli M. Rapp. 1896, Superintendent of Berks County Schools, 115 N. 4th St., Hamburg. 1898 David Hendricks Bergey, B.Sc, '84. M.D., '84, Univ. of Pa.; A.M., '94, HI. Wes. Umv. 189s, First Assistant Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Pennsylvania, 34tn and Locust Sts., Philadelphia. A. J. Davis, M.E., Edinboro; M.Sc, Lebanon; A.M., Bucknell Univ.; LL.D., Monongahela. 1887, Principal of State Normal School, Clarion. Franklin Spencer Edmonds, Ph.B., '93, Univ. of Pa.; A.M., '95. Cent. High Sch., Phila. 1902, Professor of Political Science, Central High School, Philadelphia. Maurice Fels, A.B., '83, Johns Hopkins Univ.; LL.B., '85, Univ. of Pa. 4615 Springfield Ave., Philadelphia. J. R. Flickinger A.B., '77, A.M., '80, Princeton: D.Sc, '00, Bucknell Coll. 1900, Principal of Central State Normal School, Lock Haven. H. W. Golden, B.Didac, '90, M.Didac, '92, Edinboro St. Nor. Sch. 1897, Principal of 5th Ward Public School, cor Page and Fulton Sts., Allegheny City; res., 8 Dawson Ave., Bellevue. Samuel Hamilton, Ph.D., '00, Grove City Coll. 1884, Superintendent of County Schools, Braddock. John W. Lansinger, M. Sc, '86, St. Nor. Sch., Millersville. Teacher and Treasurer, State Normal School, Millersville. William Albert Mason. 1892, Director of Drawing in Public Schools of Philadelphia, 212 W. Chelton Ave., German town. Jesse H. Michener, Ph.D., Univ. of Pa. Principal of Grammar School, 45x2 Regent St., Philadelphia. William Noetling, A.M., '59, Union Coll. Schenectady, N. Y. Professor of Pedagogy, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove. Mary Craig Peacock. 1894, Teacher in Normal School, Philadelphia; res., Torresdale. Richard H. Pratt, Lt.-Col. 15th Cavalry, U. S. A.; LL.D., '98, Dickinson Coll. 1879, Superintendent of United States Indian Industrial School, Carlisle. Margaret S. Prichard. . . ^. , „ , , t^. -, Head of Department of Psychology, Philadelphia Normal School, Phila- delphia. Elizabeth S. Tait. _. , . •„,.,,,,• Teacher in Philadelphia Normal School, 4105 Girard Ave., Philadelphia. Edward Weldon. ^ .„ , , , 1898, Member of Board of Education, 310 Wall St., Bethlehem. Lightner Witmer, Ph.D., '91. Leipzig, Germany. t,, ., , , , • 1893, Professor of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 1899 Edward E. Allen, A.B., '84, Harvard. . . , , . ^ , -r.,- , ^ 1890, Principal of Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Uver- J. P. Archibald, B.E., '93, M.E., '95, St. Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa.; A.M., '99, Mt. Hope Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Walnut St., Blairsville. George D. Gideon. Publisher, 1425 Arch St., Philadelphia. Benjamin Wiestling Mitchell, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Princeton; Ph.D., '88, Washington- Jefferson. , . . J »» J T 1897, Professor of Latin and Head of Department of Ancient and Modem Lan- guages, Central High School; res., 4326 Pine St., Philadelphia. 978 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Pennsylvania PENNSYLVANIA— Co«^w«^d 1899 Henry Carr Pearson, A.B., '92, Harvard. 1898, Principal of the Allegheny Preparatory School, Lincoln and Grant Aves., Allegheny. James H. Penniman, A.B., '84, Yale. 1886, De Lancey School, 4326 Sansom St.. Philadelphia. Joseph R. Smith, M.D , '53, Univ. of Buffalo; A.M., '51, LL.D., '01, Univ. of Mich. Colonel and Assistant Surgeon-General, United States Army, 2300 De Lancey St., Philadelphia. Grace Edgar Spiegle, M.D., '98, Woman's Med. Coll. of Pa. 1893, Teacher of Hygiene and Director of Physical Training, Philadelphia Normal School for Girls, 13th and Spring Garden Sts., Philadelphia. Mrs. Lucy L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Pa. 1893, Head of Department of Biology, Normal School, 1301 Spring Garden St., Philadelphia. 1900 O. H. Bakeless, M.E., '79, Bloomsburg St. Nor. Sch.; A.M., '93, Lafayette Coll. 1893, Principal, Indian Training School, Carlisle. Weston D. Bayley, M.D., '88, Hahnemann Med. Coll. Lecturer on Nervous and Mental Diseases, 1438 Poplar St., Philadelphia. F. W. Booth, B.Sc, '77, Iowa Agri. Coll. 1899, General Secretary, American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, 7342 Rural Lane, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia. A. L. Edgerton Crouter, A.M., '85, Gallaudet; LL.D., '93, 111. Superintendent, Pennsylvania Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, 7406 Ger- mantown Ave., Mt. Airy, Philadelphia. Cheesman a. Herrick, Ph.D., '99, Univ. of Pa. Professor of History, Central High School, Broad and Green Sts., Phila- delphia. Robert W. Himelick. 1902, Superintendent of Schools, Monessen. Bertram A. Lenfest, B.Sc, '90, Mass. Inst, of Tech. 1902, Professor of Machine Design, Pennsylvania State College, State College. Mary Hunter Mayer. 1897, Principal, Girls' High School, 141 N. 5th St., Reading. Rev. p. R. McDevitt. Superintendent of Philadelphia Parish Schools, 21 S. 13th St., Philadelphia. James Lane Pennypacker, A.B., '80, Harvard Coll. Director of Christopher Sower Co., Educational Publishers, 614 Arch St., Philadelphia. 1901 Mary Adair. 1897, Superintendent of Kindergarten Training, Philadelphia Normal School, 634 N. i2th St., Philadelphia. John B. Alker. 1892, Instructor in Woodworking, 17th and Wood Sts., Narberth. E. A. Allen. B.Sc, '87, Kan. Agri. Coll. 1902, Assistant Superintendent of Carlisle Indian School, Carlisle. Charles H. Brelsford. 1884, Supervising Principal, James L. Claghorn Combined School, 2434 N. Broad St., Philadelphia. Smith Burnham, Ph.B., '92, A.M., '98, Albion Coll. 1898, Professsor of History, State Normal School, 143 E. Marshall St., West Chester. C. B. CONNELLEY. 1900, Supervisor of Industrial Schools, Osgood and Maple Ave., Allegheny. Russell H. Conwell. 1890, President of the Temple College, 2020 N. Broad St., Philadelphia. Milton C. Cooper. Supervising Principal of Asa Packer School, 1447 Venango St., Philadelphia. Andrew Thompson Douthett, A.B., '00, A.M., '01, Ph.D., LL.D., '02, The Nat. Univ., Chicago. Professor of American Law, The National University Correspondence Law School of Chicago; res., Yough House, Councils ville. D. F. Grier. 1 901, Superintendent of Schools, 3 Pine St., Sharon. V. K. Irvine, A.B., '95, Coll. of N. J. 1897, Principal of HighJSchool, Box 173, Butler. Edith Mansfield. Training Teacher, State Normal School of Indiana, Pa; address for the year "Mariposa Hall," Stanford University, Cal. Albert Ira Montague, A.B., '96, Amherst Coll. 1899, Teacher of Mathematics, Allegheny Preparatory School, 900 Lincoln Ave., Allegheny. James Perry Stephens, M.Sc, '90, Union Christian Coll. 1896, Principal, Hiland Sub-District Schools of Pittsburgh, 5706 Margaretta St., Pittsburgh. Samuel Weir, A.B., Northwestern Univ.; B.D., Garrett Biblical Inst.; Ph.D., Univ. of Jena. 1902, Principal and Professor of Psychology, State Normal School, Clarion. 1902 Benjamin F. Battin, A.B., '92, Swarthmore Coll.; Ph.D., '00, Jena. 1900, Professor of German, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore. Horace Wattles Bikle, A.M., '92, Pa. Coll., Gettysburg. 5170 Woodworth St., Pittsburgh. J. M. Harris, A.M., '74, Lafayette Coll. Managing Director of Phoenix Silk Manufacturing Co., Pottsville. H. C. MissiMER, A.M., '72, Yale Univ. 1800, Superintendent of Schools, Erie. I Rhode Island] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 979 PENNSYLVANIA— Coneslie. 111., '95 Lewis, W. F., Mich., '01 Libraries, Cardiff, Wales, '00 Library, Agri. Coll., Mich., '02 Library, Allegheny, Pa., '00 Library. Altoona Mech., Pa.. '99 Library. Amherst Coll., Mass., '97 . _ . Library Association. Spring- field, Mass., '98 Library, Athenaeum, Minn., '98 Library, Boston. Mass., '00 Library, Brockport Nor. Sch., N. Y., "oo Library, Bryson, N. Y.. '98 Library. Buffalo, N. Y., '99 Library, Butte, Mont., '00 Library, Carnegie, Allegheny, Pa., '00 Library, Carnegie, Pittsburg, Pa., '99 Library, Chicago Pub., 111. ,'98 Library, Cleveland, Ohio, '97 Library, Congress, Chile, '01 Library, Detroit, Mich., '97 Library, Dover, N. H., '00 Library, Editors', N. Y., '97 Library, Emory Coll., Ga.. '01 Library, Harris Inst., R.I., '99 Library, Harvard Coll., '95 Library, Imp., Japan, '00 Library, Ind. Univ., Ind., '99 Library, Jersey City, N. J., '97 Library, John Crerar, 111., ^97 Library, Kalamazoo, Mich., '01 Library, Maiden, Mass., '00 Library, Manchester, Eng., '02 Library, Milwaukee, Wis., '98 Library, Mpls.Ath.,Minn.,'98 Library, M. T. Dept., Teach- ers Coll., N. Y., '99 Library, Ncwberrv, 111-, '98 Library, N. H. State, '98 Library, N. Y. PubUc, '99 lOOO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Library, Northwestern Univ., 111., '02 Library, Olivia Rainey, N. C, '01 Library, Omaha, Neb'., '98 Library, Ped., Supt. of Schs., Pa., '00 Library, Philadelphia, Pa., '97 Library, Port Jervis, N. Y.,'99 Library, Pratt Inst., N. Y., '01 Library, Queens Borough, N. Y., '01 Library, Ripon Coll., Wis., '02 Library, Rockford, 111., '99 Library, St. Joseph, Mo., '00 Library, St. Louis, Mo., '00 Library, Salem, Mass., '00 Library, SanFrancisco,Cal.,'97 Library, Scoville Inst., 111., '00 Library, Scranton, Pa., '99 Library, Somerville, Mass., '00 Library, Springfield, Mass., '98 Library, State, Cal., '99 Library, St. Hist. Soc, Wis. ,'84 Library, State, Ind., '97 Library, State, Mass., '98 Library, State, N. H., '98 Library, Superior N. Sch., Wis., '00 Library, Syracuse, N. Y., '98 Library, Topeka, Kan., '00 Library, Univ. of Ark., '01 Library, Univ. of Mich., '98 Library, Univ. of Minn., '01 Library, Univ. of Pa., '98 Library, Univ. of Wyo., '97' Library, Wheeling, W. Va.,'oi Library, Wilmington, Del., '01 Library, Worcester, Mass., '98 Liebenberg, H. H., Wis., '02 Light, C. M., N. Mex., '95 Lightbody, Wm., Mich., '96 Limerick, A. N., Kan., '86 Lincoln College, 111., '97 Lindgren, Edw. A., Minn., '02 Ling, Chas. J., Colo., '95 Ling, L. E. A., Iowa, '00 Little, Clara L., Colo., '95 Livingston, Alf., Tenn., '02 Livingston, J. W., Wis., '02 Locke, Geo. H., 111., '01 Locke, John S., Me., '95 Logan, Anna E., Ohio, '96 Lollar, Ezra E., Ind., '99 Long, J. L., Tex., '96 Long, Paul J., N. C, '00 Longan, G. B., Mo., '97 Longenecker, G., 111., '00 Loos, Chas. L., Ohio. '95 Lord, Edward, Mass., '97 Lord, Livingston C, 111., '94 Lothrop, Mary O., Wis., '02 Lott, Henry C., Mich., '97 Louis, J- J- Iowa, '02 Love, A. A., N. D., '02 Lovell, Thos. B., N. Y., '96 Loveridge, L. E., 111., '98 Lovett, Fulton N., Tex., '01 Low, Seth, N. Y.. '95 Lowry, Charles D., 111., '97 Lowther, L. A., Kan., '97 Luckey, E. D., Mo., '94 Lnckey, G. W. A., Neb., '95 Ludlum, Mrs. M. H., Mo., '02 Luebke, Emma J., Wis., '97 Lukens, Herman T., Pa., '92 Lull, H. Galen. Mich., '01 Lyle, E. G., Mo., '01 Lyman, E. A., Mich., '98 Lynch, Chas. P., Ohio, '94 Lynch, M.M., Va.. '98 Lynch, S. A., Wis., '01 Lynch, Wm. H , Mo., '95 Lyon, Edmund D., Ohio, '98 Lyon, P. W. N. J.. '98 Lyon, W. F., Mich., '97 Lyons, G. K. Ohio, '98 Lyons, Miss M. E., 111., '02 Lyte, E. Oram, Pa., '91 Lyttle, E. W., N. Y., '98 Maas, J. J., Utah, '99 MacAlister, Jas., Pa., '95 MacCracken, John H., Mo.,'oi Macdona, Kate P., N. Y., '95 MacDonald, John, Kan., '86 MacDonald, Margaret, 111., '96 MacGowan, W. L., Pa., '96 Mack, Wm. S., 111., '95 MacKenzie, David, Mich., '96 Mackey, E., N. J., '87 Mackey, Wm. A., N. Y., '94 MacLean, Geo. E., Iowa, '97 MacLean, Jas. A., Idaho, '01 MacVannel, J. A., N. Y., '01 Magovern, Mary A.,N.Y., '96 Maharry, S. H., Ohio, '95 Maitland, Louise, N. Y., '98 Major, David R., Ohio, '98 Man, Gertrude E., Mont., '02 Manchester, O. L., 111., '02 Mandeville, Jas. M., Mich., '96 Mann, C. E., 111., '00 Manners, Chas. L., 111., '01 Manness, S. E., N. J., '92 Mansfield, Edith, Pa., '01 Marble, A. P., N. Y., '80 Mardis, S. K., Ohio, '95 Mark, Cecil W., Cal., '98 Mark, E. H., Ky., '93 Marlatt, Abby L., R. I., '94 Mamell, AnnaT., 111., '02 Marquis, J. S., S. C, '98 Marsh, Clinton S., N. Y., '01 Marsh, I., Adelia, 111., 'oi Marsh, Miles E., Ky., '98 Marshall, T. M., W. Va., '77 Martin, A. E., Ind., '01 Martin, Artemas, D. C, '98 Martin, Geo. H., Mass., '93 Martin, W. W., Wis., '01 Martindale, C. W., S. D., '00 Martindale, W. C, Mich., '97 Marvin, Arthur, N. Y., '98 Mason, Jas. E., N. Y., '02 Mason, Wm. A., Pa., '98 Mass. Inst. Technology, '00 Massee, J. Edman, N. Y., '96 Massey, John, Ala., '81 Masters, Ross, Ohio, '02 Matheny, F. E., Wyo., '02 Matheson, Fred. J., Eng., '01 Matlock, J. D., Ala., '98 Matthews, A. J., Ariz., '99 Maurer, G. C, Ohio, '95 Maxson, C. H., P. I., '00 Maxson, Henry M., N. J., '92 Maxwell, Guy E., Minn., '00 Maxwell, Wm. H., N Y., '92 May, Mary C, Utah, '01 Maycock, Mark M., N. Y., '96 Mayer, Anna L., 111., '01 Mayer, Mary H., Pa., '00 Mayne, D. D., Wis., '94 Mays, Vernon G., Mich., '98 McAfee, Lowell M., Mo., '01 McAndrews, Wm., N. Y., '00 McArdle, H. W., N. D., '98 McBride, J. K., Tex., '98 McCabe, C. B., Pa., '96 McCahan, John E., Md., '91 McCarthy, Edw. C, Mich., '01 McCarthy, W. G., Wash., '02 McCartney, Livingstone, Ky., '95 ^ McCaslin, E. E., D. C, '98 McCauley, W. H., Iowa, '02 McClain, Wm., Jr., Ohio, 'ot McClelland, Mrs. N. B. S. D., '01 McClintock, O. P. M., Kan. ,'94 McCloskey, Margaret, N J., '01 McClung, J. S., Colo., '95 McClymonds, J. W., Cal., '99 McConathy, W. J., Kv., '96 McConnell, J. J., Iowa, '95 McConnell, J. M., Minn., '02 McCord, W. A., Iowa, '9? McCowan, S. M., Okla., '01 McCowen, Mary, 111., '97 McCracken, S. B., Ind., '01 McCulloch, Mary C, Mo., '92 McCullough, J. F., 111.. "96 McCuUough, Nathan, Fla., '01 McDaniel, C. M., Ind., '96 McDevitt, Rev. P. R., Pa., '00 McElroy, Mrs. A. C, Ore., 'g-; McFarland, Geo. A., N. D., '95 McFarlane, C. T., N. Y., 'oi McGilvray, J. A., Va., '00 McGilvrey, J. E., Ohio, '01 McGlynn, J. J., 111., '95 McGregor, A. G., Ind., 'or Mclntire, E. E., Minn., '02 Mclntire, W. W., Ohio, '95 Mclntyre, Frank, Minn., '02 Mclver, Chas. D., N. C, '96 McKay, J. G., Mont., '02 McKean, J. E., Ohio, '01 McKee, J. Milford, N. Y., '95 McKee, Wm. P., 111., '99 McKenny, Chas., Wis., '97 McKerrow, Helen W., Mich., '01 McKillop, Anna, 111,, '97 McKinley, J. P., Iowa, '01 McKnight, L. A., Ind., '91 McKone, W. J., Mich., '99 McLain, J. F., N. Dak., '02 McLauchlin, A. L., 111., '9!5 McLaury, John C, N. J., '01 McLean, J. Arnott, Neb., '01 McLoughlin, Edw., 111., '99 McLouth, J. A., S. D., '01 McMahan, J. J., S. C, '99 McManus, 0. J., Iowa, '01 McMillan, D. A., Mo., '99 McMillan, J. V., Ohio, '96 McMillan, Mrs. R., Ohio, '80 McMurry, Chas. A., 111., '90 McMurry, F. M., N. Y., '9S McMurry, Mrs. L. B., 111., '96 McNeal, Florence, Mo., '92 McNeill, I. 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E., Tenn., '02 Mitchell, Isaac, 111., '99 Mitchell, M. S., Kan., "95 Mitchell, R. W., Ohio, '00 Moldstad, John A., Wis., '97 Mohn, Carl J., S. Dak. '02 Monin, Louis C, 111., '01 Monlux, J. B., Cal., '95 Monroe, E. S., Ind., '97 Monroe, Ethel M., Minn., '02 Monroe, Will S., Mass., '88 Mont. State Coll., Mont., '99 Monteser, Fred., N. Y., '94 Montgomery, Eudora, 111., '97 Montgomery, H. C, Ind., '97 Montgomery, Thos., Minn., '02 Montgomery, W. S., D. C, '98 Montrose, Otis, N. Y., '96 Moon, A. W., N. J., '89 Moore, B. F., Ind., '96 Moore, Dora M., Colo., '95 Moore, E. C, Cal., '99 Moore, G. A., Iowa, '01 Moore, J. A., Ala., '01 Moore, Jennie D., 111., '02 Moores, Carrie E., Ohio, '95 Morgan, J. H., Wash., '99 Morgan, R. T., 111., '97 Morrill Chas., H., Vt., '02 Morris, Harriet N., Cal., '82 Morris, John, Ky., '96 Morris, John E., Ohio, '00 Morrison, Andrew J., Pa., '8 1 Morrison, G. B., Mo., '99 Morrison, Henry C, N. H., '00 Morrison, Rose, Ohio, '97 Morrow, H. T.. N. Y., '01 Morse, Frank L., 111., '97 Morse, Jerome E., N. Y., '01 Morse, W. A., Mich., '01 Morss, Chas. H., Mass., '95 Morton, Frank, Cal., '99 Morton, W. M., 111., '02 Moses, W. J. B., Minn., '02 Mosher, E. H., Cal., '99 Mossman, E. D., S. Dak., ''02 Moten, Lucy E., D. C, '02 Mott, Thos. A., Ind., '96 Mt. Holyoke Coll., Mass , '02 Mountz, Silas W., 111., '02 Mower, F. O., Cal., '99 Mowry, Wm. A., Mass., '96 Muckley, H. C, Ohio, 'oi Muir, Robert T., N. Dak., '02 Mulford, A. Isabel, Mo., '96 Mulligan, Mary S., Ind., '01 Mumma, H. W., Ohio, '00 Munroe, Jas. P., Mass., '9>; Murdaugh, E. D., Md.. '98 Murdock, F. F., Mass., '98 Murfee, H. O., Ala., '01 Murlin, L. H., Kan., '95 Murphy, Anna M., 111., '01 Murphy, Geo. T., Mo., '91 Murphy, Teresa M., 111., '02 Murray, Anna, 111., '98 Murray, May E., Mass., '99 Murray, Wm. S., Turkey, '98 Murrey, T. P., Ark., '98 Myers, Ida G.. D. C, '01 Myers, Will A., Ind., '97 Myrick, H., Mass., '98 Naff, J. H., Kan., '09 Nagel, J. J., Iowa, 95 Nardin, E. C, Mich., '01 Nash, Geo. W., S. Dak., '01 Nash, Louis P., Mass., '99 Nebraska St. Nor. Sch., '02 Ne Collins, J. E., N. Y., '99 Needham, Milton J., Ariz., '00 Needham, O., Wis., '97 Nellis.Geo. W.. S. Dak., '01 Nelson, A. C, Utah, '01 Nelson, Andrew, Minn., '01 Nelson, B. E., 111., '99 Nelson, E. B.. N. Y,., "98 Nelson, Frank, Kan., '99 Nelson, Kate S., Wis., '96 Neville, Frank F., Minn., '02 Newberry Lib'y. 111-. '98 New Britain Inst., Conn., '02 Newell, A. C, Iowa, '01 Newell, Miss C. S., Kan., '95 Newhall, Chas. W., Minn., '02 New Hampshire St. Lib'y. '98 New Haven Pub. Lib'y, Conn., 'oi N. J. State Lib'y, '01 Newkirk, C. F., 111., '98 Newman, Emma A., N.Y., '00 N. Mex. Agri. Coll., '02 New Orleans Nor. Sch., La., '01 Newson, H. D., N. Y., [95 New York Pub. Lib'y, '99 Nichols, Chas. E., N. Y., '99 Nichols, Fred R., 111., '93 ■ Nichols, Walter H., Colo., '01 Nicholson, Mary E., Ind., '85 Nicholson, Thos., Iowa., '02 Nicholson, Watson, Conn., '99 Nightingale, A. F., 111., '86 Noble, Hugh M., S. Dak.. '02 Noble, O. D., Mo., '02 Noel, Alex., H. Mo., '97 Noetling, Wm., Pa., '98 Nolen, A., Eugene, Mass., '91 Nor. Sch., Dayton, O., '98 Nor. Adams Pub. Lib'y, Mass., '01 N. Dak. Ed. Assoc, '96 Nor. Ariz. Normal School, '01 N. 111. St. Nor. Sch., '99 N. Ind. Nor. Sch. Lib'y, '97 N. St. Nor. Sch., Mich , '99 Northrop, Cyrus, Minn., '02 Northwestern Univ., 111., '02 Norton, A. W., S. Dak., '93 Norton, R. C, Mo., '95 Norton, W. H., Iowa, '01 Norville, Josephine, Mo., '95 Noss, Theo. B., Pa., '96 Nye, Chas. H., Wis., '84 Nykirk, John B., Mich., '92 O'Brien, Mrs. Agnes, N. Y.,'94 O'Brien, Katheryn A., Ill , '01 O'Brien, Theresa, 111., 'or O'Callaghan, W. F., N.Y., '94 O'Connor, D. C, Neb., '94 O'Connor, Joseph, Cal., '88 O'Connor, Margaret A., Ohio, '02 O'dell, Malcolm W., Iowa, '01 O'Dell, Lucien B., Ind., '00 Ogg. R. A., Ind., '97 O^Grady, C. Geraldine, N. Y.. O'Grady, Julia, 111., 'oi Ogren, John, S. C, '00 O'Hanlon, R. J., Wis., '97 Ohio State Univ., '97 O'Keefe, Mrs. S. J.. 111., '96 Olds, Mary L., Mmn., '94 Oldt, F. T., Iowa, '96 Oldt, J. C, Ohio, 'oi O'Leary, J. A., Mich., '01 O'Leary, Kate S., Mass., '95 Olin, Arvin S., Kan., '90 Olivia Rainey Lib'y, N. C , '01 Olsen, John W , Minn., '00 Olson, Mrs. Mary D., 111., '02 Omaha Pub Lib'y, Neb., '98 O'Neil, CordeUa L., Ohio, 'oi O'Reilly. Mary, 111., '02 Ormsby, F. B., 111., '96 Osgood, Anna M., Ohio, '90 O'Shea, M. V., Wis., '92 Oswego Nor. Sch., N. Y., '00 Ott, Harvey N., 111., '01 Outcalt, Irving E., Cal.. 'oi Owen, Hugh A., N. Mex., '97 Owen, Katie L., Minn., '02 Owen, Lincoln, Mass., '96 Owen, W. B., 111., '96 Owens, C. J., S. C, '00 Packer, Anna E., Iowa, '01 Paessler, V. S., N. Y., '98 Page, Edw A., N. Y., '99 Page, Edw. C, 111., "oo Page, R. S., 111., '96 Painter, D. H., Minn., '01 Painter, J. E., Minn., '02 Palen, H. O., Cal., "02 Palmer, A. N., Iowa, '96 Palmer, Chas. S., Colo., '95 Palmer, E. D., Mich., '94 Palmer, Francis B., N. Y., '90 Palmer, Frank H., Mass., 'oi Palmerlee, C. E., Mich., 'oi Park, Andrew T., Minn., '02 Parker, Alice N., D. C, '98 Parker, Chas. I., 111., '87 Parker, Chas. V., Colo., '87 Parker, C. M., 111., '95 Parker, Henry M., Ohio, '95 Parker, John L., Ala., '01 Parker, M. M., Cal., '99 Parker, W. D., Wis., '84 Parker, W. N., Wis., '02 Parker, W. S., Mass., '96 Parkinson, D. B., 111., ^^97 Parkinson, John B., Wis., '84 Parlin, Frank E., Mass., '01 Parmelee, L. S., Mich., 'oi Parmenter, Chas. W., Mass., '95 Parrish, Celestia S., Va., '97 Parrish, Ophelia A., Mo., 'or Parry, Mrs. M. S., Minn., '02 Parson, S. F., 111., '02 Passmore, John A. M., Pa. ,'92 Patten, Frank C, Mont., '97 Pattengill. Henry R., Mich. ,'92 Patton, Cassia, Alaska. '95 Patton. Chas. L., N. Y., '86 Paul, J. H., Utah, '02 Payne, Bertha, 111., '02 Payne, C. E., Minn., '02 Payne, W. C, 111., '96 Payne, Wm. H., Mich., '92 Peabody. Helen S., S. D., '01 Peacher, A. L., Ark., '96 Peacock. Mary C, Pa., '98 Peairs, H. B., Kan., '97 Peak, Chas. N., Ind., '96 Pearcy, Jas. B., Ind., 'or Pearse. C. G., Neb., '91 Pearson, F. B., Ohio, 'or Pearson, Henry, Ga., '98 Pearson, H. C, Pa., '99 Pearson, Juliet, N. Y., '99 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Pearson, T. G., N. C, 'oo Pease, Alvin F., Mass., '91 Pease, N. W., N. J., '94 Peaslee, John B., Ohio, '80 Peck, A. L., N. Y., '97 Ped. Lib'y, S. of Schs., Pa., '00 Pederson, B. C. S. Dak., '02 Peirce, Eugene C., Iowa, '01 Pemberton, R. N., Kan., '02 Penniman, J. H., Pa., '99 Penn. State Coll., Pa., '00 Penn. State Library, '00 _ Pennypacker, J. L., Pa., '00 Peoria Pub. Library, 111., '01 Peres, I. H., Tenn., '00 Perkins Institution, Mass., '97 Perkins, R. W., La., '01 Perrin, John W., Ohio, '01 Perrine, Lura L., N. D., '9S Perry, Alfred T., Ohio, '00 Perry, Elizabeth H., Mass., '91 Perry, Reuben, Wis., '01 Perry, Wm. H., Ky., '98 Peterson, Francis M.,Ala., '01 Peterson, J. P., Wis., '97 Pettis, J., Wilson, Ark., '01 Pettis, Rilla A., S. D., '01 Phelan, W. 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C, Tex., '92 Pritchett, Henry S., Mass., '02 Proudfoot, Mrs. A. H., 111., '97 Pruitt, Elias, 111., '02 Pub. Lib'y, Boston, Mass., '00 Pub. Lib'y, Brooklyn, N. Y., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Butte, Mont., '00 Pub. Lib'y, Detroit, Mich., '97 Pub. Lib'y, Dover, N. H., '00 Pub. Lib'y, Fitchburg, Mass., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Gail Borden, 111., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Jersey City, N. J., '97 Pub. Lib'y, Kalamazoo, Mich., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Los Angeles, Cal., '00 Pub. Lib'y, Lynn, Mass., '00 Pub. Lib'y, Maiden, Mass., '00 Pub. Lib'y, Manchester, Eng- land, '02 Pub. Lib'y, New Bedford, Mass., '01 Pub.Lib'y.New Haven, Conn., Pub' Lib'y, New York, N. Y., '99 Pub. Lib'y, North Adams, Mass., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Peoria, 111., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Philadelphia, Pa., '97 Pub. Lib'y, Rockford, 111., '99 Pub. Lib'y, St. Joseph, Mo.,|oo Pub. Lib'y, St. Louis, Mo., '90 Pub. Lib'y, St. Paul, Minn., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Salem, Mass., '00 Pub. Lib'y, San Francisco, Cal., '97 Pub. Lib'y, Seattle, Wash., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Somerville, Mass., '00 Pub. Lib., Taunton, Mass., '02 Pub. Lib'y, Topeka, Kan., '00 Pub. Lib'y, Trenton, N. J., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Wheeling, W. Va., '01 Pub. Lib'y, Worcester, Mass., '98 Pub. Sch. Teachers, Wis., '84 Pugh, Jas. H., 111., '98 Pulsifer, Wm. E., N. Y., '99 Purer, Mary I., 111., '96 Puryear, Florence, Tenn., '01 Puryear, Mary C, Tenn., '01 Putnam, Mrs. Alice H., 111., '93 Putnam, Richard R., Mich.,' 01 Putney, Chas. G., Mich., '01 Queens Borough Lib., N.Y.,'oi Quello, Anton, Minn., '02 Quick, Geo. F., Ind., '01 Race, S. J., Minn., '95 Raines, S. E., 111., '01 Rakestraw, Chas. D., D. C.,'99 Ramer, M. M., S. Dak., "02 Ramsay, Chas. C, Mass., '93 Ramsey, Geo. J., Tenn., '89 Ramsey, Mary C, Wyo., '01 Randall, J. E., Ohio, "98 Ranger, W. E., Vt., '99 Rankin, A. W., Minn. Ransom, Frances E.,N. if , 99 nn., 93 ;.,N.Y., Rapp, Christian F., Ohio, '99 Rapp, Eli M., Pa., '97 Raschig, H. H., Ohio, '93 Rathman, C. G., Mo., '01 Raub, A. N., Del., '92 Ravenhill, Alice, England, '01 Rawson, E. B., N. Y., '99 Rawson, Guy L., Iowa, '02 Rayman, R. E., Ohio, '95 Raymond, A. V. V., N. Y., '95 Read, J. Irving, Cal., '98 Redman, Elmer S., N. Y., '00 Redway, J. W., N. Y., '00 Reed, A. A., Neb., '95 Reed, Grace, 111., '02 Reeder, W. C, Ohio, '98 Reel, Estelle, Wyo., '94 Rees, Minnie E., Cal., '99 Reeves, C. F., Wash., '96 Reid, Jas., Mont., '95 Reigart, J. F., N. Y., '99 Reiley, Cynthia E., Mont-.'gS Reinhart, J. Albert, N. J., '94 Remington, L. D., Mich., '96 Rennick, Louise D., 111., '97 Rennie, Robert H., 111., '97 Requa, M. Augusta, N. Y., '99 Ressler, Edwin D., Ore., '92 Reverley, Ellen G., Ohio, '91 Reynolds, Chas. B., Mo , '95 Reynolds, J. H., Ark.. '97 Reynolds, Mary E., 111., '02 Rhoads, McHenry, Ky., '91 Rhode Island Nor. Sch., '97 Rice, Emily A., N. J., '92 Rice, Gratia L., N. Y., '89 Rice, J M., N. J., '95 Rice, Wm. N., Conn., '99 Rich, Isaac P., Wash., '02 Richards, A. W., N. Y., '02 Richards, C. O., N. Y., '02 Richards, C. R., N. Y., '98 Richards, D. M., N. M.. '01 Richards, Mrs. E. H., Mass., •98 Richards, Mrs. L. A., N. Mex., '01 Richardson, B. C, Me., '01 Richardson, Kate S., Wis., '01 Richeson, J., 111., '97 Richmond, Sarah E., Md., '76 Riddle, W., Pa., '96 Ridgeway, Wm. C, Mo., '98 Rightsell, J. R., Ark., "98 Rigler, Frank, Ore., '98 R-iley Co. Ed. Asso , Kan., '86 Riley, Mrs. M. E., Mo., '90 Ripon College, Wis , '02 Riste, Ernest, Wash., '99 Riste, W. G., Kan., '97 Ritchie, Ada M., Ohio, 'oi Rivers, W. W., Ark., '95 Roach, T. W., Kan., '86 Robbins, Carolyn M., Minn. ,'02 Robbins, C. W., Mo., '92 Robbins, Geo. A., 111., '97 Robert, Jas. A., Ohio, '82 Roberts, Dimon H., Mich., '98 Roberts, Edw. D., Ohio, '00 Roberts, Flora, Ind., '96 Roberts, Geo. L., Ind., '01 Roberts, Henry H., Iowa, '02 Roberts, Hester A., N. Y., '94 Roberts, H. L., 111., '97 Roberts, L. D., Wis., '97 Roberts, Wm. E., Ohio, '98 Robertson, Alice M., Ind.Ter. '02 Robertson, J. L., 111., '97 Roberston, P. W., D. C, '96 Robinson, Albert R., 111., '95 Robinson, E. V., Minn., '02 Robinson, Lucy W., Va., '96 Robinson, Oscar D., N. Y., '92 Robinson, W. S., Ohio, '95 Robson, Mary, 111., '02 Rocheleau. W. F., 111., '96 I INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 003 Rochford, Anna T., 111., 'oi Rockwood, Geo. H., 111., '00 Rogers, A. C, Minn., 'gg Rogers, Dora B., W.Va., 'g9 Rogers, Howard J., N. Y., 'g6 Rogers, J. N., Ga.. 'g? Rogers, Josephine E., N. Y., '93 Rogers, Rovillus R., N. Y., 'gs Roller, F. J.. Ohio, 'gS Roop, C. v., Cal., '86 Root, Chas. C, Neb., '01 Rose, Geo. E., Kan., '86 Rose, S. L., Ohio, 'g6 Ross, M. M., W. Va., 'gg Ross, Pete W., Minn., 'gg Rosseter, E. C, 111., '00 Roth, Anna C, Ky., 'g? Rothe, Ella A., Ohio, '00 Row, R. K., 111., "gg Rowe, Ella A., 111., 'oi Rowe, H. M., Md., 'g6 Rowe, Stuart H., Conn., 'g8 Rowe, W. S., Ind., 'gs Rowland, J. H., Ohio, 'g6 Rudolph, Ida, Ky., 'g6 Runyon, Laura L., 111., '01 Russell, Jas. E., N. Y., "gs Russell, Walter E., Me., '01 Russell, W. P., 111., 'gg Rust, Fred W., 111., '01 ^ Ryan, Mary E., Mont., 'gg Ryan, W. C., Mo., "02 Ryon, C. M . N Y., 'g6 Saben, Alfred S., Mass., '01 Sabin, Albert R., 111., '84 Sabin, Ellen C, Wis.,_ 'gs Sabin, Henry, Iowa, '8g Sage, A. H., Wis., 'g8 Sage, W. v., Mich., 'g6 St. Clair, W. T., Ky., 01 St. John, Geo. E., Wash., '01 St. Louis Pub. Lib'y, Mo., '00 St. Louis Univ., Mo , '01 St. Paul Pub. Lib'y. Minn., '01 Salem Pub. Lib'y, Mass., '00 Salisbury, Albert, Wis., '87 Samuel, Wm. H., Pa., 'g3 Sanders, Alan, Ohio, '01 Sanders, F. W., Germany, 'g7 Sandison, Howard, Ind., 'g6 Sanford, Fernando, Cal., 'g? Sanford, Frank E., 111., 'oi Sanford, Henry R., N. Y., "gs Sanor, S. D., Ohio, 'g3 Sargent, Dudley A., Mass., 'g6 Sargent, Elisa A., Mass., 'g6 Sargent, Sabra L., 111., '02 Sarver, J. M., Ohio, 'g8 Saunders, Sara A., N. Y., 'g6 Savitz, J. J., N. J., 'gg Sawhill, Thos. A., Kan., '86 Sawvel, Franklin B., Pa., '94 Sawyer, C. L., Minn., 'g7 Saylor, J. F., Wash., 'g6 Scarlett, Augustus, N. J., 'gi Schaeffer, Nathan C, Pa., '87 Schauflfler, Alfred T., N. Y.,'g5 Schell, Henry S., Ind., '02 Schellenger, G. J., S. D., '01 Schiller, J. D., Mich., 'g6 Schmidt, C. C, N. Dak., '02 Schmidt, F. A., N. Y., 'g6 Schmidt, Hans. W., Minn., '02 Schmucker, S. C, Pa., 'g2 Schneider, Henry G., N._Y.,'gs Schobinger, J. J., 111., 'gg Schofield, Martha, S. C, 'gi Scholiield, Bessie M., R. I., 'g6 Sch.ofAgri., Univ. of Minn., '02 Sch. of Ed., Univ. of Chicago, 111., '99 Sch. of Ped., N. Y. Univ., N. Y., 'gg Schreiber, Mae E., N. Y., '96 Schryver, Anna A., Mich., g6 Schulz, C. G., Minn., '02 Schurman, J. G., N. Y., 'g6 Schuyler, Aaron, Kan., '86 Schuyler, E. H,, N. J., 'g4 Schuyler, Wm., Mo., '01 Schwietert, H. J., Iowa, '01 Scotia Seminary, N. C, 'go Scott, Chas. B., P. R., 'go Scott, Colin A., Colo., 'oi Scott, Edith A., N. Y., 'gg Scott, E. H., 111., 'gs Scott, F. N., Mich., 'g7 Scott, Harriet M., Cal., 'g6 Scott, Izora, Colo., 'gy Scott, J. B., 111., 'gg Scott, Jas. W., Colo., '03 Scott, O. C, 111., 'gs Scott, W H., Ohio, '93 Scovel, E. C, S. Dak., '01 Scovel, Sylvester F., Ohio, 'g? Scoville Inst., 111., '00 Scranton Pub. Lib'y, Pa., '99 Scribner, E. E., Mich., '01 Scudder. Myron T., N. Y., 'gs Scull, Jas. F., Ind., 'gs Searle, F. E.. Mich., 'gg Searle, Miss S. M., N. J., '93 Searson, J. W., Neb., '02 Seattle Pub. Lib'y, Wash., '01 Seaver, Edwin P., Mass., '93 Sedgwick, Wm. T., Mass., 'gg Seeley, Levi, N. J., 'go Seerley, H. H. Iowa '8g Selleck, W. F. F., Minn., 'g8 Selvig, C. G., Minn., '02 Senger, Harry L., Ohio, '01 Sexton, E. K., N. J., 'g7 Seymour, A. H., S. Dak., '02 Seymour, R. B., 111., 'oo- Shafer, Harry M., Cal., '01 Shanahan, Rev. J. W., Pa., 'gs Shanley, May C, S. Dak., '02 Sharkey, J. P., Ohio, 'go Sharp, Frank C, Wis., '02 Shaver, Chas. A., N. Y., '00 Shaw, A. L., Neb., 'g? Shaw, Edw. R., N. Y., '93 Shaw, Samuel, Wis., '84 Shawan, J. A., Ohio, '94 SheafTer, W. A., Iowa, '02 Sheakley, S. H., Iowa, '00 Shear, S. R., N. Y., '9s Shearer, W. J., N. J., 'gS Shearer, W. S.. 111., 'g? Sheats, W. N., Fla., "93 Sheldon, E. H., 111., "02 Shelley, Kate, Mont., '01 Shelton, Chas., E., Iowa, '00 Shelton, F. M., Ohio, 'gg Shepard, Elmer I., Minn., '00 Shepard, Geo. C, Va., '97 Shepard, Irwin, Minn., '83 Sheppard, L. W., Ohio, 'g8 Sherer, Albert H., Ohio, '00 Sherman, Chas. M., Wash.,'oi Sherrick, J. R., vVis., '02 Sherwood, Mrs. J. C, Cal.,'gg Sherwood, MarthaA., Mich., '01 Shield, W. B., Mo., '01 ShifF, Hannah, 111., '02 Shippen, Edw., Pa., '7g Shirk, David F., Kan., 'gs Shoemaker, W. A., Minn., 'gs Sholes, Josephine S., Pa., '02 Shoop, John D., 111., '00 Shorkley, Mrs. H. B., Cal., 'gg Shotwell, Ambrose M., Mich. ,01 Shotwell, J. B., Ohio, '01 Showers, F. F., Wis., '99 Shultess, Alice H., Wis., '00 Shumaker, F. P., Ohio, 'gg Shutt, Robt. D., Mich., '02 Shutts, Geo. C, Wis., 'g6 Sibley, Chas. A., Mass., 'gs Siders, Walter R., Idaho, '01 Siefert, H. O. R., Wis., 'gs Silke, Lucy S., 111., •g3 Silver, Edgar O., N. Y., '94 Silver, Elmer E., Mass., 'gg Silver, Ernest L., N. H., '03 Simerwell, E. A., Kan., '95 Simmons, J. W., Mich., '99 Simonds, H. A* Wis., '95 Simonson, R. B. D., Mo., '00 Sims, J. F., Wis., '97 Sinclair, S. B., Can., '91 Singer, Edgar A., Pa., '80 Sites, C. M. Lacey, China, 'oa Skidmore, Sydney T., Pa., '95 Skinner, Chas. R., N. Y., '90 Skinner, E., Colo., '99 Skinner, Wm. C, Mich., '95 Slack, H. W., Minn., '97 Slaton, W. F., Ga., '97 Slaton. W. M., Ga., '94 Slauson, H. M., Mich., '94 Sloane, Clyde, 111., •g8 Slocum, Charlotte M.. 111., 'oa Smalley, D. H., 111., 'go Smallwood, Mabel E., 111., "96 Smedley, C. E., Colo., 'oa Smedley, Eva A., 111., '97 Smiley, Elmer E., Wyo., '00 Smiley, Wm. H., Colo., 'ga Smith, A. D., Minn., '02 Smith, A. J., Minn., '02 Smith, Alex., 111., 'gg Smith, Anna T., D. C. 'gs Smith, Arthur M., Hawaii, '01 Smith, Arthur P., Mass., '90 Smith, A. Thos., Pa., '93 Smith, Carlton W., Wis., 'oa Smith, Mrs. C. B., 111., '98 Smith, Chas. A., Minn., 'oa Smith College, Mass., '98 Smith, D. E., N. Y., '01 Smith, E. E., 111., '96 Smith, E. R., 111., '97 Smith, E. S., 111., '01 Smith, Euler B., Ga., '87 Smith, F. Everett, S. D., '01 Smith, F. P., Kan., '97 Smith, Frank, Mich., '01 Smith, Geo. M., S. D., 'gs Smith, Harriet E., Wis., '97 Smith, Henry B., Colo., 'gg Smith, H. J., N. Y., 'gs Smith , Irving B., N. Y., 'gg Smith, J. F., Ohio, •g8 Smith, J. L., 111., '00 Smith, J. Mace, N. Y., 'gs Smith, Jos. R., Pa., 'og Smith, M. B., Mass., gg Smith, Robt. M., 111., '02 Smith, Sidney F., D. C, '05 Smith, Simon W., Minn., oa Smith, W. C, Minn., '02 Smith, Wm. C, Ind., '01 Smyser, Selden F., Minn., '02 Smyth, W. S., 111., 'gs Snedden, D. S., Cal., "gg Snow, Bonnie E., Minn., 'g6 Snow, Francis H., Kan., 'g3 Snow, Mary S., N. Y., '98 Snyder, A. J., 111., '97 Snyder, Henry, N. J.. '94 Snyder. Jessie M.. Ga., '97 Snyder, J. H., Ohio, •g6 Snyder, J. L., Mich., '8g Snyder, W. H., Mass., '01 Snyder, W. R., Ind., 'gs Snyder, Z. X., Colo., '87 Snyder, Mrs.Z.X., Colo., '96 Soldan, F. Louis, Mo., '77 Sollitt, Alice E., 111., •g3 Somerville Pub. Lib., Mass.. 00 Soper, Laura J., Mich., '01 Soul^, Geo., La., '92 Soule, O. M., Ohio, '01 South Carolina College, '02 S. Dak. Agri. College, 'gg S. 111. Nor. University, 'gg Southall, J. W., Va., '98 Spain, Chas. L., Mich., 'oi Spangler, H. T., Pa., '94 :oo4 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Spalding, J. Lancaster, 111., '02 Spaulding, F. E., N. J., '96^ Spaulding, Randall, N. J., '92 Spayd, H. H., Pa., '92 Speer, W. W., 111.. '96 Spencer, Pauline W., Pa., '93 Spencer, Robt. C ., Wis., '84 Spencer, Mrs. Sara A., D.C., '92 Spencer, Thos. E., Mo., '00 Spero, Mrs. Anna K., Cal., '77 Spiegle, Grace E., Pa., '99 Spindler, J. W., Kan., '99 Springer, Durand W.,Mich.,'94 Squier, Mary P., 111., '02 Squire, Mary V., N. Y., '96 Stableton, J. K., 111., '00 Stalker, Francis M., Ind., '01 Stanley, Edmund, Kan., '86 Stanley, Kate, Mass., '02 Staples, Helen F., Minn., '96 Stapleton, M. A. C, Mont. ,'99 Starbuck, Edwin D., Cal., '99 Stark, Joshua, Wis., '84 Starke, N. C, Va., '99 St.F.N.Sch.,Farmville,Va ,'99 State Agr. College, Kan., '97 St. Bd. of Education, Mont. ,02 5^ Historical Soc ., Wis., '84 State Library, Cal.. '99 State Library, Mass., '98 State Library, Mich., '02 State Lib'y^ New Jersey, '01 State Library, Pa., '01 State Nor. College, Ala., '01 State Nor. College, Mich., '00 St.N.&Ind. Coll., N.C., "98 St.N.Sch.,Brockport,N.Y., 'oo St.N.Sch.,Califomia,Pa.,'99 St.N.Sch.,Carbondale, 111. ,'99 St.N.Sch., Cedar Falls, la. ,'97 St. N.Sch., Charleston, 111. ,'99 St. N. Sch., Chico, Cal., '97 St. N. Sch., De Kalb, 111., '99 St. N. Sch., Ellensburg, Wash., '97 St. N. Sch., Fairmont, W. Va,, '01 St.N.Sch.,Farmville,Va.,'99 St. N. Sch., Fitchburg, Mass., •98 St. N. Sch., Flagstaff, Ariz.,'oi St. N. Sch., Greeley, Colo., '97 St. N. Sch., Indiana, Pa., '99 St. N. Sch., Jacksonville, Ala., '99 St. N. Sch., Los Angeles, Cal., '97 St. N. Sch., Macomb, 111., '02 St. N. Sch., Mankato, Minn., '99 St. N. Sch. Mansfield Pa., '97 St. N. Sch., Marquette, Mich., '99 St. N. Sch., Mayville, N. D.,'oo St. N. Sch., Millersville,Pa.,'97 St. N. Sch., Monmouth, Ore., '01 St. N.Sch. ,Moorhead,Minn., '97 St. N. Sch., New Paltz, N. Y., '99 St. N. Sch., Norman, 111., '98 St. N. Sch., Oshkosh, Wis., '98 St. N. Sch., Oswego. N. Y.,'oo St. N. Sch., Peru, Neb., '02 St. N. Sch., Platteville, Wis. ,'84 St. N. Sch., Providence, R. I., '97 St. N. Sch., Salem, Mass., 00 St. N. Sch., San Jose, Cal., '98 St. N. Sch., St. Cloud, Minn., '97 St. N. Sch., Superior, Wis., '00 St. N. Sch., Tempe, Ariz., 'oi St. N. Sch., Terre Haute, Ind., '97 St. N. Sch., Trenton. N. J., '97 St. N. Sch., Westfield, Mass., '97 St. N. Sch., W. Liberty, W. Va., '00 St. N. Sch.. Whatcom, Wash., '00 St. N. Sch., Whitewater, Wis.. '98 St. N. Sch., Winona, Minn. ,'97 St. Teachers' Assoc, of III., '90 St. Univ. Lib'yi Iowa, '97 St. Univ. Lib'y, Ohio, '97 Stearns, J. W ., Wis., '84 Steele, Wm. L., 111., '90 Steelman, D.T., N. J., '02 Steen, J, M., Tenn., '00 Steere, E. A., Mont., '96 Stehman, J. H., 111., '97 Stein, F. W., Cal., '99 Stephens, H. Morse, Cal., '96 Stephens, J. P., Pa., '01 Stephens, M. Bates, Md., '98 Stephenson, Lillie S., 111., '95 Sterling, W. D., Mich.. '02 Stern, Menco, N. Y., '82 Stetson, W. W., Me., '95 Stevens. C. E., Ohio, '01 Stevens, Chas. E., Mass., '02 Stevens, Chas. M., Minn., '02 Stevens, Edw. L., N. Y., '99 Stevens, Moses C, Ind., '76 Stevens, Plowden, Jr., N. Y., '95 Stevens, W. M., Iowa, '02 Stevenson, A. L., 111., '97 Stevenson, Haviland, N. Y.,'oi Stevenson, Wm. C, Md., '90 Steward, Darius, Minn., '00 Stewart, I. N., Wis., '84 Stewart, John A., Mich., '84 Stewart, Jos. S., Ga., '95 Stewart, N. Coe, Ohio, '92 Stewart, Sarah A., N. Y.. '84 Steyer, A. M., S. Dak., '02 Stickney, Lucia, Ohio, '93 Stigall, Oliver,. Mo., '98 Stilwell, Miss E. O., S. D., '01 Stitt, E. W., N. Y., '96 Stockman, Wm. H., N.Y., '01 Stockwell,Mrs.H.H.,N.D., '94 Stockwell, Thos. B., R. I., '91 Stockwell,WalterL.,N.D... '94 Stoddard. MissC. W., N. Y..'o2 Stokes, A. L., S. C, '00 Stokes, Horace A., Ohio, '95 Stokes. Susan G., Utah, '99 Stone, Mason S., P. I., '94 Stoner, W. H., Iowa, '02 Stoneroad, Rebecca D., D. C, •96 Storm, A. V., Iowa, '94 Stout, Geo. H.. Pa., '84 Stout. Isaac H., N. Y., '90 Stout, J. D., Wash., '98 Stovall, Anna M., Cal., '99 Stowell, Thos. B., N. Y., "91 Strachan, Alex., S. D., '97 Stratton, C. C, Ore., '88 Stratton, F. E., Minn., '86 Straubenmiiller, G., N. Y., '97 Strickland, W. S., Ohio, '99 Strine, J. H.. Cal.. '99 Stroeter. E. H.. Mo.. '99 Strong. Edwin A., Mich., '92 Strong, Frank, Kan., '02 Strong, Jas. W., Minn., '95 Struthers, Hester C, N.C., '98 Stuart, Alex. T., D. C, "oo Stuart, Margaret, 111., '01 Stuart, Giles A., Conn., '99 Stuart, Milo H., Ind., '02 Stubbs, J. E., Nev., '95 Study, J. N., Ind., '97 Stuver, E., Colo., '95 Sudborough, Mrs. G., Neb., '80 SuUivan, Ella C, 111., '99 Suman, Geo. W., Ind., '01 Summers, Alex., D. C, '98 Super, Chas. W., Ohio, '91 Superior St . Nor Sch . , Wis . , ' 00 Suplee, Etta, Iowa, '95 Suplee, Fanni: Iowa, '95 Supt. and P.-.n Asso., Wis. ,'84 Surette Thos. W., N. Y., '01 Suter, Anna, Ind., '90 Suter, Miss H. A., La., '94 Sutherland, E. B., Mich., '01 Sutherland, Marg. W., Ohio, '95 Sutton, W. S., Tex., '95 Suydam, V. A., Wis., '99 Swain, G. R., Mich., '01 Swain, Joseph, Pa., '93 Swan, Phebe, Wis., '97 Swanger, F. A., Cal., '99 Swart, Rose C, Wis., "95 Swartz, Jno. W., Ohio, '99 Sweeney, Ella L., R. I., '00 Sweet, Benj. A., 111., '00 Swett, Harry P., Conn. ,'02 Swett, John, Cal., '99 Swingle, W. M., N. J., '98 Syracuse Pub. Lib., N.Y., '98 Tadd, J., Liberty, Pa., '92 Tait, Elizabeth S., Pa., '98 Talbot, Henry, 111., '92 Tapley, Wm. W., Mass., '92 Taplin, Mrs. J. E., S. Dak., '02 Tappan, David S., Ohio, '99 Tapper, Thos., Mass., '02 Tarbell, Horace S., R. I., '91 Tarr, Ralph S., N. Y., '99 Tate, W. K., S. C, '99 Taunton Pub. Library. Mass. '02 Tawney, Guy A.. Wis.. '98 Taylor, A. R., 111.. '86 Taylor. Daniel P., Colo., '01 Taylor, Edw., Ky., '96 Taylor, G. Warren, 111., '00 Taylor, Jos. S., N. Y., '94 Taylor, R. A., N. Y., '01 Teachers' Asso., Cowley Co., Kan., '86 Teachers' Asso., Riley Co., Kan., '86 Teachers' Asso., Wis., '84 Teachers' College, Dept. Man. Tr., N. Y., '99 Teachers' Inst., Phila., Pa., '79 Teeter. John D.. Fla.. '01 Templeton, J. C. Cal.. '94 Tennerry. Florence E., 111., '02 Tennerry, Kate E., 111., '02 Terman, John W., Ind., '99 Terrel, Harriet E., Ohio, '96 Terrell, Robert H., D. C, '98 Thaler, Jos. A., Mont., '02 Thames, W. I., Miss., '97 Tharpe, F. D., Mo., '91 Thatcher, Jas. L., Iowa, '96 Thayer, Ada F., N. Y., '96 Theilman, Louis, Mo., '95 Thiry, J. H., N. Y., '97 Thomas, D. W., Ind., '96 Thomas, Emma A., Mich., '96 Thomas, E. R., Minn., '02 Thomas, Geo. S., N.Dak., '02 Thomas, Isaac, Vt., '99 Thomas, Jennie L., Mich., '00 Thomas, Richard S., N. Y., '01 Thomas, W. Scott, N. Y., '99 Thompson, A. B., Ind., '01 Thompson, D. M., N. C, '98 Thompson, E. C, Mich., '94 Thompson, Miss F. E., Ohio, '99 Thompson, H. E., Okla., '95 Thompson, J. H., Mich., '01 Thompson, John G., Mass., '95 Thompson, L. S., N. J., '76 Thompson, O. D., Mich., '96 Thompson, T. E., Mass., '97 Thompson. Wm. O., Ohio, '94 Thomson, Frank D., 111., '95 Thornburg, Z. C. Iowa, '01 Thomdyke, E. L., N. Y., "98 Thornhill, E. A., 111., "oi INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1005 I Thorson, I. A., Minn., '98 Thudium, C. C, Mo., '98 Thurber, Chas. H., Mass., '93 Thvveatt, Hiram H., Ga., '00 ThwinR, Chas. F., Ohio, '95 Thwing, F. F., Ky., 'oi Tibbets, Anna, Neb., '94 Tibbetts, A. C, Minn., '95 Tibbits. H. S., 111., 'oo Tighe, R. J., N. C, "oo Tillotson, D. C. Kan., '86 Tilton, Chas. S., Wash., "99 Tinker, B. W., Conn., '97 Tobin. Mary E., 111., 'oi Todd, Samuel B., Wis. '95 Toepel, Theo.. Ga., '01 Tolman, Henry, L., 111., '97 Tomlin, J. H., Ind., 'oo Tompkins, A., 111., '96 Tonning, P. C, Minn., '02 Tormey, J. A., Minn., '97 Torreyson, B. W., Ark., '02 Tower, Belle M., Mich., '97 Tower, Willis E., 111., '02 Towne, Geo. L., Neb., '00 Townsend, H. S.,.P.I., '99 Townsend, J A., N. Y., '99 Tracy, Franklin N., 111., '96 Trant, Amelia E , N. Y., '96 Trask, Helen W., Minn., '02 Trask, H. M., Pa., '95 Travell, Ira W., N. J.. '97 Travis. Clyde R., N. Dak., "02 Travis, Mrs. Meta G., Tenn. 02 Trent, E. O., Ark., '01 Tressler, A. W., Wis., '92 Treudley, F., Ohio, '91 Triplet, Wm., Colo., '01 Tripp, John B., vS. Dak., '02 Trisler, J. L., Ohio, '01 Trowbridge, G. S., Cal., '99 Truman, Emma L., S. D., '01 Trybom, J. H., Mich., '00 Tual. Acad. Pacif. Univ., Ore., '99 Tucker, D. W., Ind., '02 Tucker, Lucy B., Ohio, '01 Tuger, Margaret E., N. Y., '01 ♦Turner, Alfred, Mass., '95 Turner, C. W., Neb., '99 Turner, Eugene F., Tenn. '00 Turner, F. L., 111., 'oc Turner, J. E., 111., '95 Turner, J. M., Wis., '97 Tuttle. Albert H., Va., '96 Tutwiler, Julia S., Ala., '82 Twichell, W. S., N. J.. '01 Twiggs, T. P., Mich., '01 _ Twining, Nathan C, 111., '84 Twiss, Geo. R.. Ohio, '94 Twitchell, W. I., Conn., '01 Twitmyer, Edwin, Wash., '02 Twitmyer, Geo. W., Del., '90 Tynan, T. T., Wyo., '99 Ulrich, Jessie E., 111., '02 Underbill, Volney, 111., '93 University, Atlanta, Ga., '95 University, Brown, R. I., '01 University, Colgate, N. Y., '02 University, Columbia, N.Y.,' 95 University, Cornell, N. Y., '96 University, Denison, Ohio, '00 University, Harvard, Mass., 95 University, J. B. Stetson, Fla., '99 University, Johns Hopkins, Md., '99 University, Lawrence, Wis., '99 University, Lehigh, Pa., '99 University, Leland Stanford Jr., Cal., '97 University, Mercer, Ga., '99 University, Miami, Ohio, '95 University, North western, 111., '02 University of Arizona, '01 University of Arkansas, '01 University of California, '95 University of Chicago, 111., '99 University of Georgia, '95 University of Illinois, '99 University of Indiana, '99 University of Iowa, '97 University of Michigan, '98 University of Minnesota, '00 University of Missouri, '95 University of Nebraska, '98 University of N. Carolina, '99 University of N. Dakota, '99 University of Ohio, '97 University of Oklahoma, '99 University of Pennsylvania.'gS University of Rochester, N. Y., -OI University of State of N . Y., '93 University of Tennessee, '01 University of Texas, '98 University of Utah, '95 University of Vermont, '01 University of Washington, '98 University of W. Virginia, '99 University of Wyoming, '97 University, S. 111., Nor., '99 University, St. Louis, Mo., '01 University, Vanderbilt, Tenn., '01 University, Washington and Lee, Va., '01 University, Yale, Lib'y, Conn., '01 Updegraflf, H., Md., '99 Upton, R. R., 111., '98 Vail, Henry H., N. Y., '97 Vaile, E. O.. 111., '95 Valparaiso Coll., Ind., '97 Van Adestine, Eliz., Mich., '01 Van Aken, Mrs. G., N. Y., '84 Vance, Sophie, Ohio, '90 Vance, Wm. McK., Ohio, '00 Van Cleve, C. L., Ohio, '96 Van Cleve, Edw. M., Ohio, '97 Vanderbilt Univ., Tenn., '01 Vandyke, J. A., Minn., '96 Van Fredenberg, Elmer D , Minn., '02 Van Liew, Chas. C, Cal., '94 Van Matre, Chas. A., Ind., '00 Van Rensselaer, Martha, N. Y.. '94 Van Sickle, Jas. H., Md., 92 Van Wagenen, Maude L., S. Dak., '02 Van Winkle, J. D., Ark., '00 Vassar College, N. Y., '98 Vaughan, Mary E., 111., '00 Veatch, Nathan T., Kan., '95 Veenfliet, Mrs. M. L., Mich., '01 Venable, Mary A., Ohio, '02 Vert, Edmund j.. Wis., '95 Viebahn, Chas. F., Wis., '84 Vincent, Geo. E., 111., '02 Virtue, G. O., Minn., '98 Vogel, Wm. H., Ohio, '90 Volland, A. J., Mich., '97 Voorhes, O. P., Ohio, '00 Voorhis, Geo. H., N. J., '93 Vosburgh, J. H., Okla., '01 Wabash College, Ind., '95 Wade, Margaret I., N. J., '94 Wadhams, John A., 111., '01 Wagner, W. H., Neb., '99 Waite, Geo. S., Mich., '00 Wakeman, J. W., N. J., '92 Waldo, Eveline A., La., '96 Walke, Matilda L., Ohio, '92 Walker, B. M., Miss., '99 Walker, E. W., Wis., '97 Walker, H. A. C, S. C , 'oo Walker, J. Henry, Ga., '01 Walker, P. R., 111., '90 Walker, R. E., 111., '99 Wallace, Chas. L., N. H., '02 Wallace, May B., 111., '02 Walls. Gallic K.. Ky. 'oi Walrath, M. H., N. Y., '96 Walsh, Miss E. B., Ky., '00 Walsh, J. H., N. Y., '95 Walter, Mary, Ohio, "98 Walter, Sarah J.. Conn., '98 Walters, Wm. W., Mo.. '01 Walton, Geo. A., Mass., '92 Ward, F. D.. Ohio, 'oi Ward Seminary, Tenn., '99 Wardlaw, P., S. C, 'oo Ware, N. E., Ga., '96 Warfield, Wm. C, Ohio, 'oo Waring, J. H. N., D. C, '98 Warner, A. B., Wash., '94 Warner, Chas. F., Mass., '99 Warr, J. W., 111., '95 Warriner, E. C, Mich., '99 Warters, Wm. J., Canada, '02 Washburn, Kirk N., Mass., '96 Washburn, Morgan, N. Y., '02 Washburne, Marion F., Ind. ,'00 Washington and Lee Univ., Va., 'oi Waterhouse, A. H., Neb., '96 Waterman, Richard, 111., '96 Waters, Wm. W., Neb., '02 Watson, Edith M., Mich., '97 Watson, Lake G.. Ohio. '02 Watt. W. E., 111., '95 Way, R. B., Mich., '01 Waynesburg College, Pa., '02 Weaver, E. W., N. Y., '97 Weaver. John S.. Ohio, '99 Weaver, Sterrie A., Itfass., '00 Webb. A. C. Tenn., '01 Webb, J. E., Iowa, '02^ Webb, Louis K., Cal., '99 Weber, A; W., Wis., '97 Weber, H. C, Tenn., '97 Webster, E. E., 111., '99 Webster. Geo. W.. 111., '99 Webster, R. H., Cal., '99 Webster, W. F., Minn., '96 Weeks, C. W., Minn., '95 Weir, Samuel, Pa., 'oi Welch, W. W., Morit., '01 Weld, Frank A., Minn., '95 Weldon, Edward, Pa., '98 Welles, Frank E., N. Y., '96 Wellesley College, Mass., '00 Welsh, J. P., Pa., '96 Wentz, Etta L., N. Y., '96 Wernick, E. V., Wis., '95 Wertz, Adda P., 111., 'or Wescott, F. H., 111., '97 West, Geo. A., N. J., '01 West, Max, N. Y., '01 Westcott, O. S., 111., '95 W. 111. St. Nor. School, '02 Western, The, Ohio, '99 Westervelt. Z. F.. N. Y.. '97 West Virginia Univ.. '99 Wettle, J. v.. Mo., '01 Wetzell, W. A., Utah, '02 Whatcom Nor. Sch., Wash. ,'00 Wheaton Coll., 111., '99 Wheeler, Benj. Ide, Cal., '02 Wheeler, Clara, Mich., '02 Wheeler, Henry N., Mass., '92 Wheeler, Willard J., Ala., '00 Wheeling Pub. Lib'y, W. Va.. Wheelock, Chas.F.,N.Y., '9S Whipple, H. A., Wis., '97 Whitcher, Geo. H., N. H., '02 Whitcomb, A. K., Mass., '92 White, Adeline R., Mont., '01 White, Chas. G., Mich., "95 White, Chas. L., Me., '91 White, Daniel A., 111., '95 White, Daniel H., Cal., '99 *White, Emerson E., Ohio, '70 White, Fred. C, N. Y., "99 White, H. C, Ga., '96 White, J. T., Md., '98 White, J. U., Mo., '87 ioo6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION White, Wm. M., Ohio, '96 White, W. S., Mich., '97 White, W. T., Tenn., '89 Whiteford, J. A., Mo., '95 Whitfield, H. L., Miss,. '00 Whitford, Wm. C, Wis., '84 Whitman College, Wash., '01 Whitney, Allen S., Mich., '94 Whitney, M. A., 111., '91 Whitney, O. C, Wa.sh., '98 Whitney, S. Emory, Mich. ,'93 Whittemore, Henry, Mass., '95 Whittle, W. R., R. I., '96 Wiard, Mrs. G. Cal., '02^ Wiard, Louise A., Ky., '96 Wicks, Arthur H., Ohio, '00 Wicks, John F., 111., '97 Wicks, Walter J., Wis., '01 Widner, Esther A., Ohio, '80 Wiggins, Alta., N. Y., '02 Wiggs, Mrs. W. H., Ga., '00 Wilber, Austin E., Mich., '01 Wilber, Flora, 111., '01 Wilber, Linus B., Minn., '02 Wilber, H Z., Kans., '02 Wilcox, Albert H., N. Y., 'oo Wilcox, Jessie B., Wash., '99 Wiley, Wm. H., Ind., '96 Wilkins, A. H., Tex., '94 Wilkinson, E. W., Ohio, '00 Wilkinson, J. J., 111., '96 Wilkinson, J. N., Kan., '84 Willard, F. E., 111., '96 Willard, J. Monroe, Pa., '02 Williams Coll. Lib'y, Mass., '97 Williams, David, Fla., '97 Williams, Mrs. Delia, Ohio, '70 Williams, H. B., Ohio, '00 Williams, J. D., 111., '96 Williams, L. W., R. I., '98 Williams, McD., Minn., '02 Williams, M., Ida, Cal., '99 Williams, Philo J., Kan., '86 Williams, Sherman, N. Y., '98 ♦Williams, Thyrza C, N. J., '97 Williams, Wm. H., Wis., '97 Williamson, A. W., 111., '02 Williamson, J. E., Iowa, '95 Willis, H. B., N. J., '92 Willis, Mrs. H. B., N. J., '01 Willis, W. A., Iowa, '84 Willis, W. S.. N. J., '01 Willson, P. J., Mich., '01 Wilmington Inst. Lib'y. Del., '00 Wilson, C. B., Mass., '96 Wilson, Clara A., Iowa, '02 Wilson, Eugene A., Mich., '99 Wilson, Mrs. G. T., Iowa, '02 Wilson, Harry G., 111., '95 Wilson, H. B., Ind., '00 Wilson, H. G., Ariz., '01 Wilson, H. L., Wis., "02 Wilson, J. Alfred, N. J., '99 Wilson, J. Ormond, D. C, '80 Wilson, J. W., Kan., '01 Wilson, Mrs. L. L. W., Pa., '99 Wilson, M. C, Ala., '00 Wilson, Olive B., 111., '02 Wilson, V. L., Iowa, '97 Wilson, W. B., Utah, "oi Wilson, Wm. E., Wash., '90 Windate, Ida M., 111., '96 Wingebach, Jos. P., N. Y.,' 02 Winne, Jas., Conn., '92 Winship, Albert E., Mass., '92 Winston, Geo. T., N. C, '96 Winters, T. H., Ohio, '97 Winthrop N. Coll., S. C, '01 Wirt, Wm. A., Ind., '00 Wise, Henry A., Md., '85 Witherspoon, Jas. H., Ark.,' 99 Witmer, Chas. K., Pa., '94 Witmer, Lightner, Pa., '98 Witter, Chas. E., Mo., '02 Witter, F. M., Iowa, '97 Wolfe, H. K., Neb., '96 Wolfe, L. E., Tex., '90 Woman's Coll., Md., '99 Wood, Chas. H., Ind., '01 Wood, Court F., D. C, '97 Wood, Emory M., Mich., '89 Wood, Jas. A., N. Mex., '97 Wood, John A., Ind., '98 Wood, O. M., P. R., '93 Wood, Stella L., Minn., '02 Woodhull, J. F., N. Y., '99 Woodley, O. I., N. J., '96 Woodmansee, M.A., Ohio, '98 Woods, Francis M., 111., '96 Woodward, C. M., Mo., '87 Woodward, Eliz. J., Mass., '99 Woodward, F. C, Va., '99 Woodward, J. C, Ga., '97 Woodward, S. M., Ariz. ,'02 Woody, H. G., Ind., '93 Wooley, L. C, N. J., '93 Woolsey, P. 8., Cal., '01 Work, H. B., W. Va., '00 Worley, G. W., Ind., '01 Wooster, Lizzie E., Kan., '00 Wright, A. M., N. Y., '93 Wright, Anna J., Ohio, '94 Wright, Edmund l^K., Me., '89 Wright, G. H. B., Cal., '01 Wright, G. S., Mich., '01 Wright, J. L., Tenn., '02 Wright, John A., Ohio, '01 Wright, L. L., Mich., '96 Wright, Mary A., Minn., '02 Wright, O. A., Ohio, '98 Wright, R. R., Ga., '00 Wright, Wm: R., Mich., '92 Wylie, Mrs. M. J. B., N.Y.,'91 Wyly, G. A., Ohio, '01 Yale Univ. Lib'y, Conn., '01 *Yates, A. A., N. Y., '98 Yates, Lydia A., N. C, '98 Yerkes, S. W., Wash., '02 Yocum, A. Duncan, Pa., '02 Yoder, A. H., Wash., '96 York, Lewis E., Ohio, '01 Youker, H. S., Wis., '02 Young, C. M., S. Dak., '02 Young, C. N., Wash., 'oi Young, Mrs. Ella F., 111., '00 Young, J. B., Iowa, '96 Young, J. S., Minn., '95 Young, Nathan B., Fla., '96 Young, Robert G., Mont., '89 Zeller, J. W., Ohio, '01 Ziek, Mary, Iowa, '98 Zillafro, Margaret C, Pa., '96 Zimmerman, C. F. A., Wis. ,'95 Zirkle, H. W., Colo., '98 Zueblin, Chas., 111., '01 I INVENTORY AND PRICE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN THE DEPOSITORY AT WASHING- TON, D. C, JULY I, 1902 Price per Number of Prices in single vol- copies sets, carriage ume, carriage MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS in stock not prepaid prepaid Historical Sketch of the National Elducational Association, 1857-91 . 158 $0.20 $0.25 X REPRINTS OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1891 Paper cover, 147 pages ----- 151 $0.30 $0.25 1892 *' " 237 •>------ 392 .20 .25 1894 " " 184 " - - - - - 282 .20 .25 1898 " " 194 " - - - - - - 34 .20 .25 igoo " " 120 " _____ 201 .20 .25 t REPRINTS OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 1885 Paper cover, 120 pages ----- 11 $0.10 $0.15 1888 u .4 yj 4. _ _ _ _ _ _ J28 .10 .15 1889 «' " 98 " - - - - - 222 .10 .15 1890 «' " 80 " - - - - - - 229 .ro .15 1891 " " 114 " - - - - - 92 .10 .15 1894 " " 9S " - - - - - - 1^8 .10 .15 189s " " 81 " - - _ - - 43 .10 .15 t REPRINTS OF REPORTS OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES tReport of Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools, paper cover, 249 pages - $0,30 $0.30 f Report of Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Schools, paper cover, 235 pages .30 .30 Report of Committee on Rural Schools, paper cover, 228 pages - - - - .20 .25 Report of Committee on College -Entrance Requirements, paper cover, 188 pages] .20 .35 Report of Committee on Normal Schools, paper cover, 64 pages _ _ _ _ .j© ,15 Report of Committee on Public Libraries and Public Schools, paper cover, 80 pages .10 .15 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCLATION 1865 Paper cover, 117 pages - - - - - - 11 $0.50 * 1866 " " 140 " - - - - - - 12 .50 • BOUND VOLUMES OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1871 St. Louis ------- * * * 1873 Elmira --------219 $1.25 $1.50 1874 Detroit --_-__- 244 1.25 1.50 187s Minneapolis ------- iS7 ^-^5 i-S© 1876 Baltimore ------- 250 1.25 1.50 1877 Louisville _ - - - _ - - 149 1.25 1.50 1878 (No meeting) 1879 Philadelphia -------262 1.25 1.50 1880 Chautauqua -_-___ 206 1.25 1.50 1881 Atlanta --------464 i.^S i-5? 1882 Saratoga Springs ------ * 1.50 * 1883 Saratoga Springs -_----* ♦ 1884 Madison ------- 529 1.50 i.75 1885 Saratoga Springs - - - - - - * i-50 1886 Topeka --__-_- 297 1.50 1-75 1887 Chicago --------101 ^1.50 1.7s 1888 San Francisco ------ 219 1.50 i.7S 1889 Nashville -------396 1.50 1.75 1890 St. Paul ------- 416 1.75 «-oo 1891 Toronto --------672 1.7S «•«> 1892 Saratoga Springs --_--- 660 1.7S *•<» 1893 Chicago (International Congress of Education) - - 422 1.75 2.00 1894 Asbury Park - - - - - - - 399 i-75 *•«> 1895 Denver ------- 273 1.75 «•«> 1896 Buffalo -------- 197 I-7S «•<» 1897 Milwaukee _------ 179 i-75 *•«> 1898 Washington, D. C. - - - - - - 18 1.75 » °° 1899 Los Angeles ------ 213 1.75 «•«> 1900 Charleston ------- 118 1.7S ^°o 1901 Detroit -- - - - - -.65 I.7S »•«> 1902 Minneapolis ------ - m press 1.7S «•«> Subject Index ------ 549 free i.oo * Stock exhausted. t The Reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen are printed and sold by the Ameri- can Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid. t All reprints noted above are included in the bound volumes of Proceedings except the Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools. A complete Subject Index of all published proceedings to 1897 has been issued in a separate volume, bound in cloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings. The index will be sent free of charge to those who purchase five or more volumes ; to others it will be sent postpaid for $1.00. The index volume will be supplied to active members for 25 cents for postage, wrapping, etc. All publications can be obtained of the Secretary. Remittances should be made by draft or post money order. Irwin Shkpafd, Secretary, Winona, Minn. 1007 CLASSIFIED MEMBERSHIP BY STATES IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE YEAR I902 — (MINNEAPOLIS MEETING) State or Territory Total North Atlantic Division South Atlantic Division South Central Division North Central Division Western Division Colonies Foreign (including Corresponding, 28) North Atlantic Division- Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division- Delaware Maryland. District of Columbia ^. . . Virginia '. West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida South Central Division- Kentucky Tennessee Alabama - Mississippi Louisiana , Texas Arkansas , Oklahoma Indian Territory North Central Division- Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Iowa Minnesota Missouri , North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas Western Division- Montana Wyoming Colorado . . .-. , New Mexico Arizona Utah... Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California , Colonies- Alaska , Hawaii Porto Rico Philippine Islands Foreign— Active Membership S i2 t o *J 651 188 136 9 4 II 131 19 26 264 70 117 6 30 39 16 IS 17 19 30 16 27 17 23 12 13 17 19 7 222 93 317 145 82 66 79 76 17 29 38 37 23 7 50 26 7 109 562 32 15s 50 3 9 -z 6 ^^ 772 222 173 1,649 331 17 51 13 iSS 21 33 312 81 135 6 34 46 19 19 9 4 260 no 410 168 138 108 168 93 32 49 SO 63 7.13s 776 141 128 5,886 ISO S4 126 7 27 283 35 250 226 151 837 206 539 693 2,330 94 276 341 146 47 10,350 1,548 363 301 7i535 481 17 105 25 281 28 68 595 116 385 13 62 97 27 28 33 25 43 35 73 37 52 15 41 26 28 17 261 1.247 372 677 801 2,498 187 308 390 196 109 60 10 74 15 22 25 7 13 71 27 157 5 5 6 105 I 1008 RECORD OF MEMBERSHIP BY STATES IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR EACH YEAR FROM 1884-I902, INCLUSIVE Excepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held. Heavier numbers show membership from the state in which the meeting for the year was held. State OR Terr. 1884 1885 1 1 1886 a 1887 8 •y 1 a 1888 ii 1 1889 'a en 1890 2 1 1891 1 SS 1892 •2 1 1894 1 0 1896 J J 1 1897 c 1 1 < J 1 d 1900 1 1 ii 1895 1898 1899 1901 1902 Total 2,729 625 1,197 9.II5 7,216 1,984 5,474 4,778 3,360 5,91s 11,297 9,072 7,111 10,533 13,656 4,641 10,182 10.350 N. Atl.Div 7Q2 406 386 773 803 lOI 795 426 1,187 1,711 1,462 2,940 942 1,492 1,877 783 1,309 i,S48 S. Atl. Div 77 16 31 44 113 128 95 151 309 271 289 237 172 1,146 tA 1,181 473 363 S.Cen.Div III 19 47 370 216 1,074 261 417 253 460 899 419 304 i,s88 414 768 301 N.Cen.Div 1,712 176 708 7,671 1,074 642 4,156 2,933 1,456 3,3.57 7,211 S.083 5,315 5,882 5,074 1,903 6,98. 7,535 West'nDiv 26 7 25 102 4,974 38 122 19b 104 73 1,403 377 366 412 5,487 354 686 481 iJolonies-. 16 17 Foreign. •■ II I 155 _3? I 45 655 51 43 33 16 12 13 __J.9 6 39 105 N. Atl. DIv Maine.. 21 2 •■; 2.S II 32 30 10 5 24 7 7 10 16 19 13 32 N.H... 64 6 10 23 II 32 9 5 7 27 8 6 6 14 5 7 26 4^ 8 3 41 4 40 4 20 4 13 14 IS II II 8 91 25 Mass... 310 145 8s 277 206 28 290 114 212 52 191 197 159 159 294 139 196 a8i R. I ■JO 13 13 29 30 4 31 42 23 12 55 35 23 36 50 18 23 28 Conn... 40 18 23 36 48 4 31 18 ,63 13 26 43 24 31 46 24 41 68 N. Y... 143 lo9 91 211 210 29 228 117 611 326 521 2,132 411 509 7.S6 327 512 595 N.J.... 40 27 35 23 41 13 12 16 6s 969 168 179 no 172 154 93 173 116 Penna . . 81 28 121 108 242 23 99 76 178 323 437 325 187 558 536 157 323 38s I 4 3 I 2 5 6 8 17 II 8 9 9 4 7 !3 Md 5 10 8 17 3 7 13 49 45 S3 23 31 80 SO 81 76 69 D. C. .. 30 I 7 12 32 13 21 10 35 24 47 29 57 382 99 57 137 97 Va 6 4 3 2 18 12 2 8 2 24 36 21 10 63 22 38 22 27 W.Va.. ^S 3 3 8 6 6 27 49 20 37 49 52 16 129 29 18 S6 28 N. C... 3 2 2 8 12 2 13 17 15 5 14 4 76 27 72 29 33 B.C.... 5 4 1 2 13 22 4 18 14 S2 I 31 7 92 22 691 30 25 Ga I 2 10 16 43 23 31 163 64 62 43 30 26X 87 145 77 43 Fla I I I .... 16 7 4 3 2 19 13 9 54 16 71 39 35 S.Cen.Div Ky 33 2 8 I SI 22 114 39 57 42 128 176 77 98 408 136 68 215 73 Tenn... 12 6 S 62 83 607 97 124 57 124 66 S7 25 248 113 96 108 37 Ala.... 9 I I 16 45 123 35 79 51 41 41 59 25 229 69 74 35 52 Miss.... 7 I 2 7 10 87 44 42 36 20 49 25 19 100 65 27 20 15 La 3 7 8 II 7 19 13 25 21 11 108 25 42 146 60 26 46 ^l Texas . . 22 I IS ss 29 8g 20 53 9 294 99 41 257 221 55 148 26 Ark.... 22 8 67 12 29 12 34 33 25 84 63 41 132 96 46 116 28 Okla... 4 58 14 II 60 47 21 71 17 Ind.T.. 3 I I 8 6 I 3 4 I 23 2 7 II 1 9 12 NCen.Div Ohio... (21 43 67 S8i 22:; 60 361 355 178 990 592 565 357 1,313 580 286 753 486 Ind 54 IS 46 4.18 71 89 206 149 65 2S8 321 250 205 591 3.54 173 3S7 261 Ill 3154 33 164 1,750 222 204 625 666 214 871 1,495 1,174 785 1,340 1,216 557 1,142 1,247 Mich... 77 12 20 273 40 29 137 259 285 iSS 204 589 327 379 196 no 2,193 372 Wis.... 546 18 18 486 57 28 443 222 72 143 188 413 1,8/0 361 287 187 293 677 Iowa... 304 18 87 1,146 96 67 572 278 .10 164 1,086 578 543 383 593 82 444 801 Minn... 132 Q II 64Q 58 r6 933 118 54 86 193 303 333 164 267 121 382 2,498 Mo 46 II 73 62s 133 68 249 320 189 43S 1,113 40b 285 795 673 166 415 '^l N. Dak. (.3 8 \ PQ 32 16 8 28 34 53 26 16 98 308 S. Dak. 5 149 7 ho9 31 20 9 78 83 118 45 86 30 141 390 Neb.... 3Q S 27 634 40 10 147 220 126 127 742 363 251 103 331 86 325 196 Kan.... 16 II 190 q6o 124 64 275 283 127 III 1,171 325 187 382 453 89 348 109 West'nDiv 60 Mont... 3 I I 9 4 S 37 24 9 3 15 43 78 20 70 24 88 Wyo.... I 2 2 8 8 S 13 4 2 48 7 10 8 13 7 »5 10 Colo.... 12 2 II 40 109 8 S6 114 59 58 1,136 177 145 196 46S ?l 118 74 N. Mex. 2I 26 2 I 7 5 26 16 21 27 90 31 15 Ariz I 45 I I 2 2 11 6 6 21 158 •1 34 29 Utah... 1 3 4! 127 ... . 10 8 4 89 37 22 25 106 K 25 Nev.... J I 6 134 I 2 5 3 2 49 3 6 7 Idaho . . 12 I I 3 10 6 3 32 11 ?.9 13 Wash.. I I 31 27 I 6 18 I 2 6 16 8 12 56 90 81 71 Ore ... . 3 1 I II 204 f 7 5 s 14 9 7 10 7Q 13 45 97 Calif... ■i 4 18 4,278 13 8 5 10 I S3 SI 56 87 4,357 156 217 1 57 Colonies Alaska 9 5 4 Hawaii. i 5 P. Rico. 2 4 5 5 6 Phil.ris i Foreign. •• 11 I .... 155 36 i I 45 655 51 43 33 16 13 13 39 39 los 1009 GENERAL INDEX fNames of authors of papers are set in small capitals, A f indicates a memorial sketch] Accredited Schools, Report of the Com- mission on, 500. Active Members, Conditions of Eligibility, I; List of, 904. Act of Incorporation, 4; Certificate of, 5. Actual Business, Requirements for, 675. Adams, Cecelia — Hindrances to the De- velopment of Language, 412. Addresses of Welcome — Governor S. R. Van Sant, 35; Superintendent John W. Olsen, 38; Hon. D. P. Jones, 40; Super- intendent Charles M. Jordan, 42; Presi- dent Cyrus Northrop, 43. Adolescents, Nature and Needs of, 730. Advantages to the Indian Pupil of Class- room Work as Outlined in the Course of Study— Mrs. Lucy P. Hart, 868. Advisability of Having Indian Schools of Moderate Size — H. M. Noble, 871. Agricultural School in the Indian Ser- vice, 869. Agriculture in Rural Communities, 222. Agriculture in the Public Schools, The . Practical Value of Teaching, 431. Agriculture, The Teaching of, to Indians, 862. Ahern, Mary Eileen — Secretary's Minutes, Library Department, 798. Aim in Indian Education, What is Our, 870. Altruism as a Law of Education — Arnold Tompkins. 256. Amanuensis, Education of the, 691. Amendments to Constitution of the Coun- cil, 314. America, Victorious, 846. American Farmer, The Education of, 93. American Library Association, Greeting from, 807. Analogies, Biological, in Reasoning on Educational Subjects, 215. Ancient Classics, Round Table in, 462. Anderson, J. M. — Business Education, 681. Andrews, William E. — Discussion, 477. Anomalous Situation, with Suggestions for Improvement — Hollis E. Dann, 616. Are Business Courses in Public Schools Inimical to Education?— A. E. Winship, 652. Art and Manual Training, Co-operation Between, 571. Art as an Educational Factor — James L. Hughes, 581. Art, Education in the Appreciation of, 521. Art Education, Limitations of the Subject, 597; in Relation to Manual Training, 564; Report of Committee on, 594; What is, 597. Asbury, Calvin — Discussion, 882. Associations of Parents of Deaf Children as an Aid to Schools, 848. Athletics in Indian Schools — W. H. Wins- low, 883. Athletics — Principals' Conference, 485. At What Age Should the Student Begin Business Subjects— Edward W. Stitt,666. Bakeless, O. H. — Discussion, 811. Balliet, Thomas M. — College Gradu- ates in Elementary Schools, 272. Barker, C. D. — Discussion, 475. Barker, F. L. — Discussion, 473. Barrett, Richard C. — Reciprocity in Licensing Teachers, 299; Secretary's Minutes, 298. Barrett, R. T. — Discussion, 224. Bayliss, Alfred — Address before De partment of Indian Education, 879; Dis- cussion, 229. Beard, R. O.— The Physiology of Child- hood as Applied to Education, 720. Beardshear, William M. — Presidential Address: The Three H's in Education, 55. Bell, Alexander Graham — President's Address, Department of Special Educa- tion, 828; Discussion, 850. Benham, Nathaniel, t. 893. Benner, Henry, t, 894. Berg, P. S. — Discussion, 474. Best Method of Effecting Transfers of Pupils in Indian Schools — A. J. Stand- ing, 872. Bible, Knowledge of the English, 71. Biological Analogies in Reasoning on Edu- cational Subjects, 215. Biology as a Means of Inducing the Pupil to Think, 468. Biology, The Projection Microscope in Teaching, 771. Bishop, J. Remsen— President's Address, Department of Secondary Education, 456; Leader of Biological Conference, 468; Discussion, 470. Blair, F. G. — Discussion, 251. Blanchard, Mrs. M. E. — Discussion, 891. Blind Children, What Minnesota is Doing for, 840. Bliss, Lafayette — Leader Round-Table Conference in Ancient Classics, 462. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Black, William H. — Discussion, 391. Board of Trustees, who constitute, 3; List of for 1901-2, 8; List of for 1902-3, 12; Report of for 1901-2, 19. Bolton, Frederick E. — New Lines of Attack in Child Study, 703. Bonebrake, Lewis D. — Discussion, 230. Bonnell, E. N. — Discussion, 668. Boone, Richard G. — Discussion, 213. Booth, F. W. — Lessons to be Learned by the General Teacher from Teaching Language to the Deaf, 831; Secretary's Minutes, Special Education, 827. Booth George A. — Requirements for Actual Business, 675. Bouton, Eugene — Discussion, 283. Brazil, Organization of Education in, 506. Bright, Orville T.— Discussion, 230. Britzius, H. A. — Discussion, 473. Brooks, Sarah C. — Discussion, 424, Brown, John F. — Discussion, 505. Bruce, William George — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of School Administra- tion, 790. Brumbaugh, Martin G. — Progress of Education in Porto Rico, 253. Bryan, W. J. S. — Leader of Principals' Conference, 485. Buckley, Sister Catherine — Discussion, 889. Bulloch, J. G. — Tuberculosis among In- dians— How Caused and How Pre- vented, 867. Burks, Jesse D. — Discussion, 437. Burroughs, George Stockton, f, 894. Burton, Charles E. — Discussion, 883. Busby, Allie E. — Discussion, 887. Business Courses in Public Schools, Are They Inimical to Education? 652. Business Education— J. M. Anderson, 681. Business-Man, The vs. The Public School, 655. Business, Requirements for Actual, 675. Business Subjects, At What Age Should Students Begin, 666. Butler, Nicholas Murray — Address Before Department of Indian Education, 877; Some Pressing Problems, 66; Dis- cussion, 328. By-Laws of General Association, 4. Caldwell, H. W. — Discussion, 481. Calendar of Meetings, 6. Call out the Leaders— J. Remsen Bishop, 456. Caplin, Jessie F. — Discussion, 473. Carman, George N. — Report of the Com- mission on Accredited Schools, 500; Discussion, 503. Carrington, W. T. — Discussion, 224. Carroll, C. F. — Discussion, 214. Carter, Joseph— The Practical Value of Teaching Agriculture in the Public Schools, 431. Catt, Mrs.Carrie Chapman— The Home and the Higher Education, 100. Chandler, Willard Harris, "j", 894. Chapin, M. L. — Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Music Education, 616. Chapple, B. p.— What Minnesota is Doing for Her Blind Children, 840. Chicago Public Schools, The Child-Study Department of the, 710. Childhood as Applied to Education, The Physiology of, 720. Child Study and Psychology in Normal Schools, 239. Child-Study Department of the Chicago Public Schools, The — Angeline Loesch, 710. Child Study, New Lines of Attack in, 703; What Our Schools Owe to, 716. China, Educational Conditions and Prog- ress in, 144. Citizenship, Influences That Make for Good, 192. City Superintendents, Round Table of, 230. Civilization and Citizenship Among In- dians, Drawbacks to, 862. Clark, Frances Elliott — High-School Music, 626. Clark, John S. — Dissenting opinion, 614. Classics, Ancient, 462. Clement, Arthur G. — Discussion, 468. Clifford, Julia B. — Discussion, 469, 470. Colby, Pauline — Discussion, 892. Cole, A. H. — The Projection Microscope — Its Possibilities and Value in Teaching Biology, 771. College Graduates in Elementary Schools — Thomas M. Balliet, 272; Discussion, 279. Collins, E.E. — Discussion, 230. Commercial Course for a Massachusetts High School, 686. Commercial Courses, Length and Content of, 661. Commercial Student, The vs. The Public School, 655. Commercial Teachers, The Preparation of for Public Schools, 669. Commission on Accredited Schools, Report of, 500. Committee of Nine, Department of Busi- ness Education, Report of, 645. Committee of Nine on Educational Doc- trine, Membership of, 157. Committee of Ten on Elementary Art Education, Report of, 594. Committee on Constitution of Department of Superintendence, Report of, 15 1 ; Members of, 152. Committee on Nominations, General Asso- ciation, list of, 53; Report of, 24. Committee on Resolutions, General Asso- ciation, list of, 22; Report of 26; Depart- ment of Superintendence, 156. Committees, Standing, of the Council, 308. Common-School Community, The — Ossian H. Lang, 387; Discussion, 390. CoMPTON, L. M. — The Teaching of Agri- culture to Indians with Reference to Future Employment, 862. Conference, Teachers', Department of Indian Education, 885. I INDEX 1013 Conferences, Round-Table, Department of Indian Education, 881. Consolidation of Rural Schools, 224, 793. Constitution of General Association, i. Constitution of National Council, 306. Constitution, Proposed, for Department of Superintendence, 151. Content and Length of Commercial Courses, 661. Cook, John W. — Discussion, 340, 392, 546. Cooking for the Indian Girl — I. Emma E. Duclos, 890; II. Mrs. S. M. McCowan, 890; III. Emily L. Johnson, 891. Cooley, Mrs. Alice W. — Discussion, 425. CooLEY, Edwin G. — The Value of Exami- nations in Determining a Teacher's Fit- ness for Work, 179. Cornell, Watson, t, 895. Correlation of Mathematical Studies in Secondary Schools, 488. Correlation of the Schoolroom and Farm Work for Indians — E. C. Nardin, 870. Corresponding Members, List of, 901. Council Constitution of the, 306; Members of the, 309; Standing Committees of, 308. Course of Study, Modernizing the, 233. Covey, Claude C. — The Necessity for Books Especially Adapted to Indian Children, 874. Cox, William J. M. — Discussion, 285. Cox, Wilson H. — Discussion, 884. Craig, William Bayard — Education in the Appreciation of Art, 521. Crissy, I. O. — President's Address, De- partment of Business Education, 646. Criticism— What Shall it Be?— James E. Russell, 247; Discussion, 249. Crone, John V. — Discussion, 468. Crouse, Mrs. J. N. — Discussion, 423. Crouse, J. W. — Opportunity and Judicious Direction for the Indian, 867. Cultivating Habits of Thrift and Economy in Indian Schools — Carrie A.Walker, 885. Curry, Robert, t, 895. Cutler, H. F. — Discussion, 467. Dairying, Stock Raising — for Indians, 885. Danger of Using Biological Analogies in Reasoning on Educational Subjects — W. T. Harris, 215; Discussion, 221. Dann, Hollis E. — An Anomalous Situa- tion, with Suggestions for Improvement, 616; Discussion, 660. Davis, Charles L. — Discussion, 883. Davis, Jehiel Kitteridge, t, 895. Day School for Indian Children, Value of the, 874. Day Schools for Indians, Need for Better- Equipped, 883. Deaf Children, What is Minneasota Doing for, 836. Deaf, Teaching Language to the, 831. Defects in the Normal Schools that are Responsible for the Opposition and Criticism Urged Against Them in Many Parts of the United States— Homer H. Seerley, 539; Discussion, 544. Department of Art Education, 580; of Business Education, 644; of Child Study, 702; of Council of Education, 306; of Elementary Education, 430; of Higher Education, 493; of Indian Education, 858; of Kindergarten Education, 409; of Library, 798; of Manual Training, 549; of Music Education, 615; of Normal Schools, 529; of Physical Education. 739; of School Administration, 790; of Science Instruction, 759; of Secondary Education, 455; of Special Education, 825; of Superintendence, 15 1; Special Meeting, 298. Department Officers, List of, for 1901-2, 10; for 1902-3, 14. Departments, List of, I. Development of Language, Hindrances to the, 412. Devotion to Truth the Chief Virtue of the Teacher — Rt. Rev. John Ireland, 83. Dewey, John — The School as Social Cen- ter, 373; Discussion, 719. Dexter, Edwin Grant— Should Entrance to College be Thru the Examination of the School or of the Pupil, 494. Difference between Efficient and Final Cause in Controlling Human Freedom — W. T. Harris, 342. Directors, Life, 12. Directors, Who Shall Constitute Board of, 2; List of for 1 901 -2, 8; List of for 1902-3, 12. Dissenting Opinions of Members of Com- mittee of Ten on Art, 612. Doggett, Wm. E. — Length and Content of Business Courses, 661. Dolls, Housekeeping with, for Indian Children, 888. Dougherty, Newton C. — Discussion, 330. Dow, James J. — Necessary Evils, 85 1 ; Dis- cussion, 467. Downing, Augustus S. — Address Before Department of Indian Flducation, 881; Discussion, 284, 285. Drawbacks to Civilization and Citizenship Among Indians — H. G. Wilson, 862. Drawing in Secondary Schools, 589. Duclos, Emma E. — Discussion, 890. Duncan, James J. — The Value of the Day School for Indian Children, 874. Dunn, Professor — Discussion, 482. Duties of a Superintendent, Minor, 230. Dutton, Bettie A. — Remarks on Charles C. Rounds, 407. Economy and Industry Necessary for Indians, 887. Education, Altruism as a Law in, 256; Business 681; The Function of Know- ledge in, 331; The Three Elements in the Cost of, 461. Education in Brazil, Organization of, 506. Education in Porto Rico, Progress in, ass- Education in the Appreciation of Art — William Bayard Craig, 521. TOI4 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Education in the Philippines — JacobGouId Schurman, no. Education of a Stenographer — Mrs. M. L. Veenfliet, 696. Education of the Amanuensis — Selby A. Moran, 691. Education of the American Farmer — James Wilson, 93, Education of the Indian Should be Adapted to His Needs — Alice Robert- son, 868. Educational Conditions and Progress in China — C. M, Lacey Sites, 144. Educational Progress, Obstacles to — 157. Educational Progress of the Year, The — William R. Harper, 349. Educational Value of Museums, The — Oliver Cummings Farrington, 765. Educational Value of Training in Public Speaking — Thomas C. Trueblood, 133; Discussion, 140. "Educative" Physical Education — William O. Krohn, 740. Edwards, Caspar —Discussion, 882, Efficient and Final Causes in Controlling Human Freedom, 342. Elementary Art Education, Report of Committee on, 594. Elementary Preparation in Drawing for Secondary Schools — What May Reason- ably be Expected — Clarence Valentine Kirby, 589. Elementary Schools, College Graduates in, 272; Myth and History in, 447; Shop- Work in the, 558. Elimination of Teachers, 231. Eliot, Charles W., Telegram Accepting Presidency, 29. Emberson, R. H. — Discussion, 818. Emerson, Henry P. — Influences That Make for Good Citizenship, 192. English for Indian Children — Matthew M. Murphy, 884. English History vs. European History, 478. English Ideal of Education and its Debt to America — Michael E. Sadler, 75. English, Round-Table Conference in, 483. English Spelling, Simplification of, a Present Duty, 125. English Study by Kindergarten Students, The Need for, 425. Ethical and Psychological Value of Music, 621. Ethics of Fun, The Psychology and, 286. European History z/j. English History, 478. Evils, Necessary, 851. Examinations, Value of in Determining a Teacher's Fitness for Work, 174. Executive Committee, how constituted, 2; list of for 1 90 1 -2, 8; for 1902-3, 12. Fairvveather, Eliz\beth K. — The Psy- chological and Ethical Value of Music, 621. Fall, Delos — Discussion, 229, 284. Farmer, The Education of the American, 93. Farrar, F. F. — Discussion, 477. Farrington, Oliver Cummings — The Educational Value of Museums, 765. Farson, M. Elizabeth — Discussion, 215. Felmley, David — The Relations of the Heads of Departments to the Training School, 530. FenoUosa, Ernest F. — Possibilities of Art Education in Relation to Manual Train- ing, 564- Ferreri, G. — Victorious America, 846. Field of Shop Work in the Elementary School, The— J. E. Painter, 558. Financial Phase of the Consolidation of Rural Schools — Charles A. Van Matre, 224; Discussion, 229. Fiske, VV. A. — Leader Physical Science Conference, 47 1; Discussion, 473-8. P'olwell, W. W. — Discussion, 505. Ford, L. H. — Discussion, 504. Fordyce, Emma J. — Libraries and Schools; a Two-faced Question, 805. Form as the Basis of Space Arts, 598. FosHAY, James A.— Response to Addresses of Welcome, 46; Discussion, 181. Four Minor Duties of a Superintendent — I. C. McNeill, 230. Fowler, William K. — Discussion, 171. Frazier, Charles R. — Leader Round-Table Conference in History, 478. Freedom, Human vs. Efficient and Final Causes, 342. Froebel and the Child's Powers in Lan- guage, 417. From the Practical to the Intellectual in the Shop — Arthur W. Richards, 550. Function of Knowledge in Education, The — Charles B. Gilbert, 331; Discus- sion, 340. Fun, The Psychology and Ethics of, 286. Future Development of School Music — Thomas Tapper, 633. Future of Greek Studies, The — J. Irving Manatt, 511. Gaylord, E. E. — A Practical Commercial Course for a Massachusetts High School, 686. Gentle, Thomas H. — Discussion, 246. Gibbs, Gertrude — Discussion, 468. Gilbert, Charles B. — The Function of Knowledge in Education, 331; Discus- sions, 341, 390. Gilley, Frank H. — High-School Instruc- tion in Physics, 778. Gilmore, Ella H. — Discussion, 887. Glascock, William, "I". 896. Glotfelter, John H. — Discussion, 252. Goodell, F. E. — Discussion, 474. Goodhue, Horace — Discussion, 467. Gordy, W. F. — Discussion, 482. Gove, Aaron — Discussion, 331. Gowdy, Jean L. — Discussion, 756. Graduates, College, In Elementary Schools, 272. Greek Studies, The Future of, 511. Green, James M. — Discussion, 245. INDEX 1015 Greenwood, J, M.— What the School may Properly Demand of the Library, 81 1; Discussion, 181, 215, 329, 818. Greeting from the American Library Asso- ciation— Anderson H. Hopkins, 807. Grove, W. D. — Discussion, 469, 470. Habits of Thrift and Economy, Cultivat- ing in Indian Schools, 885, Haley, Margaret A. — Discussion, 180. Hall, G. Stanley— The High School as the People's College, 260; Discussion, 221, 271. Halleck, Reuben Post — How Far Does the Modern High School Fit the Nature and Needs of Adolescents, 730; The Social Side of High-School Life, 459; Discussion, 811. Hanus, Paul H. — Obstacles to Educa- tional Progress, 157. Harper, William R. — The Educational Progress of the Year, 349. Harris, Ada Van Stone — Discussion, 423. Harris, W, T.— The Danger of Using Biological Analogies in Reasoning on Educational Subjects, 215; The Differ- ence between Efficient and Final Causes in Controlling Human Freedom, 342 How the School Strengthens the Indi- viduality of the Pupil, 118; Newspapers- in Indian Schools, 875; Response to Address of Welcome, 830; Discussion, 221, 270. Harrison, Elizabeth — Discussion, 421, 440. Hart, Joseph C. — The Need of Home Societies for the Encouragement and Protection of Indian Young Men and Women, 865. Hart, Lucy P. — Advantages to the Indian Pupil of Class-Room Work as Outlined in the Course of Study, 868. Hartranft, W. G.— Discussion, 230. Hartung, Henry. — Requirements for Physical Education in Our Public Schools, 745. Hartwell, Charles S. — Discussion, 466, 484. Harvey, L. D. — Instruction in the Ele- ments of Agriculture in Rural Communi- ties, 222. Harvey, N. A. — Discussion, 253. Hatch, W. H. — Discussion, 446, 576. Hatch, William E. — Discussion, 195. Hefferan, Mrs. Helen M. — The Organ- ization of Parents of Deaf Children as an Aid to Schools, 848. Hester, W. A. — Modernizing the Course of Study, 233. Higher Education, The Home and The, 100. High School as the People's College — G. Stanley Hall, 260; Discussion, 268. High-School Instruction in Physics — F. M. Gilley, 778. High-School Life, The Social Side of, 459. High-School Music — Frances Elliott Clark, 626. High School, Physical SciSnce in the, 471. Hill, Walter B.— The Psychology and Ethics of Fun, 286. Hindrances to the Development of Lan- guage— Cecelia Adams, 412. History, Round-Table Conference in, 478. Hollis, A. P. — Discussion, 534. Holton, M. Adelaide — Discussion, 447. Home and the Higher Education — Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, 100. Home Socieities for Indian Young Men and Women, 865. Hopkins, Anderson H. — Greeting from the American Library Association, 807; Discussion, 811, 818. Hopper, Kate A. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Child Study, 702. Housekeeping with Dolls for Indian Chil- dren—I, Jessie Mattoon, 888; II, MoUie J. Robbins, 889. How Can Returned Indian Students Make their Services Valuable on the Reserva- tion— Mrs. M. E. Blanchard, 891. How Far Does the Modern High School Fit the Nature and Needs of Adolescents — Reuben Post Halleck, 730 ; Discus- sion, 738. How Froebel Planned to Foster the Child's Power in Language — Alice H. Putnam, 417; Discussion, 421. How the School Strengthens the Individu- ality of the Pupil— W. T. Harris, 118. How to Impress on Indians the Value and Use of Money — James Staley, 881. How to Lead Indian Pupils to Realize Value of Articles Furnished by the Gov- ernment— Bertha A. Macey, 890. How to Make the Indian See the Impor- tance of Industry and Economy — Clara C. McAdam, 888. How to Meet the People — Louis P. Nash, 237- How to Teach Indian Children to go Ahead Without Being Told— Delia Meriwether, 892. How to Teach the Indian Boys and Girls to Become Home-makers — R. D. Shutt, 863. Hubbard, Frank Valentine,"|" 896. Hughes, James L. — Art as an Educational Factor, 581. Hughes, P. M. — Discussion, 467. Hutchinson, John C. — Discussion, 503. Ideal Normal School, The — William H. Payne, 203; Discussion, 211. Index to Active Membership List, 993. Indian, Education of the, 868. Indian, Opportunity and Judicious Direc- tion for, 867. Indian Schools, Needed Changes in, 872; Newspapers in, 875. Indian Service, The Value of a Large Agricultural School in the, 869. Individuality of the Pupils, How the School Strengthens— W. T. Harris, 118. Industrial Departments in Indian Schools — Caspar Edwards, 882. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Industrial Employes in Indian Schools, Need for Better Equipped, 883. Industries, Productive, for Indians, 892. Industry and Economy, How to Make the Indian See the Importance of, 888. Industry and Economy Necessary for the Indians— Allie B. Busby, 887. Influences that Make for Good Citizenship — Henry P. Emerson, 192; Discussion, 198. Instruction and Management in Indian Schools— Tama M. Wilson, 886. Instruction in Elements of Agriculture in Rural Communities — L. D. Harvey, 222; Discussion, 223. Instruction in Psychology, Shall it be Oral, 246. Inventory and Price List, 1007. Ireland, John — Addresss before Depart- ment of Indian Education, 878; Devo- tion to Truth the Chief Virtue of a Teacher, 83. Irwin, John Scull,"f", 896. Jackman, Wilbur S. — Memorial address on Colonel Francis Wayland Parker, 399. Jackson, Laura — The Value of the Outing System for Indian Girls, 864. James, Henry Martin, "f", 897. Jayne, Violet — Discussion, 483. Johnson, Mrs. Emily L. — Discussion, 891. Jones, D. P. — Address of Welcome, 40. Jones, Frank L. — Discussion, 211. Jordan, Charles W. — Address of Wel- come, 42. Jourdan, Minerva S. — Discussion, 423. Journal of Proceedings, 22. Karr, Grant — Discussion, 246. Kaup, Lydia E. — Discussion, 887. Keating, J. F. — Discussion, 181. Kelley, A. H. — Response to Address of . Welcome, 830. Keppel, F. P. — Secretary's Minutes, Depart- ment of Higher Education, 493; Discus- sion, 504. Keyes, Charles H. — Reportof Treasurer, 16. KiEHLE, David L. — Address of Welcome, Kindergarten Department, 410; The Practical Application of All Learning to Better Living, 182. Keith, John A. H. — Discussion, 245. Kindergarten Students, The Need for Eng- lish Study by, 425. Kingsford, A. S. — Discussion, 483. Kingsley, Homer H. — Discussion, 578. Kirby, Clarence Valentine — Elemen- tary Preparation in Drawing for Second- ary Schools — What May Reasonably be Expected, 589. Kirk, John R. — Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Normal Schools, 529; Discus- sion, 538. Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Discussion, 727. Knight, George W^ells — Discussion, 481, 504. Knowledge in Education, The Function of, 331- Krohn, William O. — "Educative" Phys- ical Education, 740. Lace Making for Indian Women, 892. Lancaster, E. G. — Discussion, 738. Lane, A. G. — Taxation and Teachers' Sal- aries, 323, Lane, Horace M. — Organization of Edu- cation in Brazil, 506. Lang, Ossian H. — The Common-School Community, 387. Language, Hindrances to the Development of, 412; How Froebel Planned to Foster the Child's Powers in, 417; Teaching to the Deaf, 831. Learning Applied to Better Living, 182. Lehnerts, Edward H. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Science Instruction, 759. Length and Content of Commercial Courses — William E. Doggett, 661; Discussion, 664. Lessons to be Learned by the General Teacher from Teaching Language to the Deaf— F.W. Booth, 831. Leviston, Irwen — Discussion, 268. Libraries and Schools; aTwo-Faced Ques- tion— Emma J, Fordyce, 805. Library as an Educator, The — W. A. Millis, 799. Library, What the School May Demand of the, 811. Licensing Teachers, Reciprocity in, 299. List of Active and Corresponding Members, 901. Living, Application of Learning to Better, 181. Loesch, Angeline — The Child-Study De- parment of the Chicago Public Schools, 710. Lord, Livingston C. — Discussion, 244, 252. Lukens, Herman T. — Dissenting Opinion, 614. Lyttle, Eugene W. — Discussion, 754. Macey, Bertha A, — Discussion, 890. Magnuson, P. M. — Discussion, 537. Management and Instruction in Indian Schools, 886. Manatt, J. Irving — The Future of Greek Studies, 511. Manual Training and Art, Co-operation between, 571. Manual Training in Relation to Art Edu- cation, 564. Marcellus, Corinne — Discussion, 438. Mark, E. H. — Discussion, 447. Mathematical Studies in Secondary Schools, 488. Mathematics, Round-Table Conference on, 488. Matrons' Conference, Department of Indian Education, 890. Mattoon, Jessie — Discussion, 888. Maxwell, Guy E. — Discussion, 249. May, Mary C. — The Need for English Study by Kindergarten Students, 425 ; Secretary's Minutes, 410. INDEX 1017 McAdam, Clara C. — Discussion, 888. McCowAN, S. M.— President's Address, Department of Indian Education, 861; The Value of a Large Agricultural School in the Indian Service, 869. McCowan, Mrs. S. M. — Discussion, 890. McCowen, Mary — Discussion, 850. McIvER, Charles D. — The Three Ele- ments in the Cost of Education, 461. McMurry, Frank M. — Discussion, 252. McNeill, I. C— Four Minor Duties of a Superintendent, 230. Meetings, Calendar of, 6. Members, List of, 901. Membership, Classes of, i ; Statistical Tables of, 1008, 1009. Memorial Addresses, 393. Meredith, Virginia C. — Discussion, 191,223. Meriwether, I3ella — Discussion, 892. Merrill, J. A. — Physiography in the Sec- ondary Schools, 784. Method, The Use and Danger of, 441. Meyer, B. H.— The Preparation of Com- mercial Teachers for the Public Schools, 669. Microscope, The Projection, 771. Millis, W. A. — The Library as an Educator, 799; The Use and Danger of Method, 441. Millspaugh, J. F.— Secretary's Minutes, Council, 311, Minnesota and Her Blind Children, 840 ; Deaf Children, 836; Feeble Minded and Epileptics, 845. Modernizing the Course of Study — W. A. Hester, 233. Monsarrat, Laura Lucus, "f", 897. Moral, Religious, and Social Training in Indian Schools, 889. Moral, Spiritual, and Physical Development of Indian Children, 892. M0RA.N, Selby a. — The Education of the Amenuensis, 691. More Practical Work in the Grades of In- dian Schools — Ella H. Gilmore, 887. Musical Qualifications Necessary for a Teacher of Music in the Public Schools — PVank L. Nagel, 640. Music in the Public Schools, Qualifications Necessary for a Teacher of, 640. Music, the Future Development of School, 633; High School, 626; The Psychological and Ethical Value of, 621. Murphy, Matthew M. ^Discussion, 884. Museums, The Educational Value of, 765. Myth and History in the Elementary Schools: The Use and Limits of Each — May H. Prentice, 447; Discussion, 453. Nagel, P rank L. — Musical Qualifications Necessary for a Teacher of Music in the Public Schools, 640. Nageler, John G., \, 897. Nardin, E. C. — Correlation of the School- room and Farm Work for Indians, 870. Nash, Louis P. — How to Meet the People, 237. Necessary Evils — James J. Dow, 851. Necessity for Books Especially Adapted to Indian Children— Claude C. Covey, 874. Necrology Report, 893. Need for Better Equipped Indian Day Schools— Charles E. Burton, 883. Need for Better Industrial Employes in Indian Schools— Charles L. Davis, ^83. Need for English Study by Kindergarten Students, The — Mary C. May, 425. Need of Home Societies for the Encour- agement and Protection of Indian Young Men and Women— Joseph. C. Hart, 865. Needed Changes in Indian Schools— A. O. Wright, 872. Nellis, George W.— Discussion, 885. Newhall, Charles W.— Leader Mathemati- cal Conference, 488. New Lines of Attack in Child Study— Fred- erick E. Bolton, 703. Newspapers in Indian Schools — W. T. Harris, 875. Nicholson, Thomas — Discussion, 505. Nightingale, A. F. — Discussion, 484. Noble, H. M.— The Advisability of Having Indian Schools of Moderate Size, 871. Non-Competitive 'Examinations in Em- ploying Indians — Calvin Asbury, 882. Normal Schools, Defects in, 539; The Ideal, 203; Psychology and Child Study in, 239; Round Table of, 239. Northrop, Cyrus, Address of Welcome, 43. Norton, William Harmon — President's Ad- dress, Department of Science Instruction — The Teaching of Science, 760. Noss, Theodore B. — Response to Ad- dress of Welcome, 48 ; What Our Schools Owe to Child Study, 716; Discussion, 251. Obstacles to Educational Progress — Paul H. Hanus, 157; Discussion, 171. Officers of Departments, List of for 1901-2, ID; for 1902-3, 14. Officers of General Association, List of for T901-2, 8 ; for 1902-3, 12. Officers, Who Shall Be, 2; How Elected, 2. O'Grady, C. Geraldine. — President's Address, Kindergarten Department, 411; Discussion, 423, 424. Olsen, John W. — Address of Welcome, 38 ; Progress in Consolidation of Rural Schools, 793; Discussion, 224. Opportunity and Judicious Direction for the Indian — C. W. Crouse, 867. Oral Work, Advantages of, in Indian Schools, 887. Organization of Associations of Parents of Deaf Children as an Aid to Schools — Mrs. Helen M. Hefferan, 848 ; Discus- sion, 850. Organization of Education in Brazil — Horace M. Lane, 506. Orr, John Daniel, f, 898. O'Shea, M. V. — Dissenting Opinion, 612. Outing Svstem for Indian Girls, Value of, 864. ioi8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Outline of Course in Elementary Art for Graded Schools, 60 1. Outline of Courses in Elementary Art for Ungraded Schools, 608. Page, Edwin C. — Discussion, 252. Painter, J. E.— The Field of Shop- Work in the Elementary School, 558. Parents of Deaf Children as an Aid to Schools, 848. Parker, Colonel Francis Wayland, "f — Wil- bur S. Jackman, 399. Parker, W. D. — Discussion, 850. Parkinson, D. B. — Discussion, 446. Paul, J. H. — Discussion, 537. Payne, William H. — The Ideal Normal School, 203. Pearse, Carroll G. — Discussion, 140, 182, 660. Pennell, Calvin Smith,!, 898. People, How to Meet the, 237. People's College, The High School as the, 260. Peres, Israel H. — President's Address, Department of School Administration, 791. Perkins, James S. — Tuberculosis Among Indians, How Caused and How Pre- vented, 865. Pettinger, Professor — Discussion, 482. Peyser, Harold — Practical Co-operation between Art and Manual Training, 571. Philippines, Education in the, no. Physical Education, "Educative," 740. Physical Education in Our Public Schools, Requirements for, 745. Physical, Moral, and Spiritual Development of Indian Children — Nannie E. Sheddan, 892. Physical Science in the High School, 471. Physics, High-School Instruction in, 778. Physiography in the Secondary Schools — J. A. Merrill, 784. Physiology of Childhood as Applied to Education, The— R. O. Beard, 720; Discussion, 727. Poland, A. B. — Discussion, 279. Porto Rico, Progress of Education in, 253. Possibilities of Art Education in Relation to ManualTraining — Ernest F. Fenollosa, 564. Potter, Thomas W.— To What Extent Do Agents and Superintendents in the Indian Service Read the Rules and Regu- lations, 873. Practical Advantage of More Oral Work in Indian Schools — Lydia E. Kaup, 887. Practical Application of all Learning to Better Living — David L. Kiehle, 182 ; Discussion, 189. Practical Commercial Course for a Massa- chusetts High School — E. E. Gaylord, 686. Practical Co-operation Between Art and Manual Training— Harold Peyser, 571 ; Discussion, 576. Practical Training for the Indian — Wilson H. Cox, 884. Practical Value of Teaching Agriculture in the Public Schools, The — Joseph Carter, 431 ; Discussion, 437. Pray, Mabel L.— Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Physical Education, 739. Preamble of Constitution, i. Prentice, May H. — Myth and History in the Elementary Schools : The Use and Limits of Each, 447 ; Discussion, 538, 818. Preparation of Commercial Teachers for the Public Schools, The— B. H. Meyer, 669. President, duties of, 2. Presidential Address — The Three H's in Education — William M. ^Beardshear, 55- President's Address, Department of Busi- ness Education — I. O. Crissy, 646; De- partment of Elementary Education- -J. Remsen Bishop, 456; Department of Indian Education — S. M. McCowan, 861 ; Kindergarten Department — C. Ger- aldine O'Grady, 411; Department of School Administration — Israel H. Peres, 791; Department of Special Education — Alexander Graham Bell, 828. Price List and Inventory, 1007. Principals' Conference, 485. Problems, Some Pressing, 66. Proceedings, Journal of, 22. Productive Industries for Indian Women — Lace Making — Pauline Colby, 892. Progress in Consolidation of Rural Schools —J. W. Olsen, 793. Progress of Education in Porto Rico — Martin G. Brumbaugh, 253. Progress of the Year, The Educational, 349- Projection Microscope, The — Its Possi- bilities and Value in Teaching Biology — A. H. Cole, 771. Psychological and Ethical Value of Music —Elizabeth K. Fairweather, 621. Psychology and Child Study in Normal Schools, 239. Psychology and Ethics of Fun, The — Walter B. Hill, 286. Psychology, Shall Instruction be Oral, 246. Public School, The vs. the Commercial Student and the Business Man, 655. Public Schools, Physical Education in, 745- Public Schools, The Preparation of Teach- ers for the, 669. Public Speaking, Educational Value of Training in, 133. Putnam, Mrs. Alice H. — How Froebel Planned to Foster the Child's Powers in Language, 417 ; Discussion, 424. Putnam, Daniel — Psychology and Child Study in Normal Schools, 239. Rankin, A. W. — Discussion, 447. Ratliff, Laura H, — Discussion, 886. INDEX Recent Reaction in France against Rous- seau's Negation of Society in Education — Anna Tolman Smith, 383; Discussion, 390. Reciprocity in Licensing Teachers — Richard C. Barrett, 299. Reel, Estelle — Secretary's Minutes, Depart- ment of Indian Education, 858. Relations of the Heads of Departments to The Training School, The — David Felm- l^y> 530 ; Discussion, 534. Religious, Social, and Moral Training in Indian Schools, 889. Report of Committee of Nine, Department of Business Education — Durand W. Springer, Chairman, 645, Report of Committee on Constitution of Department of Supermtendence, 151. Report of the Committee of Ten on Ele mentary Art Education. 594; Resolution, 595 ; General Reflections, 596; What is Art Education, 597; Limitations of Sub- ject, 597 ; Form as Basis of Space Arts, 598; Suggested Outline for Instruction in Graded Schools, 601 ; for Ungraded Schools, 608; Appendix A, 610; Appen- dix B, 611, Appendix C, 612. Report of Treasurer for 1901-2, 16. Report on Necrology, 893. Report on the Commission on Accredited Schools — George N. Carman, 500. Requirements for Actual Business — George A. Booth, 675; Discussion, 679. Requirements for Physical Education in Our Public Schools — Henry Hartung, 745; Discussion, 754. Resolution, Department of Kindergarten Education, 410. Resolution for Appointment of Committee on Taxation, 311. Resolution of Sympathy — Nicholas Murray Butler, 30. Resolution on Committee of Ten of Art Department — Langdon S. Thompson, chairman, 595. Resolutions, Committee on General Asso- ciation, list of, 22 ; Report of, 26. Resolutions concerning change of place o^ meeting of the Department of Superin- tendence, 299. Resolutions, Report of Committee of De- partment of Superintendence, 156. Responses to Addresses of Welcome — James A. Foshay, 46 ; Theodore B. Noss, 48 ; Joseph Swain, 52 ; W. T. Harris, 830; A. H. Kelley, 830. Richards, Arthur W. — From the Prac- tical to the Intellectual in the Shop, .550. Richards, Charles R. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Manual Training, 549- Richeson, John E. — Discussion, 447, 480. Robbins, Mollie J. — Discussion, 889. Roberts, H. L. — Discussion, 224. 1019 Robertson, Agnes— School Libraries in the Rural Districts, 818. Robertson, Alice— The Education of the Indian Should be Adapted to his Needs. 868. Robinson, E. V.— Discussion, 481, 482, 503. Round Table Conferences: in Ancient Clas- sics—Leader, Lafayette Bliss,' 462 ; in Biology— Leader, J. Remsen Bishop, 468; in History— Leader, Charles R. Frazier, 478 ; Department of Indian Ed- ucation, 881; in English— Leader, Thomas C. Trueblood, 483; of Princi- pals—Leader, W. J. S. Bryan, 485 ; on Mathematics — Leader, Charles W. New- hall, 488 ; on Physical Science — Leader, W. A. Fiske, 471. Round Table of Department of Superin- tendence, 222; of State and County Superintendents, 222, 299; of City Superintendents, 230 ; of Normal Schools and Training Teachers, 239 ; Special Meeting, 298; of Secondary Depart- ment, 462. Rounds, Charles Collins, "f — Henry Sabin, 393- Rousseau's Negation of Society in Educa- tion, 383. RowE, H. M.— What Shall the Public School do for the Commercial Student and the Business-Man, 655. Rural Districts, School Libraries in the, 818. Rural Schools, Consolidation of, 793 ; The Financial Phase of the Consolidation of, 224. Russell, James E.— Criticism, What Shall it be, 247 ; Discussion, 253. Sabin, Henry — Memorial Address on Charles Collins Rounds, 393. Sadler, Michael E. — Address before Department of Indian Education, 877 ; The English Ideal of Education and its Debt to America, 78. Salaries, Taxation and Teachers', 323. Salisbury, Albert — Discussion, 244, 537. Sanford, H. R. — Discussion, 284. Saunderson, George W. — Discussion, 484. Schaeffer, Nathan C. — Taxation for School Purposes, 314; Discussion, 190, 224, 229. School as a Social Center, The — John Dewey, 373 ; Discussion, 390. School Libraries in the Rural Districts — Agnes Robertson, 818. Schurman, Jacob Gould — Education in the Philippines, no. Schuyler, William — Discussion, 465. Science, The Teaching of, 760. Scott, Charles Payson Gurley — The Simplification of English Spelling, 125. Secondary Schools, Mathematical Studies in, 488 ; Physiography in the, 784. Secretary, duties of, 2; how elected, 3; salary of, 3. :o20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Secretary's Minutes, Department of Art Education, 580 ; of Business Education, 644 ; of Child Study, 702 ; of Council of Education, 311 ; of Elementary Edu- cation, 430 ; of Higher Education, 493 ; of Indian Education, 85S ; of Kindergar- ten Education, 409 ; of Library, 798 ; of Manual Training, 549 ; of Music Educa- tion, 615; of Normal Schools, 529; of Physical Education, 739 ; of School Ad- ministration, 790; of Science Instruc- tion, 759 ; of Secondary Education, 455 ; of Special Education, 825 ; of Superin- tendence, 151 ; Special Meeting, 298. Seeley, L. — Discussion, 544. Seerley, Homer -H.— Defects in the Normal Schools that are Responsible for the Opposition and Criticism Urged Against Them in many parts of the United States, 539; Discussion, 242, 548. Selection of Teachers, 230. Shall Courses in European History be Given Precedence over Course in Eng- lish History, 478 ; Discussion, 480. Shall Instruction in Psychology be oral ? 246. Sheddan, Nannie E. — Discussion, 892. Shepard, Irwin, Journal of Proceedings, 22. Shop-Work in the Elementary School, 558. Should Entrance to College be thru Exam- ination of the School or of the Pupil ? Edwrin Grant Dexter, 494. Shutt, R. D. — How to Teach the Indian Boys and Girls to Become Home-makers, 863. Siefert, H. O. R. — Discussion, 201. Simplification of English Spelling a Pres- ent Duty — Charles Payson Gurley Scott, ^.125. Sisson, E. O. — Discussion, 285. Sites, ,C. M. Lacey, Educational Condi- tions and Progress in China, 144. Skinner, Charles R. — Discussion, 181. Slaton, Wm. F. — Discussion, 283. Smith, Anna Tolman — The Recent Re- action in France Against Rousseau's Negation of Society in Education, 383. Smith, Charles Alden — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Secondary Educa- tion, 455 ; Discussion, 504. Smith, George M. — Discussion, 482. Snyder, J. L. — Discussion, 504. Snyder, Z. X. — Address before Depart- ment of Indian Education, 880; Dis- cussion, 252. Social Center, The School as, 373. Social, Moral, and Religious Training in Indian Schools— Sister Catherine Buck- ley, 889. Social Side of High-School Life, The — Reuben Post Halleck, 459. Soldan, F. Louis — Discussion, 181, 182. Some Pressing Problems —Nicholas Murray Butler, 66. Speaking, Public, 133'. Spears, Miss — Discussion, 482. Spelling, Simplification of English, 125. Staley, James — Discussion, 881. Standing, A.J. — Best Method of Affecting Transfers of Pupils in Indian Schools, 872. ' Standing Committees of The Council, 308. State and County Superintendents, Round Table of, 222. Statistical Tables of Membership, 1008, 1009. Stenographer, The Education of a, 696. Stetson, W. W. — Discussion, 179, 180, 181. Stevens, C. E. — Discussion, 664. Stevens, Janet M. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Art Education, 580. Stimulation of Teachers, 233. Stitt, Edward W.— At What Age Should the Student Begin Business Subjects, 666. Stock Raising and Dairying for Indians — George W. Nellis, 885. Stout, J. H. — Discussion, 850. Strachan, Alexander — Discussion, 467. Superintendent's Conference, Department of Indian Education, 881. Swain, Joseph — Response to Addresses of Welcome, 52. Tapper, Thomas — The Future Develop- ment of School Music, 633. Tate, J. N, — What is Minnesota Doing for Her Deaf Children, 836. Taubman, Kate, "j", 899. Taxation and Teacher's Salaries — A. G. Lane, 323 ; Discussion, 328. Taxation for School Purposes — Nathan C. Schaeffer, 314 ; Discussion, 328. Taylor, Henry J., "f", 899. Teachers' Conference, Department of In- dian Education, 885. Teachers' Salaries, Taxation and, 323. Teaching of Agriculture to Indians with Reference to Future Employment — L. M. Compton, 862. Teaching of Science, The — William Har- mon Norton, 760. Thompson, Langdon S., Report of Com- mittee of Ten on Art Education, 594. Three Elements in the Cost of Education — Charles D. Mclver, 461. Tompkins, Arnold — Altruism as a Law in Education, 256. Tower, Willis E. — Discussion, 472, 475, 477. To What Extent do Agents and Superin- tendents in the Indian Service Read the Rules and Regulations — Thomas W. Potter, 873. Training the Indian Child for Life on the Reservation— Laura H. Ratliff, 886. Training for the Indian, More Practical, 884. Training in Public Speaking, Educational Value of, 133. Training School, Relations of Heads of Departments to, 530. Transfers of Pupils in Indian Schools, 872. Treasurer's Report for 1901-2, 16. INDEX I02 Treudley, Frederick — Discussion, 191. Trueblood, Thomas C— The Educa- tional Value of Training in Public Speaking, 133; Leader Round-Table Conference in English, 483. Trustees, Board of, Who Constitute, 3 ; List of for 1 901-2, 8 ; for 1 902-3, 12 ; Report of for 1 90 1 -2, 19. Truth, Devotion to, the Chief Virtue of a Teacher, 83. Tuberculosis Among Indians — How Caused and How Prevented — I, James S. Perkins, 865; H, J. G. Bulloch, 867. Twiggs, Templeton P. — Secretary's Min- utes, Business Education, 646; Discus- sion, 679. Twitmyer, Edwin — Discussion, 467. Use and Danger of Method — W. A. Millis, 441 ; Discussion, 446. Vaile, E. O. — Discussion, 142. Value of a Large Agricultural School in the Indian Service — S. M. McCowan, 869. Value of Examinations in Determining a Teacher's Fitness for Work — Edwin G. Cooley, 174 ; Discussion, 179. Value of the Day School for Indian Chil- dren, The — James J. Duncan, 874. Value of the Outing System for Indian Girls, The — Laura Jackson, 864. Vandyke, J. A. — Discussion, 480. Van Matre, Charles A. — The Financial Phase of the Consolidation of Rural Schools, 224. Van Sant, Governor S. R. — Address of Welcome, 35. Veenfliet, Mrs. M. L. — The Education of a Stenographer, 696. Victorious America — G. Ferreri, 846. Vincent, George R. — Discussion, 189. Walker, Carrie A. — Discussion, 885. Walter, Sar,ali J/-4-D';sc'uHsion, ''j I. Walters, Wv' W.--D;scr>sion, ^37. Ward, Edward Gender, t, 899. Waste in Present Educationr-l Svstem, 67. Wertz, Adda P.— Sec rett\rj?V Mmutes, De- partment of Elemehtaiy'Edacdtion, 4^0; Discussion, 447. Westcott, Oliver S. — Discussion, 468, 470, 484. West, Willis M. — Discussion, 480. What Aspects of Psychology and Child Study are Suitable Subjects for Instruc- tion in Normal Schools — Daniel Putnam, 239. What is Art Education, 597. What is Minnesota Doing for her Deaf Children— J. N. Tate, 836. What is Our Aim in Indian Education — E. A. Allen, 870. What Minnesota is Doing for her Blind Children — B. P. Chappie, 840. What shall the Public School do for the Commercial Student and for the Business- Man — H. M. Rowe, 655; Discussion, 660. What our Schools Owe to Child Study — Theo. B. Noss, 716 ; Discussion, 719. What the School May Properly Demand of the Library — J. M. Greenwood, 811. Whitcomb, A. K. — Discussion, 283. White, E. E. — Remarks on Charles Collins Rounds and Frances Wayland Parker, 405; Discussion, 182, 285, 483. Whitford, William Clarke, t, 900. Wilkinson, J. N. — Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Superintendence, 298 ; Dis- cussion, 249, 538. Willis, H. Brewster, Chairman of Commit- tee on Nominations, 24. Wilson, H. G. — Drawbacks to Civilization and Citizenship among Indians, 862. Wilson, James — The Education of the American Farmer, 93. Wilson, Tama M. — Discussion, 886. WiNSHiP, A. E. — Address before Depart- ment of Indian Educution, 878 ; Are Business Courses Inimical. to Education, 652. Winslow, W. H.— Discussion, 883. Wolfe., L. E.— Discussion, 181. Wood .Stella L. — Discussion, 453. Wright, A.O. — Needed Changes in Indian Schools, 872. Wyer, J. I. — Discussion, 811. Wyman, Kate — Discussion, 474. Yerby, John D., |, 900. York, B. E. — Discussion, 230. f}.H- i^^(Y'^ 'v^ L National Education Association 13 of the United States N3A13 Addresses and pro- 1902 ceedings... PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY