&61 Dup. U. of C. Oh. //vCA^f jSUca}**^ O^^e^o "> Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1901natiuoft NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL) ASSOCIATION L &* JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES OF THE (t / FORTIETH ANNUAL (MEETING v HELD AT DETROIT, MICHIGAN JULY 8-12, 1901 /(,-H 1901 published bv> tbe association L 13 mi PRINTED BY Gbe "Qlnlversits of Cbfcago press CHICAGO CONTENTS PAGE Constitution, ------------- x By-Laws, -------------- 4 Act of Incorporation, ------------ 4 Calendar of Meetings, ------------ 6 Officers for 1900-1901, 8 Officers for 1901-1902, 12 Treasurer's Report, ------------16 Report of Board of Trustees, 18 GENERAL SESSIONS Journal of Proceedings, -----------21 Minutes of Annual Business Meeting of Active Members, 24 Report of Committee on Resolutions, --------- 27 Minutes of Meeting of Board of Directors, - 32 Minutes of Meeting of New Board of Directors, 40 Report of Secretary, ------------43 Addresses of Welcome — Bliss, Fall, Angell, Martindale, 51 Response — Boone, ------------59 President's Address: The Duty of the Association in Shaping Public Educational Opinion — Green, ----------- 61 Progress in Education — Spaulding, - - - - - - - • \ • 66 What Is a Fad? — Soldan, - - - 85 Discussion — Fowler, ----------92 Is the Curriculum Overcrowded ? — Van Sickle, ------- 95 How Early May Handwork be Made a Part of School Work? — Richards, - - 100 The School and the Library — The Value of Literature in Early Education — Crunden, ------------- 108 Some of Our Mistakes — Grant, - - - - - - - - - -118 Social Science and the Curriculum — Vincent, ------- 124 Economics in the Public School — Gunton, -------- 131 Ideals and Methods of Economic Teaching — Speirs, ------ 137 The Teacher as a Social-Economic Power — Halleck, ------ 143 Our National Floral Emblem — Proctor, 148 The Educational Crisis in England — Brereton, - - - - - - -151 The Functions of a University in a Prosperous Democracy — Thwing, - - - 165 Federal and State Interests in Higher Education — Fulton, * 169 Recent Growth of Public High Schools as Affecting the Attendance of Colleges — Harris, 174 Discussion — Parsons, •> 180 The Relation of Music to Life — Suretie, 18 1 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE [CHICAGO MEETING] Secretary's Minutes, - 189 The Gospel of Work — Cooley, . f\ . - . ' 197 Discussion — Mark, - - - - - - - - - - -201 Education at the Paris Exposition — Rogers, 201 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE — Continued Simplified Spelling — Vaile, .......... 209 Discussion — MacDonald, Prettyman, Parker, Thompson, Carter, White, Jones, Skinner, Harris, Vaile,- - - - - - - - -215 The Past and the Future Work of the Department of Superintendence — Greenwood, 227 Discussion — Cooper, .......... 232 Sketch and Early History of Department of Superintendence — While, • - 233 Medical Inspection in Public Schools — Christopher, ------ 236 Discussion — Gove, Seaver, Maxwell, Krohn, ...... 238 Use and Control of Examinations — Hadley, -------- 240 Report on Manual Training in the Detroit Public Schools — Trybom, - - - 250 Progress and Aim of Domestic Science in the Chicago Public Schools — Tidbits, - 257 Manual Training in Menomonie Public Schools — Hoyt, - - - - 261 Discussion — Parker, Stout, et al., ........ 269 Possibilities of Manual Training for Moral Ends — Bales, 270 ROUND TABLES Round Table of Superintendents of Large Cities : Topic — Organization of Inspection and Supervision — Jones, et al., - - - 276 Round Table of Superintendents of Small Cities : Section A. Topic — Developing Greater Efficiency in the Teaching Force — Whitcomb, McNeill, Kirk, Griffith, et al., - 280 Section B. Topic — Grading in the Interests of Pupils — Coleman, - - - 285 Section C. Topic — Correlation of High-School and Grammar-Grade Work — Boynton, et al., ............ 287 Section D. Topic — Literature in Grades below the High School — Miss Schreiber, 288 Round Table of State and County Superintendents : Topic — Consolidation of Rural Schools and Transportation of Pupils — Bay- liss, et al., ............. 203 Round Table of Training Teachers : Topic — Observation of Experts as a Means of Training — Miss Brooks, et al., - 295 The Need of Individual Instruction — Kennedy, ------- 295 Discussion — Millspaugh, Hall, Whitcomb, Fall, Balliet, Kennedy, - - 301 A Standard Course of Study for Elementary Schools in Cities — Boone, - - 303 Discussion — Draper, at al., . ^ ...... . 318 Some Aspects of Grammar-School Training — Briggs, - 320 Discussion — Harris, -*"- - - - - - - - 330 The Situation as Regards the Course of Study — Dewey, - 332 THE NATIONAL COUNCIL Constitution, 349 Officers and Members, 352 Secretary's Minutes, 354 Isolation in the School — How it Hinders and How it Helps — Harris, - - 357 Discussion — Mrs. Young, Gove, Gilbert, Cook, - - - - - - 363 Educational Progress of the Year — Brown, 366 In Memoriam: Burke Aaron Hinsdale — Angell, - 387 Henry Barnard : His Influence on the Establishment of Normal Schools — Lyte, - - 390 His Influence on Schools in the West — Dougherty, - 395 His Home Life and Work in Connecticut and Rhode Island — Keyes, - 400 CONTENTS the national council — continued As an Educational Critic — Parker, 406 His Relation to Establishment of the Office of the Commissioner of Edu- cation, with Historical Reviews — Harris, 408 Appendixes, - - - - - - - - - - -415 Educational Lessons of the Paris Exposition in 1900 — Miss Smith, - 439 Lessons of the Educational Exhibits at Paris in 1900 — Rogers, - 447 Discussion — Brereton, ---------- 454 Report of the Committee on a National University — Harper, - - - - 457 Discussion — Baker, Hoyt, ---------- 468 The Ideal School as Based on Child Study — Hall, 474 Discussion — Gove, Miss Stickney, - - - - - - - -488 High-School Statistical Information — Greenwood, ------ 490 DEPARTMENTS OF KINDERGARTEN AND CHIL» STUDY [joint sessions] Secretary's Minutes, 500 Work and Play in the Kindergarten — Mrs. Putnam, ------ 502 Work and Play in the Primary and Grammar Grades — Miss Powe, . . - 507 Work and Play in Youth — O'Shea, - - - -513 Discussion — Hall, et al., 5l& President's Address, Kindergarten Department — Miss Holmes, - - - - 523 Necessary Elements of Work and Play, with Practical Applications — Miss O' Grady, 527 Rhythm in the Kindergarten — Mrs. Lindgren, 532 Discussion — Keyes, 53& DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, 54° The Church and the School — Molt, 54 * Discussion — Ogg, ----------- 548 The Economic Basis of Art : Cause and Cure of Art-Unresponsiveness in Chil- dren— De Garmo, 549 Discussion — Gunton, - 555 Educational Pioneering in Southern Mountains — Frost, 555 Education and Crime — Butler, 560 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, 565 Opening Address of President — Bryan, 567 The Function of the High School of Today — Bishop, - - - - - - 570 Discussion — Brooks,- .......... 576 Round Table Conferences : The English Conference, 578; the Latin Conference, 579 ; Commercial Studies Conference, 580 ; the Botany Conference, 582 ; the Zoology Conference, 584 ; the Domestic Science Conference, 586 ; the Algebra Conference, 589; The Greek Conference, 589; the German Confer- ence, 590 ; the Physics Conference, 591 ; the Chemistry Conference, 595 ; the Geometry Conference, 598 ; the History Conference, 599 ; the Physiography Conference, 602 ; the Physiology Conference, 602. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, 605 The Function of the State University — Jesse, ....... 606 Discussion — Canfield, et al., - • - ■ - - - - -612 The Rise of National Education in the Sixteenth Century — Perrin, - - - 613 Education for Social Control — Chancellor, • - - ... - - . 619 The Moral Factor in Education — Faunce, 627 Vl NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Secretary's Minutes, 635 The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools — Russell, 636 Discussion — Locke, et al., ---------- 641 DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING Secretary's Minutes, - 646 Textile Arts as Constructive Work in Elementary Schools — Miss Mitchell, - - 647 Artistic Handicraft in Primary and Intermediate Grades — Miss Maxwell, - - 654 Discussion — Keyes, el al., ---------- 656 The Relation of Manual Training to Technical Education — Curtis, - - - 657 Education for the Trades in America — What Can Technical High Schools Do for It? — Warner, - 665 Discussion — Richards, Woodward, Belfield, Gilbert, Morrison, Warner, - 673 DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, ------------ 683 President's Address — Miss Snow, - -. 684 The Economic Value of Art Education — Coburn, - 685 Rhythm as an Art Principle — Miss Rice, 692 The Study of Fine Art in Colleges and Universities : Its Relation to the Study in Public Schools — Frederick, ---------- 695 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, ------------ 704 President's Address — Gantvoort, --------- 705 Music Teachers in Their Relations to the Schools — Haupert, - 706 The Supervisor from the Standpoint of the Regular Grade Teacher — Miss Pettigrew, 709 Supervisors and Supervision — Aiken, - - - - - - - - -714 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, 721 President's Address — Doggett, 722 What Constitutes a Business Education ? — Crissy, 724 Discussion — Williams, Seymour, Bookmyer, ...... 730 Education and Training of Commercial Teachers — Scott, - - .- - - 734 Discussion — Schoch ----------- 738 The Duty of the Public-School System wi.th Respect to Business Training — Scudder ------------- 740 Discussion — Benedict, Brown,..- ........ 747 Writing in the Grades below the High School — Barn/tart, ----- 749 Discussion — Musrush .......... 753 The Phonograph as an Aid in Teaching Shorthand — Lake, 754 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, ------------ 758 President's Address : Physical Training as a Corrective of Brain-Disorderliness — Krohn, ....-..- 759 Physical Education Legislation : Its Needs — Mrs. Leiter, 760 The Ethical, Physiological, and Psychological Aspect of Physical Training — Ballin, 765 Discussion — Kratz, 7°9 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes, ------------771 President's Address : A Plea for the Study of Educational Philosophy by Teachers of Science — Harvey, - - - - - - - - -- - 772 CONTENTS VI l DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION — Continued What the Teacher of Science Can Do to Make the Teaching of Science in Second- ary Schools More Popular — Blatchley, -------- 777 Agriculture as a Science for the Elementary Schools — Carter, - - - - 785 The Status of Science Instruction in the State of New York — Arms, - - - 791 The Relation of Physical Geography to Geology — Norton, 796 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Secretary's Minutes, 803 The Centralization of Rural Schools — Bonebrake, ------ 804 Schoolroom Temperature and Humidity — Bruce, - - - - - - 811 Relation of State Legislation to Modern School Building — Parsons, - - - 815 The Value of Truant Schools — Mrs. Goss, -------- 820 What Constitutes an Efficient Superintendent ? — Peres, ----- 825 LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes, - 829 .President's Address : The Library Movement — Metcalf, ----- 830 Public Libraries and the Public Schools — Canfield, ------ 836 Discussion — Crunden, Buck, --------- 841 What the Normal Schools Can Do for Teachers on the Library Side — Miss Warren, 841 The A B C of Reference Work — Fletcher, - - 847 How Shall Children be Led to Love Good Books? — Miss Lawrence, - 850 The Place of the Library in Education — Dewey, - 858 The Library and the School as Co-ordinate Forces — McCartney, - - - 864 DEPARTMENT FOR DEAF, BLIND, AND FEEBLE-MINDED Secretary's Minutes, ------------ 868 The Law and the Day School for the Deaf — Wesselius, ----- 870 The State in its Relation to the Defective Child — Brandt, ----- 876 Some Results of Hearing Tests of Chicago School Children — MacMillan, - - 880 The Public School as a Social Center — Brown, ------- 888 DEPARTMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes, ------------ 890 President's Address : Learning by Doing — Frissell, ------ 893 Civilization and Higher Education — Harris, ------- 896 The Reservation Day School the Prime Factor in Indian Education — Covey, - 900 Unification of Industrial and Academic Features of Indian Schools — Bakeless, - 902 What Shall be Taught in an Indian School ? — Woodward, - - - - - 904 An Ail-Around Mechanical Training for Indians — Rogers, - 909 Discussion — Hart, ----------- gio Character-Building among Indian Children — Folsom, - - - - -911 The Day School the Gradual Uplifter of the Tribe — Sister Murphy, - - - 912 Discussion — Murphy, Perry, - - - - - - - - -914 Introspection — Allen, ----------- gj^ DISCUSSIONS A. Eligibility for Admission to Government Schools — Peairs, - - - - 916 B. Transfer of Pupils from One Class of Schools to Another — Hart, - - 917 C. Qualifications for Entering Non-Reservation Schools — Pierce, - - - 917 D. The Indian Employee — Crandall, - - 918 E. The Necessity for Teaching the Boy to Improve His Allotment — Avery, Ratliff, 919 F. Practical Methods of Indian Education — McfSwan, 920 G. The Future of the Pueblo Indian — Miss Dissetle, 921 H. The Necessity for a Large Agricultural School — Goodman, - - - - 921 I. Compulsory Education of Indian Children — Peairs, Nellis, - 922 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION MISCELLANEOUS Report of Committee on Necrology — Crosby, 925 List of Corresponding Members, ---------- 933 List of Active Members, 935 Index to Active Membership List, ----..-.. 1009 Statistical Table of Membership for 1 90 1,- - - - - - - -102 1 Statistical Table of Membership since 1884, 1022 Inventory and Price List of Publications, -------- 1023 General Index, - 1024 CONSTITUTION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION PREAMBLE To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States, we, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I — NAME This association shall be styled the National Educational Association. ARTICLE II — DEPARTMENTS Section i. It shall consist of eighteen departments : first, of Superintendence ; second, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Educa- tion ; fifth, of Manual Training ; sixth, of Art Education ; seventh, of Kindergarten Education ; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education ; tenth, of Busi- ness Education ; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education ; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction ; fourteenth, of School Administration ; fifteenth, the Library Department ; sixteenth, for the Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded ; seven- teenth, of Indian Education ; and eighteenth, the National Council of Education. Sec 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this con- stitution. ARTICLE III — MEMBERSHIP Section i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and corresponding. Sec. 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of educational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members. All others who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate mem- bers. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to be corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty. Sec. 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed by two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. /v Active members only have the right to vote and to hold office in the general associa- tion or in the several departments. All active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without " coupon " or other conditions. The annual membership NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION fee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, or by remittance to the Secre- tary before September I of each year. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice to the Secretary before September I, and may restore the same only on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues. Associate members may receive the volume of proceedings in accordance with the usual " coupon " conditions, as printed on the membership certificate. Corresponding members will be entitled to the volume of proceedings without the payment of fees or other conditions. Sec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in the volume of proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, the list to be revised annually by the Secretary of the association. ARTICLE IV — OFFICERS Section t. The officers of this association shall consist of a President, twelve Vice- Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an Executive Committee, as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors elected previous to July 10, 1895. All past presidents of the association now living (July 10, 1895), and all future presidents at the close of their respective terms of office, and the United States Com- missioner of Education shall be life directors of the association. The President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Treas- urer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the association to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall constitute the Executive Committee. Sec. 3. The elective officers of the association, with the exception of the Secretary, shall be chosen by the active members of the association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third day of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided. Sec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, sec- retary, and such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs ; but no person shall be elected to any office of the association, or of any department, who is not, at the time of the election, an active member of the association. Sec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the association and of the Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding officer. In his absence, the first vice-president in order, who is present, shall preside ; and in the absence of all vice-presidents, a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on nomination, the Secretary putting the question. , Sec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of the general meetings of the association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and shall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his records present at all meetings of the association and of the Board of Directors. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department. CONSTITUTION Sec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees hold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the association ; shall expend the same only upon the order of said board ; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the 1st day of July each year, he shall render to the Board of Trustees, and, when approved by said board, he shall report the same to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees ; and he shall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the association next succeeding that for which he is elected. Sec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power -to fill all vacancies in their own body ; shall have in charge the general interests of the association, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees ; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meet- ings, and shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon the written application of twenty active members of the association for permission to establish a new department, it may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for the insertion of its name in Art. II, and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations. Sec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the trustees in 1886, one trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one for four years ; and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the association, one trustee shall be elected for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resig- nation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term ; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body corporate of the association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the pro- visions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and recorded in Liber No. 4, " Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia." Sec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping and investment of all funds which the association may receive from donations ; and the income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of proceedings of the association, excepting when donors shall specify otherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secre- tary of the association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors ; and, when practicable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the association for the previous year. Sec. 11. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of office for a period not to exceed four years. ARTICLE V — MEETINGS ^ Section I. The annual meeting of the association shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. Special meetings may be called by. the President at the request of five directors. Sec. 3. Any department of the association may hold a special meeting at such time and place as by its own regulations it shall appoint. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and not less than two hours before the assembling of the association. Sec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board or the President shall determine. Sec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first meeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the Presi- dent and the Secretary of the association for the previous year, and one member from each department. ARTICLE VI — BY-LAWS By-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the association. ARTICLE VII — AMENDMENTS This constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous vote of the members present ; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided thai the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous meeting. BY-LAWS 1. At the first session of each annual meeting of the association there shall be appointed by the President a committee on resolutions ; and at the third session of such meeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member from each state and territory represented, the same to be appointed by the President on the nomination of a majority of the active members in attendance from such state or territory ; provided, however, that such appointment shall be made by the President with- out such nomination, when less than three active members from a state or territory are in attendance, and also when a majority of the active members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination. The meetings of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held at 5 : 30 P. M. on the first day of the annual meeting of the association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program. 2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved by the Board of Directors. 3. Each paying member of the association shall be entitled to a copy of its pro- ceedings. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall . be read before the association or any of its departments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the volume of proceedings, without the consent of the association, upon approval of the Executive Committee. 5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said fund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees. ACT OF INCORPORATION At a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following resolution was passed : Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorpora- tion for the National Educational Association, under United States or state laws, as speedily as may be. ACT OF INCORPORATION N. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts; and Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee. Under the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval of the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman obtained a CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION We, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens of the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby associate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorpora- tion, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of the "National Educational Association," for the full period of twenty years, the pur- pose and objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States To secure the full benefit of said act we do here execute this our certificate of incorporation as said act provides. In witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C. Norman A. Calkins, [l. s.] John Eaton. [l. s.] Zalmon Richards. [l. s.] Duly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, Notary Public in and for the District of Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION 1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized.) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858.— CINCINNATI, O. Z. Richards, President. J. W. Bulkley, Secretary. A. J. Rickoff, Treasurer. 1859.— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. Rickoff, President. J. W. Bulkley, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i860.— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Bulkley, President, Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862. — No session. 1863.— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C Wight, Treasurer. 1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865.— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866.— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867. — No session. 1868.-NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869.-TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870.— CLEVELAND, O. Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W, E. Crosby, Treasurer. NAME CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1871.— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874.— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 187s.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. W. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876.— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877.— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878. — No session. 1879. -PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880.— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS 1881.— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. 1883.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884.— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886.— TOPEKA, KAN. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887.— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C Hewett, Treasurer. 1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890.— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield. President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891.— TORONTO, ONTARIO. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893.— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894— ASBURY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1895.— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, President. Irwin Shejard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1896.— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1897.— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1898.— WASHINGTON, D. C. J. M. Greenwood. President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899.— LOS ANGELES, CAL. E. Oram Lyte, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1900— CHARLESTON, S. C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901.— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1 900-1 901 GENERAL ASSOCIATION JAMES M.GREEN President Trenton, N. J. IRWIN SHEPARD Secretary Winona, Minn. LEWIS C. GREENLEE Treasurer Denver, Colo. VICE-PRESIDENTS Oscar T. Corson, Columbus, O. W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky. J. A. Foshav, Los Angeles, Cal. O. H. Cooper, Waco, Tex. H. P. Archer, Charleston, S. C. William M. Davidson, Topeka, Kan. H. B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind. R. B. Fulton, University, Miss. Francis W. Parker, Chicago, 111. Gertrude Edmund, Lowell, Mass. L. W. Buchholz, Tampa, Fla. H. E. Kratz, Sioux City, la. BOARD OF TRUSTEES (See Art. IV, sec. Q, of the constitution.') Albert G. Lane Chairman Chicago, 111. Nicholas Murray Butler Secretary New York, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan St. Louis, Mo Term expires July, iooi Nicholas Murray Butler New York, N. Y Term expires July, 1002 Albert G. Lane Chicago, 111 Term expires July, 1903 Newton C. Dougherty Peoria, 111 Term expires July, 1904 Tames M. Green Trenton, N. J Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.') James M. Green President Trenton, N. J. Oscar T. Corson First Vice-President Columbus, O. Lewis C. Greenlee Treasurer Denver, Colo. Albert G. Lane Chairman Board of Trustees Chicago, 111. Wm. T. Harris Member by election Washington, D. C. Irwin Shepard Secretary Winona, Minn. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex officio (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) James M. Green, Trenton, N. J. Lewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo. Oscar T. Corson, Columbus, O. Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111. Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn. Life Directors (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) Bicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I. Canfield, James H„ New York, N. Y. Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Cook, E. H., Yonkers, N. Y. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus, O. 8 DIRECTORS Life Directors — continued Dougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111. *Fairchild, George T., Berea, Ky. Garrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Graham, H. A., Grayling, Mich. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo. ♦Hall, Caleb G., New Berlin, N. Y. Harris, Wm. T., Washington, D. C Hunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass. Jewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan. Lane, Albert G., Chicago, 111. Lyte, E. Oram, Millersville, Pa. Marble, Albert P., New York, N. Y. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111. Phelps, W. F., Duluth, Minn. Pickard, Josiah L., Brunswick, Me. Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111. Skinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y. Soldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo. Stratton, C. C, University Park, Ore. Taylor, A. R., Emporia, Kan. Teachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. White, E. E., Columbus, O. Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C. Directors by Election North Atlantic Division Maine John S. Locke Saco New Hampshire James E. Klock Plymouth Vermont John L. Alger Johnson Massachusetts Frank A. Fitzpatrick Boston Rhode Island George E. Church Providence Connecticut Charles H. Keyes Hartford New York A. S. Downing New York New Jersey H. Brewster Willis New Brunswick Pennsylvania H. W. Fisher Pittsburg South Atlantic Division Delaware A. H. Berlin Wilmington Maryland M. Bates Stephens Baltimore District of Columbia W. B. Powell Washington Virginia George J. Ramsey Richmond West Virginia J. Walter Barnes Fairmont North Carolina W. T. Whitsett Whitsett South Carolina W. K. Tate Charleston Florida Miss Clem Hampton Live Oak South Central Division Kentucky McHenry Rhoads Tennessee M. M. Ross ."^. Georgia W. M. Slaton Alabama John W. Abercrombie , Owensboro Nashville Atlanta Montgomery Mississippi.. H.L.Whitfield Jackson Louisiana Warren Easton New Orleans Texas J. M. Fendley Galveston Oklahoma David R. Boyd '. Norman Arkansas J. R. Rightsell Little Rock North Central Division Ohio N. H. Chaney Chillicothe Indiana T. A. Mott Richmond Illinois J. H. Collins Springfield Michigan D. W. Springer Ann Arbor Wisconsin L. D. Harvey Madison Iowa W. M. Beardshear Ames Minnesota C.M.Jordan Minneapolis Missouri W. T. Carrington Jefferson City North Dakota W. E. Hoover Park River South Dakota E. E. Collins Vermillion Nebraska C. G. Pearse Omaha Kansas Frank R. Dyer Wichita Western Division Montana E. A. Carlkton Helena Wyoming Miss Estelle Reel Washington, D. C. Colorado H. S. Philips Denver ♦Deceased. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Directors by Election — continued Western Division — continued New Mexico Mrs. E. R. Jackson Silver City Arizona Milton J. Needham Algert Utah F. B. Cooper Salt Lake City Nevada J. E. Stubbs Reno Idaho J. C. Black Albion Washington O. C. Whitney Tacoma Oregon *E. B. McElroy Eugene California J. A. Foshay i Los Angeles DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council CHARLES M.JORDAN President Minneapolis, Minn. 'Miss BETTIE A. DUTTON Vice-President Cleveland, O. J. H. PHILLIPS Secretary Birmingham, Ala. ELMERE. BROWN Executive Committee Berkeley, Cal. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER Executive Committee New York, N. Y. JOSEPH SWAIN Executive Committee Bloomington, Ind. Kindergarten Miss EVELYN HOLMES President Charleston, S. C. Miss CAROLINE HART Vice-President Baltimore, Md. Miss ANNIE LAWS Secretary Cincinnati, O. Elementary J. W. CARR President Anderson, Ind. J.C.HARRIS Vice-President Rome, G a. Mrs. SARA D. JENKINS Secretary Ithaca, N. Y. Secondary W.J. S.BRYAN President St. Louis, Mo. Miss NETTIE FILLMORE Vice-President Cincinnati, O. C. A. GRAESER Secretary Charleston, S. C. Higher CHARLES F. THWING President Cleveland, O. WILLIAM M. BEARDSHEAR Vice-President Ames, la. WILLIAM H. BLACK Secretary Marshall, Mo. Normal CHARLES D. McIVER President Greensboro, N. C. Z. X. SNYDER Vice-President Greeley, Colo. MYRONT. SCUDDER Secretary New Paltz, N. Y. Superintendence L.D.HARVEY President Madison, Wis. A. K. WHITCOMB First Vice-President Lowell, Mass. W. F. SLATON Second Vice-President Atlanta, Ga. F. B. COOPER '. Secretary Salt Lake City, Utah Manual CHARLES A. BENNETT President Peoria, 111. B. A. LENFEST Vice-President Waltham, Mass. L. A. BUCHANAN Secretary Stockton, Cal. Art Miss BONNIE E. SNOW President Minneapolis, Minn. Miss MYRA JONES Vice-President Detroit, Mich. FRED J. ORR Secretary Athens, Ga. Music A. J. GANTVOORT President Cincinnati.O. Mrs. EMMA A. THOMAS Vice-President Detroit, Mich. H.W. GRAY Secretary New York, N. Y. ♦Deceased. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS Business WILLIAM E. DOGGETT President Brooklyn, N. Y. WILLARD J. WHEELER Vice-President Birmingham, Ala. EDWARD W. STITT Secretary New York, N. Y. Child Study THOMAS P. BAILEY, Jr President Chicago, 111. MissMARION BROWN Vice-President New Orleans, La. MANFRED J. HOLMES Secretary.. Normal, 111. Physical Training W. O. KROHN President Chicago, 111. Miss REBECCA STONEROAD Vice-President Washington, D. C. Miss MABEL PRAY Secretary Toledo, O. Science N. A. HARVEY President Chicago, 111. CHARLES B. WILSON Vice-President Westfield, Mass. CHARLES N. COBB Secretary Albany, N. Y. School Administration W. S. ELLIS President Anderson, Ind. ISRAEL H. PERES First Vice-President Memphis, Tenn. JOHN OGREN Second Vice-President Charleston, S. C. W. A. HUNT Third Vice-President Northfield, Minn. WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE Secretary. Milwaukee, Wis. Library ROBERT C. M ETCALF President Boston, Mass. J EROME H. RAYMOND Vice-President Morgantown, W. Va. Miss MARY EILEEN AHERN Secretary Chicago, 111. Deaf, Blind, etc. Miss MARY McCOWEN President Chicago, 111. E. R. JOHNSTONE Vice-President Vineland, N. J. E. A. GRUVER Secretary New York, N. Y. EDWARD E. ALLEN Chairman of Executive Committee. . . . Overbrook, Pa. Indian Education - H. B. FRISSELL President Hampton, Va. Miss ESTELLE REEL Vice-President Washington, D. C. F. F. AVERY Secretary Miles, Wash. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1901-1902 GENERAL ASSOCIATION W. M. BEARDSHEAR President Ames, la. IRWIN SHEPARD Secretary Winona, Minn. CHARLES H. KEYES Treasurer Hartford, Conn. VICE-PRESIDENTS James M. Green, Trenton, N. J. McHenrv Rhoads, Owensboro, Ky. W. C. Martindale, Detroit, Mich. Edmund Stanley, Wichita, Kan. R. S. Bingham, Tacoma, Wash. H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I. W. W. Chalmers, Toledo, O. S. D. Largbnt, Great Falls, Mont. A. W. Norton, Sioux Falls, S. D. W. M. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga. J. L. Hollowav, Fort Smith, Ark. C M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. BOARD OF TRUSTEES (See Art. IV, sec. o, of the constitution.) Albert G. Lane Chairman Chicago, 111. Nicholas Murray Butler Secretary New York, N. Y. Nicholas Murray Butler New York, N. Y Term expires July, 1902 Albert G. Lane Chicago, 111 Term expires July, 1903 Newton C. Dougherty Peoria, 111 Term expires July, 1904 F. Louis Soldan St. Louis, Mo Term expires July, 1905 W. M. Beardshear Ames, la Ejc officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (See A rt. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the constitution.) W. M. Beardshear President Ames, la. James M. Green First Vice-President Trenton, N. J. Charles H. Keyes Treasurer Hartford, Conn. Albert G. Lane Chairman Board of Trustees Chicago, 111. Wm, T. Harris Member by election Washington, D. C. Irwin Shepard Secretary Winona, Minn. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex officio (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) W. M. Beardshear, Ames, la. Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn. James M. Green, Trenton, N. J, Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111. Irwin Shbpard, Winona, Minn. Life Directors (See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the constitution.) Bicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I. Canfield, James H., New York, N. Y. Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Cook, E. H., Yonkers, N. Y. Butler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus, O. 12 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION 13 Life Directors — continued Dougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va. Garrett, W. R., Nashville, Tenn. Parker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Phelps, W. F., Duluth, Minn. Graham, H. A., Grayling, Mich. Pickard, Josiah L., Brunswick, Me. Green, J. M., Trenton, N. J. Pike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111. Greenwood, J. M., Kansas City. Mo. Skinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y. Harris, Wm. T., Washington, D. C. Soldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo. Hunt, Mary H., Boston, Mass. Stratton, C. C, University Park, Ore. Jewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan. Taylor, A. R., Decatur, 111. Lane, Albert G., Chicago, 111. Teachers* Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. Lyte, E. Oram, Millersville, Pa. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. Marble, Albert P., New York, N. Y. White, E. E., Columbus, O. Wilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C. Directors by Election North Atlantic Division Maine John S. Locke Saco New Hampshire J. E, Klock Plymouth Vermont John L. Alger Johnson Massachusetts Frank A. Fitzpatrick Boston Rhode Island Walter Ballou Jacobs Providence Connecticut Wilbur F. Gordy Hartford New York A. S. Downing New York New Jersey H. Brewster Willis New Brunswick Pennsylvania. .. : Watson Cornell Philadelphia South Atlantic Division Delaware George W. Twitmyer Wilmington Maryland M. Bates Stephens Baltimore District of Columbia Hosmer M. Johnson Anacostia Virginia George J. Ramsey Richmond West Virginia W. H. Anderson Wheeling North Carolina .... Charles D. McIver Greensboro South Carolina D.B.Johnson ... Rock Hill Florida VV. N. Shkats ^ Tallahassee South Central Division Kentucky W. H. Bartholomew Louisville Tennessee M. M. Ross Nashville Georgia M. L. Brittain Atlanta Alabama John W. Abercrombie Montgomery Mississippi J. R. Preston Natchez Louisiana Warren Easton New Orleans Texas J. M. Fendley Galveston Oklahoma David R. Boyd Norman Arkansas George B. Cook Hot Springs North Central Division Ohio J. M. H. Frederick Lakewood Indiana T. A. Mott Richmond Illinois Alfred Bayliss Springfield Michigan D. W. Springer Ann Arbor Wisconsin L. D. Harvey Madison Iowa H. E. Kratz Sioux City Minnesota C.M.Jordan Minneapolis Missouri W. T. Carrington Jefferson City North Dakota W. E. Hoover Park River South Dakota E. E. Collins Vermillion Nebraska C. G. Pharsb Omaha Kansas Frank R.Dyer Wichita Western Division Montana W. W. Welch Helena Wyoming ." Miss Estelle Reel Washington, D. C. Colorado H. S. Philips Denver 14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Directors by Election — continued Western Division — continued New Mexico Hiram Hadlev Las Cruces Arizona F. Yale Adams Tucson Utah W. J. Kerr Logan Nevada J. E. Stubbs Reno Idaho Miss Permeal French Boise Washington ,. Charles M. Sherman Snohomish Oregon E. D. Ressler Eugene California James A. Foshay Los Angeles DEPARTMENT OFFICERS National Council J.H.PHILLIPS President Birmingham, Ala. Miss MARY E. NICHOLSON Vice-President Indianapolis, Ind. JESSE F. MILLSPAUGH Secretary Winona, Minn. NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER ... Executive Committee New York, N. Y. JOSEPH SWAIN Executive Committee Bloomington, Ind. RICHARD G. BOONE Executive Committee Cincinnati,©. Kindergarten Miss C. GERALDINE O'GRADY President New York, N. Y. Miss CLARA W. MINGINS Vice-President Detroit, Mich. Miss MARY C. MAY Secretary Salt Lake City, Utah Elementary R. A. OGG President Kokomo, Ind. J.J.DOYNE Vice-President Little Rock, A.rk. Miss ADDA P. WERTZ Secretary Carbondale, 111. Secondary ' J. REMSEN BISHOP President . Cincinnati, O. W. F. WEBSTER Vice-President Minneapolis. Minn. Vacant Secretary Higher W.H.P. FAUNCE ... President Providence. R. I. C. W. DABNEY Vice-President Knoxville, Tenn. JOHNW.PERRIN Secretary Cleveland, O. Normal JESSE F. MILLSPAUGH President Winona, Minn. MYRON TRACY SCUDDER Vice-President New Paltz, N. Y. JOHN R. KIRK Secretary Kirksville, Mo. Superintendence G. R. GLENN President Atlanta, Ga. H.P.EMERSON First Vice-President Buffalo, N. Y. F. W. COOLEY Second Vice-President Calumet, Mich. JOHN W. DIETRICH Secretary Colorado Sp'gs, Colo. Manual CHARLES R. RICHARDS President New York, N. Y. CHARLES F. WARNER Vice-President Springfield, Mass. J. H.TRYBOM Secretary Detroit, Mich. Art Miss MYRA JONES President Detroit, Mich. Miss RODA SELLECK Vice-President. Indianapolis, Ind. Miss EMILY H. MILES Secretary Denver, Colo. Music A. J. GANTVOORT President Cincinnati, O. STERRIE A. WEAVER Vice-President Westfield, Mass. Mrs. GASTON BOYD Secretary Newton, Kan. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 15 Business I. O. CRISSY President Albany, N. Y. J.H.FRANCIS Vice-President Los Angeles, Cal. TEMPLETON P. TWIGGS Secretary Detroit, Mich. Child Study H. E. KRATZ President Sioux City, la. Miss JENNIE WARREN PRENTISS . . Vice-President Cleveland, O. Miss KATE HOPPER .. . Secretary Detroit, Mich. Physical Training W. O. KROHN President Chicago, 111. THEODORE TOEPEL First Vice-President Atlanta, Ga. Miss M. AUGUSTA REQUA Second Vice-President New York, N. Y. Miss MABEL L. PRAY Secretary Toledo, O. Science FRANKLIN W. BARROWS President Buffalo, N. Y. W.H.NORTON Vice-President Mt. Vernon. la. Vacant Secretary School Administration ISRAEL H. PERES President Memphis, Tenn. Mrs. JOSEPHINE A. GOSS First Vice-President Grand Rapids, Mich. L. D. BONEBRAKE Second Vice-President Columbus, O. GEORGE FENTON Third Vice- President Broadalbin, N. Y. WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE Secretary Milwaukee, Wis. Library JAMES H. CANFIELD President New York, N. Y. REUBEN POST HALLECK Vice-President Louisvilltf, Ky. Miss MARY EILEEN AHERN Secretary Chicago, 111. Deaf, Blind, etc. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL President Washington, D. C. E. E. ALLEN Vice-President Overbrook, Pa. E. A. GRUVER Secretary New York, N.Y. Indian Education SAMUEL M. McCOWAN President Phoenix, N. M. H. B. FRISSELL Vice-President Hampton, Va. Miss ESTELLE REEL Secretary Washington, D. C. TREASURER'S REPORT TO THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION July i, 1900, to July i, 1901 MEETING AT CHARLESTON, S. C, 1900 L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer, in Account with the National Educational Association BALANCE ON HAND In Bank of Charleston, S. C $2,500.00 Draft from C. G. Pearse, Treasurer 1,180.48 Cash 50.00 In Union Bank, Denver (unavailable) 66.19 $ 3.796.67 851.00 5,958.00 RECEIPTS Railroad company receipts, Los Angeles meeting , $ 779.00 Railroad company receipts, Washington meeting 72.00 Memberships and enrollments, Charleston meeting $1,300 00 Railroad company receipts, Charleston meeting 4,658.00 Receipts of Secretary's office during the year: Memberships, enrollments, etc $3t 757.85 Sale of back volumes 852.65 Committee reports, etc 478.69 5,089.19 Royalty on sales, Committee of Ten and Fifteen 82.45 Receipts from superintendents' meeting, Chicago 736.00 Received from Board of Trustees, interest on Permanent Fund • 3,883.03 Total receipts for the year $20,396.34 EXPENDITURES Department Meetings: Council of Education (30,1 33) $ 11.70 Elementary Education (14) ... $ 12.65 School Administration (14) 25.00 Manual Training (14) .. . 24.74 Library (14) 15-77 Art Instruction (14) 24.43 Deaf, Dumb, etc. (14) 8.50 Business Education (14) 17.00 Secondary Education (14) 5.00 Physical Education (1) 8.54 Music (14) 22.20 Kindergarten (6) 19-35 Science (14) 6.50 Superintendence (53, 74,75,77) 591.59 $ 792-97 State Directors and Managers : New Mexico (13) $ 15.00 Rhode Island (13) $ 8.00 West Virginia (13) 20.00 New Jersey (13) 20.00 Wyoming (13) 20.00 Virginia (13) 20.00 California (13) 8.81 Kentucky (13) 15.00 Georgia (13) 20.00 Mississippi (13) 15.50 Florida (13) 20.00 Indiana (13) 20.00 Montana (13) 10.00 Missouri (13) 20.00 Kansas (13) 20.00 District of Columbia (13) 1.50 Oklahoma (13) 10.30 Minnesota (13) 19.25 Wisconsin (13) 20.00 Vermont (13) 3.00 1 Figures in parentheses denote number of trustees' order on which payment was made. 16 TREASURER'S REPORT 17 State Directors and Managers — continued: Delaware (13) $ 2.00 Nebraska (13) $ 17.75 Colorado (13) 17.60 Iowa (13) 3.80 Washington (13) 20.00 Pennsylvania (13) 20.00 Ohio (13) 20.00 Maine (13) 8.25 Michigan (13) 18.50 New York (13) 20.00 Illinois (13) 20.00 Idaho (3) 10.50 South Carolina (13) 20.00 Oregon (5) 17.00 Alabama (13) 5.00 Maryland (72) :.... 20.00 Texas (13) 18.25 $565.01 Executive Committee: J. M. Green, President : Traveling (37, 57. 81) $ 139-39 O. T. Corson, member of Executive Committee : Traveling (4, 43, 78) 73-38 C. G. Pearse, Treasurer, 1899-1900: Traveling (19) $79-45 Stenographer (19) 50.00 Miscellaneous (19) 12.65 142.10 L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer : Traveling (45, 82) $82.85 Miscellaneous (95) 75-21 158.06 A. G. Lane, chairman Board of Trustees : Traveling (10, 54) 64.40 Wm. T. Harris, member of Executive Committee : Traveling (58, 80) 37.55 614.88 Trustees' Account: Exchange $ 2.50 Express 2.69 Rent box, Safety Deposit Co 10.00 Accrued interest on purchase of bonds 264.55 Premium on bonds 522.00 Secretary's Office: Salary (9, 41, 64, 92) $ 4,000.00 Stenographer and clerks (8, 12, 34, 38, 47, 56, 63, 79, 88, 91, 94) 563.70 Postage (7, 8, 12, 34, 38, 47, 56, 63, 79, 88, 91, 94) 749-65 Telegraph (7, 8, 38, 47, 56. 63, 79, 88, 91, 94) 53.42 Freight and express (7, 8, 34, 38, 47, 56, 63, 88, 94) 21.18 Travel (7, 38, 47, 56, 88, 91) i39-i5 Miscellaneous office expenses (7, 8, 12, 34, 91, 38, 47, 56,63, 79, 88, 94) 169.02 Printing and Stationery: 4,000 volumes of proceedings (sr, 65) $ 3,036.13 1,500 reprints, Department of Superintendence (17) 344.76 Reports, Committee of Twelve (89) 136.60 Bulletins (96) 435.25 Miscellaneous (10, 15, 21, 22, 33, 39, 52, 55, 61, 66, 68, 76, 85, 90) 690.94 801.74 5,696.12 4,643.68 Express and Freight: (2, n, 29, 31, 36, 40, 42, 48, 50, 60, 62, 67, 69, 70, 71, 86, 97, 98, 99, 100) 1,201.90 Miscellaneous : Rent, depository at Washington (31, 60, 86) $ 100.00 J. Ormond Wilson, services custodian (35) 50.00 Telegrams (27) 6.15 • Reports, Committee of Ten and Fifteen (46, 59, 87) 32.40 Clerks' pay-roll at Charleston (24) 429.60 Typewriter supplies, stenographer service (25, 28, 84) 93-5° Refunded memberships (26) 130.00 Record cards (83) -. . . 7.15 Press clippings (9) 22.98 Auditor's expenses (18) 10.00 Badges (16, 73) 382.10 1 8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Miscellaneous — continued: Secretary's furniture (32) $ 17.95 Joint Agency, Washington (44) S34-S2 Premium on Treasurer's bond (49) 25.00 Postage on reports, Department of Superintendence (93) 47-9° Miscellaneous supplies, Charleston (66) 3°.25 Conde B. Pallen (traveling expenses) (20) 47-5° $1,967.00 Total expenditures $16,283.30 Excess of receipts over expenditures — balance on hand 4,113.04 $20,396.34 Net receipts for the year $16,599.67 Expenses for the year 16,283.30 Excess of net receipts over expenditures $ 316.37 Detroit, Mich., July 8, 1901. The undersigned trustees of the National Educational Association have this day examined and approved the foregoing accounts of Mr. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer, with all statements of receipts and vouchers for expenditures. ( A. G. Lane. .„. „ J N.C.Dougherty. (S.gned) j ; M Green ( Nicholas Murray Butler. \ FIFTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES To the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association: The Board of Trustees presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association, and its income, for the year ending June 30, 1901 : Permanent Fund, July i, 1900: Mortgages on real estate $45,500.00 Kansas school and municipal bonds 18,890.00 Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds 18,500.00 Cash on hand for investment 5, 1 10,00 $88,000.00 Permanent Fund, July 1, 1901 : In the following items : Mortgages on real estate . . $37,500.00 Kansas school and municipal bonds 15,100.00 Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri school bonds 31,500.00 Total $84,100.00 Cash on hand for investment 3,900.00 $88,000.00 INVESTMENTS Investment, July 1,1900 $82,890.00 Paid during the year: First mortgage, 428 W. Adams street, Chicago $ 8,000.00 Lemont, 111., Bonds 4 and 6 1,000.00 Barton county, Kan., S. D. 66 330.00 Cowley county, Kan., S. D. 143 360.00 Eudora City, Kan., Bond No. 9 100.00 De Kalb, 111., Bond No. 2 1,000.00 City of Concordia, Kan 3,000.00 13,790.00 $69,100.00 Investments, during the year: Chicago improvement bonds, 6 per cent., yielding 4j£ per cent 15,000.00 Total investment, July 1, 1901 $84,100.00 REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 19 INCOME STATEMENT Receipts from interest : Barton county, Kan., S. D. 66 Cowley county, Kan., S. D. 143 Ness county, Kan., S. D. 41 Ness county, Kan., S. D. 70 Norton county, Kan., S. D. 95 Reno county, Kan., S. D. 51 Reno county, Kan. , S. D. 129 City of Concordia, Kan City of Eudora, Kan Hodgeman county, Kan McPherson county, Kan., Sharp's Creek township Montgomery county, Kan., Caney township Kansas City, Mo Noblesville, Ind De Kalb.Ill Morgan Park, 111 Lemont, 111 First mortgage, Providence, R.I First mortgage, 1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago First mortgage, 5136 Hibbard avenue, Chicago First mortgage, 428 W. Adams street, Chicago First mortgage, 5603 Madison avenue, Chicago First mortgage, First Universalist Church, Englewood First mortgage, 4762 Lake avenue, Chicago First mortgage, 4802 Lake avenue, Chicago Interest on certificate of deposit 9.90 10.80 12.00 30.00 12.00 60.00 18.00 180.00 54.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 100.00 250.00 100.00 175-00 289.96 270.00 125.30 250.00 " 480.00 250.00 500.00 250.00 225.00 51.07 Disbursements : Transferred to L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer . $3,883.03 $3,883.03 STATEMENT OF SECURITIES AND BONDS BELONGING TO THE PERMANENT FUND OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, JULY 1, 1901 KANSAS SCHOOL BONDS County Number school district Amount Rate of interest per cent. Interest payable Bond due 24 4i 70 95 51 129 $ 800 200 500 200 1,000 300 6 6 6 6 6 6 Jan. and July ii July, 1905 July, 1903 July, 1902 July, 1902 Jan., 1902 $3,000 KANSAS COUNTY AND MUNICIPAL BONDS County Kind of bond Bond Nos. Amount Interest per cent. Interest payable Bond due Grant* Eudora City County County County City of Marion Sharp's Creek Tp. Caney township City South Hutchinson With Bentley & Hat- field, Wichita, Kan. to to 20 47,48 I 11 to 13 I I I, 2 I, - $1,100 2,000 1,000 3>°°o 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 6 6 6 6 S% 6 6 7 March Jan. and July Jan. and July Jan. and July Mar. and Sept. Jan. and July April and Oct. Feb. and Aug. Judgm't obtain'd One due each year March 1 February, 1920 July 1, 1918 July 1, 1918 March 1, 1900 Sept. 1, 1916 Oct. i, 1916 April 1, 1908 Reno* $12,100 * Interest or principal in default. 20 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ILLINOIS, INDIANA, AND MISSOURI SCHOOL BONDS County Jackson, Kansas City, Mo Noblesville, Ind De Kalb, 111 Cook, village of Morgan Park, 111 Lemont, III., School Nos. 8, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30, 32 Chicago improvement bonds REAL ESTATE Providence real estate, first mortgage First mortgage, 1919 Wabash ave., Chicago. First mortgage, 5136 Hibbard ave., Chicago First mortgage, 5603 Madison ave., Chicago First mortgage, First Universalist Church, Chicago First mortgage, 4762 Lake ave., Chicago . .. First mortgage, 4802 Lake ave., Chicago . .. Amount $ 2,000 5,000 1,000 3i5°° 5,000 15,000 $31,500 $ 3,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 10,000 5,000 4.5°o $37.5oo Rate of interest Interest payable Jan. and July Jan. and July April 1 Mar. and Sept. June and Dec. December May and Nov. 1 May and Nov. 1 July and Jan. Oct. and April Mar. and Sept. Mar. and Sept. Bond due July 1, 1901 July 1, 1912 April 1, 1902 Sept., 1905 $1,000 yearly Dec. 1 Dec, 1901-2-3 and 4 May 1, 1903 Nov. t, 1903 July 1, 1905 Oct., 1905 Mar., 1905 1905 Respectfully submitted, Albert G. Lane, Chairman, Nicholas Murray Butler, J. M. Green, F. Louis Soldan, N. C. Dougherty, Board of Trustees. The foregoing securities were examined at the Merchants' Safety Deposit Vaults, Chicago, June 29, 1900, and I certify that the above is a correct statement of the investments belonging to the Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association in the custody of A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees. Bloomington, Ind., (Signed) Joseph Swain, Examiner. September 16, 1901. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FORTIETH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION DETROIT, MICH., JULY 9-12, 1901 FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS OPENING SESSION. — Tuesday, July 9,2:30 p.m. The association met in the Light Guard Armory at 2 : 30 o'clock, and was called to order by Professor O. G. Frederick, chairman of the Local Executive Committee of Detroit. Music — song, "Morning Invitation," Veazie; chorus of five hundred children; Mrs. Emma A. Thomas, director. The audience was led in an invocation by Rev. A. H. Barr, pastor of the Jefferson Avenue Baptist Church of Detroit. Addresses of welcome were made by his excellency, Hon. A. T- Bliss, governor of Michigan ; Hon. Delos Fall, state superintendent of public instruction ; Hon. W. C. Maybury, mayor of Detroit ; President James B. Angell, University of Michigan ; Wales C. Martindale, superintendent of city schools of Detroit. Music — song, "Lend Me Thine Aid!" Gounod; Mr. Harold Jarvis; song, (a) "Anchored," (0) "Floating," Veazie; Mr. Jarvis and chorus. The conduct of the meeting was then transferred to Dr. James M. Green, President of the National Educational Association, who was introduced by Chairman Frederick. President Green introduced Dr. Richard G. Boone, superintendent of city schools, Cincinnati, O., who responded to the addresses of welcome. The President announced the Committee" on Resolutions, as follows: E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, chairman, Livingston C. Lord, of Illinois. William F. King, of Iowa. L. E. Wolfe, of Kansas. Joseph Swain, of Indiana. W. T. Carrington, of Missouri. W. K. Tate, of South Carolina. J. V. Calhoun, of Louisiana. James B. Angell, of Michigan. The Secretary read several announcements concerning the annual meeting of the active members from each state for the selection of nominees to the President as mem- bers of the general nominating committee, in accordance with By-Law No. I. The meeting then adjourned. SECOND SESSION. — Tuesday, July 9, 8 p. m. The meeting was called to order by Vice-President Oscar T. Corson. Music — double quartet, " Bridal Chorus," Cowen. President Green delivered the annual presidential address, on " The Duty of the National Educational Association in Shaping Public Educational Opinion." 21 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Music — song, "The Two Grenadiers," Schumann; Mr. Oscar Garissen. Rt. Rev. John Lancaster Spalding, bishop of Peoria, 111., addressed the convention on the subject " Progress in Education." SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS THIRD SESSION. — Wednesday, July io, 9:30 A.M. The meeting was called to order by President Green. Music — trio, (a) "Meditation," Richardson; {b) "Intermezzo," Mascagni; violin, Miss Carlotte McDonald ; cello, Miss Emma McDonald ; piano, Miss Kate McDonald. Prayer was offered by Rt. Rev. John S. Foley, bishop of Detroit. The subject for the morning's discussion was " Elementary Education." The first paper was presented by Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, city schools, St. Louis, Mo. ; subject, " What is a Fad ? " A paper on the subject, "Is the Curriculum Overcrowded ?" was read by Superin- tendent J. H. Van Sickle, city schools, Baltimore, Md. Charles R. Richards, director of the manual training department of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city, read a paper on the subject, " How Early May Handwork be Made a Part of School Work ?," The paper of Dr. Soldan was discussed by William K. Fowler, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Neb., and William M. Davidson, superintendent of city schools, Topeka, Kan. The Committee on Nominations appointed by President Green in accordance with sec. I of the By-Laws was announced by the Secretary as follows : COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS Aaron Gove, of Colorado, chairman. J. H. Phillips Alabama C. J. Baxter New Jersey A. Z. Peacher Arkansas S. D. Largent Montana A. J. Matthews Arizona Hiram Hadley New Mexico J.H.Francis California Howard J. Rogers New York Aaron Gove Colorado Charles D. Mclver North Carolina Willis I. Twitchell Connecticut George A. McFarland North Dakota A. H. Berlin Delaware H. C. Muckley Ohio David Williams Florida . A. H. Ackerman Oregon G.R.Glenn Georgia Oklahoma Miss Perineal French Idaho- J. P. Welsh Pennsylvania Miss Catharine Goggin Illinois Walter B. Jacobs Rhode Island Joseph Swain Indiana South Carolina R. C. Barrett Iowa W. D. Anderson South Dakota W. M. Davidson Kansas H. C. Weber Tennessee S. L. Frogge Kentucky J. M. Fendley Texas Louisiana William J. Kerr Utah John S. Locke Maine F. A. Bagnall Vermont J. H. Van Sickle Maryland George J. Ramsey Virginia A. E. Winship Massachusetts Charles S. Tilton Washington O. G. Frederick Michigan H. B. Work West Virginia D. H. Painter Minnesota R. H. Halsey Wisconsin E. E. Bass Mississippi Miss Estelle Reel Wyoming Ben Blewett Missouri Alaska J. W. Crabtree Nebraska Hawaii Nevada Porto Rico New Hampshire After announcements by the Secretary, the meeting adjourned. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 23 FOURTH SESSION.— Wednesday, July 10, 8 p. m. The association was called to order by President Green. Music — ladies' trio, chorus from Tennyson's " Lady of Shalott," Wildred Bendal. An address on "The School and the Library: the Value of Literature in Early Education " was delivered by Frederick M. Crunden, librarian of the Public Library of St. Louis, Mo. Music — ladies' trio, "Dance Song," Max von Weinziel. A paper on " Some of Our Mistakes " was presented by Principal George M. Grant, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. The meeting then adjourned. FIFTH SESSION.— Thursday, July 11,9:30 A.M. The meeting was called to order by President Green. Music — cornet solo, "The Palms," Faure; Mr. Harold Todd. Prayer was offered by Rev. W. D. Maxon, D.D., rector of Christ Episcopal Church. The subject for the morning's discussion was "Economics and Education." Addresses were delivered as follows : " Social Science and the Curriculum," by Professor George E. Vincent, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. "Economics in Public Schools," by President George Gunton, Institute of Social Economics, Union Squarej New York city. " Ideals and Methods of Economic Teaching," by Professor Frederick W. Speirs, Northeast Manual Training School, Philadelphia, Pa. "The Teacher as a Social-Economic Power," by Dr. Reuben PostHalleck, principal of the Boys' High School, Louisville, Ky. The report of the Committee on Necrology was presented by W. E. Crosby, of New York city, chairman, as follows : PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY Members of the National Educational Association: It falls to my lot, under peculiar circumstances, to make a report — a preliminary report — of the Com- mittee on Necrology of the active and life members of the association who have died during the past year. A list of these members was handed to me today, as follows : George T. Fairchild, Berea, Ky. J. M. Mehan, Des Moines, la. Caleb G. Hall, New Berlin, N. Y. R. V. K. Montfort, Newburgh, N. Y. Burke Aaron Hinsdale, Ann Arbor, Mich. Henry Raab, Belleville, 111. S. H. Kellogg, Los Angeles, Cal. John C. Ridge, Cincinnati, O. E. B. McElroy, Eugene, Ore. Jacob T. Merrill, Cedar Rapids, la. S. DeWitt Beals, Omaha, Neb. For those who mourn it is impossible to make an adequate report. I can only remind the association of its loss. Three of the deceased members appealed to me personally : George T. Fairchild, whose name was associated with that institution which prepared me for the work of teaching ; Dr. Hinsdale ; and John C. Ridge, of Cincinnati. Dr. Fairchild was a life member and a life director. Caleb G. Hall was a life director. Henry Raab and S. DeWitt Beals were life members. There is something peculiarly interesting to me in the name of John C. Ridge in that it is associated with other names prominent in the history of this association — Mason Parker, John Hancock, Andrew J. Rickoff. They were all recognized in the city of Cincinnati as Clermonters. The members whose names I have read were soldiers in the warfare of truth against error. I will read their names again. They have fallen, and I call upon you to assist me by your memories to accord to them a just meed of recognition of their virtues, that they may be properly recorded in history. I ask those of you who knew them to aid me personally in making up this record. Respectfully submitted, W. E. Crosby, Chairman. After announcement by the Secretary, the meeting adjourned. 24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING OF THE ACTIVE MEM- BERS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LIGHT GUARD ARMORY The meeting was called to order at 12 o'clock M., by President J. M. Green. As the first order of business the report of the Treasurer was presented by L. C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo., Treasurer of the National Educational Association. Mr. A. S. Downing, of New York, moved that the reading of the report be dispensed with, since printed copies had been distributed to the members present. President Green asked if any member desired further information regarding the report of the Treasurer. Treasurer Greenlee called attention to the fact that the receipts from the Charleston meeting had fully met all of the expenses of the year, leaving a small balance to the credit of that meeting ; in addition, quite a large sum had been expended in paying the accrued interest and premium on bonds purchased for investment by the Board of Trustees. Attention was called to this result as particularly gratifying, since many mem- bers had not anticipated that the association could pay its annual expenses from the receipts of so small a meeting as the one at Charleston. President Green called for the report of the Board of Trustees. Chairman of Trustees A. G. Lane, of Chicago, reported that a detailed report had been made to the Board of Directors, and accepted and approved. No essential change had been made during the year in the permanent fund, excepting the payment of cer- tain bonds and the reinvestment of the amount. He said, further, that certain condi- tions have so improved in the state of Kansas that it is now believed that ultimately the Kansas bonds owned by the association will be paid in full. The report in full will be printed in the annual volume. It was moved and seconded that the reports of the Treasurer and of the Board of Trustees be accepted and placed on file. Carried. President Green announced the report of the Committee on Nominations of officers for the general association as the next order of business. Mr. Aaron Gove, chairman of the committee, introduced his report by expressing regrets that some features of the report had been published in the local papers in advance of its presentation to the association. He wished to say that the responsibility for this apparent discourtesy to the association should not be charged to either the chairman or the secretary of the committee. He believed that it was due to a lack of thoughtfulness of some members of the committee who must have given information to the reporters of the press. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS Detroit, Mich., July n, 1901. To the Active Members of the National Educational Association: On behalf of the Committee on Nominations, I beg to present the following report : President. William M. Beardshear Iowa Treasurer Charles H. Kbves Connecticut First Vice-President J. M. Green New Jersey Second Vice-President Wales C. Martindale Michigan Third Vice-President R. S. Bingham Washington Fourth Vice-President W. W. Chalmers Ohio Fifth Vice-President A.W.Norton South Dakota Sixth Vice-President J. L. Hollow ay Arkansas Seventh Vice-President McHenrv Rhoads Kentucky Eighth Vice-President Edmund Stanley Kansas Ninth Vice-President Horace S. Tarbell Rhode Island Tenth Vice-President S. D. Largent Montana Eleventh Vice-President William M. Slaton Georgia Twelfth Vice-President Calvin M.Woodward Missouri JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 25 BOARD OF DIRECTORS Alabama John W. Abercrombie New Hampshire J. E. Klock Arkansas George B. Cook New Jersey H. Brewster Willis Arizona F. Yale Adams New Mexico ...Hiram Hadley California James A. Foshay New York Augustus S. Downing Colorado. ... yH. S. Philips North Carolina Charles D. Mclver Connecticut Wilbur F. Gordy North Dakota William E. Hoover Delaware George W. Twitmyer Ohio J. M. H. Frederick District of Columbia H. M. Johnson Oregon E. D. Ressler Florida W. N. Sheats Oklahoma David R. Boyd Georgia . . M. L. Brittain Pennsylvania Watson Cornell Idaho Miss Perineal French Rhode Island .... W.B.Jacobs Illinois. Alfred L. Bayliss South Carolina D.B.Johnson Indiana T. A. Mott South Dakota E.E.Collins Iowa H. E. Kratz Tennessee M. M. Ross Kansas Frank R. Dyer Texas J. M. Fendley Kentucky W.H.Bartholomew Utah . W. J. Kerr Louisiana Warren Easton Vermont John L. Alger Maine . John S. Locke Virginia George J. Ramsey Maryland M. Bates Stephens Washington C.M.Sherman Massachusetts Frank A. Fitzpatrick West Virginia \V. H. Anderson Michigan D. W. Springer Wisconsin Lorenzo D. Harvey Minnesota Charles M. Jordan Wyoming Miss Estelle Reel Mississippi „ . James R. Preston Alaska No nomination Montana William R. Welch Hawaii No nomination Missouri .... W. T. Carrington Porto Rico . .No nomination Nebraska.... Carroll G. Pearse Philippines No nomination Nevada J. E. Stubbs Respectfully submitted for the committee. J. H. Phillips, Secretary. Aaron Gove, Chairman. A motion was made that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the con- vention for the nominees named in the report. Seconded and carried without dissent. Secretary Shepard. — The ballot is so cast. President Green. — The ballot being cast in favor of those put in nomination by your committee, I hereby declare the nominees named in the report of the committee duly elected as officers for the ensuing year. I will appoint ex-President Corson and ex-President Lyte to escort President-elect Beardshear to the platform. Mr. Beardshear, being introduced, spoke as follows : Mr. Chairman and Friends: I like that passage of Scripture where God Almighty said : " Son of man, stand upon thy feet, and I will speak unto thee." I feel that you, as an association, have bidden me stand upon my feet, look you in the face, and hear your voice. Upon my feet I look you straight in the eyes and say, not in part, but with all of me, I thank you. If any of you ever heard Salvini say, " One for all and all for one," you have been wishing with me ever afterward that you could say it as did he. If the all of you are for the all of me as the all of me is for the all of you, we shall not have any trouble in making the next National Educational Association a happy issue of what you and these worthy officers have brought to this hour. With a Salvinian greeting, " One for all and all for one," I am yours for hard work and service ; and that is all you want to hear from me today. Under the order of miscellaneous business the following resolution was offered by R. H. Jesse, of Missouri : Resolved, That this association does, hereby, reaffirm its former declaration in favor of the establish- ment by the general government of a national university devoted, not to collegiate, but to true university work. W. J. S. Bryan, of Missouri, moved that the resolution be adopted. Seconded. 26 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York. — Speaking as an old member of the association, solicitous, as we all must be, that its declarations on matters of educa- tional concern be marked by dignity and care, and be made only after the fullest con- sideration of the subject on which a declaration is sought or proposed, I suggest that there is in existence an important document bearing upon this matter of a governmental university that very few of our members have yet seen. It is a report to the National Council of Education made by a committee of fifteen of our own members after three years' study of the whole subject. This report, dated May 24, 1901, has only recently been printed in a small edition for the use of the Council and the committee. Very few members, even of the Council, have yet had time to acquaint themselves with this report. In a larger sense this report is made to our whole association, and in a few weeks it will be in the hands of each of us in our printed volume of proceedings. Inasmuch as our members, who are asked to vote upon this resolution offered by my friend, President Jesse, have not seen or received this report, and inasmuch as the gentlemen whose signa- tures are attached to it deservedly carry great weight with this association and with the country, I feel confident that any declaration we may make concerning a governmental university will be more worthy of our best traditions and more influential with the Con- gress of this country, if it is made after a study of the special report upon the subject by a committee of our own members, instead of before such study. I should, therefore, regard present action upon President Jesse's resolution as unfor- tunate, and move that it be laid upon the table. Seconded. Dr. A. E. Winship, of Massachusetts. — I should like to ask if the purpose of the motion of Dr. Butler is to prevent discussion on the part of this body. Dr. Butler. — The purpose of my motion is to postpone both consideration and action until those who are asked to vote upon this important question can have an opportunity to acquaint themselves with the latest contribution to the literature of the subject, a report by a committee of our own members. Dr. W. O. Thompson, of Ohio. — I wish to ask if the report referred to by Dr. Butler will ever come before this association ? Has not the report been submitted to the Council, acted upon, and the committee discharged? Dr. Butler. — I will gladly answer President Thompson's question. In a parlia- mentary sense the report of this special committee, created by the Council in 1898, on a national university, has not been and will not be made to this association. The report was made to the Council, accepted by the Council, and the committee discharged. The report is, as President Thompson implies, out of parliamentary existence. My point, however, is not a parliamentary, but an educational one. It is that, knowing this report to be in existence, we should, in all fairness, give our entire voting membership a chance to study it before asking them to vote on President Jesse's resolution. Dr. Thompson raised the point of order that, the question before the house being a motion to " lay on the table," discussion of the same was out of order. The motion to lay on the table, being put to vote, was lost — ayes 40, nays 1 16. The resolution of President Jesse was then adopted. The following resolution was offered by Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois, and seconded by Hiram Hadley, of New Mexico : Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the chair to consider the recommendations con- tained in the presidential address, especially those relating to the organization of the departments of this association, and to report what changes, if any, may tend to increase the efficiency of this association, as well as any amendments to the by-laws now in force necessary to make such recommendations effective. The resolution was adopted without dissent, and the chair appointed as the committee: Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois. W. M. Beardshear, of Iowa. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York. W. E. Chancellor, of New Jersey. F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri. There being no further business, the meeting adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 SIXTH SESSION.— Thursday, July ii, 8 p. m. The meeting was called to order in Light Guard Armory by President Green. Music — song, " Gipsy John," Clay; Mr. Whittier Peabody. Miss Edna Dean Proctor, of South Framingham, Mass., addressed the convention on '' Our National Floral Emblem." Music — song, "Danny Deever," Damrosch; Mr. Peabody. Hon. Cloudesley S. H. Brereton, of Melton Constable, England, delivered an address on " The Problems of Education in England." Adjourned. FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS SEVENTH SESSION.— Friday, July 12, 9:30 a. m. The association met in Light Guard Armory, and was called to order by President Green. Music — song, "Gipsy Maiden I," Parker; Miss Ruby Brownell. Prayer was offered by Rev. D. D. McLaurin, pastor of Woodward Avenue Baptist Church. The topic of the morning was " Higher Education." Addresses were delivered as follows : " The Functions of a University in a Prosperous Democracy," Charles F. Thwing, president of Western Reserve University, Cleveland, O. " Federal and State Interest in Higher Education," Robert B. Fulton, chancellor of the University of Mississippi, University, Miss. " Recent Growth of Public High Schools in the United States as Affecting the Attendance of Colleges," Hon. William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the United States. Discussion by James Russell Parsons, Jr., secretary of the University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. EIGHTH SESSION.— Friday, July 12, 8 p. m. The closing session of the Fortieth Annual Convention was called to order in Light Guard Armory by President Green. The following address was presented, " The Relation of Music to Life," by Thomas Whitney Surette, staff lecturer on music for the American University Extension Society, lecturer for the University of the State of New York. Assistants in illustration were Miss Anna Otten, violinist, New York city, and Mr. Frederick L. Andries, violoncellist, Detroit, Mich. Illustrative program : Adagio from Trio for violin, violoncello, and piano, in G major — Haydn. Allegro Moderato from Trio in B flat, Op. 97 — Beethoven. Scherzo from Trio in B flat, Op. 97 — Beethoven. Adagio from Sonata for violin and piano, Op. 78 — Brahms. Following the above exercises, the chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, Dr. E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, read the report of that committee, as follows : REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES The National Educational Association, now holding its fortieth annual meeting in the city of Detroit, and representing the teachers and friends of education thruout the country, makes the following statement of principles : 28 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION I. The problem of elementary education is the most important problem with which the state must deal. The progress and happiness of a people are in direct ratio to the universality of education. A free people must be developed by free schools. History records that the stability of a nation depends upon the virtue and intelligence of the indi- viduals composing the nation. To provide for the universal education of youth is the duty of every state in the union. All the residents of the territory under the direct con- trol of the general government, including the Indian Territory, Alaska, and our new pos- sessions, must receive the benefits of free education at the hands of the government. We note with satisfaction the steps that have been taken by the present administration to place the blessings of American free schools within the reach of all the children of all the peoples under our flag. -2. The Bureau of Education, under the direction of William T. Harris, Commis- sioner of Education, has rendered invaluable service to the cause of education thruout the United States. It is the judgment of this association that the powers of this bureau should be greatly enlarged, and that the general direction of public education in all the territory of the United States not under state control, including our new possessions, should be part of the duties of the bureau. In no other way can the general government so quickly, economically, intelligently, and safely carry the benefits of popular education to the peoples for whose education it is immediately responsible. 3. We reiterate the statement that the public school should be the center of the educational life of the community in which it is located. Especially should this be true in rural districts. Here should be found the public library for the use of all ; here the educational extension courses should draw the old and the young ; here may literary and social meetings be held which will tend to uplift the mental, social, and spiritual life of the people. Freed from the ravenous influence of partisan politics, untouched by the narrowness of rigid sectarianism, the public school should become the real center of the broader intellectual life, the educator of men and women beyond the school age, as well as the guide of childhood and youth. 4. The subjects that may properly be taught in elementary schools include those that bear upon the ethical, physical, and aesthetic nature of the child, as well as his purely intellectual nature. Sober, industrious, intelligent, honest, cultured citizenship should be the result of public-school training in the United States. 5. Our system of education will not be wholly free until every grade of school, from the kindergarten to and including the university, shall be open to every boy and girl of our country. 6. The liberality of men of wealth in making large donations to institutions of learn- ing is to be strongly commended and encouraged. At the same time it should be borne in mind that popular education rests upon the people and should look to them for its chief support and control. The relation between state and local support should be so adjusted that communities will maintain a deep and abiding interest in their schools. 7. The public school system of a state should be a unit from the kindergarten to and including the university, and all private institutions should endeavor to work in harmony with the ideals of public education so far as their special purpose will permit them. In order that public and private institutions of learning may more fully co-operate in the general work of education, the relation between these institutions should be more clearly defined than it is at the present time. 8. Legislation with respect to public education must not wait for public sentiment. It should lead public sentiment when necessary. Experience teaches that what people are compelled by law to do with respect to schools they readily learn to do without com- pulsion, but that they usually are slow to demand reforms which involve increased taxa- tion. School legislation should, therefore, be under the general direction of educational experts. 9. The National Educational Association recognizes the principle that the child has JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 2y the same right to be protected by law from ignorance as from abuse, neglect, and hunger ; and it therefore records with approval that many of the leading states of the union have compulsory-education laws upon their statute books. 10. While many cities have at least partly solved the problem of school supervision, in most rural communities the problem is almost wholly unsolved. Close, constant, expert supervision of schools in both city and country is imperatively demanded, not only on account of the large financial interests involved, but also on account of the supreme importance of the teacher's work and the lack of well-rounded preparation on the part of many teachers. n. The National Educational Association watches with deep interest the solution of the problem of consolidating rural schools and transporting pupils at public expense, now attempted in many of our states. We believe that this movement will lead to the establishment of township and county high schools, and thus bring more advanced educa- tion to rural communities. We also believe that supplementary state support of rural high schools is in the highest interest of the entire state. 12. The state should support and control institutions whose object is the preparation of teachers for the public schools. Normal schools free to persons preparing to teach are an absolute necessity in a perfected system of education. 13. No one should be placed in charge of a school who has not been previously trained for the work of teaching. The plan of issuing teachers' certificates of low grade year after year is at best a makeshift and should be discontinued whenever the state is sufficiently advanced in education to warrant its discontinuance. There should be a limit to the length of time a person can serve as an apprentice in the vocation of teaching. 14. We believe that the standards for school architecture, including the proper seating, heating, lighting, ventilation, and ornamentation of school buildings, should be as definite as the standards for teaching. The law should fix the dimensions and all other requirements of school buildings, as well as the size and character of school grounds. 15. The National Educational Association declares in the preamble to its constitu- tion that its objects are " to elevate the character and advance the interests of the pro- fession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States," and we again promise that the best efforts of this association and its members shall be given to the furtherance of these objects, in the firm conviction that in no place can we serve our country better than in her schools. E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, Chairman; Joseph Swain, of Indiana; Wm, O. Thompson, of Ohio ; L. E. Wolfe, of Kansas ; W. T. Carrington, of Missouri ; Wm. F. King, of Iowa ; Robert B. Fulton, of_Mississippi ; Livingston C. Lord, of Illinois ; Committee. Chairman Lyte. — I am instructed by the committee to offer the following: Resolved, That the thanks of the National Educational Association are due, and are hereby most cordially tendered, to the residents of this beautiful city, whose open- hearted, refined hospitality will long be remembered ; to the newspapers, that have fully recorded the proceedings of the association from day to day ; to the railroads and other transportation companies, whose hearty and well-directed co-operation in bringing the large membership to this city was essential to the success of this meeting ; to the pro- prietors of the Remington Standard Typewriter, and their skilled representative, Miss 3° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Orr, whose expert service was at the command of the officers of the association ; and to the educators of the city and state, who have so successfully borne the burden of pre- paring for the great body of teachers and friends of education that have assembled here this week. The association desires to refer particularly to the services of Hon. James E. Scripps, chairman of the General Local Committee, and his associates ; to Professor Oliver G. Frederick, chairman of the Executive Committee, and his associates ; to the various department committees ; to Professor W. C. Martindale, superintendent of schools of Detroit ; to the teachers and members of the board of education ; and to all others who have co-operated with them in making arrangements for this meeting and in carrying their carefully prepared plans to successful completion. On motion, the resolution was adopted by a unanimous vote. Chairman Lyte then, on behalf of the Committee on Resolutions, offered the follow- ing resolution, which was, upon motion put by the Secretary, unanimously adopted : Resolved, That we hereby convey to the retiring President, Dr. J. M. Green, of New Jersey, and to the retiring Treasurer, Professor L. M. Greenlee, of Colorado, our cordial thanks for the eminent ability and unswerving devotion with which they have served the association. Chairman Lyte then offered the following, which was adopted by the association, without dissent : The National Educational Association notes with satisfaction that an international exposition is to be held in St. Louis, in 1903, commemorating the purchase of the great tract of land known as the Territory of Louisiana. It is a matter of general information that the Congress of the United States has appropriated five millions of dollars in aid of this exposition, and has set aside an additional two hundred and fifty thousand dollars for a government building and exhibit. The people of Missouri have amended their constitution and have appropriated one million of dollars for the state's exhibit. The citizens and municipality of St. Louis have raised ten millions of dollars for the exposition. Preparations are now being rapidly pushed forward in all directions, and the success of the enterprise is fully assured. Resolved, That the National Educational Association is in favor of uniting with the citizens of St. Louis and of the Louisiana Purchase in making an educational exhibit that will fitly commemorate the progress of the nation for the past hundred years. President Green then spoke as follows : When, one year ago, at Charleston, I accepted the presidency, I stated that the success of my administration would depend upon the support given me by the member- ship, and asked that the association do what it could in the interests of this meeting. To this request you have responded most heartily, and whatever has been our success has been due largely to that response. The people of Detroit have proven themselves a hospitable people, and we have been made to feel at home among them. The local committees have been so well organized and so efficient that the machinery of managing our great numbers has moved without a jar. We all greatly appreciate the local contributions to our program, espe- cially in the line of music. I wish to acknowledge the valuable support of the Executive Committee of the association, and of the heads of the different departments, in developing the programs, x as well as to express my thanks to the individuals who have taken part in these programs. It now becomes my pleasant duty to present to you the President-elect. Dr. W. M. Beardshear, did I not know your personal qualifications as I do, the fact that this association has unanimously chosen you to preside over it would be to me a sufficient voucher of your ability. But my acquaintance with your qualities leads me to believe that you are the right man in the right place. May God prosper you, and make you an instrument, thru the National Educational Association, of greatly promoting the education of the children of our beloved land. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 31 In response, President-elect Beardshear said : Mr. President and Members of the National Educational Association : The lateness of the hour forbids words from me at this time. My deep appreciation of the great honor you have bestowed upon me has already been expressed. In any event, it is not a time for words, but for action. I bespeak the united effort of you all for a great convention in 1902. After the benediction, President Green declared the Fortieth Annual Convention of the National Educational Association adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE BOARD-OF DIRECTORS FOR 1 900-1 901 DETROIT, MICH.— Tuesday, July 9, 1901 The annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order in Temple Beth El at 12 M. by President James M. Green. The following directors responded to roll-call : James M. Green, New Jersey; Lewis C. Greenlee, Colorado; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; William T. Harris, District of Columbia; Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. ; Nicholas Murray Butler, New York; Newton C. Dougherty, Illinois; Aaron Gove, Colorado; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania; F.Louis Soldan, Missouri; Teachers' Institute, Pennsylvania; John S. Locke, Maine; Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Massachusetts; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; A. S. Downing, New York; M. B. Stephens, Maryland; George J. Ramsey, Virginia; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; McHenry Rhoads, Kentucky; M. M. Ross, Tennessee; William M, Slaton, Georgia; John W. Abercrombie, Alabama; J. M. Fendley, Texas; N. H. Chancy, Ohio; T. A. Mott, Indiana; J. H. Collins, Illinois; D. W. Springer, Michigan; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; W. M. Beardshear, Iowa; C. M. Jordan, Minnesota; W. T. Car- rington, Missouri; E. E. Collins, South Dakota; C. G. Pearse, Nebraska; Frank R. Dyer, Kansas; Miss Estelle Reel, Wyoming; H. S. Philips, Colorado; Mrs. E. R. Jackson, New Mexico; E. D. Ressler, Ore- gon; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota. Number of directors present, forty. On motion, the reading of the minutes of the previous meeting, held at Charleston, S. C, July 12, 1900, was omitted, and the minutes were approved as printed in the annual volume of proceedings of the Charleston meeting. The annual report of the Treasurer was presented by L. C. Greenlee, of Colorado, in printed form, and copies were distributed to the directors present. On motion, the reading of the full report was omitted, with the suggestion that questions be asked by the directors as they might desire. In response to a question by Director Lyte, of Pennsylvania, the Treasurer explained the entries, showing that, contrary to the general expectation, the proceeds of the Charleston meeting had paid all the expenses of the year, leaving a net balance of $316.37, which, added to the balance of $3,796.67 received from the Los Angeles meet- ing, made a total balance in the treasury of $4,113.04. Secretary Shepard called attention to the further fact that, in addition to meeting all the usual expenses of the year, an unusual expense of nearly $800 for accrued interest and premium on bonds purchased by the Board of Trustees had been met. While this was properly chargeable as an expense, it was in one sense an investment which would be returned to the Treasury. Were this taken into account, the real balance of receipts from the Charleston meeting over the actual expenses of the year (excluding the items referred to) was over $1,000. On motion of Director Greenwood, of Missouri, the Treasurer's report was received and approved, and ordered printed in the proceedings. Director A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees, presented the financial report of that body. Printed copies of the report were distributed to the directors. In explanation of the report Chairman Lane said : You will note that the report indicates the amount of the permanent fund July I, 1900, as $88,000. There have been no additions to the permanent fund during the year. The investments, however, have changed somewhat. The investments in Kansas bonds have been reduced $3,790 by the payment of matured bonds. Those that are indicated as delinquent became so, with one 32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS 33 exception, in January and July of 1897, immediately after those years of serious crop fail- ures in Kansas. During the past two or three years there has been such an improvement in conditions in Kansas that we have hopes that all of these bonds will ultimately be paid. There have been offers made to purchase coupons that are past due, to be used in paying taxes — offers that vary from 30 per cent, to 50 per cent, of the face value of the indebt- edness. From information that I have obtained I learn that lands which were regarded as unsalable a few years ago are being sold, and have advanced in value very greatly during the past three years. There have been several offers to compromise on the pay- ment of these bonds, which have been considered by the trustees, but, in view of the information that we have obtained from friends in Kansas and from those who know the situation there, it is deemed best for usnot to compromise on any of these bonds as yet. You will notice that we have secured judgment in the case of the Seward county bonds. I do not know that there is anything more to say, Mr. Chairman, except that it has been customary for the President to appoint someone to examine the securities that are in the hands of the chairman of the Board of Trustees and to attach his certificate to this report. I am ready to answer any questions that any of you may wish to ask con- cerning the report submitted. Director Dyer, of Kansas. — Are there any suits for the collection of delinquent bonds in progress ? Director Lane. — We have not thought it wise to enter into any of the various combinations that have been formed for collection of delinquent Kansas bonds. There are suits that have been instituted by some financial institutions to get judgment on other bonds of the same issues as our own, and we shall profit by their success, if they are successful. A director inquired when and by whom these Kansas bonds were purchased. Mr. Lane. — All those Kansas bonds were purchased a number of years ago, imme- diately after the Chicago meeting and the years following, when the trustees had quite a sum of money to invest. These bonds were, at that time, regarded as very safe and desirable investments. I would say, with reference to the investments which we are making at the present time, that it has been very difficult to purchase good bonds except at a very low rate of interest — on a basis of about 3% per cent, to 4 per cent. We have been able to secure good 5 per cent, mortgages in which the property values are double the amount of the loans. The parties who borrow the money have to pay the expense of negotiating the loan, the attorney's fee for passing upon the title, the recording, and all other expenses ; hence no expense is incurred by the association in negotiating these loans. Director Gove. — I notice that in all these transactions involving a large amount of legal advice I find no charge for expense. Who pays those bills ? Director Lane. — The parties making the loans. Mr. Gove. — I refer to expense for legal advice. Mr. Lane. — We haven't had any such expense. Mr. Gove. — You stated just now that the trustees thought it wise to allow some others to take their cases into court, and that we should profit by their action. Now, that is doubtless based on legal advice. Where do you get it ? Mr. Lane. — Well, you know that under the state laws the superintendents of public instruction are legal advisers of school officers. We have secured advice from some of these people in Kansas who are interested in the association and who are very anxious that no loss should come to the association thru these transactions. President Green. — You have heard the report of the Board of Trustees. What is your pleasure ? Director Jordan, of Minneapolis, moved that the report be received and approved and printed in the volume of proceedings. It was so ordered. The President announced the appointment of President Joseph Swain of the State 34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION University of Indiana to examine the bonds and securities in the possession of the chair- man of the Board of Trustees, with authority to attach to this report of the Board of Trustees the usual certificate. Under the call of the chairman for communications, the Secretary read the following letter : To the Directors of the National Educational Association: Gentlemen: The undersigned, active members of the National Educational Association, hereby respectfully request that you will by resolution recognize and approve as an affiliated body the American Society of Religious Education. We beg to represent to you that this society is non-sectarian ; that it is incor- porated under the laws of the United States, with headquarters at Washington, D. C. ; that it is governed by a board of twenty-one regents, with Justice Harlan, of the United States Supreme Court, as president. It is the purpose of this society to pursue advanced investigations in a scholarly way with the view to improve the methods of religious education. It desires to hold annual conferences at the same time and place with the conventions of the National Educational Association. Believing that both bodies will be helped by an affiliated relation, the undersigned have made this request. Respectfully, Newton C. Dougherty, of Illinois. E. O. Lyte, of Pennsylvania. O. T. Corson, of Ohio. F. B. Palmer, of New York. L. E. Wolfe, of Kansas. R. G. Boone, of Ohio. J. W. Carr, of Indiana. J. H. Van Sickle, of Maryland. James E. Russell, of New York. Aaron Gove, of Colorado. Frank R. Dyer, of Kansas. James H. Baker, of Colorado. R. I. Hamilton, of Indiana. J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri. Joseph Swain, of Indiana. Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado. Langdon S. Thompson, of New Jersey. N. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania. L. H. Jones, of Ohio. Director Lyte, of Pennsylvania, offered the following resolution and moved its adoption : Resolved, That the directors of the National Educational Association recognize the American Society of Religious Education as an affiliated body in the cause of education, and that we will gladly co-operate with the regents of said society whenever their sessions are held in the same city and at the same time as ours, and that the Secretary of the National Educational Association be authorized to extend courtesies to the secretary of said society, that the sessions may be mutually profitable. Director Greenwood seconded the motion of Director Lyte. Secretary Shepard stated that Rev. James E. Gilbert, the secretary and chief execu- tive officer of the Society of Religious Education, was present and would be pleased to answer any question bearing on the communication presented. The chairman announced that, in the absence of objection, Dr. Gilbert would be accorded the privilege of answering questions and stating the purpose of the com- munication. Director Gove, of Colorado. — I should like to know if Jews, Roman Catholics, Christian Scientists, Mormons, etc., are represented in this society ? Mr. Gilbert. — I thank you for the courtesy of permission to speak on this question. Dr. Harris and Mr. Lane know considerable of me, and they know more of the men who are associated with me. The society is composed of scholars of all denominations, but, "as a matter of fact, as you would expect, the great religious bodies of the country control the society or organization. They control it, not because they wish to exclude anyone, but simply because the preponderating influence is of that character which sweeps on thruout the nation in all the religions. We have Catholics and Jews as well as members of other religious denominations. They do not, however, try to put forth their peculiar views. There has been perfect harmony from the beginning. The society is thirteen years old. General John Eaton was formerly the president, but after his return from Porto Rico his health would not permit his carrying on the work, and Justice Harlan, of the United States Supreme Court, took his place. There are nine different departments. The department which we wish to bring into alliance with the National Educational Association is that of Investigation. We believe that we may be helpful to you and that you may be greatly PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS 35 helpful to us ; how much more help you can be to us than we to you it is not now neces- sary to state. We believe that the education of this country needs the stimulus that will come from this source, and we believe our society needs the infusion of the new ideas that will come from the educators of the country. That is the reason we are seeking this alliance. I am positive that anything we may do will not in any way compromise you — we simply seek to advance those great principles that underlie the spiritual nature and are common to all religious bodies, no matter what they may be — Methodist, Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian, etc. You can see at once that a great work may be done, that the discussion of these principles will have a very decided influence upon the cause of public education thruout the United States. I shall be very happy to answer any questions, but I feel some diffidence in prolonging my remarks. Director Jordan. — I wish to ask whether among those who are enrolled as members of this organization are those who are known as representatives of the liberal churches — Unitarian, etc. Does not your circular — one of them at least — which you sent out, speak of the membership as coming from the so-called Evangelical churches ? Mr. Gilbert. — Yes, sir, it does. But in so speaking we did not in any wise limit mem- bership in this department, which is the Department of Investigation. Roman Catholics and Jews have co-operated with us in Washington and presented papers at our meetings, but there was no attack upon anybody at all. The society is entirely free from anything of that kind. I think that in our constitution, which I have in my hands, there is nothing that in any wise limits the membership, altho, as a matter of fact, as stated before, the great body is composed of Evangelical scholars ; and yet in the thirteen years of its existence I am confident that there has been nothing uttered that would give any offense to anyone. Dr. Harris has been present at some of our meetings. He has spoken in Washington. I am confident he will bear testimony to the fact that we have never had any controversies. We are in another realm entirely. Director Jordan. — I think this is too important a matter to be decided in a moment, and I move that the resolution be laid on the table for one year. That will give the members of this Board of Directors and of the association an opportunity to study the matter carefully. I think nothing can be lost, and a great deal may be gained, by post- poning the consideration of this question until we all know more about it. Seconded. Director Greenwood. — What is included in the meaning of "investigation" as understood by this society ? Mr. Gilbert. — By "investigation " we mean an inquiry into all the facts, phenomena, and principles of the religious life wherever exhibited, among the Mormons, Jews, Catholics, Buddhists, etc., in every part of the world. It is the religious side of man that we inves- tigate, and we do that without any bias whatever. We are studying the nature of man. We are applying the principles which we thus discover in an effort to cultivate the reli- gious man. The rabbi of a synagogue in Washington is one of my most intimate friends and a very earnest worker in this society. I am not anxious to press this matter now, but, as I am on my feet, I will say that on Thursday afternoon at 3 o'clock we are to hold a conference on this whole subject, to see if it is possible for us to come into closer affilia- tion with this association. Director Locke. — Allow me to ask if the word "Evangelical" is used in your constitution. Mr. Gilbert. — No, sir. There are some persons in our organization who are not members of any church at all. The reading of the resolution was called for by Director Soldan. Director Gove. — Most, if not everyone, are in accord with the sentiments expressed by Mr. Gilbert, and yet, after hearing the objection of Director Jordan, I am in favor of postponing action for a year. We shall be prepared a year from now to act intelligently, while now the subject is quite new and only a hurried consideration can be given. The motion of Director Jordan was then put to vote and carried. 36 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Director J. H. Collins, of Illinois, presented the following petition for the creation of a new department : To the Directors of the National Educational Association: Gentlemen: We, the undersigned, active members of this association, earnestly believing that the simplifying of our spelling is an educational question, and that it would greatly tend to promote the cause of popular education, respectfully request you to authorize us to organize a Simplified Spelling Department of this association. (Signed) David Felmlev, president State Normal School, Normal, 111. John W. Cook, president State Normal School, De Kalb, III. O. T. Bright, county superintendent of Cook county, Chicago, 111. A. R. Robinson, principal High and Manual Training School, Chicago, 111. E. C. Delano, assistant superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Leslie Lewis, assistant superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Alfred Kirk, assistant superintendent of schools, Chicago, III. Wm. C. Payne, assistant superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. W. C. Dodge, assistant superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Miss Ella C. Sullivan, Chicago, 111. Henry C. Cox, principal Garfield School, Chicago, 111. E. C. Rossiter, principal Medill High School, Chicago, 111. Wm. J. Bartholf, principal Von Humboldt School, Chicago, 111. Dudley Grant Hays, principal Arnold School, Chicago, 111. A. H. Yoder, editor Adolescence, Chicago, 111. E. O. Vaile, editor Intelligence, Oak Park, 111. A. V. Greenman, superintendent of schools, Aurora, 111. W. L. Steele, superintendent of schools, Galesburg, 111. John Richeson, superintendent of schools, East St. Louis, 111. F. T. Oldt, superintendent of schools, Dubuque, la. J. A. Collins, superintendent of schools, Springfield, 111. Joseph Carter, superintendent of schools, Champaign, 111. Lincoln P. Goodhue, assistant superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. Francis W. Parker, director School of Education, University of Chicago. Ossian H. Lang, editor School Journal, New York city. J. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Md. C. B. Gilbert, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y. C. C. Rounds, institute instructor, New York city. E. B. Cox, superintendent of schools, Xenia, O. Director Collins, after reading the application, moved that it be granted, and the Department of Simplified Spelling be established. Seconded by Director Mott, of Indiana. After brief discussion, a motion to lay the motion of Director Collins on the table for a year was carried by a vote of thirteen in. favor and eight against. The Secretary reported a communication from Hon. Alfred Bayliss asking to be allowed to present personally a communication from the Round Table of State and County Superintendents of the Department of Superintendence. Permission being granted, Mr. Bayliss stated briefly that the widespread interest in the question of the consolidation of school districts in rural communities and the transportation of pupils had led to the appointment at the Chicago meeting of a committee to ask the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to appropriate a suitable sum of money to be used by a committee appointed by the association to secure full and exact information with regard to what has been done in this direction in several states, and to publish this information for general circulation among the rural communities. Director Carrington offered the following resolution and moved its adoption : Resolved, That the sum of two thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be, and hereby is, appropriated to defray the expense of collecting information regarding the progress, means, and results of consolidating rural schools wherever the experiment has been made, and for the preparation and printing of such a report to the National Educational Association as may be useful as a bulletin of information and recommendation for general circulation among the people. Provided, That the association shall appoint a committee for that purpose, and, provided further, that no member of such committee shall receive compensation for services in any form. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS 37 After brief discussion, the resolution of Director Carrington was, under the rules of the board, referred to the National Council for consideration and recommendation. Secretary Shepard. — A communication has been received from the National Association of Elocutionists in session at Buffalo, N. Y., June 24, ultimo, stating that a committee had been appointed to attend the Detroit convention of the National Educa- tional Association and to present in person a request from that body. Miss Marie L. Bruot, teacher of elocution and oratory in the Central High School, Cleveland, C, a mem- ber of that committee and an active member of the National Educational Association, is present and wishes to be heard. President Green then invited Miss Bruot to address the board. Miss Bruot. — Mr. President and Members of the Board of Directors : At the con- vention of the National Association of Elocutionists, held in Buffalo the last week in June, Professor Robert 1. Fulton, dean of the School of Oratory of the Western University of Ohio, Professor Thomas Trueblood, of the University of Michigan, and myself were appointed a committee to appear before this body to ask that some time be given to the subject of the "spoken word" upon the programs of the National Educational Asso- ciation. I regret exceedingly that the chairman and the other member of this committee are not present, but I realize and believe that there is no one ot your number who does not fully appreciate the value of this subject — the "spoken word" — and we trust that this honorable body will give this subject a place on your program, that the methods of teaching reading and expression may be presented and discussed. Sincerely believing that it is for the best interests of education that some time be given in the conventions of the National Educational Association to the subject of the " spoken word," 1 present this request, on behalf of the committee, for your consideration. On motion of Director Gove, the Secretary was instructed to present this request of the committee of the National Association of Elocutionists to the President of the asso- ciation in 1902, and to the presidents of such departments as may appropriately include the subject in their annual program. The Secretary read the following communication from the chairman of the committee on education of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Co., as follows : Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company, St. Louis, U. S. A., July 7,1*901. /. M. Green, Esq., President, National Educational Association, Detroit, Mich.: Dear Sir: Recognizing the fact that the educational exhibits will form one of the most important features of the world's fair to be held in St. Louis in 1003, the Committee on Education, of which I have the honor to be chairman, considers it its duty to ask the National Educational Association at its annual meeting in Detroit for its full co-operation in making the educational department of the Louisiana Purchase Exposi- tion a complete success from every aspect. Therefore the undersigned begs to suggest that the National Edu- cational Association appoint a committee to act as an advisory board to the committee having in charge the educational exhibits at the world's fair in St. Louis, and that the state and city educational authorities act as agents of their representative states and cities in the preparation of the representation of the systems, institu- tions, and instrumentalities within the sphere and range of their official connection or authority. Trusting that your body will act favorably upon these suggestions, we beg to remain, Very truly yours, (Signed) Committee on Education. , John Schroers, Chairman. Director Harris. — I move that this communication be received and placed on file. Seconded and carried. Dr. Harris. — I now offer the following resolution : Whereas, The authorities of the world's fair to be held in St. Louis in 1903 in commemoration of the Louisiana Purchase have tendered an invitation to the National Educational Association to co-operate with their Committee on Education, be it Resolved, That the President of the National Educational Association appoint a committee of twenty- one, whose duty it shall be to act as an advisory board whenever the education committee of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition submits specific questions or asks their co-operation. This advisory board shall have power to fill vacancies, and also to add further members to their number. 38 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Director Soldan. — I rise to second the motion of Director Harris, and wish to say a few words in explanation. The chairman of the committee on education of the board of directors of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Co. called on me in St. Louis on Fri- day, before I left, and submitted in brief the following plan or intention on the part of the educational committee : They wish to conduct the educational department at the world's fair largely according to the ideas and wishes of the teaching profession in the country. They wish to be guided in the plans and in the collections of exhibits by the best advice that can be obtained from educators. Mr. Schroers, in discussing this idea, said that he wished the advisory board, if it should be the pleasure of the Board of Direc- tors of the National Educational Association to appoint such a board, to aid in planning the lines according to which the educational exhibits should be selected and arranged in every detail ; that, while the committee on education of the directory in St. Louis would assume all responsibility, they wish to keep in touch with this proposed committee of the National Educational Association and be guided in the general outline, as well as in the details, by their advice. The scope of the duties of the committee on education which sends this letter is indicated by the following extract from the by-law creating the com- mittee on education : The Committee on Education and Educational Congresses shall consist of seven members, and shall have charge of all matters pertaining to elementary and higher education in schools and other institutions of learn- ing, whether devoted to science, literature, or art, and also of all educational congresses and conventions, and all subjects directly connected therewith. The motion of Director Harris was then put to vote and adopted unanimously. President Green. — This motion, as I understand it, carries with it directions that the chairman appoint a committee of twenty-one. I will, with the permission of the board, announce the committee later. Under the call of miscellaneous business, Director Springer, of Michigan, reported that in securing advance memberships and in advancing the interests of the associa- tion in other ways he had spent #113, altho he was aware that but $20 was allowed each state director under' the rules and customs established. He thought that this amount was quite insufficient for the director of the state in which the annual conven- tion is held, and moved that hereafter the sum of $100 be allowed for the expenses of the director of the state in which the annual meeting is held. Seconded by Director Ross, of Tennessee. After brief discussion, the motion of Director Springer was put to vote and lost. Director Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York. — The members of the board will doubtless remember that in the amendments to our constitution in 1895 provision was made for the election of foreign educators as corresponding members. This action was intended to be an honorable recognition of men and women in foreign countries who had gained distinction in educational work. We have only once taken advantage of our authority by the election at the Washington meeting of ten persons as corresponding mem- bers. In connection with the exposition at Paris last year a number of persons gained what seems to be very considerable distinction, partly thru their service at the exposi- tion and partly thru the various valuable reports made to their respective governments on educational methods and progress. I submit herewith a list of such persons, and move that they be chosen as corresponding members : Leon Bourgeois, formerly minister of public instruction, member of the Chamber of Deputies ; 5 rue Palatine, Paris, France. Charles Bayet, director of primary instruction in the ministry of public instruction; 27 rue Gay-Lussac, Paris, France. Elie Rabier, director of secondary education in the ministry of public instruction ; 27 rue de Fleury, Paris, France. Camille See, counselor of state ; 65 avenue des Champs- Elysees, Paris, France. E. P. Kovalevski, officer of the imperial ministry of public instruction, St. Petersburg, Russia. Fabian Ware, inspector of secondary schools for the board of education, London, England; 54 Goldhurst Terrace, Hampstead, N. W., London, England. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS 39 Cloudesley S. H. Brereton, vice-president, international jury of awards for elementary education, Paris exposition; Briningham House, Norfolk county, England. Bela de Tormay, chief of bureau in the royal ministry of agriculture, Budapest, Hungary. Seconded and carried without dissent. At this point the President announced the following members of the advisory board created by the resolution of Director Harris, as follows : • William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the United States, Washington, D. C. Edwin A. Alderman, president of Tulane University, New Orleans, La. Newton C. Dougherty, superintendent of schools, Peoria, 111. Nicholas Murray Butler, professor of philosophy and education, Columbia University, New York city. William H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York, N. Y. James MacAlister, president of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. Calvin M. Woodward, director of manual training, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. Halsey C. Ives, director, Museum of Fine Arts, St. Louis, Mo. Aaron Gove, superintendent of schools, District No. 1, Denver, Colo. Andrew S. Draper, president of University of Illinois, Champaign, 111. William R. Harper, president of University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Arthur T. Hadley, president of Yale University, New Haven, Conn. David Starr Jordan, president of Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. J. G. Schurman, president of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Daniel C. Gilman, president of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. James M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. Charles M. Jordan, superintendent of schools, Minneapolis, Minn. Lewis H. Jones, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, O. William T. Carrington, state superintendent of public instruction, Jefferson, Mo. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. Carroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Neb. There being no further business, after announcements by the Secretary, the board adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS FOR 1901-1902 DETROIT, MICH.— Thursday, July 12, 4:30 p. m. The newly elected Board of Directors was called to order in Temple Beth El at 4 : 30 p. M., July 12, by President-elect William M. Beardshear. The following directors responded to the roll-call : Nicholas Murray Butler, New York ; Oscar T. Corson, Ohio ; Albert G. Lane, Illinois ; Aaron Gove, Colorado; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; William T. Harris, District of Colum- bia; Mary H. Hunt, Massachusetts; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania ; Teachers' Institute, Pennsylvania; Wil- liam M. Beardshear, Iowa; F. Yale Adams, Arizona; Wilbur F. Gordy, Connecticut; W. N. Sheats, Florida; Miss Permeal French, Idaho; Alfred Bayliss, Illinois; H. E. Kratz, Iowa; Frank R. Dyer, Kansas; W, H. Bartholomew, Kentucky; John S. Locke, Maine; D. W. Springer, Michigan; Charles M. Jordan, Minnesota; W. T. Carrington, Missouri; Carroll G. Pearse, Nebraska; H. Brewster Willis, New Jersey; Hiram Hadley, New Mexico; Augustus S. Downing, New York; J. M. H. Frederick, Ohio; E. D. Ressler, Oregon; Watson Cornell, Pennsylvania; W. B. Jacobs, Rhode Island; George J. Ramsey, Vir- ginia; C. M. Sherman, Washington; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Miss Estelle Reel, Wyoming; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota, Present, thirty-seven members. The minutes of the meeting of the Board of Directors held on July 9 were read and approved. On motion of Director Greenwood, the chair appointed the following committee to nominate members for the National Council : Directors F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri ; Charles M. Jordan, of Minnesota ; and Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York. Mr. J. H. Francis, of California, by permission of the President, stated to the board that Superintendent J. A. Foshay, director-elect for California, was not present, and, as that state desired to be represented in the meeting of the Board of Directors, he requested that permission be granted to him to represent Mr. Foshay as a proxy. Director Greenwood moved that Mr. Francis be permitted to represent Mr. Foshay by proxy in this meeting, stating that he considered it only fair that California be allowed the privilege of voting representation in the Board of Directors. Seconded. Director Gove, of Colorado, questioned the advisability of this motion as being an innovation on the custom and precedents of the board. Director Pearse, of Nebraska, called attention to the impropriety of any action by which the Board of Directors should change the action of the electors of the National Educational Association in transferring the right to vote from the duly elected director to a proxy, and especially to a proxy not appointed by the director himself, thus arbi- trarily changing the membership of the board. In response to an inquiry, the Secretary stated that this question had frequently been before the board for action, and that the board had always refused to allow proxies, even when designated by the absent members. The motion of Director Greenwood was then rejected by a decisive vote. President Beardshear announced as the next order of business the election of a mem- ber of the Board of Trustees to succeed F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, whose term of office expires with this meeting. A motion was made and seconded that Mr. Soldan be nominated to succeed himself as a member of the Board of Trustees. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS 4 1 Director Soldan stated that, while he was willing in all things to follow the direc- tions of the board, he much preferred that some other member from among the large number so competent for this service should be elected to the vacancy. Director Pearse, of Nebraska, moved that the Secretary be instructed to cast the bal- lot of the board for the election of Director F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, as member of the Board of Trustees for four years, to succeed himself. The motion was seconded and carried without dissent. The Secretary having reported that the ballot had been cast in accordance with instructions, President Beardshear declared Director Soldan elected as a member of the Board of Trustees. On motion of Director Ramsey, of Virginia, Director William T. Harris was elected to succeed himself as a member of the Executive Committee for the term of one year. President Beardshear announced as the next order of business the receiving of invi- tations for the next annual convention. Director E. D. Ressler, assistant professor of education in the University of Oregon, presented an invitation from the cities of the north Pacific coast, stating that these cities had united in an invitation and an earnest request that the next convention be held at that one of the cities of the north Pacific coast which the Executive Committee should select as the best suited for entertaining the association. This invitation was seconded and supported in a brief address by Director C. M. Sherman, president of the Puget Sound Schoolmasters' Club. Director Charles M. Jordan, superintendent of schools of Minneapolis, presented an invitation from the city of Minneapolis for the next meeting, calling attention to the fact that the Board of Directors, at the Buffalo meeting, had voted in favor of holding the convention in 1897 in Minneapolis, but, owing to the fact that another convention had previously been located in that city on the same dates chosen by the National Educa- tional Association, the Executive Committee deemed it advisable to hold the convention in the city of Milwaukee instead. He now wished to renew the invitation of the city of Minneapolis for the year 1902, with assurances that all the usual facilities for holding the convention would be supplied. Director Springer, of Michigan, moved that the matter of the location of the next annual convention be referred without vote by the directors to the Executive Committee with power to act. This motion was seconded and passed without dissent. Director Greenwood, chairman of the Committee on Investigations and Appropri- ations of the National Council, presented the following resolution : Resolved, That the sum of two hundred dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be, and hereby is, appropriated to defray the necessary clerical expenses of the committee named by a round table of the Department of Superintendence to collect information regarding the progress, means, and results of consoli- dating rural schools ; provided, that all bills against this appropriation shall be certified as correct by the chairman of the committee aforesaid. !J. M. Greenwood, Chairman. Nicholas Murray Butler. Augustus S. Downing. L. D. Harvey. Director- Greenwood stated that the resolution had been handed to his committee, and had met with its approval and concurrence, tho it had not yet been acted upon by the National Council, and could not be acted upon by that body before its next meeting, on Friday afternoon, July 12. He further explained that, unless action was taken by the Board of Directors at this meeting, in advance of recommendation by the Council, the result would be that the matter would lie over for an entire year before it could be for- mally acted upon by this body. This would be a disappointment to the committee of state superintendents who desired to proceed at once with the formulation of the proposed report. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION On motion, the resolution was approved, subject to concurrent action of the National Council.* The Committee on Nomination of members of the National Council presented the following report : Members of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association: Your committee finds the following vacancies in the National Council, viz. : By reason of expiration of term: James M. Green, Trenton, N. J. ; Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y. ; A. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111. ; Charles D. Mclver, Greensboro, N. C. ; R. B. Fulton, University, Miss. By reason of absence from two consecutive meetings : Frank Rigler, Portland, Ore., whose term expires in 1904. Your committee, deeming it a wise precedent to continue those members of the Council whose services have been especially valuable, nominate for reappointment for the term of six years the five members whose terms expire as noted above. To succeed Frank Rigler, of Oregon, they nominate R. H. Halsey, of Wisconsin, for the term ending 1904. On motion, the report of the committee was received and adopted, and the nominees declared duly elected as members of the Council. Upon motion, after brief discussion, an appropriation of #700, or so much thereof as may be necessary, was made to meet the expenses of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in 1902 at Chicago, 111. On motion of Dr. Harris, the following-named educators from South America and Central America, several of whom were in attendance on the sessions of the present con- vention, were elected corresponding members of the association : From Argentine Republic — Dr. J. B. Zubiaur. From United States of Brazil — A. Fontoura Xavier, Professor Alcides Medrado. From Republic of Chile — Julio Peres Canto, Carlos Silva Cruz, Guillermo Freudenburg. From Republic of Costa Rica — Senor Don Joaquin Bernando Calve. From Republic of Guatemala — Dr. Joaquin Yela. From Republic of Nicaragua — Don Alejandro Bermudez, Don Ramiro Gamez. On motion of Director Butler, of New York, the following resolution was passed with dissent : Resolved, That the sum of one hundred dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be appropriated to pay the expenses for printing, clerical services, etc., incurred by the Committee of Fifteen appointed under authority of the resolution of the National Council of Education passed July n, 1898, to inquire into the whole question of a national university ; provided that all bills against this appropriation shall be certified as cor- rect by the chairman of the committee aforesaid. There being no further business before the board, the meeting adjourned. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. 1 The National Council at its meeting July 12 failed to recommend the granting of the appropriation provided for in the resolution ; hence the actiorrof the Board of Directors on this resolution is void. — Editor. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY TO THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES Secretary's Office, Winona, Minn., October i, iooi. To the Board of Trustees of the National Educational Association : Gentlemen : In accordance with your recent action requesting a report of the busi- ness of the Secretary's office, I beg leave to submit the following : The inference is that this report is expected to cover, especially, the time since I was elected Secretary by your honorable body. The work since 1893, when I was first elected Secretary by the association, is so interwoven with the work since election as permanent Secretary in 1897 that I have deemed it advisable to extend the report, in some details, over both periods. No directions having been given as to the matter to be included in this report, I have chosen such data as seem to me most interesting and valuable as information to your board and to the active members of the association. When I came into the office of Secretary, in 1893, no records or documents of any kind were on file, excepting a few letters of recent date and a book of minutes of the meetings of the Executive Committee. From 1893 to 1895 the most important work was editing and distributing the annual volume of proceedings. A plan of distribution was established, and since continued, by which every volume sent out can, if necessary, be traced and delivery shown, or, if not delivered, returned to this office. Special attention was given in 1893 ar>d 1894, with con- siderable success, to the sale of volumes of proceedings of the International Congresses of Education and former publications. THE ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP In 1895, by amendment to the constitution at the Denver meeting, the class of active members was created. From that time an annual salary of #1,500 was allowed the Sec- retary as compensation for a part of his time, with provisions for the employment of a stenographer and clerk for the Secretary's office; a salary of #750 was also allowed the Treasurer as compensation for the performance of the duties of his office and for clerical assistance. The conduct of the registration department at the time of the annual meeting and the collection of membership revenue from the various railroad companies were included in the duties of the Treasurer until the time of the election of a permanent Secretary, when these duties were transferred to the Secretary, and the Treasurer's salary was discontinued. The records of over fifty thousand annual memberships, printed in the volume of pro- ceedings extending from the Madison meeting in 1884 to the Denver meeting in 1895, were, in the year following the Denver meeting, analyzed and classified, and every person who was eligible and who had been a member more than one year was invited to join the active class under the provisions of the amended constitution. For two years following the Denver meeting no enrollment fee was charged. At the Milwaukee meeting the constitution was amended, requiring an enrollment fee of $2 in addition to annual dues, making the first payment of an active member #4. It has been the policy to date active membership from the earliest year of continuous annual mem- bership, and to allow lapses in annual membership to be recovered by payment of the omitted dues. The following table shows the growth of the active membership from 1895 to date : 43 44 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION TABLE SHOWING ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP ENROLLMENT SINCE 1895 Year Meeting Addi- tions Loss by death Loss by with- drawal Total loss Net gain Total member- ship 1895-96 Buffalo 1,464 467 290 399 308 58s 18 20 26 32 15 '56 175 121 159 7i 74 195 M7 191 86 393 95 252 117 499 1,464 1,857 1897-981 1898-99 2»321 The number of active members present at the Los Angeles meeting in 1899 was 530, or 24 per cent, of the active membership; at the Charleston meeting in 1900, 546, or 23.5 per cent, of the active membership; at Detroit in 1901, 1,173, or 41.6 per cent, of the active membership. At the Los Angeles meeting the active membership constituted less than 5 per cent, of the total membership enrolled, both active and associate ; at the Charleston meeting, about 19 per cent.; and at Detroit, about 20 per cent, of the total enrollment. Under these circumstances it will be seen that the collection of the dues of active members not in attendance at the annual convention is an important feature of the work of the Secre- tary's office. The annual withdrawals from membership, shown by the above table to be consider- able, are mainly confined to the less permanent element in the profession and to those who were enrolled before an enrollment fee was charged. It rarely occurs that a member in a permanent position, or in high professional standing, discontinues his membership. For this reason the active membership is annually growing stronger and more representa- tive, as well as larger. A noteworthy feature of the active membership is the number and character of the educational institutions which have enrolled — nearly all within the past three years. Most of these institutions have purchased sets of the published proceedings and reports, and have enrolled for the purpose of securing future reports as they are published. The enrollment of institutions at this date includes the following: Universities and colleges 79 Normal schools 43 Public libraries 49 Boards of education 12 Other educational institutions 16 Total 199 It is interesting to note that recently the following libraries enrolled as active mem- bers and purchased certain back volumes of the proceedings : Cardiff Free Public Libraries, Cardiff, Wales. Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo, Japan. Library of Congress of Chile, Santiago, Chile. Even among individuals the idea is gaining ground that it is profitable for those teachers who cannot attend the annual meeting regularly to become active members, that they may secure the published proceedings. The value of the active membership list as a reliable educational directory influences many to seek representation in it, but, without doubt, the leading motive is the desire to be permanently and actively identified with the association and its work. SPECIAL COMMITTEE REPORTS With the Saratoga meeting in 1892 a new movement was inaugurated by the asso- ciation in the appointment of the special Committee of Ten to investigate and report on courses of study for secondary schools. This report was made in 1893, the year in which ' From this date the enrollment fee of $2 was required. » The record for this year is to date. Some changes will occur before the record is closed. See statistical table at the end of the volume, REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY 45 no session of the association was held. The report was published and distributed exten- sively by the United States Bureau of Education, but unfortunately was never included in any published volume of proceedings. In 1893 the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Education was appointed. The report was made to the Department of Superintendence in 1895, and published in the volume of proceedings of that year. In 1895 the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools was appointed by the Council. Their report was made to the Council in 1897, and published in the volume of proceed- ings of the Milwaukee meeting. The Committee on College-Entrance Requirements was appointed in 1895 ', on Normal Schools, in 1895; and on the Relations of Public Libra- ries to Public Schools, in 1898. These three committees reported at the Los Angeles meeting in 1899, and the reports are all included in the Los Angeles volume. The following is a table showing approximately the distribution to date of the reprints of the several special committee reports : Gratuitous distribu- tion by Sold by Report of U.S. Bureau of Edu- cation Com- mittee State edi- tions Educa- tional publish- ers Secre- tary Total distri - bution 30,000 unknown 1,000 2,500 1,200 1. 000 60,000 10,538 18,816 4,5°° 2,500 1,200 2,100 40,538 18,816 65»5°° 5,000 2.400 3,100 Committee on College-Entrance Requirements The plates of the report of the Committee of Twelve have been loaned without charge to several state superintendents for use in publishing state editions for free distribution, which have aggregated sixty thousand copies. In addition to the above table, the reports have received the circulation of the volumes of proceedings in which they were pub- lished ; parts of each report have appeared in the reports of the United States Commis- sioner of Education and of several state superintendents of public instruction; and extensive reprint editions have been made by various publishing houses of several of the reports which were not copyrighted. The reports of the Committee of Ten and of the Committee of Fifteen were copy- righted and a contract made with the American Book Co. for their publication and sale at 30 cents per copy, the company to pay the association a royalty of 5 cents per copy on all copies sold. These sales have been as follows : REPORT OF ROYALTY SALES OF REPORTS OF COMMITTEE OF TEN AND COMMITTEE OF FIFTEEN BY AMERICAN BOOK CO. Copies sold Year Report of Committee of Ten Report of Committee of Fifteen Total Amount of royalty 1804 2,125 3.i°7 i»332 1,116 954 872 972 1,822 i,i33 823 534 527 677 2,i25 4,989 2,465 i,939 1,488 i,399 1,649 1895 1896 1897 1898 82.45 Totals i°,538 5,5i6 16,054 $802.70 46 NA 77 ON A L ED UCA 7 ION A l. ASSOC J A 77 ON It is not probable that the same number of copies could have been sold within the same time from the Secretary's office, even at actual cost of publication. The facilities for advertising and selling these reports possessed by an educational publishing com- pany raises the question whether it would not be advisable to make, for all reports, arrangements similar to that which has proved so successful in the case of the two com- mittee reports referred to in the above table. OMISSIONS FROM THE VOLUMES OF PROCEEDINGS It should be a matter of record that the volumes of proceedings of the association do not contain all of the proceedings of the Department of Superintendence since that organization became a department of the association in 1870. In the early years the United States Bureau of Education usually published and distributed the proceedings of that department. When this was done, they were not, for several years, reprinted or included in the annual volume. The following is a list of the proceedings so published not included in any publica- tion of the association : Year Time and place of meeting Where published Pages 1874 January, Washington January, Washington December, Washington February, Washington February, Washington March, Washington February. Washington March, Washington Bureau of Education, Circular No. 1, 1874 Bureau of Education. Circular No. 1, 1875 Bureau of Education, Circular No. 2, 1879 Bureau of Education, Circular No. 2, 1879 Bureau of Education, Circular No. 2, 1886 Bureau of Education, Circular No. 3, 1887 Bureau of Education. Circular No. 6, 1888 Bureau of Education, Circular No. 2, 1889 1- 77 1875 Appendix 1886 1-169 1-200 1- 1 63 1-300 1887 1888 1889 '. From 1880 to 1884, inclusive, the proceedings were printed by the Bureau of Educa- tion, and reprinted in the annual volume of proceedings. In the years 1876 and 1877, also from 1879 to 1889, inclusive, a second meeting was held at the time and place of the annual convention. These meetings were usually business meetings — tho occasionally papers were presented — and the minutes and papers were published in the annual volume. Since 1889 but one meeting has been held each year, and the proceedings have been printed only in the volume of proceedings. The omissions referred to above had not been discovered at the time the Subject 7ndex was compiled and published. Consequently the subjects of the reports of the Department of Superintendence published only by the United States Bureau of Education are not included in the index volume. This has quite seriously disappointed many whose files of proceedings include the omitted reports. SALES OF BACK VOLUMES AND REPORTS In view of the constant demand for full sets of volumes of proceedings, it is a matter of regret that many volumes are out of print and cannot be supplied, as follows : all volumes from 1857 to 1872, inclusive, excepting 1865, of which there are but fifteen copies, and 1866, of which there are but seventeen copies in stock. The supply of volumes for 1883 and 1885 is also exhausted, and for 1882 there are but eighteen volumes remain- ing. CASH RECEIPTS The receipts from sales of volumes and reports from the Secretary's office since 1895. as well as the receipts for active membership dues not paid at the time of the annual meeting, have been as follows : REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY 47 TABLE OF CASH RECEIPTS AT THE SECRETARY'S OFFICE SINCE 1 895 Year Active membership dues not paid at annual meeting Sales of back volumes Sales of committee reports, etc. Total 1.066.25 37-25 1,604.23 i,37S-63 2,398.07 406.70 3.436.26 1,141.50 $ 453-70 3.433-62 119.89 2,924.66 1897-98 478.69 5,089.19 $i3.525-°i $4,007.63 $1,729.69 $19,262.33 Revenue from these sources was practically unknown before the organization of the active membership, which furnishes annually a large paying constituency of those who do not attend the annual meeting, and who under the former arrangements paid no dues. THE ANNUAL VOLUME The annual volume of proceedings embodies the results of the work of the associa- tion from year to year, and is therefore its most important concern. It has been the aim of the successive publication committees to confine it to a single volume of 1,000 pages. This limit has, in recent years, been exceeded, in order to include the reports of special committees, and to provide for the eight new departments which have been added since 1892. Every effort has been made in editing the volume to exclude useless material, to secure the abridgment of papers and discussions of excessive length, and to limit the matter as far as consistent with a fair representation of the valuable papers and discus- sions presented in the general sessions and the eighteen departments now organized. The largest volume yet issued is the Los Angeles volume, of 1,258 pages, which contains, in addition to the usual matter, three special committee reports covering 277 pages. Excluding these special reports, the Los Angeles volume numbers 981 pages, while the St. Paul volume in 1890, with eight departments less to provide for, contains 929 pages. The Charleston volume of 1900 numbers 809 pages, which is the smallest volume since the Nashville meeting in 1889. The most effective measure in restricting the size of the volume has been the editing of the programs in advance of the annual convention, and securing desirable limitations as to number and length of the individual papers. There is still room for improvement in this direction, as was so forcibly pointed out by President Green in his presidential address at Detroit. The departments which have been added from time to time overlap each other, because some of them represent horizontal and others vertical sections of edu- cational work. It is the theory that the President of the association shall have general oversight of the department programs, but there is no definite legislation which gives the President authority in this matter. Since the President of the general association and the presidents of the several departments change each year, there has not been uniformity of administra- tion in this respect. I would respectfully suggest that more definite legislation on this subject be enacted ; that provision be made for a meeting of the President-elect with the newly elected department officers, to be held before the close of the convention at which they are elected, for conference and for determining the general policy of administra- tion ; that a subsequent meeting of the President with the department presidents be held at some central point about January 1 , at which time the department presidents should be expected to present tentative outlines of proposed programs for mutual criticism and suggestion, in order that the field and the topics to be covered by each should be deter- mined and understood by all, and that subsequent departures from the respective lines 48 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION agreed upon should be made only on the approval of the President of the association. An examination of any convention program will readily disclose the importance of such advance regulation of department plans. The association should, doubtless, pay the expenses of such a meeting, but, I believe, no more profitable expenditure could be made, since the results would certainly tend to the improvement of the programs, the elimination of conflicts and repetitions, and the probable restriction of the matter to be printed. The cost of printing the volume has been steadily decreased, notwithstanding the occasional increase in size and the use to a larger extent of smaller type, with the con- sequent increased cost of composition. The recent increase in the number of volumes printed has helped to decrease the average cost per volume. For several years previous to 1894 trie volume was printed in New York city, by J. B. Little & Co. ; the volumes for 1894 and 1895 were printed by the Pioneer Press Co. of St. Paul, Minn.; the volumes for 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, and 1900, by the University of Chicago Press. TABLE SHOWING COST OF PUBLICATION OF VOLUME OF PROCEEDINGS SINCE 1893 ' Year Number of Number of Cost per copies pages copy 1893 2,72s 1,007 $4,616,751 $1.69 1894 3,000 1,0743 3,920.00 1. 3i 1895 5,300 1,102 4 4,947-44 •93 1896 S.S00 1,088 4,120.74 • 75 1897 5,200 1,132 5 4,079.63 .78 1898 5,5oo 1,139 4,268.41 •78 1899 7.5O0 1,2586 5,514- 98 .76 1900 4,000 809 3,036.15 a • 74 ANALYSIS OF TREASURER'S REPORTS A recent tabulation and analysis of the receipts and expenditures shows that the Denver meeting in 1895 introduced a new era in the financial history of the association, and that the receipts and additions to the permanent fund for the five years from 1895 to 1899, inclusive, were almost identical with the eleven years from 1884 to 1894, inclusive, as follows : COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF FINANCIAL STATISTICS COMPILED FROM THE TREASURER'S REPORTS Total number of members Average annual membership Total receipts Average annual receipts Total expenses Average annual expenses Relation of expenses to receipts Total additions to permanent fund Average annual addition to permanent fund For eleven years, 1884-94, inclusive 45,669 4,i52 $119,132.87 10,830.26 $74,324.27 6,756.75 62.4 per cent. $45,000.00 4,090.91 For five years, 1895-1899, inclusive ' 51.669 10,334 $i3i,537.49 26,307.49 $84,783.01 16,956.60 64.4 per cent. $43,000.00 8,600.00 1 Proceedings of International Congresses of Education; cost of plates for volume included. 2 Owing to the advance in cost of paper and labor, the contract price was advanced 12 per cent, over that of the four previous years. 3 Includes proceedings of Department of Superintendence for years 1893 and 1894. 4 Includes report of Committee of Fifteen, no pages. 5 Includes report of Committee of Twelve, 198 pages. 6 Includes reports of Committee on College-Entrance Requirements, Committee on Normal Schools, and Committee on Public Libraries, 277 pages. REPORT OF THE PERMANENT SECRETARY 49 It is worthy of note that during the latter five years certain salaries have been paid ; the expenses of state managers and department officers have been more liberally provided for; several committees of investigation have received appropriations for expenses ; their reports have been published and distributed ; and in many ways the work of the associa- tion has been enlarged and its total annual expenses largely increased, tho it appears that, owing to restriction of expenses in other directions, the proportion of expenses to receipts has increased only 2 per cent. In the above recapitulation the receipts and expenses for the year of the Charleston meeting have not been included, on account of the exceptional circumstances, which are not likely to recur. It is gratifying to note that even in the year of the Charleston meet- ing the net revenue exceeded the expenses by several hundred dollars. This was made possible by the #3,883.03 revenue from the invested fund, with the #5,089.19 cash collec- tions of the Secretary's office, which together constitute a practically fixed revenue of nearly #9,000 not dependent upon receipts from the annual meeting. RELATIONS WITH TRANSPORTATION COMPANIES Among the most important responsibilities of the office are the negotiations with transportation companies for rates and ticket conditions for the annual conventions, and the settlement with these companies for the membership revenue collected by them. The plan of incorporating the membership coupon in the railroad ticket, and the membership fee in the purchase price of the ticket, with an agreement to report the same to the Treasurer of the association, has obtained since adopted at the Chicago meeting in 1887. This plan was for a time strenuously opposed by certain lines, especially in the East, and has never been officially approved by the New England Passenger Association. Opposition has now quite generally ceased, and since 1896 the roads have, with unim- portant exceptions, gone farther and settled with the association on the " basis of sales," rather than on the former " basis of collections." This secures to the association the membership revenue on all tickets sold, whether the coupons are collected at the conven- tion registration desks or not. The friendliness and confidence of the transportation lines have been won by an established and consistent policy of fair dealing and the recognition of the rights of the roads to protection against ticket scalping and other convention abuses, such as " official routes," which are designed to divert business from the lines to which it belongs to cer- tain routes chosen by convention officials. The work of the association in its public service to education appeals strongly to railroad officials to the extent that they now, almost without exception, willingly grant the usual concessions of rates and ticket conditions, and join in protecting the interests of the association by collecting and reporting, thru the terminal lines, to the Treasurer of the association the membership revenue by the same methods and forms which they use in reporting the divisions of ticket revenue to connecting lines. These reports are in detail, giving place of sale with form and number of each ticket. They are checked out at the Secretary's office from month to month, as received, and claim for revenue made on all coupons not included in the final reports. No line has, at least within recent years, refused to honor any rightful claim for membership revenue ; nor has any disposition been shown, except in rare instances, to withhold revenue until claim is made. THE OFFICE The office of the Secretary has been provided for since 1895, without charge to the association, in rooms of my residence at Winona. The necessary desks, filing cases, and other appliances have so far overrun the available space that the question of larger and better-equipped rooms will soon. claim attention. The work of the office has increased very rapidly during the past three or four years. The correspondence has reached a magnitude difficult to be^handled with the'aid of a SO XATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION single clerk. In this connection it may be appropriate to call attention to the tact that the postage account of the office last year was $749.65, while the expense for all clerical services was but $563.70 — a proportion which, I believe, does not usually obtain in corre- spondence offices. The outgoing mail last year amounted approximately to 10,000 pieces of letter mail and 50,000 pieces of third-class matter — bulletins, pamphlets, and reports. Letter mail received approximated 10,000 pieces, of which 2,500 contained money remittances. THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE BULLETIN Since the discontinuance, in 1896, of the Official Bulletin as a publication of the city inviting the association, the work of issuing the bulletins of the Executive Committee, con- taining all information as to railroad rates, ticket conditions, programs, and other details of arrangements for the annual convention, has devolved upon the Secretary. At first these bulletins were issued only to the educational press and the active members ; but the demand has so increased that last year 20,000 copies of Bulletin No. 1 and 30,000 copies of Bulletin No. 2 were issued. About two-thirds of these were sent to individual addresses, and the balance to state directors and managers, and to school superintendents who requested them for personal distribution. THE EDUCATIONAL PRESS The educational journals have continued and extended their support of the associa- tion in all its various lines of work. Special circulars of information are sent to them monthly, and are quite generally quoted from or reprinted entire. Several journals issue annually an association number, in which, in addition to illustrated articles on the place of meeting, the Executive Committee Bulletin, containing convention arrangements and programs, is printed entire from plates furnished from this office. In this manner the circulation of the most important bulletin is extended by forty or fifty thousand copies without cost to the association, except for the plates. The value of this gratuitous support of the educational press cannot be overestimated, and is highly appreciated by all members, and especially by the executive officers of the association. This report has already overrun the limits intended. There are other phases of the work of the office that might be mentioned ; but, as reports are to be made annually here- after, I trust that the statements included in the foregoing will appear reasonably full and satisfactory for the initial report. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) Irwin Shepard, Secretary. GENERAL SESSIONS OE THE ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES OF WELCOME HON. A. T. BLISS, GOVERNOR OF MICHIGAN Mr. President and Members of the National Educational Association, Ladies and Gentlemen : It is with both pleasure and pride that I welcome to the metropolis of Michigan today this great association, and congratulate you upon the auspicious opening of this conference so important to the cause of educa- tion. Michigan today throws open the doors of her very best front parlor, the beautiful city of Detroit, with just as complete satisfaction as is pos- sible on the part of any New England housewife. I am ready to believe you will all agree with me that your association has never met with a warmer welcome anywhere in this union of ours than in Detroit, and if you are not convinced of it by this time, you will be when you have heard all the welcoming speeches. There is no language spoken on earth wherein the word " welcome " has a more pleasant sound than in English, and in the truest and best sense of the word, speaking as the chief executive of this grand old peninsular state, I greet you with a welcome to this city and to the commonwealth. It is a fact that wherever this association has met, large benefits have been reaped thru increased interest in and for the teaching profession, to the great good of the vast army of children who year by year seek the schoolroom. Here in Michigan, where the schools are closer to the hearts of the people than almost anything else in the world, something more than passing attention will be given to the doings and sayings of the cultured men and women who will speak on educational themes from the platforms of the general sessions and the eighteen departments into which the association is divided. The people of Michigan are very proud of the work along educational lines carried on in their state, annually expending in its support a sum estimated at from eight to ten millions of dollars. The " little red school- house," intrenched behind a wisely devised primary-school fund, is as sacred to the people as the glorious star-spangled banner waving over it. I have no desire to weary you with figures showing the vastness of the effort put forth in this state in behalf of education. Instead I call to the minds of those of you who have journeved over the commonwealth how 5i 52 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General from the bustling city to the quiet village the schoolhouse has always been the most conspicuous structure. Everywhere the school tax is paid with- out grumbling, and it is not the lightest of our burdens. The people are proud of the rank of their state, of her material progress and her pros- perity, her wonderful natural resources — proud of the past and gloriously confident of the future; but above all are they proud of her educational system, from the foundations of the district and graded schools to her world-renowned university. The demand of the age is for a practical education, and I am glad to note that Michigan educators are bending all their energies in that direc- tion. The trained men and women who are coming annually into the working world are potent factors in the increased progress we are making. This is the best age in all the world's history for young men and women with a practical education. The disciplined mind rules the world today, and it is your proud distinction, men and women of this association, that into your hands is committed the training of this mighty force. You come among us with blessings to bestow, and we are grateful for your presence. Our hands are extended in welcome, and as a patriotic people greet their armed defenders, so do we offer you our greeting. Fully realizing the honor of entertaining this vast assembly of the teachers of this country for the second time in her history, Michigan bids me again to welcome you. HON. DELOS FALL, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION Mr. President, Fellow- Teachers, Ladies and Gentlemen : The state has been ably and eloquently represented by her chief magistrate, the governor, and you have been told of the glories of our commonwealth from the standpoint of its material wealth, its business life, and its commercial prosperity. All these are of great significance, and entirely worthy and prope-r to be mentioned in this presence, but at the same time all who are thoughtful concerning the highest and best interests of the state will admit that it is my happy privilege to represent that which constitutes the real pride and hope, the glory and perpetuity, of the nation, namely, the people themselves, their intelligence, morality, and virtue. Still more significant is the fact that I am to voice a welcome from a class whose life-work is not simply to estimate and utilize the forces of society as they now exist, but rather, in the light of the many apparent existing imperfections in the world at large, theirs is the duty to mold the rising generation so that, when these who are now pupils come upon the stage of action, the general level of society, the character and stability of its citizens, will be raised. I therefore bring to you greetings and extend a welcome from 16,000 teachers and 720,000 pupils who have been going in and out from Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 53 Michigan schools during the days of the past year. Over eight thousand of the rural schools, "the people's universities," are closed this week, for no Michigan teacher is thinking of anything at this time but that of assem- bling in this beautiful " City of the Straits" to welcome his professional brothers and sisters from the other sections of our union. They are here today, wearing the blue and white ribbons of this great association, in glad expectation of the inspiration and help they will gain by a contact, if only a brief one, with the great teachers of our nation. They feel that, if only they can assimilate into their lives the purpose and spirit, the method and the personality, of our great educational leaders ; if they can even learn clearly and intelligently to pronounce their names and associate those names with faces and places, with the labor and achievements of those who lead, this in itself will be an inspiration which will cause them to return to their work with greater enthusiasm and more wisely directed efforts. Twenty-seven years have been woven into history since last this asso- ciation met within the borders of our peninsular state, and I have been curious to know whether that earlier visit to us has borne visible fruit or not. A comparison of the program of that meeting with that of the present one demonstrates the wondrous growth in membership, and especially in the breadth and scope of its work, which this our National Educational Association has passed thru. From four working sections at that time it has expanded into eighteen, and from a membership of less than four hundred in 1874 it has grown to nearly or quite ten thousand. A moment's comparison will show the growth in our own state, and this will be a just and adequate measure of the increased interest which our people have taken and are taking in the cause of popular education. The following table illustrates the growth in sentiment and interest in educational matters in Michigan, so far as mere figures may indicate growth, during the interval since the last Detroit meeting : 436,694 721,698 12,276 15,924 - #1,917,011.10 #4,503,549-39 170,449 969,767 5,702 - - 8,035 - #8,912,698.00 - #19,338,173-00 Time will not permit a comparison in other directions, but from a careful study of the questions considered at the 1874 meeting of this association it is safe to say that all lines of progress suggested at that Children in school, census of 1874- Children in school, census of 1900 Teachers .... 1874- Teachers ... - 1900 Total wages - 1874- Total wages 1900 Number of volumes in libraries 1874- Number of volumes in libraries 1900 Number of schoolhouses 1874- Number of schoolhouses 1900 Value of schoolhouses - 1874- Value of schoolhouses 1900 54 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General time have been enthusiastically entered upon, and several features have found permanent places in our educational system. Sixteen thousand teachers, thirty thousand school officers, seven hun- dred and twenty thousand pupils, with 25 per cent, of our population in daily attendance in our schools, nearly five million dollars expended annually for teachers' wages, a million volumes in our township and district libraries, and nearly twenty millions invested in schoolhouses for our common schools — all these are eloquent facts attesting the large interest our people take in their public schools. I may also be pardoned if I refer to the fact that in the organization of our schools the various grades are so closely linked to each other that it is practically possible — indeed, it finds an exemplification every year — for any boy or girl of our commonwealth to proceed steadily and without embarrassment from the lowest grade to and thru the undergraduate and postgraduate courses of our great state university. By proper energy any ambitious and high-spirited youth in Michigan, tho he may be the son of the humblest home, may mount to the topmost round of the educational ladder, aided and encouraged at every step by the large and generous provisions of the state. This leads me to suggest to our visitors from the East, the South, and the West that you have now come within the boundaries of the great Northwest Territory, which by the terms of the ordinance of 1787 was thereafter to be sacredly devoted to the fulfillment of the principle that, "religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." It is not alone we who dwell in the imme- diate territory covered by this ordinance who have been the beneficiaries of the principles of that immortal instrument, but you especially who have come from the West are also in a very emphatic sense the inheritors of the idea of setting aside a certain fixed proportion of the public domain for the support of educational institutions. Thus are we grandly fulfilling the proposition laid down by Horace Mann fifty-four years ago — applied to Massachusetts, but equally true of Michigan — that "the property of this commonwealth is pledged for the education of all its youth up to such a point as will save them from poverty and vice and prepare them for the adequate performance of their social and civil duties." It is more than a mere sentiment that would attach unusual impor- tance to this first meeting of our National Educational Association in the twentieth century. We are on the eve of great and important changes in our educational methods, especially those which apply to the educa- tion of the pupils in our rural communities. The farmer's boy is awak- ing to the thought that, unless he takes advantage of at least a good high-school education, he will be sadly handicapped in the race of life. Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 55 As a worthy contribution to this idea the farmers of Michigan last year sent 17,772 of their sons and daughters as non-resident pupils to neigh- boring high schools. For the privilege of crossing the boundary line between their own district and that of the high school they paid in non- resident tuition fees $87,849. Besides this amount they paid at least on an average of fifty dollars for each pupil to cover the cost of transporta- tion, books, and extra clothing, thus making an extra expenditure aggre- gating nearly a million dollars, and this after these farmers had paid their regular and ordinary school taxes. The character of our education must change with the oncoming of the years of this highly practical age. We have educated the mind to think and trained the vocal organs to express the thought, and we have for- gotten or overlooked the fact that in about four times out of five the practical man expresses his thought by the hand rather than by mere words. It is a question worthy of most serious consideration as to which of two men exerts the more potent influence on our twentieth-century civilization — the one who invents and portrays his thought by the cartoon which adorns the front page of our modern daily newspaper, or the one who seeks to exert his influence by his written editorial; or, to use another illustration, the man who by the skill of his fingers expresses his thought in the form of a structure over which the true American can write that most blessed word, expressive of the one divinely established organi- zation, the home ; this in contrast with that other man who by his expressed thought seeks, it may be, to warp the judgment of twelve of his countrymen who constitute a jury. It is time that the calling and labor of the carpenter and the architect were raised to the dignity of that of the lawyer, and this ou/ modern school must do. In other words, manual training must occupy a larger place in our search for better educational methods with which to meet the demands of this new age. I have suggested only two of a large number of important questions which must find solution at the hands of the schoolmaster. But my words must be very brief. We feel ourselves highly honored by your presence here ; we are glad to be a part of so great an army, not illustra- tive of the arts of war, but intent upon the high and sacred duty of train- ing that most important factor of our modern civilization, the twentieth- century boy, into a forceful and influential citizen of the world. Two years ago we as an association were welcomed to the " City of the Angels," on the borders of the western sea, by the state superintendent of public instruction of the commonwealth of California. In closing his eloquent address he used a word borrowed from our dusky brothers of the Hawaiian Islands, and by its threefold repetition sought to emphasize his welcome. The word was aloha, and he closed by saying "Aloha, aloha, aloha" accompanying the words with the suggestion that this was to be interpreted "Welcome, welcome, welcome." I have since learned that 56 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General this word admits of a warmer and more emphatic interpretation. Those are a simple folk, the Hawaiians, who live on the islands bathed by the waters of the great Pacific, but the language used by them in salutation is beautifully and forcefully expressive. "Aloha" may be interpreted as "I love you," and is the common salutation when friend meets friend or associate. If the meeting is between two persons from slightly varying conditions in life, the inferior greets the other "Aloha nui" which is, being interpreted, " I love you more." If again the greeting is to one much the superior, and it is desired to show great respect, the salutation is "Aloha nui loa" "I love you more and more." Therefore, because we regard you all as in every way our peers, we greet you with "Aloha" "We love you." Because very many of you have been longer on the way, because you are more experienced in the high and responsible calling of the teacher, we greet you "Aloha nui" " We love you more." Because here are assembled the truly great of our profession and of our nation, those respected and beloved here and abroad, our hearts go out in the cry, "We love you more and more," "Aloha nui loa." PRESIDENT JAMES B. ANGELL, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Members of the National Educational Association : In behalf of the good state of Michigan, I join with my colleagues in bidding you welcome to our soil. We greet many of you as old personal friends, whom it is a great delight to meet again. We greet yet more in this vast assembly whose names and whose writings are familiar to us, but on whose faces we now for the first time have the pleasure to look. We greet with heartiest hospitality this whole company of men and women gathered from all parts of this broad land, co-workers with us in a common cause. We welcome you to a city and a state which have long been deeply interested in education and .always hospitable to new and broad ideas upon that subject. In 1804, when there was but a small frontier village here, Gabriel Richard, the Catholic apostolical vicar, established a school here, and in 18 16 John Monteith, a Presbyterian minister, estab- lished another, and they worked together in Christian harmony. In 181 7 Judge Woodward, who was virtually the lawmaker here, familiar with the ideals of the University of France, conceived of an organization which should provide a complete system of education from the primary school to a great university, and fixed a tax of 15 per cent, for its support. Richard and Monteith, the Catholic and the Presbyterian, were the first professors appointed, and wrought together in an unsectarian spirit, prophetic of the future catholicity of the administration of education in the state. A most romantic and pathetic fact is that the Indians in this vicinity made a large gift of lands to be divided between the Roman Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 57 Catholic church of St. Ann's in Detroit and the infant college, for which their names deserve to be classed with those of John Harvard and Elihu Yale. The founders of this state had large and generous ideas on education. They embodied them in our first constitution, drafted in 1835. That instrument provided for the encouragement of all kinds of education, authorized the establishment of common schools and the appointment of a superintendent of public instruction, the first instance in American his- tory, and, in effect, as the courts have decided, made the trustees of the state university a branch of the state government co-ordinate with the legislature and independent of legislative control in the use of their endowments. As they in their prescient vision swept over the whole range of schools from the lowest to the highest, so fortunately the people of the state have long cherished all their schools as parts of one system. So, especially of late years, the university, the normal college, and the agricultural college have kept in so close and helpful relations to the common schools and to each other that the boy in the log schoolhouse in the northern woods can see his way clear, straight away before him, up thru the secondary schools, to the close of his career in college or university. Such is the Michigan idea of public education. So you may well believe that a state which has reared two generations under such educational ideas and institutions is uttering no hollow or insincere words when it gives its most heartfelt welcome to an assembly like this. We come to thank you in advance for bringing to us your best thoughts and the rich fruit of your experience. We shall delight to sit at your feet and learn what you have to teach us. We trust you will carry with you none but pleasant memories of your visit to Detroit. WALES C. MARTINDALE, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, DETROIT With the words of greeting already extended, my friends, you must feel that Michigan and Detroit, and the educational forces thereof, most heartily welcome you to our state, our city, and our homes. In behalf of parents, teachers, and children, your coming is welcomed as bringing force and inspiration to the Detroit schools. You bring with you to this fortieth annual meeting of the National Educational Association the knowledge and wisdom of accumulating years, the sense of discrimination and ripe judgment so necessary to the future guidance of our schools. That we should look to your body for guidance is right and proper, as the people of the country look to its leaders in education for a progressive, tho conservative, policy in school administration. A school hobby may have the jewel of life for its central thought, 58 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General but should be suppressed until a complete idea is brought forth to form with others the basis of our work. These ideas are at the same time the result and the cause of our civilization. In introducing new ideas into the schools we must discriminate between those things which are speculative and those for which the public should be taxed as necessities. The public school, while containing the latest and best thought of acknowledged leaders, should not become the prey to a supposed idea until test of fitness for survival has demonstrated its right to a permanent place. The preamble of your constitution states that your organization is formed " to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes- sion of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States." My friends, I welcome you here because your associa- tion stands for all that is best in education, for all that is helpful to those who attend your meetings. We hope your coming may give the words "culture" and " training," as commonly used, a more sterling signifi- cance. The test of life in any calling is intelligence, efficiency, and moral stamina. These qualities should be the test of the school. Help us to courses of study which produce these attributes. Give us more true- hearted men and women, and less method. Let us continue to build character, the foundation of which is duty. Our schools should main- tain and produce the rugged independence of thought and action of America's forefathers, and eliminate time-serving diplomacy which places, individual security and prosperity before permanent liberty and personal independence. The solution of the problems of education both at home and in our new possessions depends largely upon the advice and counsel of your body. Your members have been called to places of trust and responsibility in the new dependencies of this country. The future of Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines depends more upon their teachers than upon the sword. Much has already been done ; the future problem is not to be solved by the army or the navy, or both forces combined. The teacher and the home will solve the future problem of government in this country and in any new lands coming under its flag. Former mistakes of reconstruction in our home country should bring forth methods of education in our new possessions which will make our wards self-supporting thru manual pursuits, and prepare them for their future places in social and political reconstruction. By a united effort, the force which is to assist in solving this and other problems of government should be organized as a separate department, with its separate head, subject to no political exigency. Among those who have forever ceased to meet and act with you is one who for years was Michigan's most active representative in your counsels. I cannot close without alluding to the work of this illustrious Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 59 member of your association. Tho Burke A. Hinsdale has passed from us, his influence and work will forever survive. Members of the National Educational Association, we rejoice that in following the star which has brought you to us you bring us, not worldly gifts, but gifts which will help us to assist others to live more profitable and godly lives. RESPONSE RICHARD G. BOONE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, O. I have listened with pleasure, and I think excusable pride, to the kind words of welcome just spoken by these representatives of the great state of Michigan, and of her metropolis, whose hospitality we are here to share. For myself it seems almost more fitting that I should join in wel- coming these hosts to Michigan than that I, from among the incoming thousands, should share your hospitality, and be, in any small part even, the object of your thoughtfulness. Six years' residence in Michigan, in the suburbs of this city, sufficed to discover a wholesome activity in matters of personal and public improvement, many noble men and women, and scores of friends whose interests are ours. I take it the spirit of welcome is mutual ; and the impulse to respond is mutual. We are here, because here center our pro- fessional and personal concerns. A year ago you gave us a cordial invi- tation, and now you extend a no less warm, tho comfortable, reception. This should be a glad week for many thousands of teachers and their friends. We appreciate the painstaking forethought for our comfort, fo our amusement, and for our instruction. Speaking not for myself alone, but for all of this concourse whom I have the honor to represent, I am quite assured that you gentlemen and friends will be able to make good all your generous offers in these various respects. We shall enjoy your river, your parks, and your homes. I bespeak for these thousands before you, and other thousands to come, that they may come to know you as I know you, and appreciate your great work and the good things for which you and your state stand. As representing many millions of people, and the interests of other millions of children, these gentlemen and ladies bring you, we are assured, a rich feast of good things for the mind, clean and genial companion- ships, and hearts to enjoy, equal, if possible, to your care for our comfort. And as I stand here before you all, seeing among you hundreds of familiar faces, I am reminded that the real good of a series of meetings such as these lies not in the papers read and the formal discussions and the parliamentary procedure and the fine organization, important as 60 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General these are. A richer harvest may come to you from a personal touch with the friend or stranger at your side, a quiet conference with a fellow- worker, the give-and-take of social companionship, and the uplift that always comes from acquaintanceship with the people of your profession whom you have not before known. Let it be a part of your business this summer, and every summer, and always as opportunity offers, to make yourself familiar with the best that is being thought and said and done in other places, not in our own land alone, by members of your profession. Waste no time in useless experi- ment. Use the results of others' experience. That is what you are here for. Identify yourself with whatever educational movements exist for the improvement of the schools. Become possessed with the spirit of the times and of our country. Here you will find a fair representation from most of the states, and from our English sister, Canada. It is a great and rare opportunity for a live teacher to make much of a short week. We have been assured that whatever is here is for our delectation and enjoy- ment— make the most of it. In conclusion, gentlemen, we thank you for your words of confidence and hospitality, for your comfortable accommodations and fair weather ; and we trust that our behavior and appreciation may be such as to justify all this care in our behalf. Permit me to assure you of our joy at being in Detroit, among friends, our confidence in the wisdom of the Executive Committee in selecting this place for the meeting of 1901, and our deter- mination to take counsel of your zeal, and bear our share in the efforts to make this the greatest meeting in the history of the great National Edu- cational Association. Sessions] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 6 1 ADDRESSES PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS THE DUTY OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIA- TION IN SHAPING PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL OPINION JAMES M. GREEN, TRENTON, N. J. Mr. Chairman, Members of the National Educational Association, Ladies and Gentlemen : We are assembled in our first meeting of the twentieth century. As we cross this boundary line between two cycles, the one characterized by the greatest accomplishments of the world's history, the other by the expecta- tion of things greater than have yet been achieved, it is quite natural that we should give attention for a moment to the particular part in the activi- ties of men that seems to be ours. Our association was formed in 1857. It sprang, Minerva-like, from the head of education. Its childhood may be said to have lasted till 1884; its youth, from that time to the present, when it may be said to be entering into the full strength of manhood. As men destined to great usefulness often manifest superiority early in life, so the National Educational Association early began to make its influence felt. While in the beginning of its history its numbers were small, they were composed of vigorous, earnest, thoughtful persons — persons who gave their attention, not only to the most fundamental propositions of local and state education, but also to matters of national concern. A glance at the programs of the different meetings will show that there is scarcely a question of school organization and government, or of selection of subject-matter, or of method in treatment, from the kin- dergarten to the university, or from the independent rural district to the nation as a whole, including its dependencies, that has escaped consid- eration either in some one of the departments or on the general program. Rural schools, graded schools, elementary, secondary, and higher educa- tion, the kindergarten, manual training, art, music, the metric system, Herbartianism, morals, school architecture, the relation of superintendent to teacher, to school board, systems of raising money, of selecting school officers, permanency of appointment, training and certificating teachers, interstate comity, etc., are types of the many questions that have been considered frequently and carefully. 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rGenera The work of the association has resulted in some definite institutions, such as the National Bureau of Education, but by far the greatest good has been thru the modified and enlightened opinions its members have carried from the annual conventions to their local fields of labor. It is safe to say that to this influence is due the fact that, while we have no strictly national educational system, the education of our nation is more nearly uniform and has produced more uniformly good schools than that of any other country in the world. While this association has been a brain center for countless thought- tracks, a storage battery thru which have passed many lines of intelligence, yet its growth has had the characteristics usual to an institution in a new country. It has had many crudities. If we are to form our opinion from the statements of the older members, there have been times when it has been ambitious in personal diplomacy, and indeed times when even a more germinal state of politics has prevailed. But our association has now reached a stage of responsibility such that, if we are still to lay claim to the adjective "national," we must put aside our crudities, take our place in line with the conventions of other great nations, and assume a general role of seriousness in the problems we undertake. It is proper that we should try ourselves and find wherein we are wanting. We are indebted to one of our journals of education for a symposium of criticisms, favorable and unfavorable, concerning ourselves. One who read these criticisms carefully must have reached the conclusion that in the main they were favorable to our organization. There were, however, two or three that may receive attention here : First, concerning the size of our annual volume. There are those who think the volume too bulky; there are those who think it too small. In all candor, this does not appear to be a very serious question. It would seem that much more depends upon the quality of matter in the volume than upon the number of pages it contains. If the Executive Committee and the heads of departments continue to exercise the care they have hitherto taken in the selection'of persons to appear before the meetings, they will find it very embarrassing to say to such persons as they invite to prepare papers for the conventions that they will presume to pass upon their manuscript and edit it with a view to publication. No one should be invited to appear before the National Educational Association whose views are not sufficiently authoritative to be worthy of publication, so long as he keeps within time limits. Certainly, worthy men who give us their time and thought are entitled to this consideration. Second, concerning the manner of choosing the Executive Committee. The author of this paper is not today as much concerned in the manner of choosing a president as he might have been had he been a candidate one year ago ; hence he may be credited with speaking without personal motives. Sessions] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 63 For one, I have never been able to appreciate the objections urged to having a nominating committee appointed by the President. There may be criticisms on the appointments to this committee by some particular president, but the plan itself was in keeping with the general tendency of our country to fix responsibility by intrusting the powers of the many to the hands of the few, always with the reserve right to withdraw this trust. Note the appointive power of the president of the United States, of the governors of the different states, of the mayors of the different cities, extending to boards of education, of the trustees of the different institutions of learning, of the presiding officers of the different institu- tions, etc. Education, if it is genuine, is always in advance of the masses ; hence the growing tendency of our people to fix responsibility in men whom they can trust and in whom they believe. But our association has chosen to change this system, and with the change there is no conflict. Each state may now name its representative on the nominating board; hence each state has a voice. I do not see how anything more democratic could be asked. Whatever may now be the wisdom of the acts of the nominating committee, each state must fully share the responsibility for these acts. No representatives of a state can now charge the responsi- bility of action to the representatives of another state without acknowl- edging, tacitly at least, their own incompetency to take their part in dealing with their fellow-men. The plans proposed, viz., to put men in nomination for the Executive Committee a year in advance of election, and then conduct a campaign, would certainly prove exceedingly distasteful to the men the country would like to see in these offices. It would be a fatal mistake for the National Educational Association ever to resolve itself into an election organization. No one who presumed to be a candidate has ever yet been elected to its highest office, and no such one ever should be. A delib- erative body of the character of this association is much more capa- ble of selecting its Executive Committee than would be the individuals who would constitute that committee. I can think of some men who, it seems to me, would greatly honor the presidential chair. I cannot imagine them in the r6le of seekers for that office. If our association is to be truly dignified, it must rise above even the appearance of gratifying per- sonal ambitions. Whatever may be the records of the executive committees of the past — and they need no eulogist — we must have men in the future who know the educational problems of the country and the persons who are capable of throwing light on those problems, rather than men skilled in the art of vote-getting. The organization of our association needs reviewing, and certainly some revision. The general program should always be an important and popular part of our meetings, but it is to the departments that we must 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General look for the conservation of that class of thought most applicable to our schoolroom work. It is the relation of the general program to the departments, and of the departments to each other, that most needs revision. Under our present rules it is quite possible for all of the departments to be working on the same subject and seeking the same men. Each department is practically independent of every other, and independent as well of the general program. We have the Departments, for instance, of Kindergarten Education and Child Study; the 'Department of Elementary Education, the Depart- ment of Secondary Education, the Department of Higher Education ; then the special Departments of Manual Training, Music, Business, Physical Education, Science, etc. Will anyone try to imagine elemen- tary, secondary, and higher education with these special departments left out of consideration ? Such an arrangement, if not the play of Hamlet with Hamlet left out, would certainly be the play of Hamlet with that distinguished character badly "drawn and quartered." Our departments remind us of lean-to's built to a house simply to get more room, and without regard to symmetry or convenience. We are in the position of trying to suit our subjects to our names, instead of our names to our subjects. What does kindergarten mean other than simply the way we begin our schoolroom instruction ? What does elementary education mean other than how much instruction in each of the branches should be given a child ? What does secondary education mean other than how much instruction in manual training, physical training, art, music, etc., we should give in the high school ? Perhaps elementary education is suffi- ciently unclassified as to subjects to constitute a department, but beyond elementary education it would seem far wiser to name the departments after the subject than after the .grade of school. For instance, the Departments of Natural Sciences, Classics, Modern Languages, Art, Music, Physical Training, Manual Training, etc., would be much better guides to the line of work that might be expected in these different depart- ments than some of the present titles. The present Executive Committee has enjoyed the most cordial rela- tions with the heads of departments, and believes that an examination of the program for this meeting will show that the different sections of the country, as well as the different topics of interest, are as fully represented as at any previous meeting. Hence I cannot be considered personal when I say that the program of every department should be submit- ted to the general Executive Committee before final adoption, and that in reviewing said programs and plans of meeting the general committee should be governed by fuller by-laws than are at present in existence. Sessions] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 65 It is now quite possible for a department to violate the general senti- ment and policy of the association, even to the extent of holding a series of meetings when the meetings of the general association are in session. It is quite possible for a department to make of itself an advertising medium for the sale of books, shoes, patent medicine, Pears' soap, etc. This may be a worthy enterprise, but if we enter upon it, the association as a whole should share in the profits. The Executive Committee in reviewing department programs should have no desire to go farther than to prevent crossing subjects and trespassing upon the general rules. Were the departments named after their specialties, it would be much easier to secure able specialists for the programs. It would seem that this is one of the points to which we must look for our greatest useful- ness in the future. What of chemistry should I teach to my class, and how should I most effectively teach it ? are two questions the correct answers to which would save the country untold sums of money and years of time. Answer the same two questions for each of the subjects of the curriculum, and the schoolmaster will be the greatest benefactor of all ages. It is safe to say that at least one-half of all the time spent in the schools is wasted by reason of its being spent on unprofitable subjects. To the answering of these two questions our association should apply itself. Already we have made a beginning. The report of the Committee of Ten was, in the judgment of all, one of the greatest contributions of learning that have ever been made, and this report, so far as it went, was in this line. Everywhere in our land this report was read, and the school curriculum modified accordingly. We are frequently asked to make appropriations for reports — some- times for reports on subjects that possibly might wait; but reports and publications such as that of the Committee of Ten cannot be too frequent, provided they cover new ground and show definite progress. Let me emphasize : If the National Educational Association is to shape wisely public educational opinion, it can do so only by establishing the most important and best-adapted subject-matter for schoolroom work, and this can be done only by securing the very ablest talent in the land thru the departments. Finally, we need to spread abroad a stronger feeling of obligation to our association. We are fortunate in being able to secure some of the very ablest scholars and thinkers of our country for oar programs, but there are yet many from whom the country is anxious to hear, persons who have been placed in responsible positions, and who owe it to the country to make their views known, who may not suffer interruption of a vacation to serve us. We should in some way inaugurate a systematic campaign to impress upon our great institutions of learning, and upon our men of 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General great accomplishments, the patriotic debt they owe to the education of their time. The work of our association in administrative lines cannot be too highly commended. The efforts to establish a national university, to relate the collections in the Smithsonian to the different educational institutions of the land, to strengthen and develop the Bureau of Educa- tion, to establish and maintain proper ideals for education in our depend- encies— in the islands and Alaska, as well as among the feebler races within our states — cannot be too highly commended or too strongly encouraged. Our legislative bodies, whether national or state, are naturally con- cerned with many interests, and as naturally should welcome the results of the deliberations of a body single in purpose. If we are ambitious that our work should be only the best, we may be equally ambitious that it shall appeal with executive force to the minds of the lawmakers. We enter upon the new century under the most favorable auspices. Our treasury is now in a condition practically to warrant the expenditure of the income of each year in promoting in the most efficient manner the causes that concern us. We have reached a position that commands the respect, not only of our nation, but of other nations. We may with courage undertake the most serious educational problems that present themselves to the minds of men. May our successes of the past be but feeble prophecies of the successes that await us ! PROGRESS IN EDUCATION RT. REV. J. LANCASTER SPALDING, D.D., PEORIA, ILL. Our belief is that the Word shall prevail over the entire rational creation, and change every soul into His own perfection ; in which state everyone, by the mere exercise of his own power, will choose what he desires and obtain what he chooses. For although in the diseases and wounds of the body there are some which no medical skill can cure, yet we hold that in the mind there is no evil so strong that it may not be overcome by the Supreme Word and God. — Origen,-- Progress is increase of power and quality of life. It is this even when it seems to be but greater control of the forces of nature ; for they are thus made serviceable to life. Education is the unfolding and upbuilding of life, and it is therefore essentially progress. All progress is educational, and all right education is progress. The nineteenth century will be known as the century of progress — the century in which mankind grew in knowledge and freedom more than in all preceding ages ; in which the energies, not of a few only, but of whole peoples, were aroused as never before. We have been brought into conscious contact with new worlds, infinitely great and infinitesimally small ; we have formed hypotheses which explain the development of suns and planets ; we have traced the course of life from the protoplasmic cell Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 67 thru all its endless varieties ; we have followed the transformations of the earth, from its appearance as a crust on which nothing could live, thru incalculable lapses of time, down to the birth of man and the dawn of history ; we have resolved all composite substances into their primal elements, and made new and useful combinations ; we have discovered the causes of nearly all the worst diseases, and the means whereby they may be cured or prevented ; we have learned how the many languages and dialects, with their wealth of vocabulary, have been evolved from a few families and a few thousand roots ; we have traced the growth of customs, laws, and institutions, from their most simple to their most com- plex forms. What control of natural forces have we not gained ! We have invented a thousand cunning machines, with which we compel steam and electricity to warm and light our cities, to carry us with great speed over earth and sea, to write or repeat our words from continent to conti- nent, to spin and weave and forge for us. The face of the earth has been renewed, and we live in worlds of which our fathers did not dream. Filled with confidence and enthusiasm by this wonderful success, we hurry on to new conquests ; and as the struggle becomes more intense, still greater demands are made upon us to put forth all our strength. Our fathers believed that matter was inert; but we know that all things are in motion, in process of transformation. The earth is whirling with incredible speed both on its own axis and around the sun. A drop of water that lies quietly in the palm, if it could be sufficiently magnified, would present a scene of amazing activity. We should see that it consists of millions of molecules, darting hither and thither, colliding and rebounding millions of times in a second. The universe is athrill with energy. There is everywhere attraction and repulsion, an endless coming and going, combining and dissolving, in the midst of which all things are changing, even those which appear to be immutable. The sun is losing its light, the mountains are wearing away. The consciousness to which we have attained that the universe is alive with energy has awakened in the modern man a feverish desire to exert himself, to be active in a world in which nothing can remain passive and survive; and as greater and greater numbers are mobilized and set thinking, it becomes more and more difficult for the individual to stand upright and make his way, unless he be awakened and invigorated in mind and body. The ideal, doubtless, is the co-operation of all for the good of each ; but the fact is the effort of each to assert himself in the face of all, and, if needs be, at their cost. Nations, like individuals, are drawn into the world-wide conflict. The old cry of vae victis still applies, under conditions indeed seemingly less brutal, but more inexorably fixed. In such a state of things whoever is not alert, intelligent, brave, and vigorous falls, as the ancient civilizations fell, before advancing armies filled with courage and the confidence of irresistible might. Hence, not 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General individuals alone, but nations, are driven to educate themselves, that they may be prepared for the competitive struggle which is found everywhere as never before in the history of mankind. Hence, too, in such a society there is necessarily progress in education ; for education is vastly more than the knowledge and discipline acquired in schools. The institutions into which men are gathered by common needs and sympathies, and by which they are lifted out of savagery and barbarism into intelligence and freedom, are the family, the state, civil society, and the church. By them the life of individuals and of peoples is evolved and molded more fundamentally and thoroly than it can be by any possible scholastic training and teaching. They not only provide and defend the things that are necessary to man's physical well-being, but they make possible the cultivation of his intellectual faculties. Schools are fatally impeded in their work when they receive their pupils from vulgar or impure homes, or when they are born in a tyrannical or lawless state, or in a corrupt civil society, or belong to a church which lacks faith and authority ; and much of the adverse criticism of schools is due to misconceptions which lead to the demand that they shall do what it is not in their province or their power to do. Indeed, where the cardinal institutions are at fault, what is needed is not so much schools as reform schools ; and a reform school cannot possibly be a normal home of edu- cation. The rationalistic philosophy of the eighteenth century had as one of its results an exaggerated belief in what schools can accomplish. Kant, who in his views on this subject is chiefly influenced by Rousseau, holds that man is merely what education makes him ; and for him to educate means little more than to enlighten the mind concerning the right use of human endowments. In his opinion, if all are made suffi- ciently intelligent, all will be just, helpful, and good. It is the idea of Socrates that wrong-doing is only the result of ignorance. Tho we have largely outgrown this optimistic faith, it gave a mighty impulse to individual and national efforts to establish schools for the whole people, of which the national systems of the present day are, in great part, the outcome. The world-view, however, which has resulted from science and scientific theories of the universe has led numbers of thinkers to attach comparatively little importance to enlightenment or mental culture, and to lay stress chiefly on heredity and environment. The opinion tends to prevail that the mind and character of man, like his body, like the whole organic world, are the product of evolution, working thru fatal laws, where- with human purpose and free will, the possibility of which is denied, can- not interfere in any real way. No one who is occupied with education can accept this theory without losing faith in the efficacy of his efforts and enthusiasm for his work. Fortunately, one may admit the general prevalence of the law of evolu- tion without ceasing to believe in God, in the soul, and in freedom. Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 69 This is the position of Kant, and it is that which nearly all. of us take. Without a thought of denying the power of heredity and environment in shaping man's life, we are certain that his free and purposive action is able to modify and, to a large extent, control their influence. It is, indeed, the tendency of right education to enable man to create his world, to teach him to live, not merely in his material surroundings, but in the spiritual realms of thought and love, of hope and aspiration, of beauty and goodness, until these become his proper and abiding home, for which climate and soil furnish merely the settings and foundations. And when we speak of progress in education, we think primarily, not of a fatal evo- lution, but of the forces and institutions which the human spirit with free self-determination and deliberate aim makes use of for the uplifting of the race. Here too, of course, we have growth rather than creation — growth of which certain races and peoples, especially favored by environ- ment and heredity, we may suppose, have shown themselves more capable than others ; and with our present knowledge of history we are able to assign, with some degree of accuracy, to each the part it has played in the education of mankind. The contributions of Israel, of Greece, and of Rome are known to all. We are less familiar with what geology and archaeology have done to throw light, not merely on the structure and development of the globe, but on the course of human life in epochs of which we possess no written account. Wherever man has lived he has left traces of himself, which tell his story to the trained eye of the scien- tific student ; and we are consequently able to investigate the earliest efforts of savages, in some remote stone age, to bend their rude minds to the conquest of nature. The darkness which overshadowed Egypt has been dispelled, and the rise and decay of the arts of civilization in the valley of the Nile are no longer a mystery. Archaeological research has done less for the valley of the Euphrates ; but much, nevertheless, has been accomplished there also. We have learned to read the cuneiform characters, which for thousands of years were the only literary script of the world. Babylon, we have reason to believe, was the source of the civilization of China, the oldest now existing. " Egypt and Babylon," says Rawlinson, " led the way and acted as the pioneers of mankind in the various untrodden fields of art, literature, and science. Alphabetic writing, astronomy, history, chronology, architecture, plastic art, sculpture, navigation, agriculture, textile industry, seem all to have had their origin in one or other of these two countries." The Turanian or Mongol tribes of the valley of the Euphrates were probably the first to invent written signs and to establish schools. Tho we owe them the original impulses which have led to civilization, they themselves never rose above the stage of barbarian culture, an ascent which only the Semitic and Aryan races have been able to make ; and among them, in the pre-Christian ages, the Jews, who are Semites, and the Greeks and the 70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General Romans, who are Aryans, have been the chief creators and bearers of the spiritual treasures which constitute the essential wealth of humanity. To the first we owe the mighty educational force which lies in a living faith in one supreme God, creator of all things, who demands of men that they love and serve him with righteous hearts. In their schools they empha- sized the necessity of religion and morality, which are indeed the perma- nent foundations whereon all genuine human culture must forever rest. From the Greeks we derive the vital elements of our intellectual life, our philosophy and science, our literature and art ; and their educational ideals are the most potent, mental stimulus in the modern world. The school, we may say, is not only a Greek word, but a Greek institution. The Romans excelled all other peoples in genius for law and the science and art of government; and hence they believed in discipline rather than in culture ; and in their schools, until they were brought under the influence of Greek philosophy and literature, their chief con- cern was to make men courageous, dignified, obedient, enduring, and reverent. When the civilizations of the Jew, the Greek, and the Roman declined and fell to ruin, when the empire was broken to fragments by the barba- rous hordes that century after century laid waste its fairest provinces, the world seemed destined to sink into the darkness and confusion out of which it had been struggling with infinite pains for thousands of years ; and if a wider, juster, and more enduring social state has been built on the ruins of pagan culture and religion, this has been accomplished chiefly with the aid of the principles and ideals of Christianity. We possess a faith and insight, a depth and breadth of intellectual view, a grasp of the elements of human character, a largeness of sympathy and appreciativeness, to which no pre-Christian people or age ever attained; and after the most patient and conscientious investigation into the causes which have made the modern world. what it is, the impartial and enlight- ened mind is driven to confess that, as the civilized nations date their history from the birth of Christ, so he is the primary and vital impulse in all the most excellent things they have achieved. We are, beyond doubt, the heirs of all the past, and have become conscious of the debt we owe to Jew and gentile, to barbarian and Greek; but the ideals which determine our views of God, of man, of the family, of the state, of the aim and end of all progress, are Christian ideals ; and if this light should go out in darkness, it is not conceivable that our civilization should survive. The genius of Hellas, as it is manifested in her greatest philosophers, poets, artists, orators, and statesmen, we have not surpassed ; in our own day some of the noblest minds are not consciously Christian. In the long conflicts with the barbarism which overwhelmed the Roman empire, individuals and peoples who had been baptized into faith in Christ have not always, in the midst of the confusion and ignorance, of Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 71 the lawlessness and violence, had a clear view of the divine truth, good- ness, tolerance, and love which are revealed in Him ; have even at times been the foes of the godward march of humanity. Yet, when all is said, the supreme fact remains that with Him the new life of the race begins ; that in Him its divinest hopes and aspirations are enrooted ; and thru Him its highest and most beneficent conquests have been made. It is to Christianity, not to science, that we are indebted for our faith in the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of mankind ; in the immortal and godlike nature of the soul ; in the freedom of the will ; in the para- mount worth of character; in the duty of universal benevolence, having as its implication equality of laws and opportunities for all ; in the prog- ress which is marked by an ever-increasing domination of the spirit over matter and the gradual spreading of the kingdom of heaven over earth. With Christ a new and immense hope was born in the heart of man — a hope of everlasting life and endless progress] a conception of a gradu- ally developing divine purpose in history; of a return thru labyrinthine and devious ways of the whole creation to God, from whom it springs. This hope and this conception are not found in the religions of pagan- ism, nor can science inspire or justify them. In the individual and in the race, as in nature, growth and decay are simultaneous. When the one predominates there is progress; when the other, regress and final extinction. And as it would be absurd to imagine that a human being, in this present existence at least, might continue to grow forever, it would not be less extravagant to believe that a people or the race itself might continue indefinitely to make progress. Nations, like individuals, are born, grow, and perish; and mankind, to whatever heights it may rise, must rise but to fall. The monuments of the most glorious achievements are destined to become fragments of a globe on which no living thing can longer be found. As endless time preceded the appearance of man on earth, so endless time shall follow his disappearance from the visible universe. All that is possessed must be lost, since possession is a thing of time, and what time gives it takes again. If it were possible to embrace in one view the entire history of our little planet, we should neither be disturbed by the failures nor made greatly glad by the successes of men, so inevitable and transitory it would all appear to be. This is the standpoint, this the conclusion, of science, when it is accepted as the sole and. sufficient test of reality. But we can- not take delight or find repose in such wisdom. Our thoughts wander thru eternity; our hopes reach forth to infinity; we are akin to atoms and stars, to the worm and to the Eternal Spirit. The whole past has helped to make us what we are, and we in turn shall help to make the whole future. In the midst of a perishable universe, the soul dwells with the indestructible ; in the midst of a world of shadows, it seeks repose with the all-real and abiding One. In all faith in progress, in all efforts 72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General to advance, we follow the light of an ideal, which, if we look closely, is found to be that of perfect truth, beauty, and goodness, wedded to absolute power. Whatever the means taken to approach it, this is the end which noble minds forever hold in view — the ultimate goal of all our yearning and striving, which the laws of reason and the necessities of thought compel us to identify with the Supreme Being from whom and to whom all things move. Our way leads, not from nothingness to nothingness, from death to death, but from life to more and higher life ; from spirit to the Infinite Spirit, who is perfect truth, beauty, and love, wedded to absolute power. It is possible, even when there is question of things the most vital and indispensable to human welfare, to take opposite views and to defend with plausible arguments whatever opinion. One may or may not set store by money or pleasure or position or friendship or culture. He may hold that civilization awakens more wants than it can satisfy, creates more ills than it can cure ; that art, like the tint and perfume of the flower, is but a symptom of decay ; that all monuments are funeral monuments. One may deny free will ; or, accepting it, may think that license is the inevitable result of liberty, and that the best fortune for individuals and societies is to be governed by able tyrants. Our estimates depend so largely on what we ourselves are that agreement is hardly to be looked for. The light which visits young eyes is not that which falls on those who have been sobered by the contemplation of man's mortality. Serious minds have maintained that life, together with the means whereby it is propagated, preserved, and increased, is the sum of all evil ; that the love of life is the supreme delusion in a universe where whoever feels and thinks necessarily suffers irremediable pain. Hence they believe, not in progress, but in regress ; holding that, as all life has sprung from the unconscious, the sooner it sinks back into it, the more speedily shall all things be reduced into eternal order. This is not merely a speculative view of a few exceptional indi- viduals : it has been and still is the religion of millions in eastern Asia, whose dream is everlasting repose in nothingness ; who neither desire nor make progress. The ultimate standard of value is helpfulness to life ; for except for the living nothing can have nor be known to have worth. But our belief in the goodness of life is the result of a primal feeling, not of philosophic or scientific demonstration. It is essentially a faith which arguments can neither create nor destroy — a faith which draws its nourishment from the conviction that life is the first cause and last end of all that exists, the most real of things and therefore the most excellent ; and this conviction has been begotten in the mind and heart of man by the Christian religion with a power which has created a new world, and given to civilization an enduring vitality and an all-embracing scope of which the most divinely inspired minds of antiquity could have but visionary conceptions. Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 73 Our Christian faith in God means belief in increase of life, in progress, which is his appeal and insistence bidding us win his kingdom and himself. It is the ever-widening and deepening prevalence of his will, which is good-will to men ; that they may grow in power of mind, heart, and conscience ; that they may be made stronger and purer and more healthful in body and in soul. Thus progress, whether it be con- sidered as inner development and purification or as enlarging mastery over the external world, becomes the most legitimate, the most fruitful, the most invigorating aspiration of our nature ; becomes part of all our hoping, thinking, and striving. It lies at the heart of the divine discon- tent which makes it impossible for us to rest self-satisfied in any achieve- ment ; which turns us from whatever is won or accomplished to the better things and nobler men that are yet to be. It is a resistless urgency to growth springing from an innermost need of freedom and light. It dispels ignorance, abolishes abuses, overthrows tyrannies, and bears us upward and onward along widening ways. It sweetens toil and gives the courage to bear bravely the worst that may befall. Faith in the goodness of life, issuing in ceaseless efforts to develop it to higher and higher potencies, has determined our world-view and brought us to understand that the universe is a system of forces whose end is the education of souls ; that the drama enacted thruout the whole earth and all the ages has for its central idea and guiding motive the progressive spiritual culture of mankind, which is the will of God as revealed in the conduct and teaching of Christ. To sketch the history of the progress of education from the fall of the Roman empire and the decay of pagan learning down to the present time would require a much larger canvas than is offered to one who makes an address. As a result of the ruin wrought by the barbarians, whose inroads and depredations continued thru centuries, what had been the civilized world sank into deep ignorance and confusion. For a long period learning, banished from the continent of Europe, found an asylum chiefly in Ireland, in the schools of the monks, whence it slowly spread to Scotland and northern England. When on the continent of Europe, at the end of the eighth century, Charles the Great began to foster education, he was forced to appeal for assistance to the religious teachers of the British isles. In fact, the first revival of learning in mediaeval Europe may be said to have been due to the influence of Irish monks. They carried their knowledge and discipline even to Iceland. Later on they were followed by their Anglo-Saxon brethren, under the lead of men like Egbert, Wilfrid, Willibrod, and Boniface. In 782 Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon, who finally became bishop of Tours, was placed by Charles at the head of the "Palace School" at Aix-la-Chapelle, the principal residence of the emperor ; and he and his pupils became the first teachers of Germany. It was a true revival of education ; tho, on 74 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General account of the difficulties of the times and the lack of books, little progress was made. The impulse thus given continued to be felt all thru the disorders which followed the dismemberment of the empire of Charles and the fierce conflicts with the invading Norsemen and the fanatical Mahometans. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries St. Anselm and St. Bernard, Roscellin and Abelard, Peter the Lombard, Arnold of Brescia, and John of Salisbury rendered important service to the cause of enlightenment. The Muslims founded universities at Cordova, Toledo, and Seville about the beginning of the twelfth century, but they did not flourish more than a hundred years ; while the Christian schools which had grown up around the cathedrals and monasteries in various parts of Europe began to develop new life and to enlarge the scope of their teaching, so as to embrace theology, law, arts, and medicine. They also admitted to their classes and lecture halls students from every part of the world. From 1 200 to 1400 the number of these universities increased to about forty, and their students were counted by the thousand. " Thus," says Davidson, "in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries education rose in many European states to a height which it had not attained since the days of Seneca and Quintilian. This showed itself in many ways, but above all in a sudden outburst of philosophy, art, and literature. To these centuries belong Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura, Cimabue, Giotto, and the cathedral builders, Dante and Petrarch, Chaucer and Gower, the minnesanger of Germany, and the trouveres and troubadours of France." Scholasticism, he con- tinues, saved Europe from moral suicide, ignorance, and fleshliness. "In modern Europe," says Emerson, "the Middle Ages were called the Dark Ages. Who dares to call them so now ? They are seen to be the feet on which we walk, the eyes with which we see. It is one of our triumphs to have reinstated them. Their Dante and Alfred and Wickliffe and Abelard and Bacon ; their Magna Charta, decimal numbers, mari- ner's compass, gunpowder, glass, paper, and clocks ; chemistry, algebra, astronomy ; their Gothic architecture, their painting — are the delight and tuition of ours." The Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries marks a new advance in the educational history of mankind. The treasures of the classical literatures were revealed, America was discovered, the Copernican astronomy was divined, the printing press was invented, gunpowder and the compass were applied to the arts of warfare and navigation, and voyages and enterprises of many kinds were undertaken. "All the light which we enjoy," says von Miiller, "and which the active and eager genius of the European shall cause every part of the world to enjoy, is due to the fact that at the fall of the empire of the Caesars there was a hierarchy which stood firm, and, with the help of the Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 75 Christian religion, communicated to the mind of Europe, that hitherto had moved within a narrow circle, an electric thrill which has endowed it with an energy and power of expansion whose results are the triumphs of which we are the spectators and beneficiaries." In the sixteenth century Rabelais, Erasmus, and Montaigne take special interest in questions of education and propose important improvements in method and matter. Luther and Knox labored strenu- ously to found popular schools in Germany and in Scotland. The Jesuits devoted themselves with much success to education, estab- lishing in various parts of the world grammar schools, colleges, and universities, in which they taught the classical learning and trained many of the greatest minds of the seventeenth century ; among others Des- cartes, who is the true father of modern philosophy and science. In the seventeenth century, also, Comenius, the Moravian bishop, propounded and arranged a course of instruction, extending from infancy to manhood — from the home school to the university; and his views have exercised a lasting influence on the development of educational theory and practice. In the eighteenth century Rousseau awakened a widespread interest in questions of education, tho his own views on the subject are gen- erally false. He stimulated Kant and Goethe, Basedow and Pestalozzi, to occupy themselves with pedagogical problems; and they in turn com- pelled the attention of many others. Thus at the opening of the nine- teenth century an enthusiasm for education such as had never before existed had been aroused. Hitherto the purpose of the school had been to teach the privileged classes and to prepare for the learned professions : henceforth the whole people are to receive instruction ; for as the ideals of democracy impress themselves more distinctly on the general mind, it becomes more and more obvious that, as all have the same rights, all should have the same opportunities, the chief and most important of which is that of education. The state in consequence is led to establish free schools wherein all may be taught. Where there is a general political liberty, there must be a general enlightenment. To do this work an army of teachers is required ; and as the principles on which all theories and methods of education rest are brought more fully into consciousness, greater and greater demands are made upon those to whom the office of teaching is intrusted. Education being a process of conscious evolution, they who assist and guide it must themselves continue to grow. The teacher's culture must broaden and deepen as knowledge increases. The more progress is made, the more difficult his task becomes. It is easier to train to obedience than to educate for freedom. This, however, is the only true education ; for authority rests on liberty, and its chief end is to secure and enlarge the rights and opportunities which none but beings endowed with freedom can possess. To educate to the freedom which is 76 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General truth, it is not enough to strengthen and fill the memory, to discipline the practical understanding, or to accustom to observances : one must quicken the whole man, must raise and purify the imagination, the heart, and the conscience. When the purpose is to inspire piety, reverence, admiration, awe, enthusiasm, love, and devotion, it can be accomplished by those alone in whom these high and holy sentiments are a living power, whose thought and conduct create an atmosphere in which the soul breathes a celestial air and is made aware of God's presence. They who have no religious faith or feeling can no more teach religion than one who has no literary taste or knowledge can teach literature, than one who has no musical ear can teach music. If in considering educational progress we limit our view to our own country, we cannot but recognize the advances which we have made. From the planting of the colonies, indeed, down to the war of independ- ence there was a gradual decline of popular interest in schools; and during the revolutionary period there was so much else to occupy public attention that little was done to promote education. But in the early part of the nineteenth century there was a general revival of intellectual activity, and a new enthusiasm /or whatever might diffuse enlightenment ; and it has come to pass that now there is an almost universal belief among us that the greater the intelligence and virtue of the people, the safer will be our political and civil institutions, which we hold to be founded on permanent principles of reason and justice. The work which has been accomplished in the last fifty years in organizing a great system of schools in which free elementary instruction is offered to all ; in establishing in cities and towns free high schools in which secondary education is given to those who desire it ; in creating for men and women universities, which are rapidly widening their scope and increasing their effectiveness, has never been equaled in the history of any other people. We have founded also free training schools for teachers all over the union ; and in nearly all the states there are schools for defectives and delinquents. In our white native population illiteracy has almost ceased to exist. All are readers of the newspapers at the least, and are thus impelled to some kind of mental self-activity concern- ing questions which are of interest to the whole world as well as to Americans. In this way the people of the different parts of the country are brought into intelligent communion ; and in learning to understand one another they find that it is possible to adjust conflicts, whether of interest or opinion, by rational methods, without violence or bloodshed. Nowhere else is there such popular faith in education, such willingness to be taxed for the building and maintenance of schools. While the state provides elementary instruction for all, it has no thought of claim- ing an exclusive right to teach. The liberty of teaching is, in fact, as essentially part of our political and social constitution as the liberty of Sessions! PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 77 the press or the liberty of worship ; and hence the state protects and encourages all educational institutions ; altho, on account of the special religious conditions of America, it has not been deemed wise to devote any portion of the public educational fund to the support of church schools. Our progress in the higher education has been even greater and more rapid. The number of colleges and of students has doubled in little more than a quarter of a century ; while the standard of admission has been raised in nearly all these institutions. The number of those who are doing post-graduate work has risen in the last thirty years from fewer than two hundred to five thousand. Original investigation in the various departments of physical, historical, archaeological, and political science has been introduced and developed. Stress is laid on the comparative method of study, and serious attempts are made in the best of our uni- versities to make philosophy serve as a unifying principle for all the sciences, that the scholar may come to perceive that all the branches of knowledge form a whole, in which the parts combine as in an organism ; and that, having attained this insight and comprehensive grasp of mind, he may be prepared to take up whatever specialty his talent may point out to him, without risk of becoming narrow, partial, and whimsical, of losing mental balance, breadth, and accuracy of view. In this way, it may be hoped, we shall create an aristocracy of culture, enlightened, reasonable, and benevolent, which shall help to counteract the baneful influence of an aristocracy founded merely upon wealth. As a result of the diffusion of this more serious education, there is a widespread and increasing tendency to exact a higher degree of culture of candidates for the learned professions. In 1800 there were in the United States but three schools of theology, three of law, and three of medicine; in 1900 the*re were 165 schools of theology, 87 of law, and 156 of medicine, with about eight thousand teachers and forty- four thousand students. When there is question of education, however, as of anything that is spiritual, numbers have but a minor significance. What is decisive is quality, not quantity. As one mind may outweigh a million, so one school may have higher worth than many. We have had and have eminent men in the several professions, but the average is low, — lower than that found in the progressive nations of Europe; and the standard of professional attainment is no mean evidence of a people's civilization. One who has had no serious preparatory mental training cannot acquire a proper knowledge of theology or law or medicine ; and the study of these sciences does not give the intellectual discipline which is needed for their comprehension. A profession is, after all, a specialty ; and the inevitable tendency of specialties is to narrow and confine. Hence, whatever profession one may take up, he should first pursue with seriousness the studies which enlarge the mind, which make 78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General it supple, open, strong, and many-sided. A professional man should be a gentleman, and a merely professional education cannot give the cul- ture or develop the qualities which this ideal demands. These truths are gradually making their way among the observant and thoughtful, especi- ally in the professions themselves. We have, of course, no national authority which has power to fix standards for degrees, and these stand- ards vary from state to state. There is a general tendency, however, to demand more thoro preparation of those who seek admission or gradua- tion in the professional schools ; and in the last twenty-five years much has been done to increase the science and efficiency of practitioners and to protect the public from the incompetent and unscrupulous. But in many of the states the requirements are still wholly insufficient ; and it is greatly to be desired that the professors of theology, law, and medicine should find some way of uniting with the National Educational Associa- tion, that the professional schools may be brought into more vital contact with the educational movement of the country. It is altogether probable that the worst teaching is found, not in our elementary schools, but in the institutions of higher education and professional learning, where there is but mechanical repetition of what might be better learned from books — where the methods are those of a factory rather than of a school of life. In scientific and technical education, in commercial, agricultural, and industrial education, we are making genuine and rapid progress. We are, above all, a practical people, and have the genius and the will to excel in matters of this kind ; and the triumphs we have won incite us to more strenuous efforts to surpass, not the rest of the world — for this we have done — but to surpass ourselves. The aims and ends of practical education appeal to us with irresistible force ; they have created our ideals. " We regard education," says Daniel Webster, "as a wise and liberal system of police', by which property and life and the peace of society are secured." Here is the paramount fact : both the school and the church are, in our eyes, chiefly a superior kind of police by which property a"hd the peace of society are secured. The highest good, therefore, is property and the peace of society. They are ends, and whatever else is valuable is so but as a means to acquire and preserve property and the peace of society. Now, property and the peace of society are desirable, indispensable even, and must be kept in view in every right system of education ; but those alone who look above property and the peace of society, and strive in all earnestness to live in the infinite and permanent world of truth, beauty, and goodness, can hope to rise to the full height of a noble man- hood. There is no inspiration in the ideals of plenty and stability. He who would rouse men to the noblest and most fruitful efforts must not make appeal to their love of money and love of ease, but must speak to their Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 79 souls — must urge them to labor for enlargement and elevation of mind ; to live for religion and culture, which alone have power to create free and godlike personalities. He must make them know and feel that the whole social organism has worth but in so far as it is a means to fashion individual men into the divine image. This is the ideal of progress, the light which invites, with irresistible fascination, the best to toil for increase, not of riches, but of life ; for the inner freedom, which is life's finest flower and fruit ; and not comfort nor luxury nor art nor science. This is the ideal of religion, which is infinite yearning and striving for God. This is the ideal of culture, which develops endowment into faculty, which gives the mind possession of its powers, making it a self in a world it upbuilds and keeps symmetrical and fair. Where man has nor opportunity nor freedom to educate himself we have social conditions such as those of India, with its castes ; where edu- cation is merely formal and practical we have a world of arrested spirit- ual growth, as in China. The fabric of the life of the individual is woven for him by society; and as he is a creature of society, he is drawn almost irresistibly to what has the greatest social influence and prestige — to power, wealth, and fame. And since only the very few can hope for fame or great power, the multitude are driven to the pursuit of riches, in which there is an ele- ment of real power and of fictitious fame, as well as the means of procur- ing much else that all men hold to be valuable. Thus ideals are largely determined by environment. What circum- stances appear to make most desirable we hold to be the best. Things carry their commands with them, and necessity knows no law. In America our environment, our fortune, our success, have combined to make us practical, to urge us to the conquest of matter, to mechanical inventiveness, and to the accumulation of wealth ; and hence we believe we may look on religion and culture as valuable chiefly for what they do for the protection of property and the peace of society. But the reverse of this is the true view. Property and the peace of society have as their end the fostering of religion and culture. To live for material things is to live to eat and drink, and not to eat and drink that we may live in the soul, may think and love and do righteously. Food, clothing, and shelter are necessities of our animal nature ; and since they cannot be possessed and at the same time communicated, the labor by which they are acquired tends to beget a selfish disposition — to become a struggle for existence, in which heartlessness and greed take the name of legality, and are sought to be justified by the plea of the force of circumstances, of the nature of things; and the final result is oppression, hatred, and general disorder, which bring about the loss of property and the destruction of the peace of society. Truth, goodness, and beauty are necessities of man's spiritual nature ; and they are not exclusive, but increase when 8o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General they are shared. It is possible to attain them only by genuine and sympathetic communion, by loving God and the whole human brother- hood ; and hence the striving for them produces an unselfish temper, a spirit of good-will and helpfulness, the final outcome of which should be a society whose constitutive principle is the co-operation of all with each and of each with all ; and which shall lift the race above the conflicts of interests, whether those of individuals or those of nations, into the realms of eternal truth, goodness, and beauty; and thus become a kingdom of heaven on earth, where the aim and end of authority shall be to make men intelligent, virtuous, and free, capable of self-guidance and self- control ; where whatever is true shall be also popular ; where all shall lead a fair and holy life with God and in the company of their fellows. Let those who will believe that this can never be more than a dream. It is, at least, the ideal of the noblest souls, and should be that of all educators. But if they are to walk in its light, they must have definite conceptions of the beings whom they seek to develop and fashion. What is man ? What is his destiny? What, consequently, should those who deliberately influence him strive to make of him ? These are the previous questions to which some definite answer must be found before teachers can know whether what they do be right or wrong. Without such knowl- edge they can hope at the best to build in the child's consciousness but a fragmentary, incoherent world, not a cosmic whole. Now, if we are to take a deep and abiding interest in ourselves or in the race to which we belong, we must see ourselves and mankind in God, and not in matter merely. We cannot believe that this life is infinitely good and sacred, possibly we cannot believe it to be a good at all, unless we believe in immortal life. But the teacher derives his inspiration and enthusiasm from faith in the worth of life; and therefore from faith in God, as eternal essential life. "Education," says Davidson, "should encourage true religion, but it should be free from sectarian bias." A religion free from sectarian bias can mean, I suppose, only a religion without a creed, without intellectual or moral principles; a religion, therefore, which can neither be taught nor loved nor lived. The phrase "to encourage religion" shows the weakness of the position. If religion is anything, it is the deepest, holiest, and highest ; and should be, not encouraged, but striven for and cherished infinitely. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler affirms the necessity of religious educa- tion; and holds also that a religion without dogma, without intellectual and moral principles, is a meaningless religion. But, having a clear view of the obstacles to a denominational system of state schools in a country like ours, he throws the whole burden of religious instruction on the family and the church. In America, however, a very large number of families have no positive religious belief or feeling. Again, it is the Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 8 1 tendency of free schools to diminish the sense of parental responsibility. When the state or the church assumes the labor and the expense of instructing children, fathers and mothers easily persuade themselves that in sending them to schools thus provided they are quit of further obliga- tion, so far as their mental and moral instruction is concerned ; and hence in our country the homes in which no serious religious education is given are increasingly numerous. There are grave reasons for thinking that the churches are unable effectively to perform this all-importarjt work. But a small part of the children attend Sunday school ; and if all attended, a lesson of an hour or two once in seven days can produce no deep or lasting impressions. The result, then, of our present educational methods and means can hardly be other than a general religious atrophy; and should this take place, we shall be driven to confront the problem whether our ideals of manhood and womanhood, of the worth and sacredness of human life, whether our freedom, culture, and morality can survive. Religion and virtue are the most essential elements of humanity, and they can be taught ; but they are the most difficult of things to teach, because those alone in whom they are a life-principle, bodying itself in a character which irresistibly inspires reverence, mildness, love, and devotion, can teach them. This, indeed, is a truth of universal application ; for whenever there is question of educational efficiency and progress, the primary and para- mount consideration is not methods nor buildings nor mechanical agencies of whatever kind, but the teacher. "The proof that one has knowledge," says Aristotle, " is ability to teach." Whatever is a vital element of one's being, whether it be religion, or virtue, or aesthetic or scientific proficiency, he can teach ; and, in the proper sense, he can teach nothing else. We can teach what we know and love to those who know and love us. The rest is drill. They have done most for progress in education who have done most to enlighten and inspire teachers. It is work of this kind that has given Horace Mann his pre-eminence among American educators. Much of his success was due doubtless to his insistence on the practical value of education, on its influence upon "the worldly fortune and estates of men," on its economic worth, its power to improve the pecuniary condition of the commonwealth. Half a century ago such an ideal had even greater attractiveness for Americans than at present. But Horace Mann made use of his reputa- tion to inspire and enforce better things. He pleaded for the establish- ment of normal schools, holding that in every system of education the principal need is competent teachers. The normal schools which have been founded all over the country have rendered important service ; but we have passed the point of view of their early advocates, and see clearly that the training which even the best 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION rGeneral of them can give is insufficient. The teacher's profession, like every other, is a specialty; and if he have merely a professional knowledge and skill, he is necessarily narrow, partial, and unappreciative of the best. He lacks the philosophic mind, the comprehensive grasp of truth, which, whatever his subject, will enable him to keep in view the wide fields of life and knowledge, and so to guide his pupils to live with greater con- sciousness and power in their whole being. Hence we shall more and more demand of those who apply for admission into the normal schools that they come with minds seriously cultivated. We have begun to establish teachers' colleges and to affiliate them with our universities, making education a faculty like law or medicine or theology. This uni- versity faculty will help us to form a race of professional teachers who shall possess the requisite literary, scientific, and pedagogical knowledge and skill; who shall walk in the light of the ideals of human perfection, and be sustained in their labors by the love of human excellence ; who shall understand and practice the art of stimulating thought, awakening interest, steadying attention, and cultivating appreciativeness. " It would be a great step in advance," says Quick, " if teachers in general were as dissatisfied with themselves as they usually are with their pupils." The divine discontent is that of great toilers who feel that to strive faithfully in a worthy cause is reward enough. The best school fails in the case of many of its students : great men make themselves great, while the inferior remain what they are in spite of persistent efforts to raise them to higher planes. But such considerations do not discourage the teacher who has faith in the power of education to transform human life ; and, if hope deceive him, he cherishes at least a noble illusion, which is a source of joy and strength. The mother's high thoughts of the future of her child may never be realized, but how much worse for her and for him would it not be if she had none of the heavenly dreams which the love-inspired imagination evokes to make life fair and fragrant ! The wise take an exalted view of the teacher's office, and they know the difficulties by which he is beset. He is made to bear the sins of parents and the corruptions of society. His merit is little recognized, and his work is poorly paid. The ignorant take the liberty to instruct him, and they who care nothing for education become interested when he is to be found fault with. The results of his labors are uncertain and remote, and those he has most helped rarely think it necessary to be thankful. But if he know how to do his work and love it, he cannot be discouraged. And, after all, both he and his work are appreciated now as never before. Teaching has become a profession ; and the body of teachers, conscious of the general approval, are impelled to more serious efforts to acquire knowledge and skill ; and, in consequence, they exercise an increasing influence in molding public opinion and in shaping the destiny of the Sessions] PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 83 nation. Holding aloof from religious controversy and political strife, they are drawn more and more to give all their thought and energy to create schools which shall best develop, illumine, and purify man's whole being. To accomplish this, two things above all others are necessary : to enlighten and strengthen faith in the surpassing worth of education, not merely as a means to common success, but as an end in itself; and then to induce the wisest and noblest men and women to become teach- ers. We must help greater and greater numbers to understand and love the ideal of human perfection, and to believe in education for the trans- formation it is capable of working in man and in society. It doubtless equips for the struggle for existence, for the race for wealth and place ; but it does better things also. It gives to human beings capacity for higher life, for purer pleasures, for more perfect freedom. It is the key which unlocks the secrets of nature ; it is the password to the delightful world of best human thought and achievement, making the wisest and noblest who have lived or are now living the familiar acquaintances of all rightly cultivated minds. It makes us able to gain a livelihood ; and, what is infinitely more precious, it inspires the wisdom which shows us how to live. The more comprehensive our grasp of the meaning and power of edu- cation becomes, the easier shall it be to persuade the best men and women to devote themselves to teaching ; for we shall make them feel that the teacher does not take up a trade, but the highest of arts — the art of fashioning immortal souls in the light of the ideals of truth, good- ness, and beauty. "A teacher," says Thring, "is one who has liberty and time, and heart enough and head enough, to be a master in the kingdom of life." Education is furtherance of life; and instruction is educative only when the knowledge acquired gives truer ideas of the worth of life, and supplies motives for right living. The teacher's business — his sole busi- ness, one might say — is to awaken and confirm interest in the things which make for purer and richer life; for interest compels and holds attention ; and interest and attention result in observation and accuracy, which are the characteristics of cultivated minds. If our interests were as manifold as the thoughts and labors of all men, we should all find it possible to approach to completeness of living ; for it is easy to live in the things which interest us. He who is shut in the circle of his family or his business or his profession is necessarily a partial and mechanical man, whose relations with God and men cannot be full and vital. The world of his consciousness is fragmentary and hard, not whole and fluid. He is alive but at points. When the flame of his existence is extin- guished, it goes out in utter darkness ; for he has kindled no celestial fire in other minds and hearts. Such a one cannot be a teacher, for he can- not illumine the mind or speak to the heart; and it is with minds and 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General hearts that he must forever occupy himself. What is knowledge but a mind knowing? What is love but a heart loving? In books there are symbols of knowledge, but knowledge itself exists in minds alone. Hence, whatever his matter, the teacher looks always to training of mind and building of character, and to the information he imparts chiefly in its bearing on this end of all education. From his point of view, a yearn- ing for knowledge, faith in its worth, in the ability and delight it gives, is more important than knowledge itself. A taste for study, a passion for mental exercise, compels to self-education ; whereas one who knows many things, but is indifferent and indolent, forgets what he knows. Information is, of course, indispensable, and the methods by which it may be best imparted must be known and employed by the teacher ; but the end is a cultivated mind, opening to the light as flowers to the morn- ing rays, athirst for knowledge as the growing corn for rain and sunshine. In a rightly educated mind intellectual culture is inseparable from moral culture. They spring from the same root and are nourished by like ele- ments. They are but different determinations of the one original feeling, which, so far as man may know, is the ultimate essence of life. Moral character is the only foundation on which the temple of life can stand symmetrical and secure ; and hence there is a general agreement among serious thinkers that the primary aim and end of education is to form character. As moral culture is the most indispensable, it is the most completely within the power of those who know how to educate. It is possible to make saints of sinners, heroes of cowards, truth-lovers of liars; to give magnanimity to the envious and nobility to the mean and miserly; but it is possible only when we touch man's deepest nature and awaken within him a consciousness of God's presence in his soul ; for it is only when he feels that he lives in the Eternal Father that he is made capable of bound- less devotion, that his will lays hold on permanent principles and is determined by them to freedom and right. When men lose the firm grasp of the eternal verities, character tends to disappear, for at such a time it becomes difficult to believe that any high or spiritual thing is true or worth while. Faith in the goodness of life is undermined, and the multitude are left to drift at the mercy of pas- sions and whims, having lost the power to believe in the soul or to love aught with all their hearts. At such a time there is more urgent need that those who have influence and authority should consecrate themselves to the strengthening of the foundations of life ; that the young especially may be made to feel that virtue is power and courage, wisdom and joy, sympathy and blessedness ; that they may learn reverence and obedience, respect for others, without which self-respect is not possible ; that they may come to understand that all genuine progress is progress of spirit ; that in all relations, human and divine, piety is the indispensable thing, Sessions] WHAT IS A FAD ? 85 useful alike for the life which now is and for that which is to be. Such a fortune as ours has not been given to any other people. Our life sprang from the love of religion and liberty, and, if it is to endure, it must be preserved by the principles from which it sprang ; and, if these principles are to remain with us as the vital force of all our hoping and striving, they must be implanted from generation to generation in the minds and hearts of the young. WHA T IS A FAD ? SUPERINTENDENT F. LOUIS SOLDAN, CITY SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. There has been a widespread discussion in regard to what has been called "fads in education." The charge is made that public schools undertake to teach too much of what is not necessary, and thereby neglect the essentials. While all agree that fads should have no place in public education, there is the widest possible difference in regard to the question, "What is a fad ?" A school fad might be defined as a persist- ent departure from educational common-sense. Single errors constitute no fad. A. fad is a defect which is systematized. It is error masking as achievement or progress. THE FAD OF "SUPERFLUITY" Some well-meaning and intelligent critics of the public schools charge that education has run mad by including many superfluities into its course. The so-called "newer studies" — namely, drawing, music, nature study, and art — have to bear the brunt of these attacks. The writer of this paper sent a letter of inquiry to many people. The answers have been used to some extent in this paper. The president of an association of parents and patrons of public schools writes : " In my opinion, the first school superintendent who rises to the occasion and has these 'fads ' discontinued in the public schools will win for himself fame beyond any other measure he can advocate." He explains that he refers to drawing and singing. These studies are not fads in any sense of the word. It is tacitly assumed in such criticisms that it is the sole function of education to prepare for some special business of life. Since only a few children will become artists or musicians, for the great majority who are not to become artists or musicians it is supposed that training in drawing and music is thrown away. This would be an insuperable objection, if these studies did not impart training of human importance and general educational application. Education does not prepare for any special business or vocation, but for life. The cultivation of eye and hand and taste is of importance in all callings. The educational universality of these studies is their defense. In this age even an elementary education should 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General include some of the elements of science, or the child remains in brutal ignorance of the world in which he lives. Music, in the sense of class- singing, is an element of public instruction that is underestimated by the thoughtless only. Drawing has some features of universal educational value in every school, and in industrial centers it ranks among the important studies. Manual training and lessons in cooking have both social and general educational value ; their aim never has been to train carpenters or cooks. While these studies find strong advocates among the thoughtful in the community, and among the teachers, it is proper to remember that they may suffer by being unduly magnified in a course of instruction. They occupy a position essentially different from that of reading, writing, arithmetic, history, and geography. They have neither found such universal adoption, nor have they been given as great a share of time, nor have they rooted as deeply in the approval of public con- science, as the older studies. Moreover, they have not become fully ingrafted or correlated with the rest of the schoolroom work. As a rule, their conduct lies in the hands of supervisors who make this specialty their whole work. In such case their adjustment to the claim of the other educational work is apt, at times, to be neglected, and an undue amount of time and attention may be exacted from teachers and pupils. These studies are of the highest educational value ; they may become fads if they step beyond the limit of their general educational usefulness. FADS OF ECCENTRICITY This class of fads may be made clearer by an illustration : A few years ago some person suggested that the daily rotation of the various studies in the program was objectionable, and that, instead of an hour in arith- metic, followed by an hour in geography, and perhaps an hour in history, a different division of time was preferable. Consequently, he undertook to teach all the arithmetic of the school term by taking five weeks' solid work in arithmetic at the rate of five hours a day. Even this idea had some followers. The words "fad," "frill," "fringe," which are used frequently as synonyms, apply to this class with particular force. The idea underlying them seems to be that of fashionable ornament in contrast with plain dress. The idea of fad often carries with it the suggestion of personal vanity, a manifest desire to attract attention by appearance rather than by merit. There is a "sport" with new things which takes possession of its votaries and makes them lie in wait for things novel and strange. It is characteristic of this kind of fads, as well as of others, that they are launched into the world with liberal promises of the important results which they will accomplish. The fad's reason for existence lies in the promised achievement of the future rather than in the experience of the past or the needs of the present. Sessions] WHAT IS A FAD ? 87 FADS OF THEORY The existence of fads in modern education is by no means discour- aging. Zeal and enthusiasm are in evidence in all of them. Not a few of them arise from the very wealth of educational thought, and from an abundance of ingenious theory. Fads are at times evidences of great interest in new educational theories which, while not always expressed in terms clear and conclusive, are, for that very reason, for some, fascinating and attractive. One should imagine that the hopeless entanglement which stares us in the face in the discussion of new and old education, of the new studies and the three R's, of prescribed courses of study or individual plans, should be in itself enough to make the teacher with- draw from the path leading into quagmire, and keep to the broader road of conservative teaching. But mysticism never lacks disciples. Much error has arisen from a mistaken idea of the function of the school, which I take to be the development of power thru instruction in the conventional studies. Public opinion would probably classify as a fad the attempt to " develop power" to the exclusion of reading, writing, and arithmetic. School education is an unfolding process. But it is more than the unfolding of what is in the child. Knowledge from with- out, and experience and life from without, must be carried into the child-soul. The child is not the self-contained aim and orbit of education. Edu- cation comprises a larger world. It is not correct to say that the child is educated for himself; he is educated for manhood. He is trained, not for what he is, but for what he shall be. There are in him childish ways which must be cast off and rejected in the process of education. Childish life and thoughts are scaffoldings which are discarded as he advances. Education has to bear constantly in mind the idea that the requirements and duties of adult life, the ideals of true manhood and womanhood, form the aims of child education. On the other hand, the ways and means, and the processes, of education are fixed by the natural conditions of child-life. The aim lies in the future ; the means are determined by present conditions. Childhood is naturally the happiest time of life, but the incidental aim that education should make the child happy would be but a poor substitute for the greater aim, namely, the happi- ness and strength of the adult. The educator should not, cannot, with- out educational hazard, step down and lose his own identity in his otherwise proper endeavor to adjust himself to the child's life and ways. He must stand erect and kindly lead the child to walk with him toward his future. He adjusts himself to the child so far only as it is necessary to introduce him to the serious purposes of education. School education should be childlike in its simplicity and clearness; to make it childish in tone or subject-matter would be a fad. Whenever school' education separates itself from instruction, and 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General " development of faculties " is divorced from the pursuit of serious study, then the fad makes its appearance. Among many of the great sayings of Herbart, none is more important than his remark : " I confess that I can not realize education apart from instruction." While the older methods of education had to be reminded constantly that "all work and no play makes a dull boy," there are some well- meaning, progressive, and vigorous teachers who must be told constantly that "all play and no work will not make a man." A reliable eyewitness gives the following account of a visit she paid to a room in a large school : The morning began with what is called an "observation lesson." The children were encouraged to relate what they thought noteworthy of their experience of the previous evening. One of the children related that they had an evening party at home, that they lived upstairs, and that they had carried up two kegs of beer ; that when they were thru with this they had carried up a keg of whisky. They had a very good time. The teacher, very wisely, said at this stage : "Now let us hear from some of the other children." (I beg to remind my audience that this is a report of an actually observed morning.) The second series of exercises consisted in games fashioned somewhat after the kindergarten games. The next was the naming of classic pictures. Pictures pasted on cards (Perry pictures, if I am not mistaken) were held up in rapid succession, and the class supplied the name : "The Pharisee," "Correggio's Madonna," "Thorwaldsen's Evening," etc. The next exer- cise was one in posing, the children imitating, by the way they stood, cer- tain pictures which they had seen. Thus one boy stepped forward, looked about for some object, took hold of a feather duster, and, leaning on it, one end of it on the floor, he looked up with a set expression in his face. The class shouted, " The man with the hoe ! " The next exercise was called "rhythmic movement." Ten children danced the Virginia reel and eight children the lancers. The next exercise, finally, was one in practical reading. A sentence was exhibited quickly, and the children then gave the words of the sentence. I have no doubt that the rest of the day, after the visitor had left, was given to the various traditional work of the schools. FADS OF EXAGGERATION Aristotle defined virtue as a means between two extremes. Thus he thought that wise economy was a virtue, while those who practiced too much or too little economy, the miser and the spendthrift, represented the extremes of vice. In a similar way the correct educational practice or idea is capable of abuse and exaggeration, and the result is a fad. A fad, in this sense of the word, is a practice which carries some valuable idea beyond reasonable limits and proper proportion. Thus, Pestalozzi's idea of objective teaching was a great step in the progress of educational Sessions] WHAT IS A FAD ? 89 science and practice. No lesson is more easily learned than when it can be taught thru the eye. But the correct and beneficial principle of objective teaching may be carried to such an extent that it becomes a harmful practice. In arithmetic, for instance, the real value of the study lies in the power of mathematical inference and deduction. While all arithmetic work begins with the use of objects, and while many of the new steps, even in advanced work, will gain by objective illustration, these must be discarded as soon as they have answered their purpose, and mathematical reasoning must take their place. Objective teaching, whether it be called by Pestalozzi's old name or by the more modern names of visualizing and aurizing, if carried to the extreme, may become a harmful practice. Children are thinking beings, and it is proper for the teacher to take it for granted that not everything must be objectified and "visualized" and "aurized." It was the mistake of the instructor in a room visited by one of our teachers to try to visualize the perfectly plain story of the two goats who tried to cross from opposite directions a plank bridging a creek, and began to butt against each other. The teacher "visualized" the story by selecting two children to act the part of the goats. The great aim in all instruction in reading, from the primary grade to the highest, is that the child should see thru the words and the forms of the printed page, and have his mind steadily fixed on the ideas to be conveyed. The application of the idea, however, at present in use in some school in one of the large cities is by no means free from objec- tion : in order to be quite sure that the children read words instead of ideas, all reading aloud has been abandoned. The children read silently, and show that they understand what they have read thru oral and written recitation. No more legitimate demand can be made on the school than that of concentration, in the sense that there should be, as much as possible, a connection established between the various branches of instruction — that they should mutually supplement each other. But even this valuable idea may become an error if carried beyond the limit of common-sense. A lady reported to me the following incident : A teacher who prided herself on correlating all subjects in the school curriculum began her day's work with an observation lesson on apples. This was followed by a reading lesson on apples, after which the children took their seats and wrote about apples. Next, songs about apples were sung. Apples were then divided and used to teach fractional parts. As it was now time for drawing, the children were sent to the board to draw apples. Soon the board was filled with all kinds of apples, known and unknown to the horticulturist. One boy, however, instead of drawing an apple, drew a horse. This breach of discipline, or violation of correlation, could not be passed over, so he was asked why he had drawn a horse instead of an 9° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General apple. The boy replied: "Oh, I'm tired of apples, and so I drew a horse to eat all the apples up." There is some merit in the co-ordination of studies, as well as in con- centration. Each study is, in a measure, a complement and corrective of the other. Each must stand related and subordinate to the rest. Each answers an educational and an objective purpose. Each cultivates a special kind of activity. If any one study is raised to inordinate impor- tance, or if it is deprived of the corrective influence of the other, har- monious education is endangered. Language ranks easily first in the common-school course, yet, if literary studies were exaggerated without being corrected thru the touch with life, with nature, or thru the exact- ness and precision of mathematics, mental development would tend toward the verbal, the fanciful, the imaginative, and the dreamy. Liter- ary studies, with their wide horizon, their possible tendency toward the imaginative, the diffused, and the indefinite, need the counterbalancing influence of the precise terseness and close deduction of mathematical studies. Equipoise and balance in the studies of the curriculum are needed as much as concentration. ORIGIN OF FADS Fads have presumably existed under some name or other since the beginning of education, but their growth has perhaps been more marked in our own days than in former times A person fond of paradoxes might say that fifty years ago the art of teaching consisted of matter alone, without much method. The learning of the data of information proceeded without the use of much pedagogical art. On the other hand, it might be said of the present time that in some places the art of instruction is all method and little matter. The data of information are overshadowed by the skill of the teacher and by illustrative and explana- tory devices. The machinery receives more attention than the output. The rigid course of study of the old school, as it existed thirty years ago, the regular examination of classes by principals and superintendents on the subject-matter of the lessons, allowed very little latitude for growth of education weeds or fads. Where a certain kind of school work, defined in quantity, is prescribed and must be accomplished within a reasonable limit of time, instruction is not likely to lose its concentration and force. While there are grave objections to a hard and fast course of study extending to every detail, it may, nevertheless, be said in favor of the old course of study that it was a safeguard against fads and whims. FADS OF ROUTINE AND TRADITION The teacher of the present day is not wholly responsible for the super- fluities in modern instruction. Some of them have been bequeathed to him by the past. Some of the studies of the curriculum are burdened Sessions] WHAT IS A FAD ? 91 with topics and subdivided subjects which answer neither any specific educational purpose nor any demand of life. In one of the best mono- graphs published during the current year on the essentials of mathematical teaching the author shows how the peculiar mercantile conditions of the Middle Ages, when the study of arithmetic first came into use, and when the earliest text-books were written, led to the insertion of certain topics in arithmetic which were then useful, but for which, with the changes in modern life, every necessity has passed away. These topics have survived in text-books for the sole reason that they were part and parcel of former books in arithmetic. PUBLIC-OPINION FADS Public opinion has not infrequently abused the term "fad" and branded with it almost every progressive movement in education. When I asked a prominent teacher, "What is a fad?" he answered promptly: "Anything is called a fad which is done in a way different from that in which somebody was taught when he was a child." Perhaps the most dangerous fads are not of the teachers' .creation, but originate in the community itself. The many fads which must be put to the account of teacher and superintendent are sad enough, but they do not begin to be as pernicious and long-lasting as the harm that may be done when a strong and masterful man with a hobby gets into a leading position on a school board, and drives his fellow-members before him in the narrow path of his special fad. The people are collectively honest, and their verdict is wise. Opinions of classes and individuals, however, no matter how loudly or emphatically expressed, are at times unwise. The history of past decades has seen the rise of many, and the decline of some, of the fads of this origin. There is, for instance, the faddish idea that a laborer needs no education, that workmen are spoiled by too much schooling ; there is the "three R " fad ; there is the "education makes criminals" fad. The claim that spelling should receive a proper amount of attention, and is an important part of public-school training, is valid. If the demand is made, however, that to this study an undue amount of time and atten- tion be given, even spelling may become a fad. Drill in spelling is a mechanical device, and in the poorest imaginable school mechanical drill is always most prominent. The "quick promotion " fad has done immeasurable harm. Children, against the wish and view of their teacher, have, in places, been forced into higher grades than the one for which they were fit, and their educa- tional progress has been impaired and ruined thereby. The teacher and principal who in such cases quietly and pleasantly, but at the same time firmly, stands his ground is a blessing to the child and to the parent. One cannot help thinking in this connection more leniently of Rousseau's paradox: "The aim of education is not to gain time, but to lose it." §2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General One of the worst fads of our day is the ''extreme indulgence" fad. The practice is bad which lets the child have his way when he is unreasonable, and lets him regulate his relations to school and home in accordance with his pleasure instead of in accordance with clear duties. "I wish you would make him come to time," said a kind mother to a teacher who had sent for her on account of the frequent tardiness of the child; "but the fact is, I cannot make him get up in the morning, and he will not go to bed when it is time." If the parent abdicates the educational control of his child, he makes a pernicious error and indulges in a common, but objectionable, fad. The child must be taught to be faithful to his little duties as soon as his power in any direction is ade- quate to this educational demand. CONCLUSION Many of the idiosyncrasies and petty errors may be avoided by dwell- ing on the universal principles of education and by subjecting all innova- tions to the test of universality. The schools are common schools. No practice or study which is serviceable for specific walks of life alone can find, legitimately, a place in public education. The good sense of the American people, and of American teachers, has thrown enough safeguards around the public schools to prevent fads and petty errors from becoming universal. The task of the school is to concentrate its efforts on the recognized subjects of instruction. Growth must proceed thru the acquisition of information. Progress does not lie in the increase of studies, not in the excess of data, but in the definite- ness of ideas, the logical grouping of facts, the clearness of insight, and the gradual strengthening of judgment. When new studies or practices are introduced for educational reasons, the teacher must be ready to account for the same to public opinion. The aim of education is not merely to prepare for life, nor is it merely to develop power. Each of these aims, taken separately, leads to error and fad. Their joint and universal consideration constitutes harmonious education. DISCUSSION William K. Fowler, state superintendent of public instruction, Lincoln, Neb. — A school fad is a part or a line of school work with which one is not in full accord or sym- pathy, thru ignorance of its purport or on account of an honest difference of opinion. With many, a fad is a moving from the letter r up or down the alphabet. It is a schoolroom innovation in the experimental stage. It is an advance breeze from the progressive edu- cators of the Windy City. It is a perennial topic for a Chicago newspaper editorial. It may be a good thing, spoiled in the house of its friends. It may be the result of misin- formed, misdirected, or misapplied energy. A fad or innovation may be harmless in the Sessions] WHAT IS A FAD ? 93 hands of its originator, but very harmful with some base imitator. It is a layman's exterior view of a part of the school curriculum, viewed disconnectedly, and not only thru a glass, darkly, but ofttimes thru a stone or brick wall. Fads vary in degree, in the elements of time and locality. They vary in continuity and in regularity. They are different things in different times at different places. They have their exits and their entrances. They come and go, as do the measles. They may be in the full glare of the footlights or behind the scenes. Time alone proves their value or their worthlessness, and that which is righteously dubbed a fad will fade as a fashion of the hour. A fad's advocate is called a faddist. Faddists are of two kinds — zealots and adver- tisers. The former require protection, caution, sound counsel, a "blend," and " discree- mination." The latter require exposure — longtime! A faddist may be a crank or an enthusiast. Fads are of two kinds, ephemeral and eternal, and mortal man, be he editor or edu- cator, cannot always classify them. A fancy today may be a fad tomorrow, a foible the next day, and, in the hands of some unbalanced enthusiast, a fool-thing thereafter. A fad is sometimes dubbed a frill, a fringe, a flowery or a floury thing ; but others, who do not feel bound by the alliterative f, deem it a weedy thing or a bit of pastry. The fad we are to discuss, however, is now in the schoolroom, and either has no place there or, what is more likely, is exaggerated temporarily beyond its relative value. We do not now consider geography a fad, but the courtiers of Isabella of Spain said that subject was a fad with one Christopher Columbus. Some 150 years later free educa- tion for all the people was a fad in New England. A half-century ago the Spencerian system of penmanship was hailed as a fad ; it was opposed because it was said to destroy individuality and character in penmanship. Today the vertical system is termed a fad and opposed for precisely the same reasons ; but the one had and the other has a mission to perform ; each was a distinct step in advance ; each received or will receive modification, but each systematized the work and called attention anew to a most important subject. United States history can hardly be classed as one of the older, highly approved, deeply rooted subjects. The Northern Indiana Normal School dates its inception from the introduction of United States history into the public schools of Indiana. Ten days ago only it became a requirement for the lowest grade of teacher's certificate in my own state. Music is sometimes and in some places termed a fad. But the fifteen minutes daily of instruction in vocal music in the schoolroom has a distinct temporary and a permanent value — we may say it has a temporal and spiritual value. Condemn sooner the two or three hours' daily instrumental practice in the home. In many central states the consolidation of small rural schools and the transportation of pupils by public conveyance maybe considered, and is sometimes termed, a fad, but it is a fad that will grow in favor as its advantages are better understood by the public- Whatever tends to improve the rural schools and to keep the boys on the farm should receive universal approbation, be it fad, fact, or fancy. Sanitary and hygienic and attract- ive schoolrooms are fads in some quarters, and this is a fad that should be universal. In Nebraska at present the elements of agriculture, including a fair knowledge of the habits and structure of the common plants, birds, insects, and quadrupeds, are a fad, perhaps, but that great agricultural state will instruct its youth thoroly in the causes and dependencies of its commonwealth. Last winter the legislature of Nebraska, in its wisdom, adopted a knowledge of the elements of agriculture as a requirement for a teacher's second-grade county certificate, and rejected a knowledge of the rudiments of vocal music for the same purpose. Which was faddism ? I regret that I cannot agree entirely with Dr. Soldan's statement that " no practice or study which is serviceable for specific walks of life alone can find, legitimately, a place 94 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General in public education." I would not teach agriculture in the schools of New York city, but I like better President Charles F. Thwing's statement: "What the world needs is not narrow specialists, but broad men sharpened to a point." Dr. Soldan says that in a certain school loud reading has been abandoned alto- gether, and silent reading has taken its place. On the other hand, in certain schools elocution has been adopted in the grades, and in others oratory forms a part of the high- school course. Of the two evils, or fads, give us the latter. Fifteen county superin- tendents in my own state, whose institutes I visited last month, were unanimous in the opinion that reading was more poorly taught in the rural schools than any other sub- ject. Give us back the good old-fashioned oral reading, "The Boy and His Burning Deck," "Marco Bozzaris" and "The Advantages of Adversity," Hamlet's soliloquy and " Lochiel's Warning," John Adams' supposed speech and Emmet's " Vindication." Send to the high school pupils who can read easily, pleasantly, expressively ; pupils who have mastered the mechanics of reading, even tho they may not have read all the great mass of English literature or all the myths of ancient Greece. Broadening is all right, if the depth is not affected. Floating idly on the surface may be pleasant, but the floaters should know how to handle their oars, with a long, strong, deep, even pull, as well as how to feather-spray. Drawing and elementary science are not fads, and they have a distinct economic value in industrial centers. Manual training in its various phases, domestic science, etc., may or may not be fads, according to local conditions. Extending the department-store plan of the great universities and colleges down thru the high schools into the grammar grades is, I fear, a dangerous fad, with the pros- pect of waiting for our change indefinitely increasing and the change itself growing less than two-bits. The experimenting in the schoolrooms of a city may not be the general practice there, and the general practice in a city may not be followed or copied elsewhere. In the public mind and eye fads are unduly emphasized. Where fads exist, however, may be found great educational thought and activity. Fads do not thrive in slimy pools or under moss. I believe the great rank and file of teachers should not ape faddists. They can be pro- gressive and studious in their profession, and yet conservative. Let others experiment while teachers teach. Less than one hour in eight is passed by the child in the schoolroom when he attends regularly thruout the school year. The average attendance would not equal one hour in twelve. Perhaps there are fads in the home, on the street, in society, that influence the child, for good or for ill. Society may claim our youth for social functions, pink teas, and midnight revels, while the school is endeavoring to train for better citizen- ship. And in which is the average home more interested, the social function or the schoolroom ? Our schools for delinquents and defectives are now striving to give each individual therein that equipment which will enable him to live an independent life in the world, and the public schools should do no less — they should do more ; that which they do in the direction of developing and strengthening an earnest desire for better living, for honest labor, for higher citizenship, for independence, for self-reliance, is not faddism. " God give us men ! A time like this demands Strong minds, great hearts, true faith, and ready hands. ***** * Men who possess opinions and a will ; Men who have honor and who will not lie." Strengthen the will, develop purpose, build up character — these are not fads. The results will be a true measure of the success or failure of the public-school system and its legal guardians. Sessions] IS THE CURRICULUM OVERCROWDED? 95 IS THE CURRICULUM OVERCROWDED? - JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. In spite of the varying opinions of teachers and others upon the scope of the curriculum, upon the relative importance of interest and duty, methodical drill and incidental use, thoroness and superficiality, there is a striking similarity in published courses of study. In them all we find practically the same subjects. There is no duly constituted authority to regulate this matter, as in some other countries. Each school district and each city may do as it chooses, yet all choose alike. It must be that they do so in response to a well-defined demand of some sort, and the demand must be general, since the response is gen- eral. The curriculum of two decades ago will not now satisfy the public. The studies then called special, and not by any means generally taught, as music, drawing, gymnastics, manual training, and elementary science, have ceased to be special and have become universal. They have become interwoven with the general fabric of school work, and are to a large extent taught by the regular teacher. Is the curriculum overcrowded ? The answer which anyone makes to this question will depend upon his conception of what the school is for, and how its curriculum is to be interpreted. If every child is to master everything mentioned in the course, if he is "to eat straight thru the bill of fare," then school life is all too brief for its accomplishment. Just as in dining, if we would be comfortable we must select something that we can "eat and forget," so in study it is futile to attempt to remem- ber everything that contributes to mental growth and health. In New Jersey, in 1826, it would seem that a far different idea pre- vailed. Looking over some accumulated family treasures, recently, I saw the original certificate of which a copy is here given. It is a testimonial seventy-five years old, the paper yellow with age, but the writing still legible. -As a souvenir of old-time ideas it is interesting : CERTIFICATE Elizabeth Crane has been engaged during her attendance at this school in storing her memory, that strong and capacious storehouse of mankind, with useful ideas — les- sons and information generally. Pursuant to this end, she has deposited in her memory for future use the multiplica- tion and other arithmetical tables. She has repeated the principal divisions — oceans, islands, etc. — and answered one hundred and nine questions on the map of the world. She has recited the principal divisions — lakes, rivers, bays, gulfs, etc. — and answered forty-one questions on the map of North America. She has defined the boundaries of twelve of the United States, and repeated ninety-five of the chief towns and thirty-three of the principal rivers belonging to those twelve states, and answered eighty-six ques- tions corresponding to the geography of that fine country. 96 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General On the map of South America she has committed to memory the different coun- tries belonging to that great peninsula, and repeated fifty-eight chief towns and thirty- three of the principal rivers, and answered thirty-nine questions corresponding with, its geography. Let no one say hereafter that females cannot learn, for that is an assertion without foundation. Elizabeth is a living proof to the contrary, and she merits the approbation and encouragement of her parents and friends. (Signed) P. Warden. Morristown, N. J., March 8th, 1826. Elizabeth Crane's curriculum evidently included geography and arith- metic, and certainly reading. This is no long array of subjects, yet I submit that Elizabeth's curriculum was crowded with too many tables and boundaries, peninsulas and capes. We are comforted, however, by the thought that Elizabeth demonstrated a fact of value to her sex in the dis- covery that "females can learn." The old idea that memory is the only faculty to be trained, that the mind is to be stored with facts solely for future use and without reference to present significance to the child, has not yet wholly disappeared. Much of the present criticism of the curriculum is based upon the mem- ory idea. But the accumulated wealth of civilization has become too great for the memory alone. The children are heirs to a very large estate. We can show them the entrance, and for a little while we can serve as guides, but the main thing is to inspire them with a desire to continue its exploration and give them power to use its resources. One of the recent utterances upon this subject is as follows : "I am fully convinced that the most urgent need of our public-school system today is more thorough work in elementary subjects, such as language, arithmetic, history, and geography. The truth must be faced," says the writer, " that these subjects are neglected in the everlasting, never-ceasing pushing of a child into the higher grades The craze for enriched curriculum is indulged in at the expense of essential drill in the so-called common branches." There is, no doubt, much, truth in the statement that faulty syntax, bad spelling, inaccurate work in arithmetic abound. It has always been thus. School children have always made mistakes, and they always will. Education is a life-work, and we hope, also, a work for the life to come. Even in 1826 the memory, "that capacious storehouse of mankind," had its limits. Elizabeth Crane, it will be observed, " defined the boundaries of twelve of the United States." There were at that time twenty-four in all ; therefore, in boundaries we shall mark Elizabeth but 50 per cent. We are unable to determine P. Warden's standard in the matter of tables and rivers, cities, lakes, bays and gulfs, peninsulas and capes, as it is not quite certain how many had been discovered and explored at that time. But I think we may be satisfied that Elizabeth's attainments in these other highly important items were at least commendable. It is safe to Sessions] IS THE CURRICULUM OVERCROWDED? 97 assume that every bay and peninsula of any respectability engaged the attention of this industrious New Jersey maiden. In these days we have found it sufficient to know where to find some of these important items of information. Memory is only a good beast of burden. What we want is strength of mind and character, good judg- ment, power to do and disposition to do. The good school will train its pupils to remember, because without your facts you cannot carry on your train of thought. You must have facts, but the great work is to train to use facts in effective thinking and expression. The school of today does not seek so much to get set answers to questions as to get questions asked. It aims to secure vigorous, interested effort, to make the mind strong rather than full. To that end it places before teacher and pupil a curriculum which is quite extensive, since varied needs must be met. The school must do much more for some children than for others, because the home does less. The school must furnish the fund of useful informa- tion which the home fails to give. It must restrain selfishness and develop self-control. It must erect barriers against unwholesome influences. It must do these things, or they will remain undone. In many instances the school has to stand for so many of these things that the sum of edu- cation which the children receive is much less than that possessed by the normal child of the same age or grade who comes from a good home. Within certain limits the teacher decides what typical portions of the work outlined are most needed by the pupils under her care. No one else can tell so well. Individuality must be known as well as present attainment in the particular work. The curriculum is a guide to the selection and sequence of material, rather than a prescribed amount to be done. No matter what mechanical devices we may employ as schemes of classification and promotion and short intervals between classes, as in the present highly developed graded system, our pupils pass along, some faster, some slower, but no two getting exactly the same benefit. Each takes what he is capable of assimilating, and no more, and he cannot take it before he is at the proper stage of mental growth. By trying to get him to do so we waste time that might be more profitably spent. It is right here that the crowding occurs. The trouble is, not that the newer studies have been added, but that some of the older ones have not sufficiently given way. We have been pruning away at arithmetic for the last ten years and have dropped out some of its useless applications, but we still devote too much time to it in the early years, and accomplish in the eight years what might be easily done in the last four. This is partly the fault of the makers of the course of study, and partly the fault of the compulsion practiced by public opinion, which still regards a knowledge of arithmetic as a necessary preparation for earning a livelihood, and therefore insists upon our teach- ing long division to infants and cube root to those who will never use it. 98 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General Arithmetic is of value chiefly for its logical elements. Training for mere facility is a waste of time. There is no advantage in the limited facility acquired in school. The small Italian fruit vender, thru street practice alone, can do much better than our well-drilled schoolboy. He gains his facility in purposeful practice in a very short time. Our grammar- grade boys cannot work with the rapidity and accuracy required in a bank. You cannot. I cannot. But once actually have it to do, and how quickly the mechanical skill is acquired ! I would say, then, that the curriculum is overcrowded by whatever it contains that lacks wholly the element of present use to the child. The time to learn the table of linear measure is when it is needed in con- structive work of present value from the child's standpoint. Then he remembers it without endless drill. There is no virtue certainly in need- less drill. The time can be far better occupied. We read that in 1826 Elizabeth Crane "deposited in her memory for future use the multiplication and other arithmetical tables." There is much of this work going on today, not only in arithmetic, but in other subjects, and just to the extent that such purposeless work is done, or work with a purpose so far in the future as to be out of touch with the child's life, just to that extent is the curriculum overcrowded. The demand for thoroness in elementary subjects is reasonable and ought to be heeded, but the demand must be interpreted with due regard to the maturity of the student. The graduate student in the university devotes his attention to a very few things, sometimes to a single branch of one subject. Here thoroness is a reasonable expectation. But, in the lower primary grades of the public schools, we shall not secure thoroness by limiting the child to a narrow curriculum, nor in any other way, and simply because his brain has not arrived at that state that makes thoro- ness possible. Thoroness in the child's early school years is a physical impossibility. His interests are varied, but not deep ; therefore, in the early years the curriculum may properly be quite comprehensive as to topics. As we go up in the-grades, however, and have minds more and more mature to deal with, there is a constant approach to thoroness accompanied by a narrowing of the curriculum. The child in the upper grammar grades studies fewer subjects than the child in the grades below, but he goes deeper. In the high school he is restricted to three or four subjects, but he has by this time gained sufficient power of concentration to be able to hold himself to the work. Later, when he has reached the university, his brain has become so good a physical instrument that his work can be narrowed still further. He is then prepared to select some one thing for a life-work. The curriculum, from the kindergarten to the university, may be com- pared to a pyramid, with the kindergarten at the base and the graduate school of the university at the apex. From the base upward there is a Sessions] IS THE CURRICULUM OVERCROWDED? 99 gradual narrowing in subject-matter with increase of thoroness till the apex is reached, at which point only can absolute thoroness be expected. A curriculum thus arranged may seem crowded ; but, if so, the fault lies with those who administer it. Because children, tho classed together, come to the school with such varying amounts of general information ; because they represent such extremes in their mental furniture, a closely prescriptive curriculum, just extensive enough for classes in one portion of a city, might be quite unsuited to classes of the same grade in another portion of the same city. There must be as many courses of study as there are essential differences in population, or else there must be one course extensive enough to meet varying needs. The tendency has been toward the second of these plans. Selection of material must be based, not only upon a full knowledge of present attainment of the class to be taught, but also upon facilities at hand for teaching one topic rather than another. This selective work presupposes a skillful teacher, but often the novice or the unskillful teacher is our only resource. This will continue to be so until our teaching force is recruited from the ranks of pupils now in schools receiving instruction from skilled teachers, for, in spite of training schools, we teach as we have been taught. The evolution of the teacher is a slow process. We shall not hasten it by narrowing the curriculum, or making it more prescriptive. The teaching force will increase in efficiency only as responsibility is imposed and accepted. The true kindergarten is the effective educational instrument that we find it today because of the thought put into the program daily by the teacher. The work is planned daily to meet the demand of the season and of the class. So it must be in the school, if satisfactory results are to be expected. The curriculum must afford ample material. The teacher must make appropriate selection. The attempt to impose a uniform scholastic standard of promotion from grade to grade is responsible for much of the current feeling about the curriculum. Some children get less than other children from the same studies. Some people get less out of life than other people do, yet all are equally entitled to live the life and to make it as full as individual capacity permits. The standard for promotion must not be rigid. Each child must go thru the school, taking given subjects at the time when they are suited to his age and brain development, and therefore in harmony with his interests. He must not, if very old for the grade, be required to wait till he has attained a high degree of success in every part of the work just preceding. If we hold such a child back, we very greatly diminish his prospects for an education, and he probably drops out of school altogether. A teacher who insists upon the same attainments for all pupils in a class, irrespective of the home environment, causes an innocent and unoffend- ing curriculum to seem much crowded, and he should have his attention called to the fact. IOO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General In our high schools the time has long since passed when pupils, with- out regard to their powers and purposes, are held to a single course of study. Two plans are quite common. One offers choice of courses ; the other, choice of subjects. The one allows substitutions; the other establishes constants. The two plans, therefore, are very much alike. They differ in this particular: one tolerates selection of studies; the other makes selection of studies the rule. In neither case can the charge that the curriculum is overcrowded hold, where, as is often the case, gradu- ation requirements are stated in units of work instead of in years spent in school ; since, under such a plan, the student can regulate the number of studies that he will carry at any one time by his mental and physical power. There is no good reason why all pupils, without regard to ability or health, should spend just exactly four years in completing a high- school course. Some may need more time, some less. Each should find it worth while to put forth his best efforts, yet no one should be obliged to take more studies than he can pursue with success. By way of summary, it may be said that the curriculum is what it is by reason of public demand. A curriculum is not necessarily crowded because it contains many subjects. The old narrow curriculum was over- crowded with things not worth remembering. Skillful teaching renders the old and the new mutually helpful, each serving the other. The curriculum is none too broad to meet varying needs ; therefore, rightly interpreted and used, it is not overcrowded. HOW EARLY MAY HANDWORK BE MADE A PART OF SCHOOL WORK? CHARLES R. RICHARDS, DIRECTOR, MANUAL-TRAINING DEPARTMENT, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK If the title of this paper, suggested by our honorable President, were a little different, it would, in Some ways, be easier to answer. If the ques- tion were, How early should handwork be made a part of school work ? I should answer most emphatically: " At the beginning." If there can be any question as to the place of handwork in the school, it seems to me that it must be as to its extension upward, but surely not as to how early it should begin. Every consideration of child nature points to this answer. How can we raise such a question when we look at the natural child and see what an enormously important influ- ence handwork plays in his mental development ; when we see how, in the very early years, his knowledge of the material world is largely built up by muscular contact ; and when we see, a little later, how the chief expression of his crude, but vivid imagination finds vent in constant material and pictured creations ? Sessions] HANDWORK IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL tof How can we ask such a question when we recognize the important place of handwork in the kindergarten and acknowledge the significance of such work at this stage ? Does child nature utterly change at the entrance to the primary school, or is the school instruction at this point to separate itself from natural education and to recognize only one side of child nature ? Surely both of these questions can have but one answer. We know that a large part of the mental life of the boy and girl of the primary school is still concerned with the gathering of impressions of the material world, and that it is the reflection of these impressions that fills the imagination and fixes the ideas of this period. We know also that these ideas and images tend to flow out in objective, tangible, and con- crete creations; that this giving out is but a phase of the coming in — a natural and inevitable reaction that is part of the life-current ; and, further, if we put these facts together, and if we have come into any sym- pathetic knowledge of young boy and girl life, we realize that all this means that such creations are absolutely essential to the full expression of the mental life of the boys and girls of the primary-school age ; and, if we leave these out of the schoolroom, we are leaving out, at the same time, a large part of the life natural and essential to such children. The problem of the elementary school today is, I conceive, to make the life of the school more real ; more an epitome of the kind of thinking, feeling, and doing that obtains in real life; more a reflection of the actual life outside of the school walls. If this be so, then all the natural elements of that life must be represented in the activities of the school. To attempt to reproduce real life for boys and girls of the primary school without the element of handwork would be like the play of Hamlet with Hamlet left out ; it would be like the attempt to teach a boy to swim without letting him go into the water. But handwork will not be a life-element in the school, unless it is used in a natural way. It will do comparatively little to make the school life more real, if it is conceived of as mere manipulation and used as a mere drill. Handwork, whether drawing, painting, modeling, or construction, as a natural feature in school work can never be a thing in itself. It is a part of a whole. Its different forms are simply means of putting thought and feeling into form and action. More than that, if the handwork is to be wholly worth while, the thought and feeling back of it must be genuine and worth while. As the expression of natural motive and real thinking, on the part of the worker, handwork represents, with the pupil of the elementary school, one of the most natural and intense forms of living. In this relation it is one of the most effective agencies for developing both knowledge and capacities. In any other relation, its value as an element of school work must necessarily weaken and diminish. Work of this character evidently cannot be a matter of blind copying of something placed before the 102 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General pupil. If it is to be in any sense true self-expression, it must deal with undertakings, on the one hand, that represent real interests to the par- ticular workers involved, and, on the other, it must be prosecuted in such a way that the worker's own thought enters in some part into the result. Handwork of this kind by no means implies lack of care or faith- fulness in its execution. On the contrary, it means the maximum of care and faithfulness, because it means the maximum of motive. To bring the element of self-expression into handwork does not mean that we are to turn the pupil loose to exercise whim and fancy unrestrained. In handwork, no more than in any other form of school work, should the pupil be free from suggestion and guidance by the teacher. And, on the other hand, self-expression does not mean that the pupil is expected to develop the entire plan and design for each thing done. This would be too much to expect from the unformed standards of judgment of young children, and could only result in crude projects and unsatisfactory work. But recognition of this element may mean that the general plan to attain an end will be developed from the pupils. It may mean the adjusting and modifying of details within this general plan by the individual pupil ; and it may mean the working out of ways and means to achieve this plan. It may mean these or many other things,, but it should always mean that the worker's own thought and feeling are contributing in a real fashion to the end for which he is working. When we take up the problem of handwork in this spirit, we are going to recognize that a nice sequence of difficulties in the work may be of less importance than the question of motive or the significance of a project to the real interests of the particular moment. Accuracy and precision have commonly been referred to as the essential qualities of all educative handwork, but accuracy is natural only when its necessity is appreciated by the worker, and this will be the case only to the degree that the need for accuracy is perceived to be an inherent condition of success in the task, and not as a quality imposed from without. Such natural expression "thru handwork cannot take the form of set courses. It must be a matter of adaptation and relation to the life of each particular school. Both the in-school and out-of-school interests of the particular children dealt with must form the basis for such work. This means infinite variety and flexibility. Handwork of such a kind will take as many forms as there are classes to be taught and teachers to teach them. In relation to the school interests, or, more specifically, to the course of study, handwork represents emphatically a method rather than subject- matter of instruction ; and it is in this sense that such work finds its most natural place in the lower grades. No catalog of the possibilities, in this direction, need be given ; paint- ing, drawing, modeling, and construction, singly or in combination, all Sessions] HANDWORK IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 103 contribute their special assistance to enlarge and vivify the conceptions brought out in the various subjects of the curriculum. Where the imagi- native and personal quality is predominant, as in the story form, paint- ing, drawing, and clay work have their special value ; where material facts and conditions of life are dealt with, as in the study of primitive life and the beginnings of history, opportunities are found in the reproduction of typical forms of shelter, implements, and inventions ; where the relations of human life to the physical environment are the theme, as in nature study and geography, abundant opportunities for the study of occupation are possible both thru pictorial and constructive representation and the practice of typical operations. With the young child, the tendency to reproduce the actual or the imaged environment assumes different forms at different stages of growth. Two phases seem to be always present, but in varying degree. With the very young child this instinctive tendency is largely satisfied with mere representation, either pictorial or constructive; but, as the experi- ence enlarges and the powers of perception develop, the interest in and the desire for reality increase, and this can be satisfied only by the achievement of things of practical service and use. Both of these tend- encies are present thruout the school period; they are, indeed, but two phases of the same tendency, and the one blends insensibly into the other. It is true, however, that the representative phase is particularly strong with the pupil of the early grades, and that thru this channel occur many of the most natural opportunities for relating handwork to the activities of the school. Such representation on the part of pupils of the primary grades may sometimes seem too crude and fanciful to have a disciplinary value, but we should remember that such concrete suggestions serve as necessary centers for the .play of the childish imagination, and that thru them life finds real expression and fulfillment. It would be, of course, most unnatural to expect great perfection in the natural expres- sions of seven- and eight-year-old pupils. Truth of expression is the important thing, and great accuracy of result is not truth of expression with the pupil of the early grades. It is on this side of representation that drawing, painting, and clay- modeling have their natural opportunities. Representation thru these media may be either a record of fact, as the picture of a flower, tree, or animal form, or it may be an expression of an imaginative picture brought up by the reading of story or history. Constructive representa- tion, which approaches nearest to reality, has also an important place here, and constructions ranging from a simple miniature house in paper to elaborate scenes with numerous details illustrating some phase of life or industry, all suggest the varied possibilities in this field. This last type of work, in which the whole or part of a class unites upon a common project, represents an important possibility in this direction. The value 104 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General of such work is twofold — on the one hand, it introduces the healthiest and most practical kind of co-operation into the school, and, on the other, it allows of larger and more important undertakings than are possible in individual projects. In the early grades such work may very often take the form of some- thing like the sand-table work of the kindergarten, but with more realistic details, and setting forth some phase of life touched upon in the other studies. With large classes such work presents some severe problems, and it cannot, perhaps, be carried very far in public-school conditions, but the great vividness of such representations to children and the fine experience involved in their making are certainly worth going far to attain, and it would seem as if a small amount of such work might be attempted under even the most restricted conditions. In these first years this phase of constructive representation goes far toward satisfying the pupil's instinct for concrete expression, and indeed persists as a natural form of expression for a long time, but from the first, interest in and demand for reality are increasing, and, as the pupil grows older, the things made must approach nearer and nearer to the actual fact. Thus the making of paper furniture for a small house means much to the pupil of the first grade, but is no longer satisfying to the boy of the fourth grade. Representation thru construction continues to have its place, how- ever, in the upper grades of the school, but its possibilities become more and more limited to things that possess large meaning and imagina- tive significance, such as the log or block house of the early settlers in connection with the study of colonial history, or a model of a classic temple at the time of the study of Greek history. All thru such work the important point to be scrutinized is whether the particular project is worth while to the young worker. Is it something adequate and satis- fying to his desire for concrete expression ? Is it a thing that enlists true motive to its fulfillment ? As the power of visual imagination increases, concrete expression ..plays a less and less necessary part, and its value is confined more and more to special interests. Constructive representation remains natural only as long as it serves to express a significant fact more satisfactorily than other media. When this ceases to be the case, other channels of expression become more natural and more worth the attention of the school. Such work as has been suggested means flexibility. There can be no course or so-called "system" for such work. It means simply the bringing in of another expression element into the work of the school, a giving-out side added to the taking-in side. But the school interests, as represented by the curriculum of today, are not all. Handwork expression touches all the interests of young life, and the out-of-school interests should find a place in any generous Sessions] HANDWORK IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 1 05 scheme of such work. The school interests, to an extent, deal with general ideas, but the out-of-school interests mean the personal and the immediate. Where representation may be largely relied on to express the school interests, the directly useful is necessary to meet the other. And, on this side, the demand for reality and practical achievement that exists from the first finds its opportunity and fulfillment. And here there should be infinite variety. If we are to deal at all with these out-of-school interests, and not delude ourselves as to the question of motive in the work, we must find what are the true interests of the particular children we are dealing with. No single scheme of work can apply to all conditions. There must be some kinds of work for the city and others for the country ; some for the school in the tenement districts and some for those in the precincts of the wealthy; some kinds for the towns of the seacoast and others for those of the interior. We must put by the delusion that any one course of work can reach the real interests and stimulate the energies of all classes of children. With the pupil of the primary school, as, indeed, with the pupil of the grammar school, if we are to appeal to the idea of use and expect to find in this idea a real motive, a real incentive, it must be a real use that we offer, not one pictured simply in the teacher's mind. It must be a use that has a real meaning to the individual worker, and one that builds upon the actual conditions of his life. Another quality that demands consideration in this work, as a whole, is the need of variety in our materials and processes. If we consider all our work but as the expression of some real interest of the worker, this matter will take care of itself, for we shall soon see, if we study the range of a child's interests, that they cannot be confined within the possibility of any one material or one process, but that they touch the whole field of his surroundings. Construction in paper and cardboard is extremely practical and valu- able, but work in this medium is only of one kind. Accuracy, symmetry, and regularity are its characteristics, but freedom of expression is want- ing. Other kinds of work that represent other elements, such as freedom, grace, and flexibility, are just as valuable, and should be a part of the handwork experience. Such elements are found, first of all, in clay- modeling, and then in raffia and basketry, simple weaving, sewing, and in bent-iron work. On the other hand, no one kind of work or material is broad enough in its possibilities to express adequately, even in a meager way, the varied interests of school and out-of-school life, of boy and of girl nature. All the practicable and typical constructive processes contribute a share, but only when we draw freely upon the different elements and use one thing and another alone or in combination, as is most suitable for 106 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General our special purpose, shall we reach the natural use of handwork in the school. It is not here a matter of training in any special process; it is a question of using the resources of handwork in the service of the school. Reference has thus far been made solely to the relation of handwork to the nature of the child, but there is another side that the school has to consider, viz., its relation to social life. On the side of the pupil, handwork is a medium of expression in terms of form, color, and mate- rial ; in its relation to social life it is essentially a means of interpreting art and industry. It is the active agent by which the pupil is brought into contact with typical phenomena of these great fields of human activity. The full interpretation of these factors of social life by the school is a task, indeed, that cannot be borne solely by handwork. That, I take it, is to be fully comprehended only thru the gradual readjustment of the curriculum, as a whole, in response to the needs of modern life. The main burden of this task, however, must fall upon actual work with the hands, and this fact should naturally have a bearing upon the selection and organization of material. In the lower grades, or for that matter in any place in the school, the differentiation of either art or industry cannot be carried very far. Only the fundamental activities that concern the very structure of social life can be studied, and these only in their elements. The essential problem in this direction, I conceive, is to trace the evolution of food, clothing, and shelter from their simplest beginnings to some understanding of their meaning in relation to the civilization of today. This meaning of handwork is by no means opposed to its use as an expression medium ; for it is precisely along these channels of social activity, these large interests of the actual world, that the deep instincts of the child issue, and in which he finds his natural desire for power and capacity. These two relations of handwork are, indeed, but two phases of the same problem. One of them sheds light upon the method of instruc- tion ; the other points to the general character of subject-matter. The problems of practicability and expense are, of course, vastly impor- tant ones in regard to this work. All of the above kinds of work entail practical difficulties of one kind or another in the handling of material and in the operation in the regular class-room. And yet the difficulties involved are only material ones — the child stands ready and eager to seize upon these activities and reap incalculable benefit from them when the way is opened. Can we conceive that the way will not be opened and that the practical resourcefulness of the American teacher, when she is convinced of the necessity of these agencies, will not find ways and means to master this problem and bring to bear all these natural resources upon the life of the schoolroom ? The real problem, indeed, at the bottom of this whole question is presented by the grade teacher, for all considerations, economic and Sessions] HANDWORK IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 107 pedagogic, emphasize the necessity that whatever of handwork is done in the primary school must be done by the regular teacher. Even if it were economically possible to consider any other arrangement, it would be pedagogically out of the question. Only the regular teacher can bring the handwork into harmonious relations to the school life and use it as a true medium of expression of the other school work. Herein are at once both the difficulty and the hope of the situation. Difficulty because the grade teacher has commonly had no special training in handwork, and, even when convinced of its value, is apt to regard the whole proposition with diffidence and even dismay. This feeling, I firmly believe, is really a lack of confidence rather than any lack of capacity to deal with the simple processes that are needed. It is because such work has not been a natu- ral element in the experience of teachers, and not because of any inher- ent difficulty in its requirements. The diffidence at undertaking work of this character will, I feel sure, largely disappear when we do away with our set courses that appear so formidable and seem to need so much of technical training, and take up the work in the spirit of natural use ; when we substitute for the idea of teaching handwork the idea of teach- ing thru handwork. When handwork is taken up in this spirit, it ceases to be a thing apart. It is no longer simply so much more work added to an already crowded curriculum, but a helpmeet and assistance in deal- ing with the constant problems of the school. On the other hand, it will be only when the work is approached^ in this spirit, and the regular teacher comes to use handwork expression in the same way that she now uses speech and writing, that handwork will reach its full possibilities in the primary school, or, for that matter, in any other stage of school work. For the primary school is in a sense the strategic center of the whole manual-training movement. When this work is assimilated in the primary school and there brought into organic relations with the school life, it will not be long before its proper func- tion will be understood by all teachers, and the day will have passed by when manual training is thought of as a little work with tools in a room apart from and divorced from all the other interests of the school. When this time comes and manual training shall be reaching out to serve all the natural and varied interests of school life, then, and then only, will handwork come into its full educational inheritance, and then, and then only, will it find its full possibilities as one of the most powerful, because one of the most natural, expressions of child life. I believe that this time will come. It will come, of course, but gradually and perhaps slowly; but, as it comes, we shall find ourselves, I believe, coming into a new era for manual training ; an era when this work will be brought out from its isolation and made an organic instrument of all school work, understood and respected by all teachers as an essential ele- ment in the education of children. 108 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY— THE VALUE OF LITERATURE IN EARLY EDUCATION FREDERICK M. CRUNDEN, LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, ST. LOUIS, MO. I have some hesitancy in presenting to a gathering made up of pro- gressive educators a thesis on the value of literature in education and the benefits to be derived from- the co-operation of school and library. I feel that I may be regarded by some with the amused compassion that an East Indian or Chinese audience would bestow on a speaker who should come forward with an elaborate argument to prove the value of rice as an article of diet. It was not so, however, twenty-five years ago, when I began to talk on the subject. Most teachers then regarded story-books — any books but text-books — as a distraction — a hindrance to class prog- ress and an interference with school discipline. I fear there are some who still hold the same view ; but the number, I am glad to believe, is not large, and is rapidly diminishing. I know how hard pressed teachers are to keep their classes up with the schedule ; and if they decline the co-operation of the library, it is because they look upon this as another weight added to their overburdened shoulders. But this is like the mechanic who works away with blunt tools because he hasn't time to sharpen them. At the present day, to say that the library can be made helpful to the school is to state what seems to us an axiom. But " axiomatic" is, after all, a relative term. What is axiomatic to one person may not be to another of different experience. I remember that it once took me several weeks to impart to a student in geometry a comprehension of and a realiz- ing belief in the axiom, "Two things that are equal to the same thing are equal to each other." Now, my experience as pupil and teacher long ago made the value — the necessity — of literature in early education a self- evident proposition. Long before I read the statement in Sully's Psy- chology, I knew " that the habitual narration of stories, description of places, and so on, is an essential ingredient in the rudimentary stages of education. The child that has been well drilled at home in following stories will, other things being equal, be the better learner at school. The early nurture of the imagination by means of good, wholesome food has much to do with determining the degree of imaginative power, and, through this, of the range of intellectual activity ultimately reached." In his last novel, That Fortune, Charles Dudley Warner criticises an exclusively text-book training in a dialogue between two young men in college. One had come up thru all the regular grades and had entered college from a first-class fitting school ; the other, thruout an unsystematic course of instruction, had enjoyed the run of a good library. The variety and extent of the latter's information is a subject of constant admiration to his better- schooled classmate, who closes the particular conversation Sessions J THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY 1 09 referred to by exclaiming in a tone of vexation : "Well, I might have known something too, if I had not been kept at school all my life." Yes, we have changed, not all that, but much of it. For a new agency has, within a very few years, extended its influence all over the land. The agency I refer to is the co-operation of the public school and the public library. I believe that a majority of teachers now realize what forty years ago was understood only by the most advanced — that the free and joyous activity of the child which is called forth by literature lightens the task of the teacher and is of incalculable benefit to the pupil. To such a teacher of forty years ago I owe the honor of standing before this distinguished audience. To such a teacher of more than three hundred years ago Queen Elizabeth owed her scholarship and her love of learning. Roger Ascham agreed with his friend Wotton that "school should be a place of play and pleasure, and not of fear and bondage." I know such schools today. Their pupils do not make any less creditable showing in schedule work because they enjoy their hours in school — because they at times go, by the teacher's invitation, to visit fairy land, and are allowed to wander at will in the flowery fields of literature. It is early in the evening, and I don't see anybody sleeping ; but I am going to adopt the plan of the preacher who, along about "ninthly," perceived a number of his congregation quietly slumbering in their pews. Choosing a passage from Scripture containing a repetition of the word "fire," he shouted out that word so loudly that all the sleepers awoke, and one or two started for the door. I am going to shock some of you by a strong statement relating to the power of literature to expand the mind and to develop mental muscle. I took it from the lips of a prominent educator — a teacher whom many of you know personally, and probably nearly all know by reputation. Speaking of the relative value of literature and arithmetic, that bete noir of the American school (in wrestling with which, you remember, President Eliot says we waste so much time), my friend gave his views in about the following words : He said he would take a boy of fourteen, of average intellect, whose mind had been developed from earliest childhood by reading the best books, but who had never opened an arithmetic or had an hour's set instruction — who, in short, knew nothing of numbers except what he would inevitably pick up — he "would take such a boy and would guarantee to teach him in six weeks all the arithmetic he need ever know, and as much as he would learn in six years of school instruction." If you think this too strong, remember that the words are not those of a librarian, but of a teacher. If you all admit that it is largely true, it would seem unnecessary to say more. But there is no blinking the fact that there still are teachers who stick to the "three R's]" and the schedule with the same unswerving loyalty that the Honorable Bardwell Slote showed for "the old flag and an appropriation." To these, and to others HO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General who are half-persuaded, I direct my argument, hoping that, thru publica- tion, my remarks may reach a larger audience and one more in need of enlightenment than are teachers who show by their attendance at this convention that they are among the progressive forces of education. As " an ounce of Vinland is better than a pound of cosmography," let me tell, briefly, what has been done in St. Louis in this line of work, premising, first, that we have had a free library only the last seven years, and that we have been greatly hampered by lack of funds, so that our plans were hardly in fair operation till this last season. We have now two hundred and sixty-nine sets of books for circulation in the schools. Each set consists of thirty copies of a book carefully chosen for a certain grade. It is better to send thirty copies of the same book than thirty different books, for two reasons : first, because it enables the teacher to have class exercises ; second, because the interest of each pupil is greatly intensified when all his classmates are reading the same book. It gives them all a common subject of conversation, an edifying topic to supplant the vulgarities of boys and the inanities of girls. And this is one of the incidental benefits of literature in the school, which is of no small importance. These sets of thirty are sent to schools on request of their respective principals, to be kept two weeks, with privilege of renewal for two weeks more. At first we sent the boxes on a regular round thru the schools, but changed the plan when we found that in some schools the books were never unpacked. The books may be used in any way the teacher prefers — either in school or at home. We began with the youngest children, supply- ing to the first grade Caldecott Picture Books, illustrated Mother Goose rhymes, Little Red Riding Hood, Jack and the Bean Stalk, etc. These were followed by Scudder's Fables and Folk Stories, Hiawatha Primer, McMurry's Classic Stories, and similar books, going gradually upward thru these stages : first, nursery rhyme, and picture-book (which could be, and by at least one principal were, used in the kindergarten); second, the fairy tale ; third, the myth"; fourth, the mediaeval legend ; and so on to biography, history, and drama, culminating in Shakespeare's plays for the eighth grade, with striking biographical and historical episodes and nature studies and stories inserted all along the line where they were likely to be understood and enjoyed. I wish to emphasize "enjoyed." That should be kept in view as the immediate object of this reading. Let it be ignored, and the ultimate end is made more difficult, if not impossible, of attainment. There was a very natural preference on the part of many of our teachers for "collateral" reading, that is, reading that has a direct bearing on school studies. There was a disproportionate call for such books as Coe's Modern Europe and Carpenter's Asia. To meet this call fully would, I fear, cut out many books of sheer delight — such books as will inculcate a love of the best reading and lead to the gathering of vastly Sessions] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY III greater information than can possibly be obtained during the few years of a grammar-school course. Don't try too often to palm off semi- disguised text-books on the children. Don't frighten your fish with a bare hook. Library books should, as far as possible, be dissociated from lessons and task work. Let them be as informing as may be, but they should stand primarily for pleasure and inspiration. The sets that have found least favor are those on science and that excellent series, the Heart of Oak books — the latter presumably because they lack illustra- tions. The favorites during the past year were The Prince and the Pauper ; Hans Brinker ; Stories from Homer and Virgil; Old Greek Stories; Old Sto- ries of the East; Adventures of a Brownie; Little Lame Prince; The Lang Fairy Books; Ln Mythland; Stories of the Red Children; Scudder's Book of Legends; Lobo, Rag and Vixen; and Swiss Family Robinson. Ninety per cent, of the work thus far has been done in the lowest grades. Of our grammar schools thirty-three made constant use of these sets, twenty used them occasionally,, and thirty-three made no use of them. Most of these -last are outlying schools, to which the library was unable to send the traveling sets, while some reported that they had a sufficient supply in the books furnished by the board of education. Fourteen schools — among those mentioned above as too far distant to be supplied with the traveling boxes — were made depositories, or branch libraries, with as many as fifty volumes to each room. Six night schools, also, were supplied with sets of books. Thru these agencies a total of 119,708 volumes was issued during the school year — nearly double the number of the previous year. If the library can provide the books, I believe the issue will show an equal ratio of increase next year. "Well," the skeptic may say, "what of it? Suppose the children did read so many story-books? What does it .signify?" I have already quoted Sully as to the value of this reading. Let me give a few extracts from reports made by our teachers. These reports contain answers to three specific questions : x. What value do you attach to literature and supplementary reading in connection with the school curriculum ? 2. What effect has the general reading done by the pupils of your school had on their progress in their studies ? 3. Do you find the books supplied by the library an aid to discipline ? A few replies must serve to illustrate the general tenor of all. I. 1. The cultivation of a taste for good literature should be, it seems to me, one of the chief aims of the school curriculum. The development of a higher morality and a truer culture and refinement — which, after all, is the final aim of education — can best, and perhaps only, be accomplished by the encouragement of a closer and closer acquaintance with our best literature. I attach to well-directed general reading as high a value as to any subject taught in the schools. 2. Its effect upon the progress of the children has been daily more apparent. It has H2 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [General given information which has been helpful in all of the studies, especially geography and history ; and the language of the children has been greatly improved. 3. I consider supplementary reading as good in itself, and, therefore, cannot regard with favor the conscious use of it as a means for maintaining discipline. Nevertheless, like any subject which thoroly interests the children, it leads them into voluntary appli- cation, and so assists in cultivating that spirit which, in the end, eliminates the problem of discipline. II. 1. The literature furnished by the public library has been of incalculable value. It has supplied us with the larger part of our material for oral reading. It has been the basis of most of our oral language work. It has been both the inspiration and the basis for most of our composition work. The books taken into the homes from the school have been helpful to the entire community. 2. Much of our reading has been very helpful to the language work, geography, and history. 3. It is a very great aid in discipline, both directly and indirectly. Indirectly, thru effect upon character. Directly, by giving pupils something they love to do. III. 1. Of immense value to all our pupils, but especially to the poor child that can attend school but a very few years. 2. Assists their progress in their studies, awakens and deepens their interest in the subject, adds to thought and information, and changes dry studies into the exchange of ideas, the answering of aroused curiosity, and fixes facts more permanently in the memory. 3. The books supplied by the library are an aid to discipline. They change the current of pupils' thoughts, and put them in a better and happier state of mind — more conducive to study and improvement. IV. 1. The literature furnished by the library has put a life into the reading exercise that it didn't have before. It has made reading the principal study in the course. 2. It has been of great advantage to pupils, has made them enjoy the exercises, has increased their fluency, has brought them to know books and to want to find out about others. 3. Yes, an aid to discipline, decidedly. Pupils are interested in the exercise ; con- sequently they are attentive and orderly. V. 1. Great value. 2. Broadens the pupil and gives him greater interest in his regular work. 3. Anything that awakens a child's interest aids in disciplining him. When the child becomes sufficiently awakened to realize his own interest, the necessity for discipline is largely removed. This supplementary reading has had that effect. I consider it a great aid. VI. I consider the literature in the supplementary readers of great value in obtaining fluency, a working command of good language, and cultivation of the imagination, not supplied by any subject in the course of study. It is very helpful in discipline — lessening, indeed, the need for discipline. VII. Here is a brief extract from another letter : There can be no doubt of the helpfulness of the public library reading sets in the school. It is the universal experience with us that pupils who do most and best supple- mentary reading succeed best in all of their work. Most of the difficulty experienced by Sessions] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY 113 the children in the study of arithmetic and geography, for instance, is due to their inability to read the subject-matter correctly. This defect is largely removed by the aid of supplementary reading. VIII. I prize very highly the supplementary reading in connection with the school cur- riculum. The general reading has caused their minds to grow and broaden and deepen, enabling them to comprehend more readily the ideas conveyed by the printed page. IX. A principal of many years' experience writes : One of the greatest blessings conferred on children is providing them with abundance of judiciously selected supplementary reading. The enlargement of the horizon around the child, the increasing of his vocabulary, the encouragement to go to the fountain-head and there drink more deeply at the great source of supply — the public library — all follow in natural order. I believe discipline grows easier from year to year. The abundant supply of reading matter to be taken up as soon as lessons are learned has contributed largely to this result. I asked some of my most competent assistants their opinion of the value of books from the library. The reply was : " Look at the faces of the pupils as they are using the books. See how absorbed they are in following the story. The book is new to them. All the charms of novelty gather around the subject." X. The head assistant in the Columbia School sums up by saying : Supplementary reading, especially in the lower grades, is worth all the rest of the school work. The St. Louis school in which most reading is done is the Columbia. It goes without saying that it is one of the best schools in the city. At my request, the principal, Mr. Charles L. Howard, furnished me with a general statement of his views on the educational value of. literature, and the methods by which it is made the chief feature in his school. I should like to quote the whole of his report ; but, not to overrun my time limit, I must content myself with a few extracts : We make no parade of "literature work" or of supplementary reading. The latter term is a misnomer ; it is misleading ; what others term supplementary reading in my school is the whole thing. We have two forms of reading at the Columbia School. First, a form of class work, in which the material for use has come to be selected on a basis of interest, and what appears to be a natural appreciation of the Herbartian theory of the culture epochs. After the second grade or year there is no teaching of reading lessons, in the ordinary use of that term. There is no preparation of reading lessons for recita- tion. Generally each class in a given grade reads the list of books given as available for its grade — sometimes less, oftener more. Sometimes a third- or fourth-grade class reads Evangeline, Miles Standish, The Merchant of Venice, or Julius Ccesar, with exquisite satisfaction. I have seen a second-year class enthusiastic over the Pied Piper and Horatius at the Bridge. [Let me interject here that I have seen children not yet in the first grade enjoying these same poems.] Things are read as wholes. For no one ever reads Cassius' plea with Brutus, then runs off to find the whole play ; but generally one who reads The Merchant of Venice first turns again and again to the court scene. These books have generally the characteristics of the classics ; and so we know that from pure 114 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General interest our pupils do a vast amount of valuable reading, from which they get facility in reading, a vast store of useful information, broad views, independent notions, and an acquaintance with the material which, molded in the master-mind, gives beauty, grace, vigor, and endurance to the best literature. The second form of reading in the school relates to the use of miscellaneous books independent of the school work. In this connection reading is encouraged, but no supervision of it is assumed. About six hundred pupils in the school have tickets in the public library. They appear to be in constant use. In 1898-99 we collected reports of "outside readings." In eight months seven hundred pupils reported something over ten thousand books read. They were mostly what I should call for myself " good books." .... The most pernicious books come into the hands of children thru the suggestion of well-meaning people who are ignorant or thoughtless of their influence — such books as set up false ideals, inflame feeling, discolor fancy, and distort judgment ; the kind of books that used to abound in Sunday-school libraries. The real value of this work cannot be told. The influence is mainly realized in conduct and character. Our friends are sometimes disturbed over the freedom in our work ; but it is observed that the freedom allowed naturally secures a basis of interest which tends to make the reading thoughtful ; that those who read most widely accomplish most in other forms of school work ; that the effect upon conduct is most salutary, showing in no case a bad result from the reading habit ; that the ordinary nature-study books do not appeal to children strongly enough to secure voluntary reading as wholes ; that the " classics " tend to supplant everything sensational or weak ; that natural children make as few errors in selecting for themselves as their elders make in selecting for them ; that the " bad " books generally appear but once ; that a book is on the whole good or bad as determined by the attitude of the mind toward it. An interesting experiment in the teaching of literature was tried in the St. Louis High School the past season. A full account of methods and results will be given before the Library Department by Mr. P. M. Buck, who had charge of the work. I will merely say that the public library supplied to the high school about five hundred volumes, in multiple copies, of the best American and English authors of the century, seven hundred cards were issued to the pupils, and more than twelve thousand volumes were drawn by them. We see, then, that a consensus of the St. Louis teachers who have welcomed the aid of the library is that general reading is " helpful in all the studies;" that it possesses "as high a value as anything taught in the schools," while two teachers consider it "worth all the rest of the school work;" that it is "of immeasurable value to all pupils, but especially to the poor child;" that "pupils who do most and best supplementary reading succeed best in all their work ; " that it is " a great aid to discipline directly and thru effect on character ; " that " it puts children in a better and happier frame of mind — more conducive to study;" that "its influence is mainly realized in conduct and character ; " and finally that "the books taken into the homes have been helpful to the entire community." Could we ask for anything more? Promotes progress in all studies ! Aids discipline ! Improves conduct and forms character ! Sessions] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY 115 And, lastly, reaches out into the homes and educates parents and older brothers and sisters. And, now, as a climax and summary to this testimony from teachers, I must quote, tho it be for the »th time, these words of President Eliot : From the total training during childhood there should result in the child a taste for interesting and improving reading, which should direct and inspire its subsequent intel- lectual life. That schooling which results in this taste for good reading, however unsys- tematic and eccentric the schooling may have been, has achieved a main end of elementary education ; and that schooling which does not result in implanting this permanent taste has failed. In that thoughtful and stimulating essay, Culture without College, Dr. Gannett gives as the three great agencies of education, "the three chief teachers — work, society, and books." This cannot be disputed ; but as to the order of the instrumentalities named — while they are to such great extent reciprocal and interactive — I am inclined to think that, for the great mass of children, books, if brought into their lives early enough and constantly enough, may easily be made the controlling influence; for the standards and ideals obtained from good books will largely determine both companionship and kind and quality of work. Ignoring the other two factors creates, as Dr. Gannett says, a dwarf ; and if the bookish education is "mere text-book education," the result is a "dwarf of a dwarf." The influences of our active life tend to reduce to a very small number the first tribe of pygmies ; and the recent development of co-operation between school and library promises, in a short time, the extinction of the latter minified manikin. To determine the value of the library, or of any other educational agency or adjunct, we must agree upon what is education — we must decide what it is we seek to do for the child in giving him " an educa- tion." Do we — can we — send out educated boys and girls from the grammar school at fourteen, or from the high school at eighteen? Can we do more for them than teach them how to read and make reading interesting to them ? It is for these, the oof per cent., I speak. As to the £ per cent, of college graduates, if they have been started right, they need give us no concern. What, then, is the purpose of education ? One purpose is to enable the boy to make a living. Yes, but very little suffices for that. I have known men scarcely able to read who had much larger incomes than any of us. To make good citizens. Unquestionably that is what most concerns society. It includes, of course, ability to make a living and much more. But how is the ordinary school curriculum to fit the child for the duties of citizenship ? How is he to grow morally strong on an exclusive diet of text-books ? How can a knowledge of the capes and rivers of Asia, of the tables of Troy and apothecaries' weight, and of other useless and unentertaining facts give the child any idea of his rights and duties as a social being? What nurture for the imagination — which is I 16 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General so necessary a first step in mental awakening — what nurture for the imagination does the child get from hours spent in finding the greatest common divisor and least common multiple ? I speak feelingly of this particular grind, for I recall many tedious hours wasted on it. My little boy of five and a half got more mental development from having Stanley Waterloo's Story of Ab read to him three or four times than I did at twice his age out of many weeks of tiresome work over the greatest common divisor and the least common multiple. And to this must be added the intense enjoyment the story afforded — and, above all, the desire for more knowledge which it awakened. It is not necessary to discuss the question whether pleasure is the chief end of life, but we must agree that a life which has known no pleasure is a blighted nubbin, a stunted tree, a sorry spectacle. In every human soul there is an insistent demand for pleasure in some form. This cry is most clamorous in childhood. With the child, indeed, pleasure is the mainspring of action, the central object of desire. Shall we check or ignore this longing for the joy of life when it takes the form of a thirst for knowledge, of a craving for high companionship, of the fresh soul's aspirations toward the ideal ? And is there any greater pleasure to the child who has been early led to a liking for literature than to lose himself in the pages of a fascinating book ? I have known more than one healthy, active-bodied boy who had not yet learned to read, who would gladly leave a game to listen to a reading from such a book as Hiawatha, Tanglewood Tales, or Stories from the Fairy Queen. Pleasure is essential to the young life. Without enjoyment it cannot blossom, but is blighted and withered like a plant without water. If, then, we take no account of the culture and inspiration of literature, if we regard it merely as a means of pleasure, we cannot deny it to the child. We owe it to the nation, which intrusts us, as educational experts, with the development of its children ; we owe it to our high office to see that this elevating pleasure early enters into the lives of the young people committed to our care. If for no other reason than the substitution of higher for lower, of intel- lectual for physical enjoyment, it is our duty to inculcate in our young charges "this habit of reading," which, as Anthony Trollope says, "is a pass to the greatest, the purest, the most perfect pleasure that God has prepared for his creatures." We can recall incidents of our childhood which illustrate the various sources from which pleasure came to us ; and we find the emotional life of a child charmingly pictured in Pierre Loti's Romance of a Child. This little book shows how objects and events, striking from their brightness, their somberness, their horror, or even their mere suggestiveness, make instant and indelible impressions on the "super-sensitized plates of the young mind. Now, every boy and girl cannot be brought up in a country house with a pretty garden containing old fruit trees and a fountain, with Sessions] THE SCHOOL AND THE LIBRARY 117 views of magnificent sunsets across field and marsh and sands to a stretch of the illimitable ocean. Not every boy has a forest to roam thru in summer, or an island with its novel life to enjoy. Not every embryo man, like the hero of Edith Lanigan's charming sketch in the January Atlantic, finds in his father's library the means of aerial trips to all countries and ages, personally conducted by the most affable and entertaining guides. But every boy and girl can, and should, be supplied by school and library with voyages to all lands, with cinematographic views of man's upward progress, with mental pictures of forests, seas, and islands — famous islands such as Treasure Island and Crusoe's island ; vast forests inhabited by pygmies and gorillas ; seas of Sinbad and the Maelstrom and the Ancient Mariner. Above all, every child should be furnished with winged cap and shoes that will bear him to the realm of fancy and fairy land. Every child should be introduced, not only to Alexander and Hannibal and Caesar, to Franklin and Washington and Lincoln, but also — and earlier — to those even more interesting, those fascinating per- sonages, Little Jack Horner, the Three Bears, and Cinderella; Quick- silver, Perseus, and Ulysses ; King Arthur, Sir Lancelot, and the Red Cross Knight; Christian and Robin Hood and Mowgli. All this the school and the library, working together, can do for the children of the nation. Especially to children of narrow home horizon, of sordid, and perhaps vicious, surroundings, are we called upon to give glimpses of the great world into which they have been born, some conception of the heritage which they may claim, and of its cost to countless generations in blood and tears, in sorrow and suffering. We can fill the white tablets of their minds with beautiful pictures which will cheer them thru life ; we can impart to them an ambition and a determination to make the most of their powers; we can implant in their souls ideals which will lead them away from sordid desires and base pursuits, and make them better citizens of the republic. Is not this the purpose of education ? When I say "we," I mean teacher and librarian. The librarian alone cannot do it. And, let me add, the teacher can never reach this goal with the text-book for his only staff. A farmer might as well hope to raise fine horses and oxen on an exclusive diet of dry oat straw or corn shucks. Achievement and character are based on the ideal. Whence is the child to gain high ideals ? For the average child there is but one source — the lives and utterances of the idealists of the world — the dreamers, the prophets of all ages. They will teach him what education is, what char- acter is, and how precious it is above all things. They will teach him that the total of philosophy is not summed up in Iago's "Put money in thy purse;" that he may gain wealth and be impoverished in soul ; they will show him that he may master science, but that "the measuring rod of science can never measure the ends of living ; " they will make I 18 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General clear to him that " though he speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not love, he is as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal." As a citizen, too, he will realize that it is not prosperity, "it is not piety but righteousness that exalteth a nation." While possessed of the spirit of righteousness, he will not be devoid of piety. He will have the all- pervading piety that Dr. Harris speaks of — "the piety not merely of the heart, but the piety of the intellect that beholds the truth, the piety of the will that does good deeds wisely, the piety of the senses that sees the beautiful and realizes it in works of art." My friends, as I said in the beginning that it seemed a work of super- erogation to urge co-operation of school and library before this body of alert and advanced educators, so, in conclusion, I must offer the over- powering importance of the subject as my excuse for giving final emphasis to a thought which I hope is never wholly absent from our minds and is the guiding influence of our lives — the supreme importance of the work intrusted to us. As Wendell Phillips said : "Education is the only interest worthy the deep, controlling anxiety of the thoughtful man." In Louise Jordan Miln's Little Folk of Many Lands I find this strik- ing presentation of the thought I wish to leave with you in closing. As she and her father were seated on the Italian seashore one day, " he pointed to the half-clad children playing near. 'There is nothing in all the world so important as children,' he said, 'nothing so interesting. If you ever wish to go in for some philanthropy, if you ever wish to be of any real use in the world, do something for children. If you ever yearn to be truly wise, study children. We can dress the sore, bandage the wounded, imprison the criminal, heal the sick, and bury the dead ; but there is always a chance that we can save a child. If the great army of philanthropists ever exterminate sin and pestilence, ever work our race's salvation, it will be because a little child has led them." SOME OF OUR MISTAKES PRINCIPAL G. M. GRANT, QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, KINGSTON, ONTARIO, CANADA This is a safe subject to take when addressing an educational associa- tion anywhere, whose object must be mutual criticism rather than mutual admiration. Is not the object of all true educators to stimulate thought and correct mistakes, that we may profit by the shortcomings of the past and make present life more complete? It may, indeed, be said that I know too little of the United States to speak with any authority concern- ing their mistakes. That is perfectly true, and you must, therefore, con- sider that my speech refers mainly to Canada, tho, as all here are fellow- workers and the conditions of the two countries are in the main alike, I Sessions] SOME OF OUR MISTAKES HQ may be permitted to take the position of confessing common sins, instead of acting as the "ill bird which fouls its own nest." You are the older, wealthier, and more populous country, and it may even be, thru our giving you that sincerest form of flattery known as imitation, that you are responsible for our mistakes, as well as for your own, in educational as in commercial matters. As regards the latter, by affinity to Great Britain and tradition, as well as by reason, we are free-traders ; but you are steadily influencing us into becoming protectionists; and tho our wall against your products and manufactures is not yet anything like so bad as your wall against us, it is clear to me that ours will get worse if yours does not get better. We sympathize, you see, with the brotherliness of the moderate drinker who, going home with unsteady gait, saw a more thorogoing toper lying in the ditch: "I cannot help you up, my dear fellow, but I can lie down beside you." Our first great mistake is that we have systematically undervalued the teaching profession. If mind is greater than the body, if ideas are more important than dollars, and character of more consequence than anything else, then only the best and the best-trained men and women should be allowed to teach, and these should be honored above every other class in the community. How dreadfully we have failed here ! Public-school teachers are often no better taught and no better paid than clerks or mill- girls ; some high-school teachers have not even our easily attained college degree, and not a few university professors would not be allowed a post in a German gymnasium. We think that anyone can teach our children, and, therefore, those who offer to teach for the smallest salaries are pre- ferred by boards of trustees. As the history of the world is the judgment of the world, let us ask what its judgment is regarding the importance of teachers. According to its verdict, they have been the great benefactors of the world both in the East and in the West. To this day, the educated youth of Britain, of the United States, and of Europe sit at the feet of those two great teach- ers, Plato and Aristotle, when studying for the highest degree in literat humaniores. Plato and Aristotle again were the disciples of that genuine teacher, Socrates, who taught the youth of Athens so effectually that they gave him hemlock to drink, a reward such as was usually given to the prophets of Israel. What a tribute to the intellectual supremacy of Socra- tes have the centuries steadily paid, because he insisted on getting to a rational foundation for life and tested every other foundation with quiet, remorseless dialectic ! His spirit, thru his disciples, has ruled all the western world from his urn for more than 2,000 years. The phrase which the Greeks used with regard also to their great dramatists was that ^Eschylus taught this, that Sophocles taught this, that Euripides taught this. In other words, each play was a lesson, and the poet was a teacher. Go to the East, and the record is the same. Buddhism is the most widely 120 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General spread religion there. The Buddha was simply a teacher, one who taught his disciples the secret of life and character, making the deepest truths familiar to all by means of parables, like Him of whom it was said that without a parable he taught nothing. Who, again, is the man that the teeming millions of China have revered for twenty-five centuries, to whom they raise temples, and who has molded their compact civilization ? Confucius, who from first to last was a teacher, who, while secretary of state or prime minister, based his successful administration on what he had taught his disciples, and who retired from his high office to resume the work of teaching, when his aim was deemed too high by a sovereign who had yielded to sensual temptations. Going higher still, by what title was Jesus known, during all his public life ? By the title of rabbi, or teacher. He taught the inner circle of his disciples and the multitudes, "without hasting, without resting." What was the great characteristic of all these teachers ? They taught with authority. Every one of them knew his subject, took it seriously, loved it for its own sake, continually found new wealth in it, was enthu- siastic about it, and so made his disciples enthusiastic. To come in con- tact with such a mind is of itself a liberal education. That is what Garfield meant when he defined a college as President Hopkins sitting on one end of a log and he on the other end. Such a teacher makes his subject interesting to his scholars, unless they are hopelessly bad or hope- lessly imbecile. Because we seldom get such teachers, we demand sub- jects of study which in themselves are interesting, such as dime novels, shilling shockers, penny dreadfuls, Henry's histories, and the sporting columns of yellow journals. Fond parents, seeing the dear children devouring literature of this kind, are filled with admiration at their devo- tion to books and love of learning, and sigh over the educational advan- tages which this generation has, compared with the condition of things in their days. The scholars should, of course, be interested. But there is a great difference between interesting by inspiring and by amusing or exciting. We seldom attempt more than the latter. We have sub- stituted for discipline merely interest. Here I touch on the second great error we have made. Thru not caring to get the best teachers and not valuing the best, we are con- tinually on the hunt for a royal road to knowledge. There is no royal road. To become educated, a man must work, an.d work is what the natural man hates. Unless we overcome that bad, deep-seated instinct, we do not educate. Nothing is so destructive to manhood or womanhood as laziness. There has been much talk in our day of the dangers of strong drink, and of the thousands ruined by drunkenness. It would be more to the purpose to talk of the danger of idleness, and of the tens of thousands it ruins. Everyone can see that drunkenness is a sin, but few see the sin of mental inertia. A good school is one that has a good Sessions] SOME OF OUR MISTAKES I 2 1 teacher; and the good teacher, when he is allowed a free hand, does not let children pick and choose what they themselves find interesting, but makes them learn accurately what has been thought out as the best course for mental discipline and character-building. As Professor Miinsterberg, in an article on "School Reform" in the Atlantic Monthly for May, 1900, puts it : He who is allowed always to follow the paths of least resistance never develops the power to overcome resistance ; he remains utterly unprepared for life. To do what we like to do, that needs no pedagogical encouragement; water always runs down hill. Our whole public and social life shows the working of this impulse, and our institutions outbid one another in catering to the taste of the public. The school alone has the power to develop the opposite tendency, to encourage and train the belief in duties and obligations, to inspire devotion to better things than those to which we are drawn by our lower instincts. Yes, water runs down hill all the time ; and yet all the earth were sterile and dead if water could not ascend again to the clouds and supply rain to the field which brings us the harvest. We see only the streams going down to the ocean ; we do not see how the ocean sends up the waters to bless our fields. Just so do we see in the streams of life the human emotions following the impulses down to selfishness and pleasure and enjoyment, but we do not see how the human emotions ascend again to the ideals — ascend in feelings of duty and enthusiasm ; and yet without this upward move- ment our fields were dry, our harvest lost. That invisible work is the sacred mission of the school ; it is the school that must raise man's mind from his likings to his belief in duties, from his instincts to his ideals, that art and science, national honor and morality, friendship and religion may spring from the ground and blossom. Our third great error is that we have imagined that there is a royal road to the making of good teachers. There is not. Good teachers cannot be extemporized or made in a hurry. They cannot be made by the mere teaching of psychology, pedagogy, or methods. Something infinitely more important is needed. Content is always more important than form. What is the good of your method, if you have nothing to teach ? A good teacher must know thoroly what he has to teach. If it is English, he should know English literature, and to know that he must be a classical scholar, must know and love the great masters, and have made at least one epoch or department his own, so that he might write intelligently regarding its relations to the whole. So with every other subject that he may be called on to teach. Here again Miinster- berg has some words of wisdom for us : I had no teacher who hastily learned one day what he must teach me the next ; who was satisfied with second-hand knowledge, which is quite pretty for entertainment and orientation, but which is so intolerable and inane when we come to distribute it and to give it to others. I had from my ninth year [the age at which German boys usually enter the gymnasium] no teacher in any subject who had not completed three years' work in the graduate school. Even the first elements of Greek and mathematics, of history and geography, were given to us by men who had reached the level of the doctorate, and who had the perspective of their own fields A great poet once said that any man who has ever really loved in his youth can never become quite unhappy in life. A man who has ever really taken a scholarly view of his science can never find in that science anything which is quite uninteresting. Such enthusiasm is contagious. We boys felt 122 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General that our teachers believed with the fullness of their hearts in the inner value of the sub- jects, and every new bit of knowledge was thus for us a new revelation. We did not ask whether it would bake bread for us. We were eager for it, on account of its own inner richness and value. "We did not ask whether it would bake bread for us" ! How unprac- tical ! How unlike the British author, who, writing recently on what he calls "the curse of education," says: "The children of agricultural laborers and small farmers are given instruction which will be of no earthly use to them in the occupation for which they are naturally fitted." Of course, they should from infancy be taught only how to dig and scrub. Why should they be sent to school at all? "French and mathe- matics," he says, "are equally valueless accomplishments for the carting of manure." The London Spectator very naturally asks : "Does he want them taught to cart manure?" In Canada as in the States, we get our best students from the farms. This so-called "practical" mode of teaching existed in full perfection at Dotheboys Hall. Mr. Squeers expounded it to his assistant, Mr. Nickleby: "First boy — c-1-e-a-n, clean ; w-i-n-d-e-r, winder ; go and clean the winder. Where's the second boy?" " Please, sir, he's weeding the garden." "To be sure, so he is. That's our system, Nickleby. B-o-t, bot ; t-i-n, tin ; n-e-y, ney; bottinney. When he knows that out of a book, he goes into the garden. Third boy — what's a horse ?" "A beast, sir." "So it is. Now, as you're perfect in that, go and look after my horse, and rub him down^well, or I'll rub you down." This educational system of Mr. Squeers is systematized now in some places and dignified by the name of manual or technical training. In my day we got what is good in it from our jack-knives and fishing rods, in the playground or the garden or the woods, and the school hours were taken up with serious work ; but 1 suppose " new occasions teach new duties." In Germany a man must have passed the exit examination of the gymnasium, equal to our B.A. or M.A., and then studied three or four years in the university before he can teach in a German gymnasium ; but we do not need to engage university men to instruct children in the use of tools or in the mysteries of the kitchen. I myself doubt whether the school is the place for such departments. There is still room in our social system for the house and the workshop. Technical schools of the best kind we do need, but their work should be based on a sound general education, given in the common and high school and — for those who are to be leaders in modern industries and professions — in the univer- sity. As to the education a teacher requires, nothing can take the place of a university training, where the student is taught to think, but it is folly for him to go there until he has been drilled into accurate scholarship at a good secondary school, like the English public school or the German gymnasium. The modern craze for psychology, as the one thing needful for teachers, has its origin in our consciousness that something has been Sessions] SOME OE OUR MISTAKES 123 lacking and in our faith in short-cuts. For the mass of teachers psychology is a snare; not a help, but a hindrance ; as much so as Saul's armor would have been to the shepherd lad in his fight with Goliath. I believe in studying psychology, but not for the purpose of teaching ; for psychol- ogy deals with abstractions, whereas the teacher has to deal with very concrete human beings, who require in their teacher full knowledge, honesty of purpose, and warm, personal interest in his pupils. I once heard a normal-school teacher expatiating to his students on the advan- tages of psychology in explaining the beauty of a rose ! Another showed that if they only knew psychology they would never stand between their class and the blackboard when they were writing on it the exercise that had to be copied. On both occasions it was evident that Mesopo- tamia was a sweet word. Such a work as that of Dr. W. T. Harris on Psychologic Foundations of Education is not for our ordinary teachers. It is as completely beyond them as Kant's Critique or Hegel's Philosophy of Right — excellent of its kind, but demanding the trained faculties of the reflective honor graduate. Our first mistake, then, is that we have undervalued the teaching pro- fession ; our second, that there is a royal road for children to become educated ; and our third, that there is a royal road for men or women to become competent teachers. How shall we avoid these mistakes ? The mistakes are radical and rooted in low ideals of life. Until these are replaced in popular estimation by higher ideals, we must stumble along as we have been stumbling in the past. But, depend upon it, we suffer for our mistakes. What would you have us do? Honor the teaching profession by giving inducements to the ablest men to enter and remain in it. That is done in the old country. There is a career there for teachers. The heads of the great public schools, for instance, receive far higher salaries than the heads of universities on this continent. The archbishop of Canterbury, in rank, comes next to princes of blood ; and of the last four archbishops three were headmasters. Heads of colleges and universities have a recognized high social position. Professors who have a taste for public life are elected to the House of Commons. Others receive peerages. An improvement has taken place as regards salaries in the United States within the last decade or two, but there is room for improvement all along the line. At present the teaching profession is commonly regarded merely as a stepping-stone to other professions or occupations, which of course is an infallible sign that in public esteem it is the lowest of all professions. Again, honor the teaching profession by your attitude to it in the home. Nothing in Germany and in Scotland struck me more than the contrast between their home attitude and ours. Education was taken seriously. The hours for lunch, dinner, and social engagements were i24 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General arranged to suit the school hours. Teachers were spoken of with respect, and their decisions accepted without question. No one assumed that lessons could be learned without study, or that difficult subjects should be set aside at the whim of youngsters. Intellectual levity is as much the prevailing note with us as intellectual seriousness is with them. Finally, in the long run, the teachers' attitude to learning will deter- mine the attitude of the people. If they regard it as a means to material ends, it will be so regarded universally. If they consider that their edu- cation is finished, no wonder if education is classed with finite and exter- nal things. But if they believe that they have not attained, and are pressing on to far-distant horizons, the point of view of the public will gradually change with regard both to them and their profession. SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE CURRICULUM PROFESSOR GEORGE E. VINCENT, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. Rousseau looked back longingly to the days when prehistoric men lived in primal virtue a happy and blameless life. In somewhat the same way, when we confront the complex and baffling problems of today, we think enviously of the simple existence of our primitive ancestors. They held neither convention nor institute. They were innocent of round tables. They solved the puzzles of life one by one as best they could, but they reflected little on their aims and methods. The education which they gave their children fitted them for the life of the group. The simple sum of social knowledge was easily communicated. The primitive dex- terities, handicrafts, and social virtues were passed on chiefly by contact of children with parents. Where each man knew all there was to know, and could do all that anyone did, education was relatively simple. But as knowledge and dexterity increased, they came to overburden single minds; division of labor, intellectual as well as manual, began. Primitive philoso- phy became the province of the " medicine men," whose successors are the philosophers, theologians, scientists, preachers, and teachers of today. With the centuries the growing mass of human knowledge has been more and more minutely subdivided; man's world has been resolved into its elements. But along with this analysis has always gone the effort to patch the pieces together, to keep man's experience whole. This great antithesis appears in our current educational theory and practice. On the one hand, we find the constant pressure of new subjects which clamor for admission to the curriculum ; on the other hand, we hear the cry for cor- relation, co ordination, concentration. It is urged that the life of the child must not be broken up into unrelated fragments ; that all these artificially divided studies must be related and kept in unity in the child's growing mind. Sessions] SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE CURRICULUM 125 Still another tendency asserts itself. We hear much in these days of "the social aspects of education," of-" the sociological basis of educa- tion," of " the school as a community," and of " school and society." If one may risk the interpretation of vague movements of thought such as these, I venture to assert that this social tendency of education is only another aspect of the inevitable process by which men struggle to see things whole. The conception of the origin and development of the nature and end of society sweeps into unity all the fragmentary knowl- edge of mankind. The socializing of education, then, is an effort to give pupils, little by little, a way of looking at society which shall enable them gradually to see things in their relations, to order conduct, and to contrib- ute something to the stability and enrichment of the life they live in common with their fellows. Those who cultivate history, economics, politics, anthropology, and sociology, and who believe that social science in a large sense has an all- important role to play in education, are naturally concerned to know what relation these studies may sustain to the elementary and secondary schools. They know that these subjects are at present almost wholly university pursuits, but they remember that certain of the studies which in recent years have crept into the high school and the grades have made their way downward from the institutions of higher learning. The study of science affords a conspicuous illustration. Geology and botany, zoology and physiology, gradually lose their identity as they are traced thru the high school down into the grades, where they merge into the undif- ferentiated protoplasm called "nature study." This process may well serve as a model to those who are anxious to see the social sciences influ- ence the earlier years of the school. And yet I fancy that none of these social scientists, with all their desire to gain admission to the grades, wish to increase the number of subjects now included in that interesting mosaic known as the common-school curriculum. They simply ask for a larger interpretation of the subjects which are now taught, or, perhaps better, the use of these subjects, enriched in some degree, as vehicles of social knowledge and ideals. Education is essentially a socializing process. Every group educates its members by many devices. This education is always going on. The school is only one agency of this process, and it must adjust its aims and methods to the great social forces which are molding the young in a multiplicity of ways. A study of the social sciences suggests to those who control the schools the principles which must be followed, as well as the materials of instruction and inspiration by which the development of the young into socialized citizens may be furthered. Social science has already a place in the curriculum. Almost every subject now taught has its social aspects, and these are in many cases emphasized. But not until the teacher looks at these subjects from the 126 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General point of view of social science can the curriculum yield its richest results in knowledge and character. The plea I have to make, then, is not a plea for anthropology in the second or third grades, nor a demand for sociology in the high school, but an urgent appeal for the unifying of the curriculum by a social philosophy concealed in the lower stages from the pupils, but clearly present in the mind of the teacher. Let us trace for a moment the inevitable process by which knowledge grows with advancing years in the mind of the child. In the first stage we have the isolated bits of knowledge, related here and there, and now and then to the shifting interests of the young mind; the story complete in itself, the fact or explanation which solves the problem of the moment. The eager growing mind stores itself with these fragmentary, fascinating things. Then follows the stage in which small groups of these interesting images are brought into relationship. The exhilaration which comes with this putting of things together is known to every teacher. Gradually the process grows wider and more definite. The smaller groups of fact are merged in ever larger and more significant unities, until finally, with the upper grades and the high school, the period of systematic reflection dawns. The early experiences of childhood are re-read and re-interpreted in the light of the larger knowledge. Generalization in its legitimate form is made possible by the preparation of the earlier years. It is thus that nature study in the kindergarten and in the lower grades is gradually organized into the "ologies" of high school and college. In similar fashion the social scientist demands for children the concrete knowledge and experiences out of which, in due time, logical sciences and practical wisdom may develop. In providing appropriate materials, two aims must be kept constantly in mind : the genuine interests of the child at different stages of his growth, and the maturer view of life toward which this growth is to be guided. The child's interests are at first supreme, but even if this be granted, there are choices of appropriate facts and occupations, and these choices must be determined by the ultimate end in view. The socializing movement is well under way. In kindergarten and elementary school social materials have long been recognized. The simple industrial processes of weaving, clay-modeling, wood-working, and food preparation have been utilized, but in rather too convention- alized a way. We note in Professor John Dewey's theory and practice the beginnings of a movement back to nature, or rather back to primitive manufacture. Children weave baskets rather than paper mats. They mold pottery rather than balls and cubes. They make looms and wag- ons and houses rather than conventional elements of carpentry. They cook food for actual use instead of making premature experiments in physics and chemistry. Thus manual training may be socialized in the sense that it may be brought closer to social life and its actual activities, Sessions] SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE CURRICULUM 127 past and present. In later stages it becomes inevitably and properly more conventionalized, specialized, and precise. About these industrial processes naturally gather ideas as to the util- izing of raw materials, the working of them into finished products, the comparison of crude, primitive processes with the highly organized production of today. It is impossible to deal with these topics without grouping about them many facts of social and industrial history; thus the idea of change in human affairs, the ideas of organized industry and of commerce gradually emerge from these activities and interests of the early grades. It may be remarked in passing that the committee may well question the value of economics in the high school, so long as the lower grades are not supplying the elementary ideas which economic science generalizes and arranges in logical form. But in the investigation of industry and commerce, great facts of diversified natural conditions, of mineral resources, of agricultural products, of varying climates, of transportation by land and sea, are inevitably involved. Geography is being vitalized by this contact with human life and institutions. It is no longer an isolated and dull pursuit. It becomes a study of man's home, the scene of his conquests. The influence of nat- ural conditions on the industry and life of man becomes a fascinating topic. The determining effect of mountain and plain, of river and pass, on the course of history, emerges from one concrete illustration after another. On the other hand, geography is only another aspect of nature study. The lives of plant and insect, bird and beast, take on new meaning when their stories are told in relation to their environment and to mankind. The work of Colonel Francis W. Parker and his staff has demonstrated the value of socialized geography in relating all the subjects of the program. The formal pursuits of the curriculum, so called, lend themselves readily to the social point of view. The reading-book will undoubtedly become more and more the vehicle of appropriate descriptions and anecdotes which bear upon social life. Much of the old literature will remain, but some of it is already being replaced by stories of primitive life, of typical industrial processes, and tales and songs not only of past heroism, but of duty bravely done today. It is needless to indicate the ways in which number work is now related to manual training, history, geography, nature study, and other subjects of the school program. But to the study within the school must be added the visiting of industries and other institutions. As a matter of course, the teacher of nature study sends her pupils afield for material or accompanies them on expeditions into wood and meadow. A few wise teachers are in the same way making the mill, the railway shop, the factory, the power- 128 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General house, the post-office, the press-room, the fire station, definite means of instruction for their pupils. There is no more common blunder than to suppose that the everyday life of the community is understood or interpreted by its citizens. The increasing use of stereopticon and slides will not only enrich the study of history, geography, and science, but will add vastly to the means of instruction in industrial and institu- tional life. Sets of slides will trace the progress of iron ore and coal into steel, of cotton plant and wool into cloth, and will show the men and machinery at work in mine and mill, in field and factory. The lantern will display rural life to city children, and in turn carry these urban pupils into the country. The interests of growing children may be easily guided in such a way that they will appropriate a great mass of material concerning the institutional life of their social group. This will be of value at the time. It will serve as a means of genuine educa- tion, and later on will give deeper insight into the nature of social forces. As pupils advance thru the upper grades into the secondary school, history and literature, in conjunction with geography and science, furnish the best instruments of social instruction. History enriched by some knowledge of primitive life, some conception of economic organization and its influence on men, will become more than the records of battles and dynasties. The idea of social change, of cause and effect in history, may be more and more consciously introduced and discussed. The past must be to a large extent interpreted in terms of the present. The characters and deeds of Greeks and Romans, of Teutons and Franks, can be understood only by those who have some insight into the universal motives of mankind. The attempt to imagine the past will be futile or feeble on the part of those whose activities and interests in the present have been narrowed and formalized. The child who has made a basket or woven a tiny blanket can reproduce more vividly the life of the Ameri- can frontier than one who has known nothing of such tasks. The annals of the pupil's own family as an aid to the study of history have been almost wholly overlooked. The earliest ideas of change and continuity in human affairs the child gains at the knee of father or mother. "Tell me a story about when you were a little boy," is the familiar formula. The story of life when parents were young is full of fascination for the child. The still remoter chronicles of grandfather and grandmother fill him with wonder over the lapse of time ; while his small imagination fairly breaks down as it tries to conceive the life of great-grandparents and other dimly distant ancestors. The study of family histories and reports upon them in the school may be made points of departure in the lower grades for numberless excursions in geography, in the history of the westward migration of population in the United States, in the means of transportation, and in the housing and the industries of the frontier. Where the pupils' families are quickly traced Sessions] SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE CURRICULUM 1 29 back over sea, the longer journeys and the wider relationships are full of suggestions. One refrains from details which have no place in what must be a brief survey of so wide a field. Enough has perhaps been indicated to emphasize the principles involved. Literature as a means of social instruction has inexhaustible possibili- ties. The conception of literature as a product, an expression, of social life can be developed. Language itself thought of as a social growth takes on new meaning. The interpretation of a piece of great literature, the reading into it of men's motives, the asking, "Is it true to life?" start fruitful inquiry and illuminating discussion. A careful reading with a class of one of Emerson's essays is a lesson in psychology, in ethics, in history, in language, in literature all at once — and, what is note- worthy, the pupils never suspect that these profound names are lurking beneath the delightful exercise. The value of the problem in instruction has been fairly recognized in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, but in less exact subjects it has been too much neglected. After all, the real test, if not the best means, of "correlation" is problem-solving — the bringing to bear of all the neces- sary elements of knowledge upon a given concrete situation. The pos- sibilities of problem-setting are being studied. It is not Utopian to set social problems, to describe situations, and to invite solutions. The teacher with a sand box and a few toy houses may set the problem of building a village which shall have houses, schools, churches, factories, stores, etc., appropriate for a specified population in an environment and with transportation facilities indicated at the outset. The discussions and criticisms involved in such a task could not fail to be fruitful. This is only a suggestion of the devices available for stimulating reflection upon the various aspects of social life. So far stress has been laid upon instruction, upon gaining insight into the nature of social organization ; but education is more than instruction. Unless the pupil from all his study of industry and nature, of geography and commerce, of history and literature, gathers appro- priate sentiments, selects worthy types of personality and conduct, comes to respond with bounding pulses to the best ideals of personal develop- ment, of social service, of loyalty to country, of devotion to righteousness, the whole effort has been futile. Knowledge which is not transmuted into character is abortive. Yet the problem of moral education is baffling. The dogmatic teaching of virtue is all but hopeless. Ideals are assimilated from the community in so subtle a way that it seems almost impossible to control the individual's development. The teaching of formal ethics comes at a later stage of reflection, and it is a question whether moral philosophy in college has much effect upon character. The real task is to influence those instinctive, unreflective approvals t$o National educational association [General and disapprovals with which the individual looks upon men and conduct. There are virtues which our times demand, which it is hard to cultivate. A high ideal of commercial honor, a passion for truth and tolerance, an admiration for political integrity, a deep sense of civic duty, are not unhampered growths in a society like ours. The idea of self-government in our schools arouses interest. The autocracy of the schoolroom seems an ill preparation for life in a dem- ocracy. The experiment of self-control is worth trying, and there is reason to hope for valuable results, but we are not surprised to learn that the ethical standard of the outside community often dominates the school. The "ring" or "machine," favoritism, gross partisanship, wire- pulling, log-rolling often find their way into the student government. To arouse feeling among the pupils against forms of conduct which are tolerated, or secretly, if not openly, admired in the outside world, is a difficult and delicate task. But little by little thru the years, if the right materials are gathered, if sound and sane suggestions come from personalities which inspire respect and affection, these higher impulses may be strengthened into stable virtues. History and literature and life must be searched for noble personalities and high types of conduct, and these must be held up for admiration and emulation wisely, persistently, untiringly. In the earlier years, discussion and analysis have little place. The emotions come without conscious reflection. Later, comparison and debate, if they do not degenerate into arid dialectic, serve a useful purpose. But the emphasis in the socializing of education should rest upon the early stages where character is laid down in emotional valuations of man and morality. It is in this field of moral education that I would emphasize the plea, which Professor Patten made some years ago, for contemporary heroes. Let pupils search the press and the community for high types of conduct. The fireman, the railway engineer, the life-saver, the miner, the factory hand, the reformer, the philanthropist of today aid the formation of ideals no less than mediaeval crusaders or the heroes of Greece and Rome. There are virtues universal, virtues of purity and courage, of loyalty and self-sacrifice, admirable in all lands and in all ages ; but these virtues are interpreted by every people and every epoch. The virtues of the past must be translated into those of the present. As abstract virtues they are lifeless things; they must be incarnated in personalities before they can have power over the young. Here literature and life lend their aid. The great problem of American education, then, is the problem of making better citizens. Even to state this is to perpetrate a platitude, to obtrude the obvious. But the solution of the problem lies in bringing the school into closer relation with life. The studies which have been too Sessions] ECONOMICS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 13 1 far abstracted from human experience must be brought back again into contact with the concrete social experience from which they sprang. The highest ideals of co-operation, loyalty, sacrifice, which men have wrought out in the past and present must live again in the personalities of the young. Only mature life can see the full development of character, but the socialized school, under the guidance of a high-minded teacher who sees life whole, may render unvaluable service. ECONOMICS IN I HE PUBLIC SCHOOLS - * PRESIDENT GEORGE GUNTON, INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL ECONOMICS, NEW YORK, N. Y. Human progress is measured by the degree in which experience is converted into helpful knowledge. It is the function of science to reduce this knowledge to working principles, and of education to present these principles in teachable form. It is by this process that modern institu- tions come into existence. There is no important feature of civilization, in religion, ethics, art, science, economics, or politics, that has been or could have been accomplished by any one generation. It is all the result of successful contributions of succeeding generations, thru converting the experience of one into helpful knowledge for the next. While this work is constantly going on in numerous forms, the insti- tution which today must be more than ever relied upon to render this important service to society is the public school. The efficiency of the schools in rendering this service depends largely upon the extent to which the knowledge they impart is applicable to the conduct and conditions of modern society. As Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler aptly puts it : "The first question to be asked in any course of study is, Does it lead to a knowledge of our contemporary civilization ? If not, it is neither efficient nor liberal." It is no part of my purpose to detract from the value of any part of the public-school curriculum, but rather to plead that social economics should have a place in the public schools. It will be conceded that in our system of public education those subjects have the greatest claim to consideration which most directly lead to the character-making conditions of life. Nor will it be questioned that this may change with the progress of society. For instance, it is easy to understand that in the Middle Ages, when the common people were outside the pale of social and political recogni- tion, no education was necessary for the masses. That which was neces- sary, being mostly for the clergy, might well be of a theological and classical character. Latin and Greek and abstruse theological doc- trines were, of course, the chief requirements of the only educated class. But, as society developed and industry became an important factor in 132 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General public affairs, education must needs take a broader sweep. With the rise of manufactures and commerce it became necessary to extend education to the middle class. As social life and institutions became more complex, a greater extent and variety of knowledge became necessary, if the future was to have the benefit of the past and progress to continue. So, with the birth to social consciousness of what Lassalle called the " fourth estate," it became neces- sary to extend education to the common people. Under democratic insti- tutions, where the very form of government and conditions of industry are within the political control of the masses, the character of education thru the common schools becomes a matter of paramount importance to civiliza- tion itself. The progress of the last quarter of a century has radically changed the importance of economics as a public-school study. Fifty years ago, for instance, when we were chiefly an agricultural country, with a little domestic manufacture, the industrial problems and social questions grow- ing out of them were comparatively simple ; but during the last thirty years this has all changed. We have become dominantly a manufacturing nation; our progress in this regard is unparalleled in the history of man- kind. During the last thirty years our manufacturing industries, meas- ured by the value of the output or of the domestic per capita consumption, has increased many times faster than the population. This has given us exceptional advancement in material and social welfare ; which in time has brought a tremendous urbanization of our population, with new social problems like the sweatshop, the housing of the poor, the question of sanitation, of public charity, and many other quasi-economic and social problems growing out of city conditions. On the other hand, this progress has brought with it a radical change in the organization and character of industrial enterprise. The once small individual concerns have been supplanted by corporations, and corpora- tions have been superseded by syndicates, or so-called "trusts." These two sets of circumstances have created two new groups of social problems which are injecting themselves into the institutions of the country. Therefore, intelligent citizenship today involves a different and higher standard of intelligence and broader comprehension of public questions than fifty years ago. Moreover, all this material and social progress, which has carried with it the spirit of individual independence, has made the ill-informed citizen a more dangerous element in the community than he was half a century ago. The growth of large industries and immense individual wealth has created in the mind, not only of the laborer, but of the economic layman generally, a feeling of distrust. They come to view all with whom they are in more or less competitive relation, and especially the rich employ- ing class, as their enemies and the enemies of public welfare. When they enter the field of activity as citizens, whether in municipal, state, or Sessions] ECONOMICS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 1 33 national affairs, they are dominated by this suspicious feeling which fre- quently amounts to a social prejudice. They look with distrust upon public officials, and the whole system of administration to them appears in the light of an instrument in the hands of the rich to govern society in their own interest. Nor is this altogether surprising when they see those who should be leaders of public opinion exercising the power of political dictators, buying and selling nominations for public office, blackmailing business corporations under the pressure of coercive legislation, and thru the power thus acquired corrupting the very sources of our political institutions. By these means, in not a few instances, a small coterie con- trols the government of large cities, and even states, and sometimes even the president of the United States is the victim of this unwholesome power. This has done much to beget in the public mind the belief that the rich are corrupting our government, dictating the public policy, and tending to convert our democracy into an oligarchy. On the other side of the same picture are the city problems, to which I have already referred. There they see the poor ill-housed, huddled in unwholesome quarters under quasi-pestilential conditions. Poverty, vice, and the accompanying social degradation follow in their train. To this picture the revolutionist can point as one of the consequences of the great capitalistic movement, and appeal to the masses to overthrow the existing industrial system and adopt socialism as the only efficient remedy. One of the greatest safeguards against the threatened disruption of society is the public school. At present, for the great army of youths who go from the public schools to the workshop, there is no mental preparation for intelligently dealing with these subjects. They are left to jostle against their fellows in the workshop, hear and feel the causes for discontent ; they read the inflammatory and sensational stuff in the newspapers, listen to the more or less acrimonious discussion of social questions in their shop meetings and organizations ; and all without the slightest background of educational preparation for forming rational judgments. The very natural result is that their opinions are made up from feelings and prejudices created by their economic environment. If the public school is to " lead to a knowledge of our contemporary civilization," it must necessarily furnish some mental training on these subjects which lie at the foundation of our social life, and furnish the material out of which public opinion is made and public policy is con- structed. This brings us to the practical aspect of the subject and raises the question of feasibility. "In pleading for the introduction of economics into the public school, we may expect numerous objections from the traditional pedagog. It will be urged, with considerable truth, that the public-school curriculum is already overloaded; that, instead of the student having more subjects, he should have less. It will also be urged 134 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General that economics is too difficult and complex a subject for the public-school student. It will not be denied that there is force in these objections, yet they might with similar force be applied to very many of the present studies. It may very properly be urged that education should be mainly directed to developing the mind rather than loading the memory. No education, and particularly that of the public school which stops before the age of sixteen, can furnish the student with much literal information. Indeed, that should not be the principal object. It should rather be the purpose of education to cultivate and develop the powers of observation and reasoning. To teach the student how to see and how intelligently to reason about what he sees is the most that can be hoped for in public- school education, and for that matter in college education too. It is not so much what the student learns at school as his ability correctly to observe and understand what he sees after he leaves school that is of greatest importance in his education. Whatever there is of value in education, it is as a preparation for seeing and understanding the envi- ronment. It is a knowledge of principles, not a collection of facts, that school education should furnish. The time and ability both of student and teacher are limited. It is, therefore, a question of selecting subjects the study of which will best develop the mental powers of the student. If there are two subjects of equal merit as regards mental training, and one of them leads directly to the live interests with which the student will have to deal as a citizen, and on which his personal welfare and the welfare of the community depends, and the other leads only to the study of a dead language and the details of some effete civilization having only the remotest relation to the live affairs of today, there ought to be no difficulty in deciding which subject should be taken. That subject which leads to a knowledge of the affairs of modern life has a double claim, for besides affording an opportunity for mental training it furnishes prepara- tion for useful citizenship. In this respect economics is pre-eminent, because, besides affording as. high degree of mental training as these, it gives life to the study, and social equipment to the student. Economics is pre-eminently a logical subject. It has to do with principles and deductions. It constantly calls the reasoning faculties into action, and it is pre-eminently the study that inspires observation. A study of the principle of wages or prices or rent or banking supplies its own incentive for observing these phenomena. It is equally important and more effective as a mental training than the study of history even ; and far be it from me to belittle the study of history. But, in comparing the claims for mental training of history and economics, the superiority of economics is obvious. Even if we avoid the method of teaching history which takes note chiefly of battles, royal coronations, and court feuds, and direct the studies entirely to the important industrial, social, Sessions] ECONOMICS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 135 and political events arising out of the progressive struggles of the people for improvement, it still remains chiefly a matter of memorizing. It is, indeed, of some consequence that the student know about the Norman Conquest, the Magna Charta, the Statute of Laborers, the Bill of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, the surrender of Cornwallis, and the Civil War; but it is far more important that the masses know what determines their wages, how improvements in industrial conditions are brought about, and what effect capital has upon the industrial welfare of the community. If they know something of the fundamental principles that govern their industrial and social welfare, they will have an intelli- gent appreciation of the significance of these historic events. But if they are ignorant of economic principles, these historic events, so many facts memorized, are of little educational significance. Clearly, in furnishing mental training for the youth of the nation, and especially the youth that has but a limited share of educational oppor- tunity, training should be given in the subjects which lead most directly to an acquaintance with the affairs of real life, thus at once affording the double purpose of mental training and preparation for social usefulness. If it be objected that economics is too difficult a subject for the pub- lic-school student, we have only to compare it with some of the other subjects already in the curriculum. We find there astronomy, mathe- matics, chemistry, principles of hygiene, etc. If these are not too complex for the public-school student — and obviously they are not so regarded — then economics cannot be objected to on that score, for it has the advantage over all of these of being less abstruse and of dealing with more familiar objects and conditions and matters of greater personal and social interest. The chief difficulty in teaching economics in the public schools thus far is in the unpreparedness of the teachers and the clumsy methods of teaching. Usually the teachers have had practically no preparation in the subject. They know nothing of the essential principles of eco- nomics ; yet -they are expected to take that subject along with mathemat- ics and English, and perhaps Greek and Latin. The teacher usually adopts the hardest and least effective way, namely, sets the student to memorizing a lot of, to him, meaningless facts, instead of helping him to understand a few elementary principles, and makes what might be an attractive study a dry, wearisome task. Besides being much harder for the student, it is altogether less effective in developing a flexible mentality. This comes partly of the habit of confounding teaching with inves- tigation. Investigation is to discover principles ; teaching is to impart them. The methods for the two are wholly unlike. The inductive method of investigation is to discover, verify, and classify facts, and then from a careful analysis of these verified phenomena deduce the law or principle. In teaching, the reverse method is the effective one, namely, to give the principle and then confirm or verify it by reference to facts. 136 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General This gives the student the key to observation and verification all thru life. Having learned the principle which governs the movement of the planets, he can by reading and observation understand the planetary system, but he could never have found the principle by any observation he could make. Hence, in the absence of the principle, he would be subject to suppositious conclusions. While it is the function of the scientist to discover the principle by scientific study of the facts, it is the function of the teacher to give the principle to the student in the simplest intelligible form; in other words, give to the student what science has discovered and verified, and illustrate and enforce it with as frequent reference to facts as possible, always taking the facts that are nearest to the interest and most vital to the life of the student. It will hardly be claimed that it is more difficult to understand the simple principle that wages in a given market, like water in a lake, tend to a level, which level is high or low according to the character and social life of the laborers, than it is to understand the principle of the formation of gases or the solution of problems in geometry. Yet, how wonderfully more important to the average citizen to understand the principle which governs the income of more than three-fourths of the population ! An intelligent conception of a few elementary principles like this in economics would be worth more to the citizens, and hence to the nation, than all the knowledge of Greek, Latin, and perhaps even history, that is taught. Not that these subjects are not important, but, as compared with the study of economics and its relation to educational preparation for citizenship, they are manifestly inferior. With the mental preparation for intelligent observation and logical reasoning, growing out of the study of the principles of economic and social phenomena, history, literature, political geography, and even the classics become manifold more significant. The history of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, the doings of pre-historic man, and social life under tropical civilization, have but the minimum interest beyond the mere noting of facts, when studied in ignorance of the laws of economic and political development. Indeed, in the absence of knowledge of these laws, such studies are apt to aid superstitious conjectures. In the light of economics these studies furnish an important adjunct to historic knowledge as throwing light upon the early conditions from which the present has been a slow and wonderful evolution. But to take the study of these ancient civilizations with blank ignorance of economic and political subjects furnishes the very minimum of educational stimulus and utility. From the point of view of educational importance, both in mental training and preparation for social usefulness, economics has a claim equal to any and superior to most subjects now in the public- school curriculum. But the introduction of economics into the public schools would call Sessions] IDEALS AND METHODS OF ECONOMIC TEACHING 137 for one important improvement, namely, the raising of the standard of teachers. But that ought not to be regarded as an objection. There is no work performed in this country that is more important than that done by the teachers in our public schools. If we would make education contribute its best to civilization, we must resolve to have the most important subjects taught, and taught in the best possible manner, by well-paid, competent teachers. There is no expenditure too high, if it is not wasted ; no talent too good, no system too well equipped or appoint- ments too complete for the public schools of the United States. If the people of this country were only once impressed with this fact, the means would easily be forthcoming. It is only for the teachers and leaders of education to make it clear to the American people that in the public schools lie the means of the progress and safety of our institutions, and that the way to make the most of the public schools is to pay the price that will command the best teaching talent, and there will be little diffi- culty in adjusting the curriculum to the needs of the age. No excuse will be accepted for cramming children with dead subjects instead of rising to the level of vitalizing our educational system with the new and live subjects that lead directly "to a knowledge of our contemporary civilization." In the question of education, as in everything else in life, the demand creates the supply. Let the educators demand a live cur- riculum, a higher standard of teachers with adequate salaries, and the public school will be the ever-broadening bulwark of progressive indus- try, free institutions, and democratic civilization. IDEALS AND METHODS OF ECONOMIC TEACHING FREDERIC W. SPEIRS, N. E. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The gentlemen who have preceded me have emphasized, as I felt sure they would, the paramount importance of economic training for the great mass of citizens in our democracy. The rapid sweep of industrial devel- opment is carrying its own argument for systematic instruction in eco- nomics from the college down as far as we can reach. The whole educational world is now beginning to see what the economist has fore- seen for many years — that the strongest bulwark of democracy in this industrial era of ours is a widely diffused knowledge of the fundamental principles which govern social relations. It is not necessary to be a pro- found student of sociology to realize that there are possibilities of disaster mingled with possibilities of great good in the remarkable combinations of capital which have revolutionized our industrial system during the past decade. Even the casual reader of the newspapers understands with what 138 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General bitter distrust the wage-earner has followed the growth of the great cor- porations. We are now prosperous. The assertion that "the problem of the workless is the problem of the worthless" is at present quite correct. But, judging the future by the past, the economist knows that we are now riding on the crest of a wave of prosperity which will presently break and plunge us into an abyss of industrial depression. Then will come the real test of the stability of our social structure. The propaganda of discon- tent is now a voice crying in the wilderness. But when credit totters, when work is scarce, when wages are uncertain, the wilderness will be peopled with idle men and women. The vague sense of injustice will then be made keen and definite by hardship, and we shall not lack leaders of organized discontent, who will proclaim that whatever is, is wrong. They will array class against class, and will urge the use of the ballot to work radical changes in our system. The movement may take the form of a legal assault on combined capital ; it may take the form of a cheap-money craze ; it may take any one of a dozen other forms. The question which concerns us is : What response will the great mass of voters make to the appeal of the false prophets in the time of social stress, whenever it may come? Whether that response shall make for wise conservatism or destructive radicalism will depend upon the amount of economic intelli- gence diffused among the voters. And it behooves us, as educators, to see that this intelligence is as widespread as possible. Under these conditions, the chief ideal of economic teaching should be the training of men and women to think straight and to vote right upon the economic propositions which are an ever-increasing proportion of the political issues in modern democracy. I do not undervalue the disci- plinary possibilities of economics. Professor Patten, of the University of Pennsylvania, has urged, with his usual force, that the study of economics should be emphasized from the pedagogical point of view, because a sub- ject which is in the transition stage from a science of induction to a science of deduction affords more stimulus for independent thought than a subject which is in such final form that the ordinary student has no ground for appeal from the " thus saith the text-book." I believe this is sound. But I feel that the highest purpose of the study of economics is the intensely practical one of giving the great mass of citizens a definite equipment for the special responsibilities of citizenship which have been thrust upon them in our day by the necessity for an ever-increasing public control of industrial relations. And how shall we realize this ideal ? The colleges, with their well- equipped departments of sociology and economics, will continue to edu- cate the leaders of popular economic opinion, as well as leaders in other lines of thought. But the colleges reach a very small percentage of our people. The burden of training our citizens to respond to intelligent leadership on economic matters then devolves upon the secondary schools Sessions] IDEALS AND METHODS OF ECONOMIC TEACHING 139 and upon those institutions which, by popular lecture courses and classes, may touch the great majority who have passed beyond the influence of our public educational system without reaching the high school. The problem of the economic education of the masses, which is now becoming imperative, thus presents two distinct questions : What can the secondary school do toward this end ? What can be done for adults thru lectures and classes along university-extension lines or thru the more permanent local organization of such agencies as the People's Institute of New York and the School of Social Economics ? The second question is one of great importance, but the phase of the problem which has the largest claim on our attention here is the consideration of the mission of the secondary school in economic education. What should be the content and method of a course given to boys and girls of high-school age ? At the outset we should frankly admit the difficulties which beset the subject of economics, in order that we may define the limits within which it may be effectively taught in an elemen- tary course. Read the economic journals, or attend a conference of economists, and you will be fortunate if you do not receive an impression of fundamental and irreconcilable differences of view among the authori- ties on the subject, which will make you feel somewhat doubtful of the educational value of a science the premises of which are thus in dispute. If you chance to go in search of the law of value and the theory of dis- tribution, you will be precipitated into an arena wherein rages one of the most violent academic controversies of our day. If you stop to consider the nature of economic science, you will not wonder at the uncertain condition of parts of its fundamental theory. The phenomena with which it deals are infinitely complex, and the inves- tigation and classification of social facts have been carried on along modern scientific lines for only a very short time. Economic theory rests on psychological truths which are most elusive. This has led many edu- cators to the conclusion that economics, as a whole, is too controversial for introduction into a grade of school where it is vain to expect the inde- pendence of judgment which is necessary for the weighing of evidence to reach conclusions. But it is very easy to overemphasize the unsettled state of economic theory and to lose sight of the great body of accepted truth which the science offers. While it should be recognized that much of the field of economics is debatable ground, it should not be forgotten that a considerable portion of the science is in definite and practically final shape. Certain fundamental social laws are as well established as any proposition in geometry. And it is within this pale of established economic truth that the secondary school must work, altho the student may properly be allowed an occasional glance into the arena wherein the opposing theories are struggling for recognition. Take, for instance, the subject of money — the topic about which a 14° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION LGeneral few years ago we all talked so much, knowing so little. The theoretical superiority of bimetallism or monometallism is one of the unsettled ques- tions of economics. But the secondary teacher finds an ample store of absolutely fixed principles regarding the nature and use of money which explain satisfactorily the essentials of a sound monetary system — whether monometallic or bimetallic is a matter of indifference. Or, to take an even simpler illustration, the student pursuing the subject of franchises will finally cross a line of controversy and will find it difficult to strike the balance of argument in favor of and against the public management of certain monopolistic enterprises like railroads, telegraphs, street cars, and electric lighting plants. But a very brief excursion into the field of established truth will show the student that such franchise grants as have been made in most American cities — such gifts of public property to private persons as have just pilloried my own state and city in abject shame before the civilized world — are high crimes against society. And this knowledge is sufficient for the purposes of citizenship. Economics is a young and rapidly growing science, and its borderland is not defined, but its scope and method are entirely adequate to realize in elementary courses the ideal which I have already expressed, and to equip the future voter with the knowledge needed for the intelligent exer- cise of his duties in an industrial commonwealth. But it is manifest, from this view of the subject, that effective instruc- tion in economics demands high teaching skill. There is much lament over the fact that we have as yet no satisfactory text-book in economics. I have never thought it worth while to join the lament, for I am con- vinced that the writer of a generally acceptable text-book may do a great injury to the cause of elementary economic teaching by furnishing the very thing for which teachers have been clamoring. The greatest danger in elementary instruction in this subject lies in the fact that the student may absorb the half-truths of the text-book as social axioms, and go out into practical life to make most unwarranted applications of his rigid economic rules. If you would realize the possible harm of the general diffusion of a half-truth in economics, consider the effect on our generation of the persistence of a single economic axiom of the last gen- eration.' "Competition is the life of trade," our fathers said, and for their industrial conditions this was substantially true. But conditions changed, and we did not change our popular theory. Consequently we have wasted thousands of millions of dollars in attempting to establish competition in parts of the industrial field where competition has now become, not the life, but the death of trade. The student of economics, however elementary be the work, must be impressed with the fact that it is impossible to furnish him a set of rules for the solution of all social problems. He must be taught that the prin- ciples he learns are to be applied with discretion to the varied conditions Sessions] IDEALS AND METHODS OE ECONOMIC TEACHING 14I he will meet. It is difficult to give this view-point to students who are bound closely to any text-book. It is true that the teacher who uses no text-book whatever may give his students the formal, rigid conception of the subject which is worse than no knowledge at all, but there is less dan- ger from this source than from slavish subjection to a good text. A text-book I should certainly use for all elementary work in economics, and there are several that will serve very well. But the text-book which gives the student the impression of finality, and relieves the instructor of the responsibility of personal and original presentation of his subject, is, in my opinion, the greatest possible hindrance to good economic teaching. The first requisite, then, for good work in economics in secondary schools is specially trained, thoroly equipped teachers. If such a teacher cannot be obtained, omit the subject from the curriculum, give such disconnected economics as may be worked into a course in history or geography, and then leave the student to the tender mercies of the partisan press and a not over-intelligent political platform. Unhampered by false teaching, indelibly impressed upon him at the time when his mind was most plastic, he will be more likely to arrive at correct con- clusions in the discussion open to every reader of the newspapers. Many enthusiastic advocates of economic teaching were disappointed in the oft-quoted recommendation of the Committee of Ten, and some denounced it as reactionary. The committee recommended, you will remember, "that there be no formal instruction in political economy, but that the general principles be taught in connection particularly with United States history, civil government, and commercial geography." A flood of light is cast on this recommendatiop for this manifestly unsatis- factory method of indirect teaching of economics thru the medium of history, civics, and commercial geography by this statement of the com- mittee: "Few schools have teachers sufficiently trained to discuss and illustrate the general subject." Few, indeed, there have been, for the standard of competency is high. In this subject, as in many others, the qualifications for successful elementary work are much higher than those for advanced work. The instructor in elementary economics must not only know a subject of some difficulty, but he must have the rare power of selecting the essential and established facts from a mass of doubtful material, and of organizing these facts for vivid presentation. He must have a judicial mind, so that in presenting questions that are debatable he may give his class the impression of absolute fairness. Advanced stu- dents may discount an instructor's prejudices, but the elementary stu- dents are helpless in his hands. The success of his work is not to be judged by the quantity of facts regarding industrial history, trade rela- tions, or labor conditions which he crams into his students, but rather by the attitude of mind which he cultivates in them. If he furnishes even a t4* NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General small stock of facts which will help them to understand the economic environment in which they live, if he explains the settled principles of the science which will interpret the tendencies of the time, and if, above all, he establishes by example a habit of open-minded consideration of disputed questions, he has succeeded, and succeeded gloriously, in his mission. And experience proves that this is not an unattainable ideal. Conditions have changed since the report of the Committee of Ten was rendered. The universities are sending out year by year scores of young men and women splendidly equipped for economic teaching. A few years ago the colleges absorbed these teachers, but now they are avail- able for secondary work. It is a reasonable hope that in the next decade they will establish secondary instruction in economics upon a plane which the Committee of Ten apparently considered unattainable. I doubt whether it would be profitable to consider here, even if time permitted, the precise method of attacking the subject. One group of teachers believes in approaching economics by a purely descriptive route; another contends for an explanation of economic theory in advance of the historical description of economic conditions. Each party has text-books representing its specific method. My experience in teaching elementary economics has led me to believe that it is wise to choose the point of attack with some reference to the economic topics under popu- lar discussion at the time. The development of the trust is the great question of the hour. Every high-school boy and girl knows something about it and has more or less interest in it. Many have a surprising amount of information, invalidated by a more surprising amount of mis- information, and positive prejudices of various kinds. But the main point is that there is initial interest, a point of contact. In opening a course, then, slide gently and rapidly over definitions and plunge into the trust. Capture your students, and you may safely take them a long and rapid flight back to the hunting and fishing stage of society, and develop with as much logic as you will the history of industrial development. They will then have your goal in view from the beginning, and will real- ize that it is worth reaching. The laboratory method ? Certainly. And in what subject can you apply it better ? The social laboratory is all about the student ; his home, his school, his father's factory, his community, the whole world as reflected in the newspapers. Arrange papers on assigned topics, reports to the class, debates — anything and everything which will teach him to think and will show him that there are two sides to the shield. To those who believe that in the direction of popular economic edu- cation lies social safety the progress of the past few years has been most gratifying. Economic instruction is newly organized even in the col- leges. It is less than a quarter of a century ago that a group of men returning from Germany gave form to the modern economic curriculum Sessions] THE TEACHER AS A SOCIAL-ECONOMIC POWER 143 of the institutions of higher learning. For a time there was little force available to spend on popular education. But economic instruction is now filtering down from the colleges, and the attitude of the real leaders of economic thought is fairly represented by Professor Laughlin, of the University of Chicago, when he says : The work of research, however brilliant, is in a way of no greater importance to the good of our nation than that elementary teaching of economics to the great masses who never enter a college, but who form a majority of those who enter the polling booth. THE TEACHER AS A SOCIAL-ECONOMIC POWER REUBEN POST HALLECK, PRINCIPAL BOYS' HIGH SCHOOL, LOUISVILLE, KY. The social forces have helped to accomplish all the greatest reforms of the centuries. The highest type of economic development never comes without healthy social growth. The genius of the twentieth century is calling to teachers to stop rainbow chasing for a few years and to learn to apply some of those great social truths which our sainted mother, the nineteenth century, left us as a legacy. In order to have the greatest economic value the teacher must be social. In Switzerland higher wages are given to a good-natured milk- maid, who treats the cow kindly and sings to her while milking. It has been found that the cow under such treatment gives more milk. Under similar treatment pupils show increased mental and moral development. The teacher who is anti-social commits a crime if he does not imme- diately follow some other vocation. Those vested with authority in the educational field, whether boards of education, superintendents, or prin- cipals, who try to rule teachers by the anti-social feeling of fear, are an abomination in this new era, as is also the teacher who tries to secure results from pupils by making them afraid. The slave-driver with his lash did not secure for the South the benefits that have come from free and willing labor. The teacher who would be a social economic power must learn and apply certain social theorems which psychology offers. Take the law of suggestion, which is so powerful in school and society. Suggestion deals with actions as well as with ideas, and it is the great social law of psychol- ogy. The power of suggestion is merely the tendency which one person feels to carry out the action indicated in an idea* implanted in his mind by another. The teacher who does not know the power lurking in suggestion is as dangerous in a schoolroom as a boy brandishing a revolver which is loaded, altho he is unaware of the fact. Every live idea is " loaded," and it will do either good or harm. I have known teachers to suggest to their classes more unsocial actions, more forms of disorder, more acts of doubt- ful morality, than the most brilliant rascals in the class could have devised. 144 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General I can remember how a temperance lecturer made my childish mouth water, the muscles of my throat contract, and an incipient arm movement develop by describing a sparkling, cool drink of champagne with its seductive fizz- His immediate " don't " was joined to no motor idea. I remember wish- ing that as fine a glass of champagne as he described was within reach of my arm. I have known teachers who habitually violated the most important psychological laws by suggesting vivid ideas of evil courses of action, thinking that a " don't " idea, an idea without form and therefore void, would inhibit the suggested action. In a school where I once was, a snapping-match happened to be acci- dentally stepped on during chapel exercises. The principal then gave a vivid description of how wicked boys would take sharp jack-knives and cut the heads off snapping-matches and scatter them on the floor. The ideas of action thereby suggested were so clear and forcible that I thought what a nice thing it would be to have a sharp knife and a box of matches. There had at last been suggested in school one kind of action to which I felt myself equal. I wanted to do something; I didn't know what, but the kind principal had finally suggested the " what." For the next three days the school was in Fourth of July disorder. This might have broken up the school, had not a young psychologist on the teaching force asked the principal to tell the school that a long-wished-for excursion would be given the boys, if each one would get a vaulting-pole and practice with it in order to cross a stream where there was no bridge. If any more matches were brought to school, the excursion would not be given. Some of the larger boys who wanted to go threatened to thrash anyone who brought more matches to school. As a corollary of the psychology of suggestion, we may frame the fol- lowing theorem: Dislodge an idea of wrong-doing, not by a "don't" idea, but by a " do " idea. If the " do " idea is a social one, it will have quadruple power. Imitation is another social law. It is really a child of suggestion. Here the first impelling force is an action which begets in the child's mind an idea, a tendency toward a similar action. The idea of an action always tends to complete itself and to produce the action. The more social the community or the school is, the more powerfully does imita- tion work. In a well-directed school of large numbers, the pupils learn more from unconscious* imitation than from the direct instruction of their teachers. The folly of confining a pupil to the teaching of a private tutor is thus apparent. Such a child will tend to grow up unsocial. If at a future time he must do business with the outside world, he will be compelled to learn from associating with it at a time when there is no guiding hand to direct him. Social life should be taught both at school and at home under the direction of such a guiding hand. Intelligent sympathv is a complex power which has never failed to Sessions] THE TEACHER AS A SOCIAL-ECONOMIC POWER 145 move the world. Whenever a teacher is found capable of displaying intelligent sympathy, the child-world will sit contentedly at his feet. Suggestion and imitation will work with double power. The old type of schoolmaster determined to adapt the child-world to himself. Sympathy requires the reverse step. The teacher must thru imaginative guidance reshape himself to fit that world. The teacher has been a child once; the child has never been a grown person. Psychology analyzes for us the basal elements of sympathy, and it is wise for every teacher to review them frequently.1 To the teacher who would unlock human minds as well as human hearts, it should be said : " With all thy getting, get sympathy." Such a teacher is not only a social power, he is an economic power as well. He can raise to the fourth power the productiveness of a school, measured by both intellectual and moral growth. One effective way in which to develop pupils both socially and intel- lectually is to make them do something for others as well as for them- selves. Unless they are in some way taught to minister to the wants of others, they can become neither social nor economic powers in more than the barbaric acceptation of the terms. I protest that no single study- or pursuit, whether manual training or English composition, is absolutely necessary for social growth. Either may be absolutely dwarfing ; in fact, both as taught are usually dwarfing to social and imaginative growth. Young Indians learned manual training before any of our modern manual-training schools were dreamed of, but the Indian did not grow up a social being. I believe that English composition may be as pro- ductive of social development as manual training, altho in both subjects everything depends upon the teacher and his methods. Since English composition is ordinarily called the most unsocial of subjects, let me suggest one of the ways in which it may be humanized and made palatable to the young. Less than two years ago there came to my school a letter bearing an English stamp and addressed " To the head boy." The writer, a brown-eyed English schoolboy, not quite four- teen, evidently tried to interest the " head boy " in his English school, sports, and home ; and he succeeded. He then wanted to know some- thing about Kentucky — its Indians, for instance. The letter had mis- takes enough in it to make it seem human, but it was written for the love of it. That little Columbus had sent the letter out on a voyage of dis- covery to far-off Kentucky, and it proved a social stimulus to me and all my pupils. I read the missive to fifteen hundred people, and I noticed that they were sufficiently interested to lean forward to listen. The " head boy " needed no prompting to answer that letter. I have made experiments enough in this interchange of letters between pupils to prove that the social stimulus thereby developed gives life and vigor and interest to English composition and improves it more than a 1 See Halleck's Psychology and Psychic Culture, pp. 237, 258. 146 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General hundred per cent. This coming year I intend to have an organized exchange of letters between one class of the pupils of my school and of an English school, and each one of my pupils will be taught to consider his English correspondent as a guest for whom the best is none too good. The exchange list may also embrace a distant school in the United States and in Canada. I hope to see an organized exchange of letters between schools, for this will result in a more stimulating and a more human form of English composition. If any teacher is unsocial or mean enough to ridicule the mistakes in letters received, then let him or his school be put on an official black list. This way of teaching composition gives eyes and ears to pupils, fires their imagination, and makes them appreciate the common things of life. Those of you who have appealed to the social instinct of your pupils by having them read a book in order to tell its most salient points to their own class, or to write out for reading to another class a statement of why it would be profitable or not for the members to read the book, have found that the assigned task is performed in a far less perfunctory way. A teacher who is a social or economic power will teach pupils how to set problems for themselves and others, as well as to solve problems that are already set. Social as well as economic growth demands this. " The friends of a German engineer complained to an official of a large railway system that he was receiving but $100 a month, while a young American employed at the same time had been advanced to $250 a month. "This injustice is the more flagrant," said they, "because the German can solve problems that the American cannot touch !" "Yes, it is known to me," replied the official, "that the German can solve tougher problems than the American can, but your German friend sits as inactive as a toad and never makes any effort until a problem is brought ready-made to him to solve. The American has suggested problems that have resulted in changing the management of certain departments of the road. I once put your friend in an emergency position where he had to act rapidly on his own initiative. He was bewildered and returned to me for orders. I substituted the American. He plunged into things immediately and soon had them outlined. I remember that he turned over one tough problem to your friend to be solved. It takes a higher grade of mind to set problems than to solve ready-made ones. We shall still further advance the American's wages, but we can get all the ready-made prob- lem-solvers we want at $100 a month." It is time to halt those pedagogical theorists who teach that educa- tion consists in knowing where to look for things. Where does an inventor look for a machine that is to improve the condition of the world ? Where did Shakespeare look for his poetry ? In this twentieth century social progress will render necessary new problems and new Sessions] THE TEACHER AS A SOCIAL-ECONOMIC POWER ttf solutions. What will become of the youths who have been taught that education consists in knowing where to look for facts ? The world is today filled with those who want to know where to look for ready- made opportunities. There are a few who are making the opportunities, and the rest of the world is their debtor. Arithmetic is, perhaps, next to English composition, the most unsocial of subjects. Make a child set problems for himself in arithmetic, and you will find that the social element will soon appear. A girl of eleven was asked how much a factory hand in a woolen mill would spend in the course of a year if he had a wife and two small girls. She folded her hands helplessly and said: "I can't get any answer to a problem like that." She was told that the answer was not so important as the state- ment of the problem in all its details. She lived not far from a woolen mill, and after a few suggestions she began to work to find the elements of the problem. She visited a grocery near the mill and learned what eatables were commonly purchased. She met and talked with some little girls, daughters of the operatives. She noticed what they wore, and, finding that they were really human, became very much interested in them. Again and again she submitted the details of the problem to find that they were incomplete. She persevered until her estimates were rea- sonably complete, but she was surprised to find that her problem, like the most of life's problems, from the cost of building a house to the profits per acre in market-gardening, had more than one answer. But in setting that problem she had grown in intellectual power and in sym- pathy with humanity. A boy was at the same time asked how many horseshoe nails a black- smith would need in the course of a year. The only details furnished were that this blacksmith was the only one in a little town of three hun- dred, and that he drew his custom from that and from an agricultural community of four square miles. The boy took an imaginary town and determined the probable occupation of every one of the inhabitants. Next he plotted on paper the four square miles, fixing the woods, hills, and streams, the farm acreage, the kinds of crops raised, the number of horses needed. Then he talked with blacksmiths and found that they were human. He blew the bellows, listened to the merry anvil chorus, stroked the noses of the horses, and found that they liked sympathy. He was a surprised boy to learn that if he worked up his own arithmeti- cal problems, they had something to do with real practical human life. If a teacher would be both a social and an economic power, he must teach his pupils, not to lop off their wants, but to want more and more things of the right kind. Dean Swift rightly said that to satisfy our desires by lopping off our wants is like cutting off our feet when we need shoes. Some English traders went into central Africa, thinking to find a ready market for their wares. But the Africans wanted nothing; they 148 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General were satisfied with their ignorance, squalor, unprogressiveness, and idola- try. The Englishmen said that before trade could be profitable there, the Africans must be taught to want something. When men lop off their wants in the material world, hard times and a panic ensue and children cry for bread. When men lop off their wants in the intellectual and emotional and. moral world, the ideals of the nation are lowered. Then comes loss of Eden until greater teachers restore us. Finally, we may say that when a teacher has mastered the law of sug- gestion on its social side ; when he has brought into play the intelligent imitation of the best ; when he has developed the potential capacity for sympathy; when he has influenced children to do things for others; when he has ceased to tell them that education consists in knowing where to look for facts, and has taught them how to set problems of their own to solve ; when he has impressed on them that wealth depends not so much on mere saving as on the original use made of those savings ; when he has made them understand that intellectual, moral, and social culture comes in larger measure, not so much in learning by rote other people's knowledge in those branches, as in drawing knowledge from the living well of experience ; when he has taught them to have increasing wants, the result of high ideals — then, and only then, can the teacher become the needed social-economic power and raise to a higher plane the world with which he comes in contact. OUR NATIONAL FLORAL EMBLEM MISS EDNA DEAN PROCTOR, SOUTH FRAMINGHAM, MASS. If we are to have a national floral emblem, let us choose one that is continental and worthy; one that will vividly suggest America whenever its name is heard or its real or pictured form is seen ; one whose story is blended with our past and is in accord with our greatness and our destiny. A national emblem must be something full of significance to the country it represents. The rose and the lily are dear to England and to France because for centuries in camp and court, in council and fray, they have been an expression of the national life. The shamrock thrills the Irish heart because St. Patrick, when preaching to the chiefs and their clans, plucked a plant growing beside him and illustrated by its trifoliate leaves the mysterious doctrine of the Trinity. Scotland honors the thistle because it pricked the foot of one of the Danish invaders stealing upon the army at night, and his cry roused the camp, and the enemy was over- come. We all love the trailing arbutus, the columbine, the golden-rod, Sessions] OUR NATIONAL FLORAL EMBLEM 149 but to choose one of these, or any other flower, as a national emblem, simply for its beauty of color, or for some fancied meaning in its form, is as incongruous and unworthy as it would be to select some pleasing song and say: "This shall be our national hymn." National hymns are not made thus ! They are born of stress and passionate devotion, and consecrated in the nation's hours of grief and of peril, of triumph and of joy. So a national floral emblem is not a thing of unrelated, arbitrary choice. To be truly symbolic it must have been interwoven with the story of the land and the people, and its associations with them must be potent and enduring. One plant we have, widespread enough and distinguished enough to symbolize our country, and that is our stately maize — the golden Corn. It is wholly and absolutely American — never a kernel in the world else- where till carried from here by Columbus. It grows from the lakes to the gulf and from ocean to ocean. It was the grain of the primitive peoples here — the aboriginal Americans — and with religious ceremonies of prayer and dance and song they invoked the blessing of their gods upon its planting and its harvest; they buried it with their dead, and offered it to the sun in their temples. It saved the lives of the first European settlers here, and it has been a vast factor in the civilization of the continent. From stalk to blade, from tassel to golden ear, it is uniquely and nobly beautiful, and it lends itself with grace and superb effect to varied forms of decoration. Our eminent historian, John Fiske, says of it : Maize is more widely and completely identified with the western hemisphere than any other plant In adopting it for the national emblem we do not invent anything out of our fancy, but simply recognize an existing fact It is (I believe) richer in aesthetic suggestiveness than any other that has ever served as a national emblem. How completely it is identified with our country was shown to a recent traveler among the fjords of Norway. Surprised to see some small stalks growing in the garden, she said to the innkeeper's daughter : " Why do you plant the maize when its grain can never ripen ?" "Oh," replied the child, "we plant it to please the Americans! They smile when they see it, and say that in their land it grows like a forest, and the bins are filled with its golden ears before the snows can fall." Do you say it is " commercial "? It is commercial, royally and grandly commercial ; but this is its least claim upon us as a national floral emblem. It is a part of the history of the New World, and is invested with the tradition and sentiment and poetry of all the American ages. Each state will choose its device after its own heart. California will have her poppy, Vermont the red clover, Kansas the golden-rod, and so on and on thru the long, bright list ; but for the broad country how can we fail to adopt the beautiful, distinguished, historic, American plant — the maize, the Corn ? 15° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General COLUMBIA'S EMBLEM Blazon Columbia's emblem The bounteous, golden Corn ! Eons ago, of the great sun's glow And the joy of the earth, 'twas born. From Superior's shore to Chili, From the ocean of dawn to the west, With its banners of green and silken sheen It sprang at the sun's behest ; And by dew and shower, from its natal hour, With honey and wine 'twas fed, Till on slope and plain the gods were fain To share the feast outspread : For the rarest boon to the land they loved Was the corn so rich and fair, Nor star nor breeze o'er the farthest seas Could find its like elsewhere. In their holiest temples the Incas Offered the heaven-sent maize — Grains wrought of gold, in a silver fold, For the sun's enraptured gaze ; And its harvest came to the wandering tribes As the gods' own gift and seal, And Montezuma's festal bread Was made of its sacred meal. Narrow their cherished fields ; but ours Are broad as the continent's breast, And, lavish as leaves, the rustling sheaves Bring plenty and joy and rest ; For they strew the plains and crowd the wains When the reapers meet at morn, Till blithe cheers ring and west winds sing A song for the garnered corn. The rose may bloom for England, The lily for France unfold ; Ireland may honor the shamrock, Scotland Ker thistle bold ; But the shield of the great republic, The glory of the West, Shall bear a stalk of the tasseled corn — The sun's supreme bequest ! The arbutus and the golden-rod The heart of the North may cheer, And the mountain laurel for Maryland Its royal clusters rear, And jasmine and magnolia The crest of the South adorn ; But the wide republic's emblem Is the bounteous, golden Corn ! Sessions] EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND 151 THE EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND CLOUDESLEY S. H. BRERET0N, MELTON CONSTABLE, ENGLAND Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemeti : My first duty must be — and it is a very pleasant duty — to thank you most heartily for the great honor you have conferred upon me in asking me over to America to lecture to you on English education. I little thought a year ago, when I had the privilege of studying and appraising your excel- lent educational section at the Paris Exhibition, I should so soon have the opportunity of seeing on the spot the actual working of your schools and of meeting face to face the pick and flower of those who have built up, or are building up, this magnificent and unparalleled system of national education. The most casual observer cannot fail to be struck by the intense and fervent belief of American democracy in its schools, which is only to be matched by the fervent belief of the schools in American democracy. Such a happy conjunction between the two seems fraught with limitless possibilities. Every year the schools grow richer as more money and thought are poured into them. Every year they turn out a higher and more efficient type of citizens, ready, when their time of giving comes, to give as freely as they themselves have received. Believe me, deeply as I value the honor of being invited over here to speak on the problems of English education, I am still more grateful to you for giving me the chance of gaining some insight into your own. No doubt, in part, some of this immense and rapid progress is due to the fact that you were able to begin, so to say, at the beginning, untram- meled by the excessive top hamper with which all countries of an older civilization are encumbered. I do not know how often, in seeing the ease and rapidity with which you have solved, or are solving, the various educational problems which confront you, I have experienced a regret that the age of miracles is past and that we, as a nation, cannot be re-created and born again, so that we too might start with a blank sheet, or tabula rasa so to say, on which we might erect a brand-new system of national education. And yet a moment's reflection has always convinced me that even the worst and most antiquated of our traditions, by which we are at times so sore let and hindered, are not without their uses. In fact, the problem is to modify rather than to abolish them. The curious habits and customs, the various modes of belief, the conception and ways of looking at things which have impressed themselves so strongly on English education, are not mere scaffolding by which we have been able to raise up, tier by tier, the mighty structure of national life, but are verily and indeed part and parcel of that structure, reaching down and extend- ing to its very foundation and base, so that their complete removal, if it were possible, would be a distinct loss of certain elemental things essen- tially national, and their radical excision would be a mutilation of part 152 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General of those forces which make the English body politic what it is, and not something else. If you agree with this view, I think you will readily admit that national education is not, as the mechanical-minded theorists of the eighteenth century imagined, a sort of machine you could clap on to this or that nation, whether English or French, European or Asiatic, in the sure and certain expectation of turning out exactly the same finished article, true in every detail to pattern and specification, a kind of education-made automaton, a great monstrosity, if it really existed, like that other figment of the eighteenth century, the economic man, so dear to early writers of political economy. If the spirit of the nineteenth century, which has just passed away, had one message for us, it was to substitute for this mechan- ical theory that of evolution ; to dethrone the belief in cataclysms and sudden changes, in favor of the view of sure but certain processes; to restate the problem of progress in terms of living growth instead of artificial manufacture. It denied that the child is a mere lump of clay to be puddled and molded into some conventional type, as tho, forsooth, the Lord God had not already breathed into it a soul and a personality. On the con- trary, it asserted that it is the bounden duty of the teacher to respect the child's individuality — a practice which you, to your eternal honor, have more than any other nation held to and maintained. It no less vigorously affirmed that it is the bounden duty of the statesman, in whatever reform he may undertake, to respect the genius and individuality of his nation. For nations, as I consider them, are not mere undisciplined aggregates of competing individuals, but organized social wholes, to whom national education bears the same relationship as the flower to the parent plant. If I had to give a definition of national education, I would define it as the outcome, half conscious, half unconscious, of the desire of the more thoughtful members of a nation to hand down to the rising generation the experience, ethical, intellectual, and practical, of the race, in order that they may continue to develop the nation on its own line, and realize more fully and perfectly the ideals, whether existing or naissant, in their own hearts. They desire, it is true, to render their sons more efficient for the battle of life, yet, knowing that man cannot live by bread alone, they are anxious to see instilled into those that come after them those moral standards and aims which they believe to be the most precious heritage they have received from their forefathers ; which form, so to say, the very bed rock of national character and temperament, and enable a nation on the morrow of some crushing reverse or defeat to pull itself together and go on. In a word, the school should be the microcosm of all that is best in the national life and ideals, and its further progress largely depends on its becoming more and more the mirror of these high hopes and aspirations. But perhaps someone will say : This theory may square very well with Sessions] EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND 153 European conditions, but our American schools are none the less one of the most efficient machines the world has ever known for converting into American citizens the countless children of the strangers that are within our gates. It is quite true that the American schools do literally help to transform the child of the newcomer into an American citizen, and it is indeed one of the chief glories of the American schools that they are able to effect such a conversion as deep and thoro as any other conversion, religious or otherwise. But such a fact is not against my theory. On the contrary, it is a striking proof of how a nation is really a social whole, which demands, in the name of national unity, the assimilation of the individual of the national type. It emphasizes the vigor and genius of the American national character that it is able so thoroly to leaven, permeate, and trans- form these foreign elements. It illustrates incidentally the fact that American education must proceed along the lines of American ideals, which is only what I have been urging in reference to England. But I would not have you think for a moment that I wish to see a Chinese wall thrown around a nation or a nation's schools, in order to shut out and exclude all foreign influences. On the contrary, I am most anxious that in education, as in commerce, we should maintain the policy of the open door. Never in the history of the world, as far as one can judge, have the nations, and especially the English nation, been under a deeper obligation than at present to learn and copy from one another what is best. Besides, education in its highest sense is the raising and uplift- ing, not only of each of the several nations, but of all humanity; as such it cannot be shut up in water-tight compartments or separated by impass- able boundaries. What I do contend for is this, that we cannot profit- ably copy the methods of other countries till we have got a clear idea of the condition and genesis of our own education. In other words, we must first be able to state the problem and appreciate its main factors before we can say whether this or that solution, however excellent it may be on abstract lines, however well it has worked in other countries, is really applicable in our case. But this seems to me to be the place to mention another factor which appears to me second in importance only to that of national character in considering the problem of national education. Nations are not only divided by what they have inherited from the past ; they are also differ- entiated by the diversity of their destinies. To understand the problem of national education we must not only ask from what the nation has come, we must also inquire whither it is going. For the school is not only the trustee of the past ; it must also take thought for the future. Now, it seems to me that the problems with which every nation has to deal tend to group themselves around some central problem, which, in its turn, gives its own particular hue and color to the others. Let me 154 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General come at once to concrete instances to show what I mean. Anyone con- versant with French life will, I believe, readily admit that the funda- mental problem in France is the religious problem. In fact, you cannot scratch, or even touch, the surface of any other problem without at once coming in contact with some of its seemingly endless ramifications. In Germany it will probably be readily admitted that the central problem is the reconstruction of society. Here in America, if a passing visitor may venture on an opinion, the problem with which you have to deal is that of the adjustment of the relation of capital and labor; while in Eng- land, it seems to me, the coming problem, if it has not come already, is that of imperialism. One might almost think it was a sort of divine dis- pensation that each of the chief civilizing states of the world is set down, as it were, to work out its own salvation on different lines, so that the other nations, if it succeeds, may enter into its labors; for no nation liveth unto itself alone, but to the benefit, in the end, of humanity. The bottom problem, I repeat, in England is imperialism. To pre- vent any possible misunderstanding, let me attempt to state what I mean by the term. Of course, it has nothing to do with that militant spirit of spread eagleism we call jingoism ; it is not mere flag-waving or any other form of human cockadoodleism ; it is not land-grabbing ; it is not the insane wish to paint as much as possible of the map of the world red, or whatever the national color may be. On the other hand, it seems to me stupid, if not criminal, to shut our eyes to the fact that our empire, even if we do not add another rod to it for fifty years, is already enormous. Speaking roughly, we, a nation of bare forty million souls, are respon- sible to Almighty God for the lives, fortunes, and happiness of some four billions. Are we, like unworthy servants, unmindful of our high responsibilities, going to hide our talents in a napkin and do nothing, or are we going to attempt to take up as best we may the "white man's burden'' ? To me it seems there is but one alternative. If we are not to share in the fate of Tyre and Sidon, Macedonia and Rome, we must do our duty toward this great empire, not running it for our own selfish profit and pleasure, but for the welfare of all that are in it. Otherwise our fate is certain, be it long or short in coming. I feel in this matter we have your sympathy. To you, too, the call of empire has come, and, after long counting the cost, you, too, have put your hand to the plow, and, having put it, show little sign of turning back or of refusing to accept the greatness thus thrust upon you. But we cannot do our duty to others until we have done our duty to ourselves. If we are to run the empire as we should, we must put things on a far more efficient basis at home, not only in the way of social and economic reform (of political we have had enough and to spare), but also in education. Now, English education is at present in a chaotic state. In some places there is overlapping and friction between competing schools and Sessions] EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND 1 55 conflicting local authorities ; in others the educational supply is miser- ably deficient. What is wanted at the present time is organization and coordination, not indeed uniformity, but unity, or at least harmonious working, between the different educational agencies. This cry for unity that is voiced by so many is, however, no new thing. It has been raised again and again, yet hitherto has always met with failure. The causes of this failure lie deep. They can be disclosed only by an inquiry into the reasons in the history of English education that have led to the present complicated position. I shall, therefore, attempt to give you, in a rough and ready fashion, some insight into historical causes, and, dividing the problem into two parts, deal first with the local and then with the central authorities. The beginnings of English education were religious. The ethical bias in English education must never be lost sight of when any estimate of the problem is made. The Reformation only transferred the school from the church to the king, not as the head of the state, but as the tem- poral head of the church. This, of course, only applies to the secondary schools. The seventeenth century was a blank as far as education of the work- ing classes was concerned. At the commencement of the eighteenth century we find Sir Richard Steele pleading in the Tatler for the educa- tion of the poor. His cry did not fall on deaf ears, and produced a movement within the established church which led to the foundation of the so-called charity schools (under the auspices of the Society for Chris- tian Knowledge). These schools at first grew and increased, and at one time contained as many as twenty-six thousand children. But opposi- tion soon appeared; on one hand they were attacked by those who com- plained of their superficiality; on the other, by those who asserted that it made the poor discontented with their station in life. There was no idea of seeking the help or assistance of the state. The great English radical, Priestley, who had inherited the laissez-faire traditions of 1648, was dead against the notion. It is not until we come to Adam Smith that we find the idea of a state system of primary education mooted. He had been influenced by the ideas of Turgot and the working of the Scottish system ; unhappily for the future of secondary education, he was utterly opposed to state aid or intervention in the sphere of higher education, looking on it as likely to lead to intellectual tyranny. So at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were two tend- encies in education, one laying stress on the ethical, the other on the intellectual side ; the former represented by the now languishing charity schools, which were suffering from the attacks of the obscurantist faction in the church, who disbelieved in education for the working classes ; the other, by the philosophical radicals, who were advocates of the state system of primary education, but encountered opposition from 156 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General extremists of the Priestley school. The first attempt to establish a national system of primary education was made as far back as 1806, by the cele- brated Quaker, Mr. Whitehead. He attempted to conciliate the clerical party, but failed to overcome the opposition of the obscurantists. But the problem itself became more acute. During the Napoleonic war we were passing from being a rural to an urban people. The industrial revolution was at its height, the slums were growing at an alarming rate, our working classes were half-starved thru the high price of corn, and the horrors of child labor grew and intensified. State aid having failed, the philanthropist stepped into the breach. Robert Raikes in 1810 started the Sunday schools. The numbers in these schools rose rapidly to half a million, but after 1810 they devoted themselves to the Sunday side of the work. Then the Royal Lancastrian Society was founded to extend the monitorial system of one Joseph Lancaster, a Quaker, and became in due course the British and Foreign Bible Society. Its methods were crude ; knowledge was looked on as a sort of liquid that naturally found its own level in the pupil, who acted as a sort of tank or receptacle thru the monitor, who was regarded as the pipe or conduit, and therefore did not require to know more than the pupil, being what we should call, in theological language, a sort of unconscious channel of grace. These schools were, nevertheless, highly favored and supported by Bentham, the elder Mill, Francis Plaice, and other radical reformers of the time. The activity of the non-sectarian British and Foreign School Society naturally awoke the slumbering energies of the other party, and a rival society, called the National Society, was started by churchmen. People looked complacently on the rivalry of the two societies as a kind of sporting affair, hoping that the better would win — a spirit, I fancy, not altogether unknown in America. Unfortunately the two societies did not cover anything like the whole ground. In 1820 Brougham pointed out that out of twelve thousand parishes only five thousand had any sort of school at all, and many of those were little better than dame schools. He himself tackled the problem of state education, but failed, thru the impossibility of finding a via media between the church, the church people, and the laissez-faire nonconformists. Meanwhile the British and Foreign Schools were not fulfilling the expectations they had raised. As we have seen, their conception of the child was all wrong, and they confounded education with instruction, in thinking they could solve the social problem by teaching a little spelling and the multiplication table. From the passing of the Reform Bill till 1870 the middle classes were having a good time in England, as good as the middle classes in America today. Trade was going up by leaps and bounds. Everyone was feeling yearly a little richer. It was an epoch of intellectual output. Sessions] EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND 157 Tennyson, Dickens, and George Eliot were in their prime. There was very little dwelling on difficult or ultimate questions. A superficial optimism, of which Macaulay was often the mouthpiece, was the fashion. There was a general feeling that things would work themselves out all right. It was the golden age of laissez faire. So much for the articulate classes, but the actual life of the inarticulate classes was far different, and we were really sowing the seeds of the numerous social and economic problems that of late have sprung up around us like magic, and are clamoring simultaneously for solution. The year 1832 is memorable as the first instance of state aid in the history of national education, when a building grant of ^20,000 was given to the two societies. In 1835 a royal commission Was appointed, which revealed the educational nakedness of the land. Once more an attempt was made to establish a national system of education ; this time on undenominational lines. It failed before the opposition of the church. A further attempt to secure education for factory children was unsuccess- ful, this time the opposition coming from the party opposed to state intervention, John Bright and Baines. At last a via media was found. In 1846 the government adopted the system of subsidizing the denomi- national schools. During the fifties we see the beginnings of the ideas of local control in the schools, and the birth of two great questions — one, whether education should be a branch of municipal and local govern- ment, or intrusted to a special ad hoc body; and the other, the still thornier one of aiding denominational schools out of the rates. Mean- while the reforms introduced by Arnold at Rugby had extended to other schools, and made our public schools what they are today, the nurseries of public spirit and esprit de corps. The electoral reform of 1868, and the sweeping Liberal majorities that followed, tended much to weaken the dislike of the laissez-faire radicals to the state, with which they began to identify themselves more and more. This reduced the four opposing currents of thought to three, and opened the way for Mr. John Forster and his celebrated education bill of 1870. Three points require to be very strongly noted as regards this act. One, that the elected school boards were avowedly only to be created in districts where the educational supply was lacking ; they were merely intended to fill up the gaps in the then existing system of volun- tary education. While, to afford the voluntary schools a last chance of covering the ground, a year's grace was given under the bill, during which they were to be allowed to attempt to build as many schools as possible. They made such good use of the opportunity that they raised some three million pounds for school buildings. When the year was up, and the competition began, they had already received an immense start, and tho the school boards have since made enormous progress, the majority of elementary children are still in denominational schools. The second 158 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General point to note is that the government grant to these schools has steadily increased, so that today these so-called voluntary schools receive the equivalent of four-fifths of their expenditure, and in some cases still more, out of the public fund ; yet, except as regards examination and inspection, they are quite outside the sphere of popular control. The third point to note is that the first draft of Mr. Forster's bill proposed to make the existing municipal councils the local school authorities for the towns. But, as some of the radicals objected to indirect election, and the various denominational bodies insisted on a representation of all parties and all religions, we had the establishment of school boards in the town, which, apart from the religious wrangling, have generally done very good work, and the establishment of the little district boards in the country, which have worked, as a rule, very indifferently. As there is no great popular feeling in favor of education in country districts com- parable to that in America, the country school boards have been mainly manned by persons who have got themselves elected for the purpose of keeping down rates. Not a few persons in England consider it unfortunate for the cause of popular education that its destinies should have been linked at the start to a form of local government which was rapidly falling into discredit thru the rendering the life of the English ratepayer a burden, and hindering the growth of local patriotism. It was estimated by Mr. (after Justice) Smith in 1876 that some unfortunate householders in London were living under the government of something like fifteen distinct ad hoc authorities, being in one area for the school, another for water, another for gas, another for health, another for registration of birth, another for burial purposes, etc. The reform of English local government was taken in hand in 1888, when the old county area was chosen as the unit, and the functions of the majority of these ad hoc bodies were merged in the new authority. Towns of over sixty thousand inhabitants, together with a few whose population was under this figure, were eliminated from the county and made co-equal independent bodies under the title of county boroughs. This is a most important point. Had the present county unit existed in a democratic shape in 1870, we should probably not have had an ad hoc body chosen to supplement merely primary education, but the county unit would most probably have been adopted to look after all forms of education in its area. The proof of this asser- tion lies in the fact that the county council and county borough council were made the authority for technical instruction in 1889, and not the school board, for the simple reason that their areas were co-extensive with the whole country. There being little or no technical instruction at the time, the county council and county borough council soon found it necessary to expend a large portion of the grant they received from the government for technical Sessions] EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND 159 education in aiding hundreds of secondary schools in order that the pupils might be better prepared to enter the technical schools and classes. They have, therefore, become de facto in England in many localities, the local authority for secondary education. Their position has further been strengthened thru the government grant for science and art being in many places also paid thru their hands. Meanwhile, especially in the towns, school boards throve and expanded ; extra standard classes were soon added to the ordinary classes in the three R's ; and the regular superstructure of higher grade educa- tion evolved. In this forward policy the school boards were, up to a recent date, encouraged by the two departments intrusted with the over- sight of elementary and of science and art education. Certain of the London ratepayers, however, took alarm at the growing expenditure of the London board. The matter was brought into the law courts, and the whole of this new top story has been declared illegal. For anyone but an obscurantist in education the question is whether these classes should be recognized as higher primary, as in France, or as frankly secondary. If the latter alternative is adopted, they will at once be authorized to enter into competition with the existing secondary schools, many of which are under the tutelage of the county councils, and the skirmishes which have hitherto taken place between the two rival authorities will degenerate into a battle royal. In fact, recognition of two rival authorities, each possessing equal rights to give the same grade of education, can only lend itself to an intolerable amount of friction and overlapping, and unnecessary expense ; so that the British ratepayer is not unlikely to strike. Unable to discriminate between the two, he will cry "a plague on both your houses," and the cause of education is bound to suffer in the end when people see how these educationists love one another. Furthermore, the present muddle is intensified by the overlapping which has been going on in the evening classes for adults ; between the classes run by the county councils and the school boards in the town when they have not been regulated by voluntary concordats. And, finally, we have before us the grave question of whether we mean to crush out the private schools. There should, indeed, be short shrift for the inefficient ; but the private school which is doing its work seems worthy at least of recognition, if not of encouragement. Both in France and Germany there are distinct signs of regret that the private school, which, if efficient, is always a center of emulation and experiment, has become such a quantite negli- geable. The act of 1870 was a statesmanlike compromise between the denomi- national and the undenominational parties in the sphere of primary education. What we need today is a second compromise between the two schools of thought in the sphere of secondary education. In 1896 an attempt was made to make the county the chief local authority. It 160 . NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General failed ; this time largely thru the carelessness with which the bill was conducted in Parliament, and also from the jealousy shown by the small non-county boroughs toward the counties in which they were situated. This year again a bill has been presented which proposed once more to make the county the paramount authority. I understand it has been withdrawn owing to the exigencies of the parliamentary session. And yet it seems to me, if we are to have educational unity in England, the county council is the only possible authority we can have for local purposes. But before stating the case for the county council, let us first consider the other alternative. At first sight, in order to do away with the exist- ing rivalry, it might seem expedient to disfranchise the county councils of their educational rights, disestablish the school boards, and hand over the educational duties of the two bodies to an entirely brand-new authority. But this suggestion, tho possessing all the special attrac- tions of symmetry and completeness, would arouse the most prodigious opposition. The two interested parties would fight it tooth and nail. Localities would be up in arms, and local M. P.s would voice their oppo- sition in Parliament. All officials under the existing bodies would be dead against any proposal that jeopardized their positions and salaries. It would be actively fought by that small but growing body of social reformers who, as partisans of the municipal idea, believe that politics can be made real to the man in the street only by consolidating the various functions of local government in one body and doing away with the bewildering multiplicity of elections. And, lastly, such a body would be certain to inherit from the old school boards the spirit of religious wrangling that has proved such a fruitful source of hindrance to the cause of popular education in England. The objections to the school boards being made the one authority for education are scarcely less for- midable. They are an ad hoc body ; they are at present only a makeshift form of organization existing in only two-thirds of the country, and catering for less than half of the children, the majority of whom are in voluntary schools which have been avowedly built and maintained to keep out the school board on religious and economic grounds. The attempt to make the school boards the authority for such a neutral subject as technical education failed in 1889. Their chance, therefore,»of being made the secondary authority, now that the technical-education commit- tees of the county councils are in full swing, is still more remote. They have but few friends among the Tory party, and even supposing the Lib- eral party came back to power with a thumping majority, it would have the whole of the Irish vote cast solid against it, on the question of mak- ing school boards the chief authority, as the Irish desire rate aid for Catholic schools in the north of England. There remain, therefore, only the county councils and the county Sessions] EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND 161 boroughs, and this is fortunately no Hobson's choice. They have, indeed, much to recommend them. Their areas are co-terminous with the whole country ; they are also sufficiently big to exclude the election of the crank and faddist, and secure a certain amount of ability and large-mindedness in their representatives. They have already acquired administrative educational experience in dealing with secondary and technical education. In the counties it would probably be advisable to abolish at once the small boards which have little to recommend them. The evicted mem- bers might be reinstated as managers in order that what administrative experience they have might be preserved. But the advent of county- council administration would probably mean a rise in the standard of the schools and greater security of tenure for teachers. The principle of popular control would be maintained by the proviso that the educa- tional committee of the county council should consist of a majority of members of the council, while the educational side would be safeguarded by the election or co-operation of educational experts to represent the various types of schools. The county councils would be allowed to levy an educational rate over the whole country, or rather merge the education rate in the county rate. Being the authority for all forms of education, they would naturally have a right to inspect, not only the board schools, but also those of the voluntary schools which wished to come under their regime to qualify for efficiency. This idea of subsidizing the voluntary school seems a bitter pill to some people. But it appears to me just one of those cases where the stern logic of fact is superior to the reasoning on mere abstract principles. Assuming that the voluntary schools are, as their adversaries allege, inefficient, have we a moral right, looking at the question from the national point of view, to allow more than half our children to suffer under permanent educational disadvantages until the voluntary schools are starved out in the dim and distant future? Are not the rights of conscience of the sectarian equally respectable as those of the secularist in the eyes of the state ? We have spent thirty years in trying to ignore the religious question. The effect has been, so far, such a qualified suc- cess that we have not as yet attracted half the children of the nation into our state schools. We have given state aid to the extent of four- fifths of the expenditure in the denominational schools, and have received in return nothing but the right to inspect these schools. Why should we haggle over the remaining fifth, if we can purchase with it a certain measure of popular control over these schools, save and excepting in the presence of religious teaching ? Are we not far more likely to raise and widen the outlook of these schools by inducing them to come under county-council control than by any measures that smack or savor of per- secution ? We want to find points of contact between the different ideals that divide England ; we do not want to set them in harsh opposition. 1 62 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General In the towns, the school boards have done yeoman service in the cause of popular education. Yet it is obvious we cannot allow two public bodies, each professing to do the same kind of educational work, to remain in perpetual competition with one another. From the national point of view there is no gain whatever from such a clumsy and expensive duplication. It can mean only the perpetuation of the educational schism which has hitherto divided the nation. To leave the county coun- cils with only the control of the present grammar school is to narrow their conception of what secondary education really means, and another ten years of the present regime may make them into partisans despite themselves. At present, both in theory and practice, they are really far more democratic than the existing school board. They are elected on the ordinary and not the cumulative franchise, while the number of votes cast at the borough-council election in the towns is always much larger than that cast at the school-board election. Thus in London at the last county-council election about 70 per cent, went to the hall, while the last school-board election barely interested 20 per cent, of the electorate. Yet, if the county councils are to absorb the school boards in the town, the transference must be very carefully and gradually made. These latter bodies have acquired a wealth of administrative and educational experience which it would be hard, if not impossible, to replace imme- diately. There must be no forced liquidation, but they must be taken over as going concerns, their best members being co-opted at once on the borough council education committee, in order that the break in con- tinuity may be as little as possible. The following advantages, from the national point of view, which would result from the adoption of the county council as the one local authority, should also be noted : With a single authority in each area, controlling all forms of educa- tion, it will be at once possible to detect and correct overlapping, and supplement any deficiencies in educational supply. Again, the needs of each locality necessarily vary. The single authority, more or less supreme in its own area, will be able readily to see at a glance the needs of its district and to call for them accordingly. There is plenty of work and more than enough for the existing type of schools. What is wanted is to regulate and define more carefully the function of each so they may be as readily understood by the people as they are in France or Switzer- land. Half the want of interest in the schools which exist today in Eng- land is due to the impossibility for the ordinary man to make out what they severally stand for. People cannot be enthusiastic about their schools till they comprehend their exact aims. If we cannot harness the Niagara of national interest in education to our schools, as you have done in America, we can yet do a great deal in the way of deriving power by hitching the school on to the latent forces that lie at the back of local patriotism in England. Sessions] EDUCATIONAL CRISIS IN ENGLAND 163 Coming now to the question of the central authority, it Js enough to say that primary education was originally under the education depart- ment, which, like many other departments of state, was at first an appanage of the privy council. The latter is the real source of an unexhausted executive power in England, and may be compared to the sun in its potentiality to throw off some new department of state when a new administrative want makes itself felt. Science and art teaching, which dates back to the great exhibition of 1 85 1, was under the science and art department, which was later on made the authority for technical education. The endowed schools were con- trolled by the charity commission, whose oversight, however, was mainly financial. The present board of education was evolved out of the two above-named departments, with power to take over certain functions from the charity commission. The new office was divided up into two sec- tions, primary and secondary, and technological. The latter section shows sign of splitting up into two parts, so that there will probably in the end be three sections in the office. Hitherto, owing to the miser- able system of payment by results, the office has been overwhelmed by questions of detail and audit. The establishment of the block grant may perhaps set it free to study the admirable collection of reports which have been amassed by its special inquiries section, in order to enable it to frame general principles of control. It has also been furnished with a consultative committee of experts ; these no doubt should serve as an admirable go-between in their dealings with the schools on their peda- gogical side ; but what they really most require at the present time is an efficient secondary inspectorate that shall serve, not only as the mouth- piece, but the eyes and ears, of the board. Otherwise they will be like those lay figures that have eyes, but see not ; ears have they, but they hear not. Much, again, of their routine work should be delegated to the local authorities. The true function of the board of education seems to be something of a mean between your bureau of education and the strong centralized ministry of public instruction in France. I cannot define this function in better words than those of our greatest writer on education, Mr. Michael Sadler. He is speaking of the part of the state in national education, and, after dismissing the individualist idea that the state should have no part in national education, and rejecting Adam Smith's opinion that it should provide only primary schools, and Mills' view that it should establish a system of schools of its own among other com- peting systems, he goes on to lay down that the state should rather draw toward itself, inspire, stimulate, and (when needful) aid each and every type and instance of efficient and needed schools, while absorbing, con- trolling, crushing none; aiming, not at monopoly, but at a compre- hensive federation of schools and colleges ; at strengthening educational 1 64 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General freedom, noj at any restriction of it ; at self-criticism, not at the dis- couragement of criticism ; at the planning and record of careful and systematic experiments ; at the very liberal encouragement of educa- tional, psychological, and hygienic research of all kinds, in all types of schools, and those not in England alone; at the wide diffusion among all concerned of the accurate, but varied and outspoken, observations thus secured, with a view to the development and guidance of a well-informed and skillfully observant public and professional opinion. Such seems to me to be the present position of English education and its principal shortcomings ; and, in speaking so plainly of our failings, I do not wish you to imagine for a moment there is little to be said in praise of English education. My abstention was rather intentional, because it seemed to me scarcely the place to say it; and yet, as one reared in the traditions of our English public schools, who has breathed their subtle atmosphere, as strong and life-giving in its way as that of your American schools ; who later on, as a teacher, has attempted to maintain and spread their high-soaring and deep-rooted traditions, I feel it is only fair tonight to express in public my eternal gratitude toward those public institutions which instilled into me, unforward scholar that I was, some scanty sense of the high ideals of patriotism ; of esprit de corps and of serving the state, of noblesse oblige and the non-existence of rights unaccompanied by duties ; of the virtue of self-control ; of the spirit of never-say-die; of the belief in fair play and other national qualities which belong pre-eminently to the Anglo-Saxon race. And if I also look on France as a sort of foster-mother who, taking me late in life, deepened my ideas of culture and philosophy, it is because she gave me thereby a sort of intellectuelle Anschauung into the ^0os of English public-school life, and helped me better to understand myself and my great debt to these ancient and religious foundations. I might also point with pride to the work of the great school boards, like those of Leeds and London, to show what thirty years of popular effort have done for the working classes, or extol the energy of the technical-education board for London, which in ten years has literally created the present network of technical educa- tion out of nothing. But my object is not to praise or blame our national education, but to render it intelligible. I greatly fear, however, I have not infrequently been obscure, owing to the lack of time to set forth each proposition and idea in its due light and proportion. If I have failed, I shall at least have had the melancholy satisfaction of making you realize the extraordinary complexity of the problem by explaining the obscureness per obscureness. There are, however, two ideas which I would wish you to carry away with you. One, that a trim and geometrical system of education is probably impossible in England, not because of the stupidity or indif- ference of the English people, but because of the diversity that exists in Sessions] FUNCTIONS OF A UNIVERSITY IN A DEMOCRACY 165 the national character, and the extraordinary sensitiveness of the English people to fundamentals, about which they rarely argue, but which, as the suppressed premise, give weight and direction to their arguments. I think no nation feels more deeply, or experiences greater difficulty in putting its feelings into words. I fancy at times it even half-consciously shrinks from doing so. The second is that any satisfactory settlement of the education ques- tion, or even temporary modus vivendi, must recognize this diversity in the national character and give fair play to the various sets of opposing tendencies which are not always symmetrically ranged under one banner or party, yet are ever carrying on a perpetual duel in England, as pre- figured by the battle between freedom and authority, between the spirit of inquiry and that of obedience, between individual liberty and state control, between private effort and corporate life, between the ethical and the intellectual conceptions of education. This English duality, which Emerson himself has remarked upon, makes us appear at times strangely undecided, irresolute, illogical, and cross-grained ; but there are moments when, as Pascal says, the heart has reasons, the head knows not. Yet I do not wish to imply that we should be forever halting between two opinions, and that there are not occasions when we must make up our minds to take a decided step. No one is more convinced than myself at the present time that we have need of overhauling the ship of state and putting her into a better state of repair, making jettison of certain of the laissez-faire notions with which we are encumbered and taking in a fresh consignment of state control. I only ask you to judge us gently. Our responsibilities are indeed great, yet I have no doubt whatever, once we have truly realized them, we shall prove fully equal to the task. For my part I cannot entertain the idea that the Anglo-Saxon race, whether on this side of the Atlantic or the other, can ever go under. THE FUNCTIONS OF A UNIVERSITY IN A PROSPEROUS DEMOCRACY CHARLES F. THWING, PRESIDENT OF WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY AND ADELBERT COLLEGE, CLEVELAND, O. There is one special respect in which the university proves to be of great advantage to organized religion. The university helps to show to the world the relative worth of the church and the relative lack of the worth of churches. The church is founded upon the primary belief of the existence of a personal God, and upon the derived belief that the will of this Being is made known to the will of man, and also upon the 1 66 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General derived belief that the will of this Supreme Being is to be obeyed by man. Churches are founded upon some adaptation of application or corollary of this fundamental conception. The university is concerned with truth in large relations. It therefore investigates and presents the primary conception on which the church rests. It therefore is an aid to the sup- port of the church in a democratic community. But its relations to the divisions of the one great church are on the whole remote. For asms it has not only contempt, but also indifference ; for heresy, while it may give approval to the motives of the heretic, it has only indifference. The little truths which one endeavors to correlate and to transmute into the system of orthodoxy usually seem to it slight and unimportant. The larger, therefore, a university becomes, the less significant do its denomi- national and sectarian relations appear. A sectarian university is a misnomer. The larger and stronger a university becomes, the more impressive and stronger becomes its allegiance to the fundamental doctrines of religion. For these are fundamental truths of being. A sectarian university would be a practical impossibility, as an irreligious university is a logical inconsistency. These truths receive illustration in the changes which have occurred in the universities of every order, and also in the enlarging policy of the oldest colleges of America. It is also to be noted that theology, studied broadly, as it ever should be, becomes, when studied subjectively, psychology, and when studied objectively it becomes either anthropology or biology. Such a broad study of theology the university is, of all institutions and agencies, the best fitted to conduct. The school of theology is in peril of being a school of theology only. The results of such a narrow method cannot but be slight. For, valuing at the utmost the content of all special reve- lations from and concerning the Divine Being, these revelations are so slight in comparison to the whole content of truth respecting God and his will that advantage must be taken of psychology and anthropology and biology for learning whatever can be known touching Him who is all and in all. In the promotion of social efficiency the university adjusts itself in best ways to the growth of that ever-growing force, the sense of human- ity. It is significant that the growth of the sense of humanity has been specially vigorous in the forty years that have elapsed since the publica- tion of The Origin of the Species. As it has become evident that man has arisen out of the lower forms of life, the worth of humanity, the highest form, has been more appreciated, and the sense of the oneness of this present highest form been the more clearly harmonized. This problem of recognition and appreciation the university is set to promote. It has been and is an agency and a condition best fitted and qualified to pro- mote the growth of this sense of humanity. Thru the interpretation of human movements, and thru a sense of love for all men and a Sessions] FUNCTIONS OF A UNIVERSITY IN- A DEMOCRACY 167 desire to serve all men, the university most directly ministers to the noblest growth of the noblest humanity. The university also performs an important function toward that ele- ment of society known as public opinion. Public opinion is the special product of democracy. It arises from the freedom of the body demo- cratic to express its thoughts, and it reacts on the people and helps to create and maintain a democracy. The university is the voice of the people. It is at times the voice of God, and it has sometimes, in a free democracy, an authority greater than that of God. Public opinion, in a democracy, is usually tyrannical, and those over whom it rules are com- monly its willing subjects. It is the tyranny of the majority, and it is hard to find a tyranny more tyrannical than the tyranny of the majority. It is the power of a tyrant raised to the «th degree. To public opinion the uni- versity owes three duties : first, it should give enlightenment, in order that public opinion may be rightly formed ; second, it should teach the right of dissent ; and third, it should teach and give an example of fair- ness and moderation. Concerning all these elements truth is to be the basis. Absolute free- dom in the teaching is to be allowed, and even to be required. The judge of what is allowed and what is the truth is not to be the civil nor, of course, the ecclesiastical power, but the university itself. The uni- versity is of all bodies the best qualified to be the judge. It has no political government to conserve or to perpetuate ; it has no doctrine to impress ; it has no purpose to perform, excepting the discovery of the truthfulness of the truth, as a means of human betterment. The great progress of the universities of Germany in this century has been caused more by the freedom of the teaching than by any other condition, and upon whatever occasions the civil authorities have seen fit to interfere with the freedom of the teaching, these occasions have resulted, not only in harm to the universities, but also in injury to the best interests of the people. In this country the interference with freedom of teaching has been far less frequent than is commonly supposed. Professors have been removed from their chairs, and the public has often believed that the reason for the removal lay in the unwillingness of the professors to sub- mit their judgments to the judgments of founders or trustees or bene- factors. I, for one, would not say that in some American universities the freedom of teaching is not so great as it ought to be. I would not say that chairs have not been declared vacant on the ground that their occupants presented opinions which did not have the approval of boards of trustees ; but I do say that such instances are far less common than is usually believed. The reasons for the removal of professors have often been reasons of personal character or of general inefficiency — reasons of which the public knows nothing at all. Such reasons are far more fre- quent than reasons arising from a lack of freedom in teaching. In fact, 1 68 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General I should not hesitate to say that freedom of teaching has seldom been absolutely interfered with by the governing authorities. The prosperous democracy of the United States is engaged, together with Germany, Great Britain, France, and Holland, in the industrial con- quest of the world. The period of settlement of the newer parts of the world has been succeeded by the period of commerce, and the period of commerce is to be succeeded by the period of industrialism. The devel- opment of mines, the building of railroads, the organizing of vast agricul- tural conditions and forces, the formation of great steamship lines, the equipment of mills for the manufacture of iron and steel and lumber, and for the products of iron and steel and lumber, represent some of the chief forms which industrialism is to assume. This industrial- ism is to touch Africa, South America, Asia Minor, and China. It is to touch ultimately every part of the world, parts as remote as Thibet, Persia, and Afghanistan. To this vast, and to become yet more vast, industrial movement the university bears several relations. First, the initiative and the progress of these movements demand (a) a trained brain, to see, to foresee, and to judge; and {b) a will strong for decision and strong also for carrying decisions into effect. The university does not primarily train the will, but the university does primarily train the mind, of which the brain is at once the expression and the agent. There- fore the university should be able to offer to those concerned in the vast undertaking a higher order of talent than can elsewhere be found. Sec- ondly, the university also should not only be able to furnish great administrators, it should also be able to point out the most effective methods by which these undertakings can proceed, and the most favor- able conditions under which these undertakings can be made to achieve their highest purposes. A generally trained intelligence is the best method and condition for securing these great results. It is, for example, a gen- erally trained intelligence which has worked so silently and so uncon- sciously as to seem to be almost the working of the time-spirit, which has proved that iron and steel can be most economically made on the southern shore of Lake Erie. It is the lack of a generally trained intelli- gence that has tried to make iron and steel in certain other remote parts. Wisdom touching all the conditions of great movements should represent the result of the training given to university men. Thirdly, the university, moreover, should not neglect to point out the perils which lie in the path- ways of these undertakings, both for the people and for the governments which foster these vast movements. The voice of the university, free from partisanship, free from any suspicion of a taint of a narrow patriot- ism, seeking to learn the truth, trying to do those acts of righteousness which are based on truth, should be the most potent and persuasive voice in determining the course of the industrial conquests of the world. The only fear is that, tho the voice speak, it may not be heard, or its intima- tions followed, or its admonitions heeded. Sessions] FEDERAL AND STA TE INTEREST IN HIGHER EDUCA TION 1 69 In point of intellectual condition, the higher classes in a prosperous democracy are subject to the temptation of materialism and sensualism ; the middle classes, to the temptation of mediocrity and commonplaceness ; and the lower classes, to the temptation of brutalism and contempt of all knowledge. In point of manners and social condition, the higher classes are open to the temptation of arrogance, the middle classes are open to the temptation of pettiness, and the lower classes to the tempta- tion of bestiality. To each of these classes the university owes a special duty. To the higher it owes the duty of teaching spirituality ; to the middle, the duty of teaching the relativity of the values of knowledge and of the truths of personality and of things ; and to the lower, the duty of teaching gentleness and humility. American scholarship, thru its ministry in the universities, thru its teachings and its teachers, is to remove evil, instruct the ignorant, humanize the brutal, uplift the sensual, broaden the narrow, enrich the poor, elevate the low, make natural the unnatural, and the human divine. FEDERAL AND STATE INTEREST IN HIGHER EDUCATION ROBERT B. FULTON, CHANCELLOR OF UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI The history of state and federal aid to education in the United States shows the first colonists within our borders, the fathers of the republic, as well as all later statesmen who have been leaders in national or in state affairs, ever recognizing the imperative necessity of an all-embracing and thoro education for the people in order to preserve our institutions and perpetuate their blessings. From the beginning of our history, to aid and encourage schools and all the means for education and the dissemination of knowledge has been accepted as one of the proper func- tions of government, and a most beneficent mode of state and national activity. In the New England and northern states, colonial and state aid and fostering care, as well as individual effort, early gave development to common schools, and even the higher institutions of learning in these states owe their foundation and success largely to colonial or state interest. In the more southern of the original states, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, colleges and universities founded and main- tained by the state preceded, in order of development, the common schools. From the first it has been everywhere recognized that both common schools and higher seminaries of learning, in whatever order established, are complementary parts of a properly ordered educational system in any state. The special forms and details which differentiate the systems of public education in the eastern states, in the western public- land states where rich provision was early made for schools of every 170 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General grade, in the southern states where sparse p.opulation and the co-exist- ence of two races made peculiar difficulties, have been determined by the past experience and present resources of each section. In twenty-nine of the newer states of the union, including all the states lying west of the Alleghany mountains, excepting West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Texas, a special and definite shape was given to educational policy thru the legislation made by Congress in the organi- zation of these states. This legislation, as shown in the ordinances relat- ing to the disposition of the western territory adopted by Congress, May 20, 1785, July 13, 1787, and July 23, 1787, was the logical result of the sentiment which had prevailed in most of the colonies from the beginning, and which found definite and forcible expression in that clause in the ordinance of July 13, 1787, which declares, in language which has long been classic thruout the Northwest, that, "religion, morality, and knowl- edge being necessary to good government and the happiness of man- kind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." Following the spirit of this ordinance, Congress inaugurated the policy of reserving from sale, and of granting to the states formed out of the public domain, portions of the public land for the maintenance of com- mon schools, and for seminaries of learning or state universities. At the first was adopted the policy of granting to the inhabitants of each township (act of April 30, 1802), or to the state in which the town- ship was situated (act of June 23, 1836), section 16 in each township for the use of common schools, the amount granted to each state being thus one thirty-sixth part of the public domain in the state. Grants for the maintenance of common schools have thus in all cases been proportionate to the areas of the several states. The states admitted since 1848, being those which occupy almost exactly the western half of the United States (exclusive of Texas, which is not a public-land state), have received a double portion, or one-eighteenth part of the public lands in each, for the support of common schools. Grants made to the states for seminaries of learning or state universi- ties have their origin in the action taken by Congress July 23, 1787. The earliest acts of Congress in reference to these grants indicate some uncertainty as to the quantity of land that would be given to each state for a state university. In Ohio actually three townships were given. Upon the admission of Indiana and other states at least two townships have been given, and several states have received four townships of land for founding in each a state university. The total amount of land granted for common schools in the public-land states is 68,000,- 000 acres, and the total granted for state universities is 1,618,000 acres. Another and distinct class of grants had its beginning in the act of July 2, 1862, "donating public lands to the several states and ter- ritories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the Sessions] FEDERAL AND STA TE INTEREST IN HIGHER EDUCA TION I 7 l mechanic arts." Under this act lands have been granted to all states and territories of the union at the rate of 30,000 acres for each sena- tor and representative in Congress to which the states were respect- ively entitled by the apportionment under the census of i860, and a total of 10,410,000 acres thus passed to the states and territories, not counting the undetermined amount which will go to Oklahoma. The act of August 20, 1890, makes a further grant to each of the states and territories for the maintenance of schools of agriculture and the mechanic arts out of funds arising from the sales of public lands. This grant now gives $25,000 per annum to each state. Besides the grants of lands to the several states as trustees for the maintenance of com- mon schools, of state universities, and colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts, small portions of the public lands have occasionally been donated to certain institutions of learning, the total of acres thus given being less than 300,000. While Congress has for more than a century thus shown a willing- ness to meet in some way the need, as well as to make provision for the future, of education in the states, it should be noted that federal aid has regurlarly been given in the form of grants of public land, or of the proceeds of the sales of public land. Efforts to secure from Congress the appropriation of funds raised by taxation to educational uses have thus far uniformly failed. The Blair Bill, proposing to dis- tribute annually from seven to fifteen millions of dollars to aid common schools in the states, the share of each state to be proportionate to the number of illiterates, attracted wide attention in 1883 and 1884, but found its most formidable obstacle in the disinclination of mem- bers of Congress to use for the education of the people funds raised by federal taxation. Efforts to found a national university in Wash- ington have developed the same obstacle. The several states, in accepting the grants of land made by Congress and in the inauguration of state systems, have assumed obligations for common schools and for higher education which each is discharging as best it can. But are the several states fully meeting — are they all fully able to meet — the needs of the hour and of the dawning century for this work ? The states of the South which are feeling the weight of the white man's burden cannot give a satisfying answer. One who solves educational problems is continually finding unex- pected results. While Mr. Jefferson and educationists since his day have discussed the order in which educational institutions should be developed, and the relative importance to the state and to our political institutions of schools of lower grade and schools of the highest rank, the experience of the American people is working out thru their agencies for education, more rapidly than is generally known, a realization of the best hopes and dreams of these thinkers. I72 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General In the year 1818 Mr. Jefferson said, in reference to his own state of Virgina, in which his educational doctrine was new and not popular : A system of general instruction which shall reach every description of our people, from the richest to the poorest, as it was the earliest, so it will be the latest, of all the public concerns in which I shall permit myself to take an interest. Again in 1823, when he had been unsuccessfully laboring to establish in Virginia a system that should include schools of all grades, he writes : Were it necessary to give up either the primaries or the university, 1 would rather abandon the last, because it is safer to have a whole people respectably enlightened than a few in a high state of science and the many in ignorance. It was his hope that the common schools, reaching every hamlet, would not only disseminate knowledge, but would incidentally discover what he called "the youths of best genius," and stimulate them to seek higher development. But even the keen foresight of Mr. Jefferson failed to note all that was potential in the system which he advocated. The power of the common schools and of the common-school teacher to discover "youths of best genius," and to stimulate these to high and noble endeavor, even his far-reaching eye did not fully see. The simple statis- tics of the closing years of the nineteenth century teach a lesson of glorious achievement, and one that points to even richer realization in the future. From 1890 to 1900 the total population of the United States increased from 68,000,000 to 76,000,000, at a rate of about 10 per cent, in ten years. The enrollment of pupils in common schools increased during a period nearly coincident with this, from 1890 to 1899, from 9,500,000 to 11,500,000, at a rate of about 23 per cent. The reports of the Commissioner of Education show that in 1894 there were 133,000 students attending universities and colleges, and in 1900 the same reports show 158,000 students in colleges and universities of every kind thruout the United States. There is here exhibited an increase of about 19 per cent, in such attendance within seven years. But what do the statistics- of the state universities show for the same period ? In the year 1894 the attendance of students in twenty-six state universities, including all sections of the union except the North Atlantic states, shows an aggregate of 14,943. The same twenty-six institutions in 190 1 show a total enrollment of 29,583 — an increase in attendance of over 100 per cent, in seven years. There is no mistaking the significance of these figures. The vigorous and timely work of the National Educa- tional Association thru its Committee of Ten, and its other committees, and the discussions in its meetings, have brought about a clearer under- standing of the relations of schools of all grades. Teachers and instruct- ors have been informed as to what American education stands for. Co-ordination, and, what is better, co-operation, have become facts. While the last seven years have thus shown a marvelous growth in the Sessions! FEDERAL AND ST A TE INTEREST IN HIGHER ED UCA TION 1 7 3 work for higher education done by state universities, and thus in a way has been shown the special fitness of these institutions for their work, yet these institutions have received scant share of the many millions of dollars with which private beneficence has aided higher education in America in recent years. Fortunately wise statesmanship has brought in large measure the needed support. Undoubtedly all the signs indicate that the question which will most employ the administrators of these state universities during the next ten years will be that of making suitable provision for the increased demands upon these institutions created by the increasing numbers in attendance. The most expensive instruction offered in the state universities is that afforded in the graduate courses and in engineering courses. By making proper provision for graduate work in a national university located in the capital, to which may be admitted only those who have completed satis- factory courses in the state universities and the colleges of the country, at once two valuable results would be accomplished : a stimulus to more thoro undergraduate educational work would be given in every worthy college, and the burden of the maintenance of graduate courses will be largely lifted from the institutions financially and otherwise unable to bear it. Every state university and every state college does not need to be, and cannot be, effectively a graduate school. Let Congress aid the engineering work which is undertaken in the state universities by the enactment of some measure in accordance with precedent, such as that which has been proposed for giving to the several states means for maintaining schools of mines, or of engineering in other forms. The federal aid thus suggested can be applied and should be applied in such way as not to disturb good work already being efficiently done in the several states, but so as to give the co-ordination and con- centration which would mean the highest efficiency and the largest use- fulness. State interest in higher education is not yet adequate, financially, to fully meet the requirements within the borders of every state for the more advanced and more specialized forms of education. The wise fore- sight of the founders of the republic made thru federal agency some special provision for these by grants of public lands to the states. The fact that the last seven years of the nineteenth century show an increase of ioo per cent, in the students seeking what is highest and best in state universities proclaims an emergency of national importance, and one whose requirements can be met only by a larger and more liberal co-operation between federal and state and all other interests in the development and maintenance of that higher education which the national life in the present century demands. 174 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General RECENT GROWTH OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES AS AFFECTING THE ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGES W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. It is a matter of rejoicing with us to remember from year to year that 21 per cent, of all our inhabitants attend some public school supported by the taxes of the state or municipality. We are pleased to know that, besides this large attendance on public schools, there is a still further attendance on private schools to the amount of 2 per cent, of the entire population. On the average one person in every four gets into a school of some sort in the course of the year. It is true that not all of these obtain a full 200 days of instruction. In fact, the average length of the school term for the whole country last year was only 145 days; and it had been growing pretty constantly for nearly 40 years, thanks to the increasing number of cities and villages in our land ; for only 10 years ago the average school term was 10 days less than now — 20 years ago it was 15 days less, or only 130 days in the year. But the school population did not attend quite 70 days in the hundred. They did not attend the 145 days that schools were in session, which was the highest possible number, but only 99 days on an average. Taking this fact of average attendance into consideration, we may say that seventeen and a quarter millions of our people attended school the past year an average of 99 days each. Short as the school term is now, we like to record the fact that it has increased in the course of 30 years exactly 20 days, for the actual average attendance was only 79 days in 1870, while there is, as we have seen, 99 days' attendance now. We who know what the school means to the people therefore rejoice when we recount to ourselves these facts of statistics, and feel sure that, no matter how poor the schools may be, nearly our whole population is learning how to read, and coming under the influence of the newspaper, the magazine, and the book. We know that the person who can read a little will, in most cases, be put to the exercise of his accomplishment, and that he will be likely to read better at the end of a year after he has left school. In the city he will have constantly to spell out the names on signs, the names of streets, and the words on milk wagons, ice wagons, and all kinds of delivery wagons. He will pick up the daily newspaper thrown away by someone, and become interested in spelling out the inscriptions over or under the pictures, even if he does not go so far as to invest a cent for a copy of the paper on his own account. We know that the person who has learned to read a little in ever so short a school term has entered on a career of education that will, in all likelihood, make him better acquainted with books from year to year as long as he lives. Sessions] GROWTH OF HIGH SCHOOLS AS AFFECTING COLLEGES 175 Much as we are pleased with the contemplation of the vast army of school children marshaled each year into the elementary school, there is another phase of our statistics which really gives us greater cause for rejoicing, and I wish briefly to go over with you some of the statistics relating to secondary and higher education ; for, while there is progress in securing a longer school year and an increased number of days in actual attendance in the elementary school, there is a far greater ratio of increase in the numbers that continue their studies beyond the eight years' work of the district school and enter the public high school, or the private academy, and this great increase in secondary education has furnished its quota of population prepared to enter college. The first aspect of this increase in secondary pupils is the opening of new high schools. It would seem as tho the whole population of the country, in all its sections, North, South, East, and West, had resolved to have free high-school instruction for its children, for in the past ten years — and three years (1895, 1896, and 1897) were years of financial disaster — there was an increase in the total number of high schools from 2,526 in 1890 to 6,005 in 1900. The number of high schools in the United States in i860 was about forty. At that time wise people shook their heads and said : "It is doubt- ful if the constitution permits the education of the people in free high schools. District schools may be all right enough, but our forefathers never intended to furnish a liberal education to all children at the expense of the taxpayers." The friends of free high schools were somewhat uneasy over this. But the next ten years saw the number of high schools rise to four times their former number — the 40 of i860 had increased to at least 160 in 1870; and in the next ten years the increase continued, so that by 1880 there were in operation nearly 800 public high schools. These, as we have seen, reached 2,526 in 1890, and 6,005 *n 1900. The most noteworthy circumstance connected with this is that the increase of public high schools has gone on in all sections of the country. Take, for example, the North Atlantic states; these already had 786 high schools in 1890, and they came near to doubling their quota in 1900, in which year they reported 1,448. The South Atlantic states had only 115 high' schools in 1890, but in ten years they had in operation nearly four times as many, for they report 449 in 1900. The South Central states did even better than this, for they increased their public high schools from 158 to 675. The Western division of states — including those on the Pacific coast and states in the mountains — had 91 high schools in 1890, but 270 in 1900. The North Central states have long led in the number of public secondary schools. They had in 1890 more than half of all the high schools in the country, and they have more than half now. Their quota increased from 1,376 to 3,163 public high schools. Even the schools in the South for colored people have a considerable I7& NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General number of secondary pupils. In 1880, while the population of the entire country sent 4,362 in each million into public and private secondary schools and colleges, the states of the South (including Missouri) had 1,289 colored students in each million of colored people. Altho this was less than one-third of the average quota, yet it was encouraging because it showed that much was being done to furnish an educated min- istry, qualified teachers and physicians. The quota in a million of colored persons in high schools and colleges has increased slightly from decade to decade, owing chiefly, it would seem, to the increase in colored high schools in southern cities. The quota in the million was, as I have men- tioned, 1,289 in 1880. It rose to 2,061 in 1890, and to 2,517 in 1900 — quite a noteworthy increase of itself, altho eclipsed by the general increase for the entire country. In these statistics of colored people I have included both secondary and higher education, because it is not easy to tell how large a proportion of those enrolled in colleges are up to a col- lege standard, and how many are only advanced to the secondary rank. I have also counted together the public and private schools for secondary and higher work. We all know that an increase in the number of schools does not always mean an increase in the number of pupils. I must add to our survey of the increase of high schools the data in regard to pupils. And it is grati- fying to know that, on the whole, the increase in secondary pupils in high schools has been much greater than the increase in the number of separate schools. The whole United States enrolled in round numbers 203,000 high-school pupils in 1890, and 520,000 in 1900. But it will be asked : Has not this increase in high-school enrollment been at the expense of the private academies and preparatory schools ? The answer is that the private secondary schools have increased in the whole country from 1,632 institutions in 1890 to 1,978 institutions in 1900, and that their students enrolled have increased from an aggregate of 94,931 to 110,797 — an increase of 16 per cent. This increase is pretty evenly divided in the sections of the country, excepting the Western division which shows a large falling off in private secondary schools, the new public high schools apparently drawing 5,000 students in their 22,000 increase from the private schools. This is a trifling item in the grand total. If we compare the private secondary schools with public high schools by quotas in each million of population, we discover that the private enrollment has not increased quite as fast as the census population. In 1890 each million of inhabitants enrolled 1,516 pupils in private acade- mies, but only 1,443 m 1900 — that is to say, 73 less in the million. But the public high schools enrolled in 1890 3,241 pupils, while the private high schools enrolled 1,516; and in 1900 they enrolled 6,832, where the private high schools or academies enrolled only 1,443. The number of students in the principal studies may be seen in the following tables : Sessions] GROWTH OF HIGH SCHOOLS AS AFFECTING COLLEGES 177 STUDENTS IN CERTAIN STUDIES IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS IN 189O AND IN I9OO 1889-90 Students in Per cent, of total secondary students Students in Per cent, of total secondary students Latin Greek French German Algebra Geometry Physics General history 70,411 6,202 11,858 92, 1 so 43.294 46,184 55.427 34.69 3°5 5.84 10.51 45-4° 2i-33 22.21 27.31 262,767 14,813 40,395 74,408 292,287 142,235 98,846 198,125 50.61 2.85 7.78 14-33 56.29 27-39 19.04 38.16 STUDENTS IN CERTAIN STUDIES IN PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES Students in Per cent, of total secondary students 1889-1900 Students in Per cent, of total secondary students Latin Greek French German Algebra Geometry Physics General history 29,733 6,667 16,174 12,870 35,247 16,487 17,460 27,482 3x-32 7.02 i7-03 13-55 37-12 17.36 18.39 28.98 52,089 10,056 25,289 20,465 54,726 26,283 20,090 40,009 46.92 9-77 22.83 18.47 49.40 23.72 18.87 36." Thus far I have mentioned only the secondary students in the public high schools and in the private academies, the same forming an aggre- gate of 297,895 in 1890 and of 630,048 in 1900. Besides these, there are students of secondary grade in very many normal schools and col- leges enrolled as preparatory classes, and also in many institutions of special character, such as manual-training schools and schools for arts and sciences under various names. These numbered in 1890 as many as 69,109 students, and in 1900 had increased to 89,193, or more than 20,000 more. They are at present increasing somewhat more rapidly, thru the attempts of cities to provide technical and commercial instruc- tion for their people. These special secondary students numbered 1,115 in the million of inhabitants in 1890, and 1,174 in 1900. Adding them to regular secondaries, public and private, the total of secondary students in each million of inhabitants in 1890 was 5,872, and in 1900 had risen to 9,449, the same being an increase of 3,577 students for each group of a million people. This vast increase of secondary students has had an effect upon the attendance on colleges and universities, and upon profes- sional and technological schools. For the record of progress in higher education is similar to that in secondary, namely, an unexampled increase. In 1872 there were 590 college students in the million of population. In 1890 the 590 had increased to 880, and in 1900 to 1,284. The number in the professions has increased rapidly. There were i78 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General of these 280 in the million of inhabitants in 1872; in 1890 they had increased to 450, and in the past decade they have nearly doubled. Scientific and technical schools of college rank have increased their enrollments in the decade from under 15,000 to about 30,000. The growth of post-graduate work in universities has been still more remarkable. Beginning with 198 in 1872, it had increased to 1,717 students in 1890, and to 6,000 in 1900. Reducing the returns for higher education of all kinds to groups of a million, we find that there were 2,181 students of college rank to the mil- lion of inhabitants in 1890, and that the quota had risen to 3,139 students in 1900. In this estimate I include not only the colleges and universities of full standard, but also very many others not quite up to the standard, but which are empowered to confer the degree of A.B. on their graduates, and which are really beyond average secondary schools in their amount of work. Besides these, there are also professional schools of a special character which require maturity of age and which do work that requires more reflection than the average secondary work. The normal schools are an example of this class of schools whose students are counted in the aggregate of higher education. If we add the totals of higher education to those of secondary schools, in order to see what the country as a whole is doing in schools beyond the elementary grade, we find that in 1890 there were 8,053 students in the million of population, who were pursuing advanced studies, and that these 8,053 had increased in the decade to 12,588. ENROLLMENT OF SECONDARY PUPILS Ninth to twelfth year of course of study in the United States 1800 1900 In each million of population 1890 1900 • 94.931 203,000 69,109 110,727 520,000 89,193 1.576 3.241 i."5 1.443 6.832 I.I74 Preparatory classes and special institutions 367,040 719,920 5,872 9,449 TOTAL HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 1890 1900 In each million of population 1890 1900 800 1,301 1.284 Other higher education, professional and tech- 1.855 2,181 8,053 12,588 The significance of these educational items cannot be fully appreciated without considering the facts that I have hinted already, namely, that the Sessions] GROWTH OF HIGH SCHOOLS AS AFFECTING COLLEGES 179 school gives the power to continue one's education with increasing skill thruout life. Even the illiterate grows, altho slowly, in mental power by reason of his experience in life. But his experience is limited to what he can observe in himself and in a small circle of neighbors. But his school-educated companion who can read and does read is all the time widening his mental view by what he gets from the printed page, and growing in accuracy of thought on account of it. Hence it happens, after fifty years of life, at the age of sixty years, the illiterate has grown as much by experience as he could grow by one year of schooling, while his literate companion has grown at least ten times as much. So with the secondary pupil there are opened new windows out of which to observe man and nature — the windows of algebra and geometry, of physics and chemistry, of Latin and French or German, and of general history. He gets at least three times as much from the printed page of science or literature as the graduate of the elementary school, and his accumulation in the course of fifty years is more than ten times that of his elementary companion or one hundred times that of the illiterate. In one year's time the high-school graduate has not made very many applications of his knowledge, but, as the years go on, he starts new trends of observation, and follows out threads of causation and long paths of genesis in the growth of the things and events that come under his immediate observation. The student of higher education far surpasses the secondary student in his ability to see lines of causality and of genesis in facts and events, and his power to accumulate in his life experience from year to year is far greater. His power to see the past in the present and to predict the future at a glance of the present situation seems miraculous, after fifty years of using his higher education. Just as Agassiz could see in the scale of a fish enough of its character to enable him to draw the fish, altho he had not yet seen the fish, and just as Asa Gray could divine the history of a tree from seeing it at a single glance, so in a thousand ways and in a thousand different provinces the old man who in youth has been trained in the college and in the professional school acquires powers of seeing things in their history and in their complex of relations. These are the considerations that make us rejoice at the recent unex- ampled increase of secondary and higher education, and it remains for us to say that this increase is likely to go on, because it is due to the growth of productive industry in the country. The use of water, steam, and electricity in the industries is increasing the average annual produc- tion of each inhabitant. This accumulation of wealth enables our people to prepare their children in better schools and in longer periods of schooling. The average school term of the United States is only five years of two hundred days each, or one thousand days. The future will see this lengthened with the increase of wealth in the community. I do not think 180 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General that the average production of wealth in 1800 could have been more than ten cents a day for each man, woman, and child, but by 1850 it had risen to thirty cents a day, and in 1880 to forty-four cents; in 1890 to fifty-two cents. What it was in 1900 can be told when the census is completed. The average amount of schooling will increase to ten years and more when, at some time in the future, we can produce a dollar a day for each inhabitant. Wealth is a good thing only because it enables us to grow wise and good — only as we use it to develop insight in ourselves and become more helpful to our fellow-men. It therefore is a cause of rejoicing to us this morning to see that, with the increase of wealth production in the United States, there is an immediate application of the wealth to get more schooling for the people. Where an average town of two thousand inhab- itants could have sixteen youths in school engaged on advanced studies ten years ago, today it has twenty- five such. This is what it means to build new high schools and to increase the facilities for higher education. DISCUSSION James Russell Parsons, jr., secretary of the University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. — The rapid increase of public high schools thruout the United States is often cited as a most conspicuous fact in education at the close of the nineteenth century. Dr. Harris tells us that, for purposes of comparison, the secondary-school sta- tistics of the Bureau of Education since 1890 are more reliable in fixing the proper limits of this growth than those of an earlier period, as the distinction between elementary and secondary students has been more closely observed from that date. He says that during this period the number of high schools reported to the bureau has increased 137.73 Per cent, and the number of high-school students 155.84 per cent., while the growth in private secondary schools and students has been only 21.2 per cent, and 16.71 per cent, respect- ively. These figures show an increase of 1 1 1 per cent, in students in both classes of schools taken together. We notice that the greatest growth is reported in the South Central division, where there is also an increase of 42.67 per cent, in private secondary- school students. Next comes the Western division, where the growth is partially counter- balanced by a decrease of 45.91 per cent, in private secondary-school students. The South Atlantic division makes the next highest record, and reports also an increase of 25.03 per cent, in private secondary-school students. Within the jurisdiction of the University of the State of New York exact statistics of a corresponding growth are available thru sworn reports from each secondary school, verified by inspectors whose duty it is to examine each of these schools in person. Ele- mentary pupils are rigidly excluded, and only those are classed as secondary-school students who have completed a satisfactory elementary course and are enrolled as pur- suing secondary studies. While the growth in enrollment in the common schools has been only 16 per cent, in ten years, the number of public high schools has increased 140 per cent., the number of academies 34 per cent., the total net property of secondary schools and the number of secondary students more than 100 per cent. At least 25 per cent, of these secondary-school students now complete balanced four-year courses after an eight- year elementary course, and rapidly increasing numbers remain in secondary schools for graduate work. The distribution of these schools is so general that almost every student in the state is now within reach of one of them. How has the recent growth of secondary schools, especially public high schools, Sessions] RELATION OF MUSIC TO LIFE 181 affected the attendance on institutions of higher education ? As compared with 1880, we now have in the United States more than twice as many professional and technical schools, not including the training schools for nurses and other special institutions. Dr. Harris tells us that the enrollment in our colleges and universities shows a corresponding increase since 1870. Including all under secondary instruction in the various kinds of institutions reporting to the Bureau of Education, the numbers have nearly doubled in ten years, and the growth in those under higher instruction has not lagged far behind. Far more than new institutions of higher education, we now need increased facilities and larger endowments for those already established. In New York also the growth in ten years in higher, including professional and technical, education has been almost as remarkable as that in secondary education. The students and the total net property have nearly doubled. The growth of public high schools is not surprising in view of the popularity of these democratic institutions and of the fact that advancing requirements for professional and other degrees, now more uni- formly high than in any other political division of the United States, force students into the high schools to gain the preliminary education necessary for admission to degree- conferring institutions. The statutes now require a high-school training, or its equiva- lent, for admission to certain professions. By a rule of the court of appeals, no student is entitled to the allowance of one year in the term o( study for admission to the bar who is not a graduate of an institution requiring at least six years in arts or science in advance of a completed eight-years' elementary course. The work must be registered by the regents, whose ordinances prescribe for degrees in arts or science two years' study in advance of this minimum standard. It is remarkable that, under such conditions, the growth in higher education has been so great. If we except medicine, where the normal increase was checked temporarily by high standards, and some of the smaller colleges, which, as private institutions, like the old academies, suffer thru competition with the public high schools, the growth is very great thru the entire field of higher education. In 1900 the cost of education in New York was more than $47,000,000, of which the state paid 16.37 Per cent, for elementary education and allied interests, 6.03 per cent, for secondary education, and 1. 16 per cent, for higher education. The appreciation of the secondary-school system on the part of the people is shown by their willingness to con- tribute 94 per cent, of the cost of its maintenance. As we look deeper still and study the wonderful growth in expenditures for higher education, of which the state bears only 1.16 per cent, we see that private means are much more freely expended for education than funds raised by taxation. It is clear that trained minds must be had at any cost, that the extent to which public and private means unite in producing them will continue to increase even in periods of comparative financial depression, and that growth in secondary education will mean in the future, as at present, a corresponding increase in enrollment in our institutions of higher education. THE RELATION OF MUSIC TO LIFE' THOMAS WHITNEY SURETTE, STAFF LECTURER ON MUSIC FOR THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SOCIETY OF PHILADELPHIA AND LECTURER FOR THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK It is a commonplace of criticism to say that art is related to life ; that painting, sculpture, architecture, and music, as well as literature, reflect 1 The illustrative interpretations to Mr. Surette's paper were as follows : Haydn, Adagio from Trio in G ; Beethoven, Scherzo and Andante from Trio in B flat, Op. 97 ; Brahms, Adagio from Sonata for Violin and Piano in G minor : piano, Mr. Surette ; violin, Miss Anna Otten, of New York ; violoncello, Mr. H. Andries, of Detroit. 1 82 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General life at every point. Every change which has taken place in the art of painting, for example, has been due to the rise of some new idea or new phase of life. The old Italian religious painters lived at a time when the chief end of existence was to get successfully out of this world and safely into the other; as a result all their paintings deal with religious ideas and symbols. The rise of landscape painting did not begin — -could not begin — until men had come to love nature in all her simplicity, as we have learned to. Look at the landscape painting of the time of Botti- celli, and you will see the force of this argument. Gothic architecture was not an accident by any means ; its rise was a natural result of new intel- lectual and religious aspirations, and it stands for something entirely dis- tinct from the old ideals of the earlier time. The romantic school of the early nineteenth century, the realistic school of the later, Heine's poetry, Victor Hugo's novels — all these reflect, or, shall we say, give voice to, the new ideas which were crowding for utterance during those times. Each of the arts had to find itself ; had to build up somehow a frame- work; had to conform to the laws of life which bind all things and persons. Architecture learned how to use these laws to the best advan- tage in construction ; painting learned foreshortening, perspective, and the like ; the novel planned itself from the happenings of every day. They all finally evolved a plan by which it was possible to express what they had to say. Music was long in finding itself ; it developed late ; it had to feel its way slowly, not being able, as the other arts were, to copy nature for a beginning, but learning the laws that govern it step by step, so that it is only now on the threshold of its development. But at every point of that development may be traced unerringly the relation it bears to life. Every change in civilization which has occurred since the art of music has been full-fledged has found expression in this most plastic of the arts, and it is not too much to say that the relationship between music and life is absolute and complete. Complete, yes; but not easy of apprehension. A painting, a piece of sculpture, a building, speak a language we can, in a measure, understand ; but a symphony not only speaks an unknown tongue, but an illusive one; its words and sentences lie unrelated in our minds, and are quickly brushed away by others equally illusive. It is my purpose, then, to take three periods in history familiar enough to all of you, and by means of three great compositions coming out of those times to show the close relationship between them and the life which produced them, and then to consider the more important question of their real significance : What do they amount to ? What does music amount to, as a factor in life ? The first of these periods is the time we sometimes speak of as the "old regime;" before the dawn of republicanism, when powdered wigs Sessions] RELATION OF MUSIC TO LIFE 183 were fashionable; when formality and decorum were of more importance than morals; the time of class distinctions, when a man's fortune hung on the smile of a grandee. I have taken for my illustrative music a com- position by Haydn — the slow movement of the trio for violin, violon- cello, and piano in G. This exquisite miniature of a piece has in it all the repose and elegance of that time. Clear in harmony, ornate and graceful in melody, it aims to charm rather than to astonish; at every pause it bows formally with its reiterated chords ; every line of it rhymes like a nice bit of old-fashioned verse; it is for all the world like the pictures we used to see in Godey's Lady's Book. Its feeling is restrained ; its sentiment is tempered by propriety ; it neither makes you laugh nor cry; it has an old-fashioned sweetness which is always refreshing. Some of its characteristics are due to the fact that at the time it was written the nature of the violoncello was not thoroly understood and its technique was limited, and that the piano was a very inadequate instru- ment indeed. Here you see the hampering effect of the undeveloped mechanical side of the art. The tools were not perfect, so the work itself had to suffer. The 'cello part in this trio is made up largely of unim- portant notes without any real significance, and the piano drums along in the style of the pieces we all used to play an hour a day (with one eye on the clock) when we were children. So, leaving the question of its significance for later discussion, we may, at least, say that this lovely adagio of Haydn's is characteristic of the time it comes to us from, and, considering the medium it has to speak thru, expresses the spirit of that time most graphically. The second period I have chosen is at the beginning of the nineteenth century. America had* just won her independence and flung out her flag to the winds with the motto : " All men are born free and equal." France had shambled thru her bloody time and was trying to hold up the same motto, with sad results ; in Germany even there were not lacking signs of coming changes, and everywhere in the air men breathed there was something to make the weakest hope for justice. "All the ills which afflict humanity arise from vicious artificial arrangements, such as the church and state," cries Rousseau ; " awdy with formality and class dis- tinction ; wear the citizen's dress; man is something more than what his tailor makes him ; a prince is but a man ; we are all alike in God's sight;" and so on. Out of all this there must spring new art. The well- rounded periods of Haydn's music will fail to speak this language ; we want now greater sincerity ; yes, sincerity even to the pitch of brutality. We must say what we mean, exactly ; no more bowing and smirking. And a man came to speak this message, and he spoke in no uncertain voice. Had Carlyle taken one more type for his Heroes and Hero- Worship, he might well have chosen the hero as composer, and have taken Beethoven as the model. Here was a man of the true hero mold ; 1 84 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General spurning the conventialities and formalities of life ; caring only for the realities; absolutely sincere in his motives and facing bravely a fearful personal catastrophe in his deafness, he well may be placed among those who have fought a good fight and died that we might live. "A great man has the planet for his pedestal," says Emerson ; and again, " Great men are the most indebted;" that is, great men translate the world for us ; they are the voice of the great inarticulate mass of people surround- ing them ; and this music of Beethoven is a hundred times more deeply representative of his mass of people than Hadyn's was of his. So much intellectual freedom in the mass, so much more intellectual freedom in the master. Where Haydn's music touched the surface of his life and times, revealing customs and manners, and in its inner significance being of necessity restrained, Beethoven plunges into the very heart of things, careless of form and ceremony, impatient of restraint, intent only on dealing with things as they are, and not caring at all about the unes- sentials. To illustrate this period I have chosen a great composition by Beet- hoven, the Trio, Op. 97, parts of which we shall play for you. You will hear in it the new war-cry of equality, of independence ; it is full of chal- lenge. Scorning an elegance that means nothing, disdaining to merely amuse us or set us a-dancing, it speaks directly and unequivocally to something within us and finds an answer in the breast of everyone who has the spirit to strive at all. For this is no longer the music of repose ; it is full of struggle ; Promethian-like, it strains to break the bonds which hold it, sometimes distorting its face in the struggle, sometimes laughing sardonically, but at all times with the heroic temper. Instead of the clear and simple harmony of Haydn we have new dissonances expressive of feelings of anger, impatience, or unrest. The conventionality of the old treatment has been given over for a perfectly free and untrammeled sincerity; no more humdrum accompaniments; no more elegant turns and formal embellishments in the melody; everywhere a kind of noble independence; the motto is no longer "beauty," but "expression." So that, in the passing from one period to another, from the repose of the old time to the unrest of the new, we have seen music reflecting the changes in civilization most vividly. These hero songs of Beethoven are not only descriptive of his time and the feelings which were in men's hearts then; they are the very essence of it. Hear them and you get a light on the times which nothing else will give you. And if you examine their structure, you will find a well-defined plan, such as would govern the making of a book or a play; a plan which conforms to the same laws of construction which govern in all art; in short, an organism without which nothing can live, neither the human body nor an institution nor an art. This piece of music has its setting, its characters, its episodes, its denouement ; every note in it is related to all the others ; there are no Sessions] RELATION OF MUSIC TO LIFE 185 unnecessary phrases; all is evolved with the skill of a great novelist. As the painter%gives you wonderful contrasts of light and shade, as the play- wright prepares his climax in the most effective way, so here you have all the composer's skill and fancy brought into play to enhance the beauty of his thought. This wonderful scherzo we have played has in it the whole story of rustic life ; Balzac could not have made it more true, nor more vivid in its delineation. Joyful happiness without a cloud ; the wild frenzy of the dance ; dumb sorrow, which seems almost that of a brute ; and here and there wonderful mysterious touches of fancy. Compare it with its pre- cursor, the minuet of Haydn and Mozart, and you see what new thoughts have come into men's hearts, and how much more articulate those thoughts and feelings have become. If it seems at times too violent in its methods ; if it only says , " I am as good as you are," and forgets (as Lowell has so wittily put it) to say, "You are as good as I am," we remember that there were few champions of the new ideas in Beethoven's time, and hard blows had to be struck, else the fight were not won. To him personal happiness had been largely denied, save in his work; he never was capable of scheming for his own profit ; he offended some of his noble patrons by his independent man- ners, and in his life, as in his music, you see the same spirit of impatience that men were willing to be slaves when they might be free. The third period I have chosen is our own time, to represent which we shall play you a part of one of Brahms' sonatas for violin and piano. It is, of course, much more difficult to form a concise and correct idea of the time we live in than it is of a time which we see more or less in perspective. The forces at work at the early part of the nineteenth century, and the effect they produced in art, are more or less easy of apprehension by us now. But today, when life is so complex and many-sided, when inventions of all sorts have produced a kind of cosmopolitan civilization all over the world, and the threads are so many and so raveled together, the forming of any pattern from them is well- nigh impossible. What have we learned in these years ? We have learned a little at least of that divine doctrine that the happiness of the greatest number should be the end of our efforts in civilization ; we have softened somewhat the old cry of equality ; we know that all men are not born free and equal; we have greater pity for the helpless and unfortunate; as a result of the freeing of our souls from the old trammels, our natures have taken on a new dignity ; the individual, instead of being merely one of a great mass of people who were of no account in the world, has now an opportunity to develop to the utmost of his powers ; all the events and all the feelings of our lives now take on a significance not known in the old time ; we have learned to love nature in her simplicity ; in every 1 86 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General way we have gained in humanity. Here is, indeed, a tangled web of influ- ences out of which we must try to unravel something clear and significant. Perhaps, if I take the development in poetry during this same period, I can arrive by a side-track at the significance of the music of Brahms. The old poetry was rhythmical, simple, and direct; its images were clear, its style somewhat didactic, and, while imaginative often to a very high degree, it was not involved. To take a familiar example: The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. Here is the perfect undulating rhythm of Haydn's music ; here, also, you find the simplicity and directness which make the tunes of that time seem to us so obvious. It is without either complications of style or mat- ter; there is no symbolism; there is no introspection. In our time we have poetry of the most involved description, whose images are sometimes far from clear, and whose style is anything but didactic ; poetry in which rhythm of the old sort has nearly disappeared, and in its place has come a great sweeping under-rhythm, as different from the old as the great swelling waves of the sea are different from the little soft ripples on its bosom. Words, instead of standing for what they mean directly, are symbolic and suggestive. Life is a hundred times more significant. We see the relationship between things, and when we wish to express our- selves in poetry, we take symbols which express these relationships, instead of bare words. Partly this is due to the compression or condensation which has become necessary in our modern life, partly to the introspection which has come to be so common with most of us, and partly to the nat- ural development of style, or the manner of saying things. Almost any modern poet can furnish an illustration of this. For example, Whitman, in the wonderful poem on Lincoln: When lilacs last in the door-yard bloomed, And the great star drooped in the western sky at night, I mourned and yet- shall mourn with ever-returning spring — Ever-returning spring, trinity sure to me you bring, Lilac-blooming perennial and drooping star in the west, And thoughts of him I love. Browning, in " Old Pictures in Florence," gives us some of this modern way of looking at things, while George Meredith, in common with some other modern writers and painters, often carries it to excess, as in the following lines : He cancelled the ravaging plague By the roll of his fat off the cliff ; Do thou the same with thy lean As the weapon of ink. Though they call thee an angler Who fishes the vague And catches the not too pink. Sessions] RELATION OF MUSIC TO LIFE 187 Music has gone thru exactly this same transformation. The tunes of Haydn, Mozart, and even Beethoven, are satisfied to be tunes and nothing more. They say what, and all that, they mean. The music of Brahms is full of a significance beyond the outer shell of it; it stands for something more than that; it is symbolic. Its style is the style of today; involved as compared with Beethoven's; as free rhythmically as Whitman's poetry; imaginative to a degree, and satisfying the demand, which we now make, that art shall cease to deal with forgotten ideals and turn itself to life as it is. "To paint man, man;" to beautify and enrich life as it is here now, rather than to sing the praises of deeds long since done ; to find the heaven that lies within us, rather than to look longingly toward one beyond our vision. So that, when we look at music from this standpoint alone and under- stand its structure and the various stages of its development, we see in it a kind of deeper history; a relating of inward facts, "a real epic made of history; that is to say, a perfected melodious truth, the essence of it fairly evolved from all the chaff, the portrait of it actually given, and its real harmonies with the laws of this universe brought out." Granting all this, allowing that music is all I have said, the final question must be : What is its purpose in the scheme of life ? Are the great masterpieces of music anything more than a series of historical tone-pictures ? Let me begin answering these questions by clearing the ground of some debris which we have inherited from the old style of criticism. In the first place, then, music means nothing ; teaches no code of morals ; lays down no line of conduct ; to a much less extent than painting or sculpture is it a guide to life. Secondly, it is no more divine than the other arts (as has often been claimed in the past), nor can it be said to be divine at all except in the sense that a great piece of engineering is divine. Looking at the art dispassionately, we must at least grant this much. There are, however, many significant facts on the other side. I will begin with the simplest and most important. Here is a faculty — we will call it that — which is shared by vast numbers of peoples of different tongues; millions on millions of them, with different customs, habits, and sympathies, find in it a common bond of union. Not only that, but, in a certain sense, it speaks to each individual of that vast number in his own language. This is in itself a sufficiently signifi- cant fact. Anything which transcends great differences between such vast bodies of people is in itself a force to be reckoned with. Perhaps you remember that splendid passage in Carlyle's Frederick the Great, where he describes the famous march before the battle of Leuthen. Frederick was going out against vastly superior numbers. Thru the long, silent night his men tramped on, with what thoughts we may imagine, Many of them were to die, as they knew full well. Dumb, patient creatures they were, without any of our modern speculation and inward 1 88 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [General questionings, bent only on doing their duty by their king. As they tramped on thru the stilly night there burst from them a song: a hymn of praise, an old, old prayer for help in time of need. Inarticulate creatures, these, save in this one faculty shared in common, irrespective of tongues or conditions. What does that song mean ? Isn't there something in it beyond the words ? Doesn't the blood flow quicker, the heart grow warmer, as each feels the strength of a common sympathy and a common purpose as they sing the old, old tunes? Is there not something in their hearts beyond what words can teach ? Could they — would they — have expressed it, but for the music ? We are reminded of Voltaire's famous gibe : " What is too silly to be said is sung." Shall we not rather say: What is beyond the reach of words may find expression in music ? Darwin's pathetic statement that he had become, thru his entire devo- tion to scientific pursuits, a mere machine for cataloging the habits of earthworms, and that poetry and music were no longer a pleasure to him; the testimony of our own experience, if we have ever come under the influence of Beethoven or Brahms, or of our own observation of those hard-headed people who have never felt the softening and ennobling influence of music, and who look on the world of the imagination as an entire unreality; Ruskin's saying that the love of beauty is a natural instinct in every healthy human soul; Emerson's famous lines from "The Rhodora": .... If eyes were made for seeing, Then beauty is its own excuse for being ; Carlyle's "See deeply enough and you see musically" — these and a hundred other significant facts testify to the value of music as a factor in life. The old poets who sang of the music of the spheres and of celestial harmonies, who tell us that all things pulsate with a divine rhythm, and that life is everywhere and always a harmony, were not merely eupho- nistic. May it not be that, after we have resolved the many dissonances of which life is now so full, but which are lessening year by year, we shall at last come to a perfect harmony and live in that world of music of which the old prophets sang ? DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CHICAGO MEETING, 1901 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY MORNING SESSION.— Tuesday, February 26, 1901 The Department of Superintendence was called to order in University Hall of the Fine Arts Building, Chicago, 111., at 10 A. M., President L. D. Harvey in the chair. Prayer was offered by Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, O. After a few announcements by the president, Mr. E. G. Cooley, superintendent of the Chicago schools, was introduced and presented the first paper of the meeting, upon "The Gospel of Work." The paper was discussed by Superintendent E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. Mr. Howard J. Rogers, director of education and social economy, United States exhibit at the Paris Exposition, gave an address upon " Education at the Paris Exposi- tion." The following question had been assigned a place upon the program by vote of the department at the meeting in 1900: Should the Department of Superintendence memorialize the Board of Directors of the National Educa- tional Association to appropriate the sum of $1,000 for each of the next five years, to be expended in promoting the cause of simplifying our English spelling, under the direction of a commission to be named by this body ? The discussion of the question was opened by Mr. E. O. Vaile, editor of the Intelli- gence, Oak Park, 111. Others participating in the discussion were : John MacDonald, editor of the Western School Journal, Topeka, Kan.; Principal E. B. Prettyman, Mary- land ; Colonel F. W. Parker, Chicago ; Mr. Slosson Thompson, of the Times-Herald, Chicago; and Superintendent Joseph Carter, Champaign, 111. The time for the discussion having expired, and announcement to that effect being made by the president, Mr. Soldan, St. Louis, moved that the time be extended thirty minutes. Carried. The discussion was continued by Dr. E. E. White, Columbus, O.; Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.; Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education ; and was closed by Mr. Vaile, who offered the following resolution : Resolved, That this department respectfully presents the following petition to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, and asks for its favorable action thereon. [For full text of the peti- tion see Mr. Vaile 's address, p. 209.] Superintendent C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb., moved that the resolution be indefinitely postponed. Superintendent Joseph H. Carter, Champaign, 111., moved to lay the motion to postpone upon the table. Vote upon motion to table : yeas, 74 ; nays, 104. Motion declared lost. Vote upon indefinite postponement: yeas, 105; nays, 77. The motion to indefinitely postpone was declared carried. Motion to adjourn to 2 : 30 P. M. carried. AFTERNOON SESSION The department was called to order by President Harvey at 2 : 40 p. m. Superintendent J. M. Greenwood presented a paper upon "The Past and Future 189 19° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Work of the Department of Superintendence." Superintendent F. B. Cooper, Salt Lake City, Utah, opened the discussion. Dr. E. E. White moved that the paper of Superintendent Greenwood be published by the Board of Directors in form for general distribution. The motion was amended to include Dr. White's " Historical Sketch of the Department." Carried. Dr. W. S. Christopher, Chicago, gave an address upon "Medical Inspection in Schools." The following discussion was participated in by Superintendent Aaron Gove, Denver; Superintendent E. P. Seaver, Boston; Superintendent W. H. Maxwell, New York city ; and Dr. W. O. Krohn, Chicago. After various announcements the nieeting adjourned to meet at 8 : 15 P. M. EVENING SESSION The meeting was called to order at 8 : 15 P. M. by President Harvey. The president announced that President Arthur T. Hadley of Yale University, who was to have delivered the address of the evening, had been called home by the dangerous illness of his daughter. He then introduced President James H. Baker of the University of Colorado, who by invitation read President Hadley's address upon "The Use and Control of Examina- tions." The meeting adjourned to 9 : 30 Wednesday morning. SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION. — Wednesday, February 27 The meeting was called to order by President Harvey at 9 : 50 A. M. The following committees were announced : COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O. Superintendent C. E. Chadsey, North Denver, Colo. State Superintendent C. J. Baxter, New Jersey. COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS Principal E. O. Lyte, Millersville, Pa. Superintendent Frank A. Smith, Lawrence, Kan. Superintendent McHenry Rhoads, Owensboro, Ky. State Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, Illinois. Superintendent L. L. Wright, Ironwood, Mich. ■ Papers were presented by J. H. Trybom, supervisor of manual training, Detroit, Mich., on "Manual Training in the Elementary Schools of Detroit;" by Principal Henry S. Tibbits, Chicago, 111., on "The Progress and Aims of Domestic Science in Chicago;" by Superintendent Judson E. Hoyt, Menomonie, Wis., on "Work in Manual Training in the Public Schools of Menomonie, Wis." Dr. A. E. Winship, Boston," was recognized at this point, and in a brief speech presented President Harvey with a gavel with which to regulate discussion. The papers presented were discussed by Colonel F. W. Parker, Mr. J. H. Stout, Menomonie, Wis.; Mr. Bevans, Aurora, 111.; Superintendent Joseph Carter, Champaign, 111.; Professor C. M. Woodward. St. Louis; Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y.; and Mr. Trybom, Detroit. Professor R. Charles Bates, supervisor of manual training, Tome Institute, Port Deposit, Md., read a paper on the " Possibilities of Manual Training for Moral Ends." After various announcements the meeting adjourned. AFTERNOON SESSION Round-table meetings were held during the afternoon as follows, convening at 2 p. M.: I. "City Superintendents in Large Cities." Leader, Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES I9I The topic discussed was " Organization of the Work of Inspection and Supervision thru Assistant Teachers and Principals, so as to Reach the Grade Teacher." The discussion was participated in by Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O.; Superintendent William F. Slayton, Atlanta, Ga.; Superintendent H.O. R. Siefert, Milwau kee, Wis.; District Superintendent Leslie Lewis, Chicago ; Superintendent William N. Hailmann, Dayton, O.; Mr. Anderson, Milwaukee, Wis.; Superintendent Soldan, St. Louis; Superintendent Z. H. Brown, Nashville, Tenn.; Superintendent William J. M. Cox, Moline, 111.; District Superintendent Miss M.Elizabeth Farson, Chicago ; Superin- tendent Thomas M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass.; Superintendent E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.; District Superintendent A. G. Lane, Chicago; Superintendent C. G. Pearse, Omaha; District Superintendent Charles D. Lowry, Chicago. II. "City Superintendents in Small Cities." Section A. — Leader, Superintendent L. E. Wolfe, Kansas City, Kan. The questions discussed were : " The Work of the Superintendent in Small Cities in Developing Greater Efficiency in the Teaching Force;" " The Advancement of Pupils thru the Grades along a Straight, Rather than a Broken, Line of Progress;" " How Shall We Secure Better Teaching from Those under Our Supervision ?" The discussion of the first question was participated in by Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb, Lowell, Mass.; Superintendent J. H. Glotfelter, Atchison, Kan.; Superin- tendent W. F. F. Selleck, Austin, Minn.; Superintendent Joseph Carter, Champaign, 111.; Superintendent Darius Steward, Stillwater, Minn. President I. C. McNeill of the West Superior Normal School, Wisconsin, opened the discussion of the second question named, and it was continued by Superintendent Arthur Powell, Marion, O.; Superintendent R. A. Ogg, Kokomo, Ind.; Superintendent F. Treudley, Youngstown, O.; President John R. Kirk, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.; Superintendent M. A. Whitney, Elgin, 111.; Superintendent F. V. Hubbard, Red Wing, Minn.; Superintendent John Richeson, East St. Louis, 111.; Superintendent George V. Buchanan, Sedalia, Mo.; Superintendent McDonald, Henderson, Ky.; Professor C. M. Woodward, St. Louis ; Superintendent Aaron Gove, Denver ; Superintendent P. R. Walker, Rockfordj 111. Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y., discussed the question : " How Shall We Secure Better Teaching from Those under Our Supervision ?" Section B. — Leader, Superintendent William J. Shearer, Elizabeth, N. J. The topic discussed was : " Grading for Efficient Organization in the Interest of Pupils." Those participating in the discussion were : Superintendent Shearer ; Superintendent E. N. Coleman, Fort Dodge, la.; Superintendent Charles W. Deane, Bridgeport, Conn. Section C. — Leader, Superintendent T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind. The subject discussed was : " Correlation of High-School and Grammar-Grade Work." The discussion was opened by Superintendent F. D. Boynton, Ithaca, N. Y., and con- tinued by Superintendent C. M. Bardwell, Aurora, 111.; Professor A. F. Smith, Kansas City, Mo.; Professor Daniel E. Phillips, Denver University; Principal George H. Rockwood, Chicago; Superintendent C. S. Marsh, North Tonawanda, N. Y.; Superintendent T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.; Superintendent Smith, Danville, 111.; Dr. A. E. Winship, Boston ; Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo.; Superintendent J. N. Study, Fort Wayne, Ind.; Principal Samuel B. Hursh, Streator, 111.; Superintendent Edward Ayres, La Fayette, Ind.; Superintendent Barto, Princeton, 111.; Superintendent J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind.; Superintendent B. F. Moore, Marion, Ind. The discussion was concluded by Superintendent Boynton, Ithaca, who summed up the points made in the discussion. Section D. — Leader, Augustus S. Downing, principal of Teachers' Training School, New York, N. Y. The question under discussion was " Literature in Grades below the High School." 192 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The discussion was opened by Miss Mae E. Schreiber, of the Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. III. "State and County Superintendents." Leader, State Superintendent L. D. Bonebrake, Ohio. The topic discussed was : "The Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils." The discussion was opened by State Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, Illinois. Others participating were: County Superintendent O.J. Kern, Rockford, 111.; Superintendent Gross, De Kalb county, 111.; State Superintendent Frank L.Jones, Indiana; Professor A. J. Hutton, Whitewater Normal School, Wisconsin ; Superintendent A. B. Graham, Springfield, O. ; State Superintendent J. W. Olsen, Minnesota; State Superintendent R. C. Barrett, Iowa ; State Superintendent Skinner, New York; Superintendent Nattrass, La Fayette county, Wis.; County Superintendent Miss Fanny G. Gies, Mower county, Minn.; County Superintendent O. T. Bright, Cook county, 111.; State Superintendent W. T. Carrington, Missouri ; State Superintendent T. T. Tynan, Wyoming. After the close of the discussion Chairman Bonebrake introduced Division Superin- tendent M. S. Stone, of the Philippine Islands, who spoke of educational work in those islands. Superintendent Bayliss introduced the following resolution, which was adopted : Resolved — x. That it is the opinion of this round table of state and county superintendents that it is desirable that we have legislation providing that any group of school districts may be consolidated, and provision be made for carrying children to and from school at public expense. 2. That it is desirable that the proposition be systematically presented to the people of rural com- munities. 3. That we ask that the question be made a part of the general program of the Department of Superin- tendence for next year. State Superintendent Charles R. Skinner, of New York, made a motion that a com- mittee of three be selected to present a report on the present conditions of rural schools to the directors of the National Educational Association at Detroit next July, and to ask for an appropriation to carry on further investigation of consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils. The motion was amended to a " committee of five " and carried. A committee, composed of Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, of Illinois ; Superintendent R. C. Barrett, -of Iowa ; Superintendent Frank L. Jones, of Indiana ; Superintendent Charles R. Skinner, of New York ; and State Commissioner L. D. Bonebrake, of Ohio, was then appointed. The following officers of the round table were elected for next year: chairman, Hon. Frank L. Jones, state superintendent of Indiana ; secretary, Miss Fanny G. Gies, superintendent of schools of Mower county, Minn. On motion, the meeting adjourned until the second day of the National Educational Association at Detroit next July. IV. Round Table of Training Teachers. Leader, Miss Isabel Lawrence, St. Cloud, Minn. The subject discussed was : "The Observation of Experts as a Means of Training — Its Value and Limitations." Those taking part in the discussion were : Miss Sarah C. Brooks, supervisor of primary schools, St. Paul ; Professor J. S. Gaylord, State Normal School, Winona, Minn.; Superintendent W. A. Shoemaker, St. Cloud, Minn.; Miss Amalie Hofer, Kindergarten Magazine, Chicago; President John W. Cook, Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb; Principal W. A. Baldwin, State Normal School, Hyannis, Mass.; Mr. E. C. Bronson, Normal School, Athens, Ga.; Miss Ada Van Stone Harris, supervisor of primary schools, Newark, N. J.; Professor G. E. Maxwell, State Normal School, Winona, Minn.; Miss Hughes, Cambridge, Eng.; Miss Katherine Dopp, Chicago ; Dean James E. Russell, Teachers College, New York. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 193 THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION.— Thursday, February 28 The meeting was called to order at 9 : 50, President Harvey in the chair. After announcements, the president introduced District Superintendent A. G. Lane, Chicago, chairman of the Committee on Physiology in Schools, appointed at the meet- ing of the department in 1900. Mr. Lane presented the following report : The undersigned committee of the Department of Superintendence was appointed under the following resolution : Resolved, That the chair appoint a committee of seven, whose duty it shall be to report upon the teach- ing of physiology in the schools, especially with regard to the condition and progress of scientific inquiry as to the action of alcohol upon the human system, and to recommend what action, if any, by this department, is justified by the results of these inquiries. Your committee recommends the adoption of the following report : The Department of Superintendence agrees cordially with the special advocates of the temperance cause in holding that everything which public instruction can do in the battle against intemperance ought to be done, and that both physiology and hygiene should be so taught as to leave in the minds of children and youth an adequate and proper knowledge of the effects of alcoholic drinks and stimulants, and of narcotics, on the human system. Since the last meeting of this department there has been considerable discussion of the question as to whether alcohol under any conditions is properly to be defined as an article of food. Medical authorities are quoted in support of both sides of this question ; but no authority has been found to maintain that alcohol is a food in the ordinary sense of that term. The question of the supposed food value of alcohol is a technical one for medical experts to determine, and not one which need concern the men and women who are engaged, in the work of public instruction of children and youth. For them it is enough to know that its use as a beverage is injurious, and that all authorities agree in deprecating the formation of the drinking habit and in commending all practicable efforts, thru public instruction, to promote the cause of temperance. The questions of highest importance for teachers and superintendents of schools to consider are those which relate to the methods by which temperance instruction shall be imparted, the extent to which it shall be carried, and the subject-matter to be presented. The educational side of this subject is vitally important and demands thoro and sys- tematic study. We therefore recommend that a body of educational doctrine be formulated which may guide temperance instruction in the schools thruout the country, and we further recommend that the scope of the investigation be so enlarged as to cover, not only the topics already suggested, but also the whole field of personal hygiene, so far as this is a practicable matter for school instruction. We also recommend that this investigation be conducted under the direction of the National Council of Education, in accordance with the regulations of the National Educa- tional Association. Albert G. Lane. O. T. Corson. F. Louis Soldan. E. O. Lyte. Edwin P. Seaver. James H. Van Sickle. Edwin A. Alderman. Upon motion of Mr. Lane, seconded by Henry Sabin, of Iowa, the report was adopted without debate. 194 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago A paper on " Individual Instruction an Imperative Need in Our Schools " was given by Superintendent John Kennedy, Batavia, N. Y. The discussion was opened by President Jesse F. Millspaugh, Winona, Minn., and was continued by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University ; Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb ; State Superintendent Delos Fall, of Michi- gan ; Superintendent T. M. Balliet ; and concluded by Superintendent Kennedy. Dr. E. O. Lyte presented the report of the Committee on Nominations, as follows : The committee appointed by the president of the department to nominate officers of the department for the ensuing year begs leave to submit the following report : The officers nominated by the committee are as follows : For President — G. R. Glenn, state school commissioner, Georgia. For First Vice-President — H. P. Emerson, city superintendent, Buffalo, N. Y. For Second Vice-President — F. W. Cooley, city superintendent, Calumet, Mich.] For Secretary — John W. Dietrich, city superintendent, Colorado Springs, Colo. Upon motion of Superintendent O. T. Bright, the secretary was directed to cast the ballot of the department for the nominees named in the report. The secretary reported that he had so cast the ballot, and the officers named in the report were declared elected. Superintendent William J. M. Cox, Moline, 111., offered the following : Resolved — i. That a committee of seven be appointed by the president of the department for the careful examina- tion of the papers, addresses, and discussions dealing directly with the work of school supervision, heretofore presented in the meetings of the National Educational Association, the Department of Superintendence, and the Council of Education, for the purpose of culling from the mass of material thus accumulated such parts thereof as the committee shall deem worthy of publication in a special report, supplementing the several papers and excerpts by such authoritative statements, notes, and suggestions as may be found necessary or desirable. 2. That we request the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to provide for the publication of said report in such form and numbers as the committee shall recommend. Upon motion, the resolution was adopted. Mr. Ossian H. Lang moved that the department memorialize the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to appropriate $200 to defray the expenses of the committee provided for in the foregoing resolution. Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, presented the report of the Committee on Resolutions as follows : Resolved — 1. That the sincere thanks of this department are due, and are hereby offered, to the president and other officers of this body for the wise selection of topics for our discussion, for the dignified and able management of the work of the department, and for the courteous treatment of members during the progress of the different sessions of the present meeting ; and that our thanks be extended to those who have prepared papers or discus- sions to our interest and advantage. 2. That this department hereby expresses its interest in the problem of centralization of rural schools and the transportation of pupils at public expense, now being practiced so successfully in many states, and that we see in this movement possibilities of great improvement of rural schools, involving the excellences of a graded system of instruction without-the attendant evils consequent upon the crowded conditions of tenement life in cities ; and, further, that we look upon this movement as having important bearing upon the solution of pressing sociological as well as educational problems, and that this topic be recommended to the officers -elect of this body as worthy a place upon the general program of this department at its next meeting. 3. That this department expresses its great gratification at the progress made evident by exercises before this body at this meeting in the work of manual training in the public schools of the country, and especially at the fact that this department of education has ceased to be presented as a sensational element of a fragmentary and one-sided training for special industries, and has taken its place as an essential part of the education of a free people intent upon the complete and harmonious development of the individual, opening for him, not a single line, but the whole field of human endeavor. 4. That this department extends its thanks to the permanent Secretary of the National Educational Association for the never-failing wisdom and courtesy shown at this meeting, as at all times, in dealing with the questions which grow out of the relation of this department to the general association, and especially with details of transportation of members, and that he be commended for the system and efficiency which he has introduced and maintained in his department. L. H. Jones, Chairman. C. E. Chadsky. C. J. Baxter. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 195 Superintendent Aaron Gove moved that a committee of three be appointed by the chair to report a year hence a constitution and by-laws for the department under the limitations of the constitution and by-laws of the National Educational Association. Carried. Superintendent R. G. Boone, Cincinnati, being recognized by the chair, presented an invitation to the department to meet at Cincinnati in 1902. Superintendent G. R. Glenn, of Georgia, seconded for Cincinnati. Superintendent E. G. Cooley, Chicago, invited the department to meet in Chicago in 1902. State Superintendent W. W. Welch, of Montana, invited the department to meet in Helena, Mont. Superintendent Gove expressed regret at manifestations of a disposition to return to the old order of things and to adopt an itinerant policy. He favored continuing the meeting at Chicago. Superintendent Blodgett, Syracuse, spoke in favor of the itinerant plan. Superintendent O'Connor, of Nebraska, favored Chicago. John McDonald, of Kansas, invited the department to meet in Wichita, Kan. State Superintendent Skinner, of New York, favored Chicago. Superintendent Pearse, Omaha, spoke for Chicago. The department then proceeded to vote for the location of the meeting for 1902. Cincinnati received 109 votes; Chicago, 126 votes; Helena, 6 votes; Wichita, 1 vote. Chicago, having received the highest number of votes, was declared to be the choice of the department for the meeting in 1902. President Harvey then introduced President Green of the National Educational Association, who addressed the department briefly regarding the meeting of the National Educational Association at Detroit in July, 1901. The department then adjourned to meet at 2 p. M. AFTERNOON SESSION The department convened at 2 p. M., President Harvey in the chair. Superintendent R. G. Boone of the Cincinnati schools read a paper upon "A Standard Course of Study for Elementary Schools in Cities." The discussion was led by President A. S. Draper of the University of Illinois, and participated in further by Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis. Professor L. B. R. Briggs, of Harvard University, gave a paper upon " Some Aspects of Public-School Training." The paper was discussed by Dr. William T. Harris, Washington; Dr. C. A. McMurry, State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. ; Superintendent William N. Hailmann, Dayton, O. ; President R. H. Halsey, State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis. ; and Superintendent R. G. Boone. The meeting then adjourned to convene again at 8 : 15 P. M. EVENING SESSION The department was called to order at 8 : 15 P. M. by President Harvey. Professor John Dewey, Chicago, gave the address of the evening, on "The Situation as Regards the Course of Study." President Harvey announced the following committees, appointed in pursuance of resolutions passed by the department during the convention ; 196 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago COMMITTEE ON SELECTION AND PUBLICATION OF MATERIAL RELATING TO CITY- SCHOOL SUPERVISION Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. President R. H. Halsey, State Normal School, Osh- Superintendent W. J. M. Cox, Moline, 111. kosh, Wis. Dr. Emerson E. White, Columbus, O. Professor Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia Univer- Superintendent E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. sity. New York city. State Superintendent N. C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa. COMMITTEE TO FRAME CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Superintendent Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo. Superintendent R. G. Boone, Cincinnati, O. Superintendent William H. Maxwell, New York city. The convention then adjourned sine die. Frank B. Cooper, Secretary. Superintendence] THE GOSPEL OF WORK 1 97 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE GOSPEL OF WORK EDWIN G. COOLEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. We are living in a civilization with a penchant for action ; "hustle" is the watchword of the hour. A strenuous, or at least a clamorous, life is the only one worthy of the commendation of the American — that is, the American of the latitude and longitude of Chicago. Americans, indi- vidually and collectively, seem to be looking about for more worlds to conquer. Men of our day organize into numerous civic and other missionary associations, ready to undertake the redress of every public grievance, at least so far as this redress can be brought about on the platform and around the dinner table. Our ladies, thru their numerous clubs, are add- ing to the homely affairs of the household the task of the mental, moral, and physical regeneration of society. As a nation, we seem ready to undertake the larger responsibilities of world-regulation. In addition to the task of absorbing the thousands of aliens who are seeking our hospitable shores, we are taking up the work of a national colporteur in foreign lands and in strange climes. Expansion and optimism are our ideals, as a nation and as individuals. Along with this restless, active life has arisen a contempt for the pas- sive virtues, and for people who profess, or who advocate, them. We seem to be ready to accept the doctrine that the earth and its fruits belong to those only who can use them, and who will and can use them according to modern ideas of the fitness of things. The red Indian who uses the earth as a hunting-ground cannot expect to keep the land away from him who will raise corn and hogs on it. The Filipino who uses rosewood for railroad ties ought not to be trusted with the stew- ardship of earth's wonderful resources. The Boer who persists in cattle-raising in a country that abounds in gold and diamond mines should not expect to be permitted to stand in the way of modern progress and civilization. We apply the parable of the talents to such cases with a vengeance, transforming it into the doctrine that "might makes right." Our lawmaking bodies show an inordinate faith in the power of authority in the form of legislative action. Every winter sees its addi- tional mountain of legislation ; and yet every reformer cries out for more, forgetting the most important factors of his problem — the officials who execute the laws, and the characteristics of the people who live under 198 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago them. Legislation is urged as tho life were passed in a vacuum and resistance were unknown. Our schools have not escaped this modern tendency. We have been expanding with the rest. We have felt impelled to attempt the complete regeneration of society in four short years, regardless of thousands of years of opposing inheritances. We have been ready to undertake any new project that seemed to be of an educative nature, without con- sidering its relations to other branches of work, or to the amount of unconsumed energy available. Happy and famous is the man or woman who has been able to set the schools a new task, for multitudes have arisen to call him a reformer. The thorogoing belief in the efficiency of work and of the obligation of all mankind to work owes much to the evangelism of such men as Carlyle and Ruskin. Carlyle preached the gospel of work to a genera- tion that looked for leadership and inspiration to men who had little or nothing to do. His Sartor Resartus, his Heroes, and his Past and Present are full of this gospel. He cries : The world and all that is in it are the result of work. The great men in history, as well as the great races, have been those who earnestly worked. The old gospel was, " Know thyself ;" the new is, " Know thy work and do it." All work is noble ; a life of ease is not for any man. One monster there is in the world, the idle man. What is his religion ? That nature is a phantasm, where cunning beggary or thievery may some- times find good victual; that God is a lie ; that man and his works are a lie. Ruskin was almost equally earnest in his advocacy of work ; and to precept added action. Many of us have read, with some amusement, of his road-building experiment with the Oxford students. But the young men who took part in this experiment never forgot the obligation he laid upon them, to labor — each within his particular province — with all his soul, with all his strength, and with all his mind. The world has been greatly, influenced by these teachings of Carlyle and Ruskin. In the lives of many of our famous men are to be found acknowledgments like that of Thomas Huxley, published in his recent Life and Letters. In recalling some of the powerful influences which have affected his life, Huxley speaks of the writings of Carlyle, and especially of Sartor Resartus. The idea that " work alone is noble ; the doctrine that whatever of morality and of intelligence ; what of patience, faithful- ness of method, insight, ingenuity, energy ; in a word, whatsoever of strength a man had in him lies written in the work he does," has been an inspiration to the youth of the nineteenth century. The renewed inter- est in Carlyle and his work, shown by the placing of one of his essays on the college reading list, is a happy omen of continued interest in his ideas. The teacher, like all earnest men, believes in his mission, and has an almost unbounded faith in the efficiency of school work. He, like Carlyle, Superintendence] THE GOSPEL OF WORK I 99 may underestimate the strength of the inherited impulses and instincts he deals with. He has usually been willing to add mountains of work to his own and his pupils' burdens. Any " ology " whatever can find advocates for a place in the curriculum ; and too many of them have already succeeded in crowding themselves upon the school. Only a Car- lylean temperament could have induced the teacher to attempt the moun- tains of work prescribed in some of our school programs. It is not strange that he sometimes adds to this another Carlylean characteristic, that of grumbling a little. In his application of the doctrines of Carlyle he has failed to discriminate, to realize that what we want today is not more subjects to work at, but a change in our method of teaching that will be in accordance with Carlyle's doctrine — a change that will offer opportunities for real work. In the following statement of Carlyle is, I believe, the kernel of modern educational doctrine. He says : The knowledge that will hold good in working, cleave thou to that. Properly, thou hast no other knowledge but what thou hast by working ; the rest is yet all a hypothesis of knowledge, a thing to be argued in the schools, a thing floating in the clouds in endless logic-vortices till we may try to fix it. Doubt of whatever kind can be ended by action alone. Man perfects himself by working. Destiny, on the whole, has no other way of cultivating us. In this utilizing of the motor influences, in this return to Froebel's idea of self-activity, we are getting into line with the influences that are moving modern society. We are beginning to believe in the doctrine of Dr. John Dewey, "that the school has no other educational resources than those which exist outside of the schools ; that, so far as the principle is concerned, it is simply a continuation of the same methods which are operative in the informal education." The knowledge we get in connec- tion with some activity, some piece of work we are earnestly striving to do, we can cleave to that. All other knowledge is likely to be held in out-of-the-way compartments of the mind, where practical application to the problem of life can never come. We are utilizing these motor influ- ences in many ways in our modern school. The kindergarten, construct- ive work, and nature study; our manual training, and most of the methods of teaching other subjects, are endeavors to turn motor impulses to use. As Dr. Dewey says : We are coming to believe that the possibility of having knowledge become some- thing more than the accumulation of facts and laws, of becoming actually operative in character and conduct, is dependent on the extent to which that information is evolved out of some need in the child's own experience and to which it receives application to that experience. In other words, character-making is the result of doing something, is the result of the formation of habits. Indeed, we are almost ready for Carlyle's extreme statement : "All work is religion, and whatsoever reli- gion is not work may go dwell among the Brahmins. Labor are est orare. 200 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago If labor is not worship, the more the pity for worship, for this is the noblest thing under God's sky." While I am not an advocate of the soft pedagogy that is supported in some quarters, yet I believe that all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy ; but I also believe that " all play and no work makes Jack a mere toy." I do not believe it is wise to endeavor to have the child believe that the work he is trying to do is play. I do not, on the other hand, believe in the doctrine of drudgery. I do not believe in an ideal of work that regards it merely as a preliminary to enjoyment, as something to be gotten over that enjoyment may follow. I do not believe in the doc- trine that men should bear the repulsive burden of work in order that the remainder of life may be spent in idle enjoyment. I do not believe in a separation of work into drudgery and enjoyment. I do not believe that boys and girls in school should be taught to endure the drudgery of the schoolroom for the sake of any fun that is to follow. I do not believe in setting up a dualism between work and enjoyment, that will debase all work into mere drudgery. I believe that both boys and men, who are not overworked, enjoy the work which they can do well. Froebel taught, first, that the child develops thru creative activity; secondly, that the child is benefited by contact with other children, and is happy in proportion as he is unselfishly employed. In addition to this, every observing person knows that the idea of drudgery during youth and manhood, with idleness and ease in old age as a reward for the drudgery, is an illusion. In Tennyson's "Ulysses" we see pictured the old hero's ennui at the prospect of a life of ease, and of his longing to continue the work in which his manhood had been passed : I am become a name ; For always roaming with a hungry heart. Much have I seen and known — cities of men, And manners, climates, councils, governments, Myself not least, but -honoured of them all — And drunk delight of battle with my peers, Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy. I am a part of all that I have met ; Yet all experience is an arch wherethro' Gleams that untravelled world, whose margin fades Forever and forever when I move. How dull it is to pause, to make an end, To rest unburnished, not to shine in use, As tho' to breathe were life. Life piled on life Were all too little, and of one to me Little remains : but every hour is saved From that eternal silence, something more, A bringer of new things ; and vile it were For some three suns to store and hoard myself, And this great spirit yearning in desire To follow knowledge, like a sinking star, Beyond the utmost bound of human thought. Superintendence] EDUCATION AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION 20I Much of the irksomeness of labor is the result of a belief that all work is drudgery, to be hastened thru with as soon as possible. As long as we attempt to separate work into drudgery now and enjoyment later we shall have people asking whether life is worth living. If we can arouse in our young people the instinct of workmanship thru our manual train- ing and other constructive work ; if we can make them feel that labor well done is noble, much of the irksomeness will disappear. If our young people can be made to feel the moral obligation upon every member of society to work — to produce something — they will be better citizens. If they can be made to feel the supreme necessity of becoming interested in their work, they may expect happiness. If our notion of leisure is that of the Greeks, that leisure is only time and opportunity to prepare for the doing of a higher grade of work, the world will be the better for it. DISCUSSION Superintendent E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. — I am interested in this particular subject and very much in accord with the positions taken by the reader of the paper. I especially like that part which says this is a working world. I believe in work, and work in school. I believe in the kindergarten, but I do not believe in carrying kinder- garten work into the eighth grade and the high school. We are not getting full results from the energy we expend, because of our failure rightly to appreciate a proper applica- tion of work. Only about 20 per cent, of the energy spent in school is effective. We must not make the mistake of bedizening in order to make it appear that we are really working. We attempt sometimes to go outside of the old-fashioned ways, and I am of the opinion that this is not always wise. I believe in the old-fashioned ways, and that some of the things we are now doing would be less objectionable if we had not deserted the old ways of performing them. Boys and girls need to learn to do a few things and to do them well. They should also learn that there is dignity and joy in work. EDUCATION AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION HOWARD J. ROGERS, DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY FOR THE COMMISSIONER-GENERAL OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF I90O Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : One of the sad inflictions which follow in the wake of a great expo- sition is the individual who is always talking of it or lecturing on it. But, in spite of my desire to escape this fate, the invitation of your president was worded so graciously, and a public expression of the obligations of the United States commission for the loyal support of this association so manifestly due, that I felt constrained to accept. I wanted also to retract, or modify, a statement made before this association two years ago at the Columbus meeting. In outlining the 202 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago plans for the United States exhibit I said that we had no national sys- tem of education ; that we had forty-five systems, with a few territorial annexes thrown in. While in a strictly literal sense this is true, practi- cally it is not. We have today in the United States a greater unity and similarity in courses of study and methods of administration than exist in any other country in the world with the exception of France. The result of the rigid system of uniformity which enabled the French min- ister of public instruction a number of years ago to boast that he could look at the clock at any hour of the day and tell what every school child of France was doing, is still in evidence. But the United States educa- tional exhibit at Paris, if it served no other purpose, demonstrated beyond question that the only differences in our educational methods are those of local emphasis, which do not affect the general tendency and unity. Had the labels over a portion of the work of Boston or New York been interchanged for those of Denver or St. Louis, no one not having a knowl- edge of its local touches and coloring could have detected the difference. The plan of our exhibit, which placed the work of similar grades side by side, irrespective of localities, brought out this similarity in a most convin- cing manner. It was the cause of much comment on the part of foreigners and of much surprise on the part of Americans. An impression, more or less well defined, has undoubtedly been in the minds of educational people that this similarity existed, but it had never before been so strikingly demonstrated. We attributed the cause, in our explanations, to two sources : first, to the United States Bureau of Education ; its control over the states is purely advisory, but so wise has been its administration, so valuable the information which it has collected and distributed, and to such high renown has it attained under its present commissioner, that its influence as a harmonizing, directive, and unifying force is most powerful ; and, secondly, to the National Educational Association, whose meetings are the great clearing-house for educational ideas in this country. There is no need to dwell before this audience upon the value of this association as a common ground for interchange of thought, comparison of methods, forming of acquaintanceships, and promotion of confidence. Yet the magnitude of the organization was puzzling to foreigners and its forma- tion the subject of much inquiry. The place of education at the Paris exposition was theoretically all that could be desired, but practically there was much that could have been improved. Not yet at an international exposition has a building adequate been devoted solely to education. In Paris, in the Palace of Education was joined the exhibit of the liberal arts, Group III. Space was granted to each nation for both groups together, and the division between the groups left to the commissioner-general of that nation. As a consequence, while most of the exhibits were in the gallery, many were Superintendence] EDUCATION AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION 203 on the ground floor ; the continuity was broken, and in some instances, notably Germany, the whole space in this building devoted to the com- mercial products included under Group III. From the scientific point of view, however, both as regards the exhibit, classification, and official recognition, education was given the preced- ence. This circumstance was particularly gratifying to the representa- tives of the United States, where the commercial spirit rules — dominates. The tendency of the French in this respect was particularly noticeable in the formation of the international juries. At least 50 per cent, of the membership of each class jury was French. The French representation in the six class juries of Group I, education, was concededly stronger than in any of the 121 classes. Men prominent in educational, literary, and scientific fields were eager to serve. Such names, well known in America, as Leon Bourgeois, former minister of public instruction, a member of the Chamber of Deputies, and the most prominent member for France in the Peace Congress, president not only of Class I, but of the entire superior jury ; Liard, of the university ; Ferdinand Buisson, whose report on American education in 1876 is a classic; Camille See, and others, give evidence of the caliber of the jury. An award granted after due deliberation by such a body of men bears more than the ordinary signifi- cance attached to exposition awards. The direct control of the educational sections was vested in the min- ister of public instruction, one of the three most powerful ministers in the French cabinet. He has under his authority not only all elementary and secondary instruction, but the universities, the beaux arts, the salons, the national theaters, and the opera. To the minister, M. Georges Leygues, and his directors the foreign educational representatives were indebted for many courtesies from an exhibit standpoint and in official life. There was one exception to the general control exercised by the min- ister of public instruction, viz., Class VI, industrial and commercial educa- tion. By a special law, passed a few years ago after considerable struggle, all industrial and technical schools were placed under the jurisdiction of the minister of commerce and industries. Inasmuch as the general man- agement of the exposition fell under the latter ministry, the industrial schools demanded and received a separate building for their exhibit. This building was a small annex to the main Palace of Education, and contained only the work of French schools. Five nations besides France took a leading part in the educational exhibit : the United States, Great Britain, Russia, Hungary, and Japan. A number of other nations, notably Sweden, Italy, and Spain, played lesser roles. To an American the most interesting phases of the exhibit were the expectant attitude of England, the awakening of Russia, the development of Japan, and the industrial training of Hungary and France. 204 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago England for the first time was represented at an international exposi- tion. The exhibit of the great public schools of Eton, Harrow, Rugby, and Winchester was historic and highly attractive to Americans ; the exhibit of Oxford and Cambridge was scientific and exhaustive ; but the real interest lay in the efforts of the adherents to the education act of 1870 to push to its logical results the provisions of that act, and the eagerness of the progressive wing of the education office to adapt Ameri- can ideas to English conditions. The figures published last year showed that for the first time the attendance on the board schools exceeded the attendance on the free denominational schools, and that the territory occupied by the latter is being rapidly absorbed. The next decade will see rapid advances in educational methods. The younger and more pro- gressive elements are strong advocates of the prominent features of the system of the United States, and expect much from the influence which may be exerted, or rather the discussions and agitation which may arise, from the presence of the United States educational exhibit now in Manchester, England. A word on the latter point may be in order now. Among the experts and delegates from other countries who examined our exhibit critically last summer, none were more sincere in their praise than the English. Their sincerity was best proven by their actions. The idea grew that many of the best features of American education, in spite of the fact that they were the product of a younger civilization and developed from totally different conditions, could be grafted into the English system. The problem was how best to enlist the attention of the British public. At this juncture Mr. John H. Reynolds, principal of the Municipal Tech- nical School, Manchester, England, came forward with a proposition to transport the United States exhibit complete from Paris to Manchester, and set it up for exhibition in precisely the same form as at Paris. He submitted the plan to the Manchester municipal authorities, and, after sending a committee to investigate, they reported favorably. The director of education for the United States in the meantime had secured the con- sent of all the principal exhibitors to the transfer of the exhibit to Man- chester, and the consequent delay in its return home. The Manchester authorities assumed the entire cost of packing and shipping the exhibit from Paris, its installation at Manchester, and its reshipment to New York. The exhibit was opened to the public in the latter part of January, and will remain until March. Concerning it one or two extracts from the English press are of interest : No member of a technical instruction committee or of a school board, no governor or manager of a school, no teacher, whether in a primary or secondary school or uni- versity, can afford to miss such a rare opportunity, provided in so public-spirited a fashion. They will come, not from Manchester alone, but from all the country round. The general public also will find in it abundant interest and entertainment. The productions of the American art schools and the superb collection of photographs of school and college life Superintendence] EDUCATION A7 THE PAtilS EXPOSITION 205 are in themselves worth going a long way to see. But the amount of pleasure and profit to be derived from a visit will depend largely upon the intelligence with which the visitor fol- lows the scheme upon which the exhibit is displayed It is delightful to see so much care and pains bestowed on instruction in history in the primary and secondary schools, though one could wish that young Americans were not taught so sedulously to regard Britons as the enemies of the republic. At every turn one is struck with the extreme dex- terity with which statistics are set out in graphic forms, sometimes in curves, sometimes in colored squares or columns, the relative size of which indicates ratios of figures. In this connection it is striking to observe in the kindergarten and primary sections the admirable educational skill with which taste and constructive power are developed and exercised in young children by the system of " free drawing " and brushwork, which is so infinitely more stimulating to the childish mind than the dry and abstract type of art work instituted by our South Kensington department. There are any number of other points which call for notice in this wonderful exhibition, but we can only advise every- body to go and see it for themselves. Well, I need not pause to observe that in this particular section of the Paris exhibi- tion there was no finer display than that made by the United States. It gives a bird's- eye view, as it were, of education as it exists in the States today. Its purpose is to represent the best work and the ripest methods, no matter whence their source within the limit of the United States. The field covered by the exhibit is so full, varied, and interesting that no outline can possibly do it justice ; but, within the space at my disposal, if I can convey to the public an impression of what this exhibit is, I shall not be altogether dissatisfied. We sincerely trust that some of the expectations of the promoters of the plan may be realized. It is a small seed, and a foreign public is a stony soil, but there may take root some features of American education which will prove of great benefit to popular education in England. That there will be any quickly apparent effect no one dreams. Evolution is a slow process; evolution in education one of its tardiest forms. But there exists no system of public education in any country which cannot be improved by the introduction of some of the best features from another country, and from this object-lesson planted in the center of the great industrial and manufacturing district of England, where the free and intelligent development of youth is a vital problem, and where admiration for American methods and American virility runs highest, much good may reasonably be expected. The English educational exhibit showed strength and a rugged deter- mination to work out a solution adapted to the great variety of conditions bequeathed from former generations; but a stronger and more hopeful sign was the intense earnestness of the younger, progressive schoolmen to find this proper adjustment of the ideal with the actual, and to determine just how much of improved methods can safely be introduced without clogging the machinery. It is a good sign, when men are dissatisfied with present conditions, to find them acting conservatively ; keen for improve- ment, but with patience to wait. There will be fewer back-tracks to cover in the future. In the Russian educational exhibit there was also an awakening to be 206 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago noted, but of an entirely different nature. In England it is the awakening of the leaders; in Russia it is the awakening of the people. In England it is the leaders who must urge; in Russia they must use the curb. There is a point in the uplifting of an ignorant populace that is near the danger line. It is when they begin to question, and there are none of their own class to answer. The attendance in the schools controlled by the minister of public instruction of Russia has doubled in the last ten years, and the attendance on the church schools, which number about one-third of the total number of the primary schools, has been equally increasing. There is no effort to compel attendance. There is not accommodation for those who clamor to come. Schools in the rural districts are at a great distance from each other, and great sacrifices are often made by parents to enable their children to attend school. In every district in the provinces there are children who travel daily many versts for the same purpose. With such a spirit in the people the responsibility on the government is doubled. It not only has to provide schools in sufficient numbers to prevent the cry of inequity, but it must control the unrest which inevitably follows the consciousness of growing power. There is no antagonism between the church and state schools. There is no reason why there should be. The head of the state is the head of the church. There is oftentimes a keen rivalry in neighboring provinces and districts, but most of the new schools established are under the minis- try, and if the inhabitants of a district so decide, the church school therein is turned over to the ministerial supervision. The school term in Russia is three years of six months' instruction each year — a small total when compared with our own elementary course, but a great advance over the serfdom and ignorance of a few decades ago. I have confined myself, in speaking of Russia, to the common schools, as they formed the larger and more interesting part of the exhibit from a sociological standpoint. Of the exhibit of many excellent high schools in cities, the technical schools and universities, and the efforts in St. Petersburg for the higher educa- tion of women much mighfbe said, but it would extend too far the limits of this discussion. The Japanese exhibit was exactly what we expected it to be. Those who recall the educational exhibit of Japan in Chicago in 1893 and the promise which it contained will readily understand this statement. The increase in attendance during the last decade was over 80 per cent., and in the ten years between 1888 and 1898 the government expenditures for ele- mentary education jumped from eight to eighteen million dollars. Their elementary instruction seems designed to increase that proficiency in indus- trial pursuits for which they are already noted, and to render more perfect that lightness of touch and delicacy of design which characterize the art of the nation. They are a progressive nation, alert and quiet. I did not hear a Japanese juror make a remark during the exposition ; but I do not Superintendence] EDUCATION AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION 207 remember anything they did not see. I never heard a Japanese educator talk anyway, which is at least one remarkable difference between the "Yan- kees of the East" and the Yankees of the West. The technical and higher instruction of the Japanese is thoroly well outlined and tends toward the same great object — the industrial development of the nation. Perhaps no economic truth was more seriously impressed on the western nations by the exposition than that Japan, thru its rapid development in decora- tive art and designing, and thru its cheap labor, will soon become a formidable competitor in the markets of the world. The Japanese are quick to acknowledge the debt they owe the United States in educational matters, and the influence of American teachers and of American-trained native students is evident. Concerning the educational exhibit of France there is so much that could be said that it may perhaps be better left unsaid than to be half- said. There is no foreign educational system better known to this audi- ence than the French, and to discuss it would be to restate what you have often read. I shall, therefore, touch only two points. In the arrangement of the exhibit space was used prodigally. It was a French exposition. The earth and the fullness thereof was theirs, and they hesi- tated not to make use of it. We never could learn their exact area in Group I, but it is conservative to say that it was four times as large as that of all other nations combined. In this they partially defeated their object, for it is impossible to spread a system over so great an area and have it at all comprehensive or within the grasp of the student. It wearies the sightseer also by its endless repetition. Of its excellence and thoroness there was no question, tho there was absolutely nothing new in the method of arrangement or presentation. The other point affects the spirit of the exhibit and brings us to the radical difference between the schools of the United States and those of France, Hungary, and other nations which feel the French influence. The latter in their primary schools specialize from the earliest grades ; the former educate all pupils alike till in the secondary grades. This differ- ence is fundamental and is incident to the different theory which under- lies the spirit of popular education in the Old World and the New. It is impossible with us to assign to a child of ten or twelve years of age his future occupation. To attempt to do so would be resented by the people. There is no perpetual or hereditary working class ; no families identified with certain occupations. Such conditions can exist only in an old and thoroly settled civilization, where all chances of sudden wealth and preferment have been exhausted, and nothing remains for the masses but to attain the highest possible industrial skill in the arts and trades. A freedom and elasticity is demanded in the educa- tional system of our country to correspond to the possibilities existent in our material development. 208 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The conditions in the United States do not require, nor do our people demand, that there should be in our course of study a dominant tend- ency toward any particular phase of industrial progress. We have noticed the opposite in the exhibit of every other nation at Paris this summer. There is no question as to the excellence of their work. The system of manual instruction employed in the schools of France is beyond doubt brought to a higher state of perfection than in any other country. The exhibits from the ecoles primaires superieures, both in the Champ de Mars and the Ville de Paris building, were equal in many respects to the work of master-workmen. The only question is whether the needs of a nation justify this excessive specializing in the schools supported by public money. We are quite positive that our own social conditions do not demand it. We have our manual-training high schools and a system of manual training in many of our elementary schools, but its object is to train the senses in conjunction with the mind, but not to the exclusion of the humanities. Our industrial drawing is developed from an original system of elementary drawing, but not with the intention of making designers or artists, tho we are pleased if this may be the result. We aim to develop the imagination, to train the powers of accurate observa- tion, and to enable the pupil to represent his conclusion both graphically and in well-chosen language. There exist certainly radical differences in the theory underlying public education. Which will subserve better the destinies of the nation only experience can determine. It is possible that both continents have the system which their own civilization and industrial development most require. We cannot form a just comparison of the educational systems of countries without taking into account the history of the country and the antecedents of the people. No adequate idea of Greek art and Greek literature could be obtained unless we knew the characteristics of the Greek nation, its intense love of freedom, and its passion for physi- cal beauty and development. We must look to the traditions of the people, their historical beginnings, and the spirit of their institutions. America has been particularly fortunate in this respect. We had no legacy of ignorance and stolidity bequeathed to us from the Middle Ages. There are some advantages in being a young nation. Whatever nation of Europe you may choose for an example ; whether we take France or Prussia, which for nearly a century have been engaged upo'n the problem of the education of the masses ; or England, which has been engaged upon it a lesser time; or Russia, which is just beginning — they have had first to penetrate down thru the ignorance, superstition, and even the antipathy to culture generated by centuries of mental apathy. They have had first to awaken a responsive spirit — a problem we have escaped. Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 209 The exposition of 1900 led to the discovery of none of these things. All students of education have seen the drift of school affairs. The exposition did, however, emphasize the vital problems of our educational life by placing side by side in contrast the many systems evolved from the various relations of the governing and the governed. But the ques- tion most general in its application, which is engrossing the attention of the greatest number of countries, and which at the exposition was most diversely represented, is to what extent the social and industrial develop- ment of a nation warrants specialized training at public expense in ele- mentary schools. DISCUSSION —SUBJECT: SIMPLIFIED SPELLING Shall the Department of Superintendence Ask the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association to Appoint a Permanent Commission in the Interest of Simplified Spelling and Appropriate $1,000 a Year for Five Years, for its Use in Promoting the Cause? e. o. vaile, editor of "intelligence," oak park, ill. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : It is not always that an audience has the text printed and put in its hands. But, to make sure of a full understanding in this discussion, I have had the resolution and peti- tion printed, and I trust each of you has a copy in hand. To make sure of its meaning, et me read it with you : Resolved, That this department respectfully presents the following petition to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association and asks for its favorable action thereon : To the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association: Gentlemen : Whereas, The twelve simplified spellings are widely used and generally legitimized because of their adoption by the National Educational Association in its late volumes of proceedings ; and Whereas, The National Educational Association is looked upon, and justly, as the natural and logical friend of childhood, and the indorser and promoter of all movements looking to improvement and advance in education; and Whereas, There is great need, particularly in the interest of children and other learners of our lan- guage, that cohesion, organization, and standing should be given to the movement for simplifying our spelling by giving it wise, capable, and influential leadership ; Therefore, We, the Department of Superintendence, at this our annual meeting, recognizing the responsibility which rests upon the teachers of the country, as well as the opportunity now open to them, to insure the steady progress of this movement along moderate, reasonable, and practical lines, do respectfully request you to appoint the persons named below as a permanent commission in the interest of the movement toward simplifying our spelling, and to appropriate the sum of $1,000 for each of the next five years to be used in whole or in part by said commission in such way as it may judge to be to the greatest advantage of the cause, the appointment and appropriation to be made upon the following CONDITIONS 1. That the commission may fill all vacancies arising in its body or in its offices by a majority vote, cast by mail or otherwise, as may seem expedient, and it may elect additional members at its discretion and establish rules for its own government. 2. That the commission shall make an annual report, including an itemized statement of expenditures, to the Department of Superintendence, and also to the Board of Directors of the National Educational Asso- ciation. 3. That the money appropriated for the commission shall be paid by the Treasurer of the National Educational Association upon vouchers duly signed by the president of the commission. 4. That any unused portion of the amount authorized to be expended in any one year may be used in any subsequent year. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago MEMBERS OF THE COMMISSION I William R. Harper, president of the University of Chicago. E. Benjamin Andrews, chancellor of th University of Nebraska. Andrew S. Draper, president of the University of Illinois. Dr. J. W. Steams, professor of pedagogy, University of Wisconsin. Dr. John Dewey, head professor of pedagogy, Uni- versity of Chicago. Ella F. Young, assistant professor of pedagogy, Uni- versity of Chicago. F. A. March, professor of comparative philology, Lafayette College. Pennsylvania. Francis W. Parker, president of Chicago Institute. E. G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago. Lewis H. Jones, superintendent of schools, Cleveland. R. G. Boone, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati. Charles M. Jordan, superintendent of schools, Min- neapolis. Edward Brooks, superintendent of schools, Phila- delphia. J. H. Van Sickle, superintendent of schools, Balti- more. Dr. W. H. Ward, editor of the Independent. Melvil Dewey, director of the state library and home education departments of the University of the State of New York. Henry Holt, publisher, New York. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Cambridge, Mass. Benjamin E. Smith, managing editor of the Century Dictionary . James MacAlister, director of the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. In regard to the names just read, I want it clearly understood that there is no fiction or guesswork in putting them on this list. I hold in my hand the written assent to serve on this commission, if it is appointed, of every person named excepting two. They assented orally, and are in the audience, and can speak out if I have misunderstood them. It is probably well at the outset to guard against any misinterpretation of this peti- tion. The proposition to appoint such a commission, and to give it money to use in its discretion in the interest of this movement to rationalize our spelling, appears to strike some as an effort to create a committee to head a raid against our orthographic absurdi- ties, and to bombard the public with pleas and arguments for simplified spelling as vigorously each year as #1,000 will permit. There is no such thought or purpose behind this proposition. Does any member of this department believe that there is the slightest danger that Dr. Harper, or Dr. Draper, or Superintendent Cooley, or Dr. Dewey, or any other person named on this, commission, would lend himself to an aggressive or an offensive propaganda on this subject ? There is not a single zealot, or even an enthusiast, on the list. Let me call your attention to the composition of this proposed commission : seven university men, all of them well known ; seven superintendents of large systems ; and seven men prominent as educators or editors, or in some other line of work. That there is only one lady in the list is no fault of mine. I wanted the women teachers well represented. I proposed to several eminent women in the best way I knew, but only one accepted. Is it possible that anyone can fear that the men named are going to put their heads together to decide what changes in spelling are desirable, and then keep dinging at their fellow- citizens to adopt these changes ? Is it to be feared that they will attempt to agitate this question or to accelerate the movement already started without using good sense, without considering the danger of reaction, of creating disgust, of intensifying prejudice ? Friends have remonstrated against urging this measure on the ground that it is wise to let well enough alone ; that the most dangerous thing for the reform now is to try to hurry it ; that we must wait for the new spellings already inaugurated to " soak in," and take root, if you will excuse the mixed metaphor. Are not the records and the standing of the persons named ample guarantee that they understand all this ? that they know enough not to make the fire too hot for the broth ? For thirty-five years I have advo- cated the simplification of our spelling whenever fit occasion has offered. For twenty years I have used in Intelligence the identical spellings which this association has adopted, and I am using no more today than I did at first. Why ? Simply because I have never felt that the time was ripe for me to take an additional advance step. You may be sure 1 Consent to serve on the commission, if appointed, was received after adjournment of the department from Chauncey M. Depew, United States senator from New York, and Miss Sarah L. Arnold, supervisor of primary instruction, Boston, Mass. Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 211 I would take no hand in any scheme which might undo what I have so long labored to help to build up ; in any scheme that might tend to chill the sentiment and the sym- pathies favorable to this movement which are just beginning to warm into life. No such purpose and no such danger lie in this proposition. The business and professional records of the men and women named in this list, their demonstrated level-headedness and good sense, are ample assurance that we shall not put the cause in jeopardy from hasty, ill-advised, or overzealous counsels by intrusting them with the leadership, while their eminence and standing will bring immense strength to the cause and guarantee modera- tion and wisdom in promoting it. Every genuine schoolmaster must have Abraham Lincoln's faith in the people. When the people once fully understand the bearings of a practical question, you can safely trust their decision. The great, the essential thing is to make them understand the question. Give them light, and you need not fear the general result. It is on this principle that I urge the appointment of this commission. One main purpose is to establish a bureau of light and publicity ; to evoke a voice so clear and wise and moderate and authoritative that the people will have confidence in it and follow it. There is need in the movement today of a nerve center, to which information and stimulus will be communicated, to be sent out again as inspiration and impulse ; a central body to receive and consider all reform suggestions, to publish such as it deems wise and practicable, and thus to bring into touch with each other all the elements which favor the simplifying of our spelling. The simple appointment and announcement of a commission composed of such scholars and leaders of thought would in itself be a most potent influence in liberating and evoking spelling-reform sympathies and developing sentiment in its support. If nothing else were done than to cause this commission, representative of the great body of teachers, to stand forth clearly before the people as both an umpire and a leader in the purposeful evolution of rational spelling, it would be well worth the money which it is proposed to spend. Such a commission, standing as sponsor for the intelligent and reasonable and wise direction of this movement, would give character and standing to it which would be of great advantage. It would give the cause recognition as a thing feasible and desirable, and to be encouraged by all progressive social forces. The best scholars and educators of this country, and of England, are practically a unit in believing in the simplifying of our spelling, differing only as to degree and methods. They have never taken or been encouraged to take active charge of the move- ment. Thru the agency of this commission scholars, educators, men of character and stability and influence, free from all suspicion of overzeal or immoderateness will have the movement in hand. The weight of their advice and influence will harmonize the divergent views as to methods of procedure and bring into unison all elements favorable to reform. Such a commission would save the cause from its unwise friends and convince the public that there is a simplification of spelling which is moderate, feasible, and progres- sive, which is approved by scholars and educators, and which all sensible men and women can safely indorse and encourage. Today there is little concert of action among the friends of simplified spelling. No supporter of the cause can learn, except by chance, of other supporters. A great many people who are really in sympathy with it take no practical steps to help it because they hear no voice of recognized wisdom and of commanding influence to lead them. There is the greatest need of a head center to which all may look for guidance and advice. To create such a committee, for wise counsel and for judicious encouragement of the move- ment, is the object of this effort. It would install a moderator and leader, whose moral weight and authority would hold the enthusiasts in check and attract sympathy to the cause. It would give cohesion, stability, organization, and standing to the movement. 212 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago We are all agreed that simplified spelling can and will come only as a process of development. But it will never come thru a blind, unguided, accidental, haphazard development. It will come only thru a development which is guided and conscious on somebody's part. An evolution that is intelligent and purposeful, which is directed according to the wisdom of some one, or of some many, is the only evolution, whether slow or rapid, which will ultimately give us rational spelling. So far the movement has progressed by uncertain steps, according as the suggestions of Noah Webster, or of the philological societies, or of the National Educational Association have been accepted and acted upon.- But there is need of a matured plan, a far-reaching purpose, framed on moderate and intelligent lines, by which all can work who believe in the end sought. One good step has already been taken thru the initiative of this department. Sooner or later a next step must be taken, and a next, and a next, and a next, until the grand con- summation is reached — simple phonetic spelling. Now, what shall be the next step ? Who shall determine it ? Shall it be the change of ph to f? the reduction of double consonants to one ? the omission of the final e when phonetically useless or misleading ? What it shall be is plainly a question of mere expe- diency. Who shall decide it ? Is the time ripe to inaugurate one or all of these changes ? These questions some time must be decided. Is it wise to leave them to be brought up in this department as the spirit may move a member, and let them be decided by vote according as one influence or another happens to predominate at the moment, without reference to any comprehensive plan, and without any definite knowledge as to the ripe- ness of the time ? To ask the question is to answer it. It would certainly be the part of wisdom to place this whole matter of controlling and promoting this movement for sim- plifying our spelling in the hands of a selected body of capable, trustworthy, representa- tive, earnest men, such as are nominated in this petition. The objections urged against adopting this petition may all be grouped under one head, viz.: it is not the function of the National Educational Association to espouse, much less to spend money on, any particular cause in regard to which any difference of opinion exists among its members. Now, I should like to know why it is not in keeping with the general purpose and character of the National Educational Association to put its immense influence and its wise directing hand behind this important movement and keep them there. It is as distinctly a movement in the interest of education as any that can be named. It is the interests of our children, not only of the present, but of innumerable generations to come, and of others who have to learn our language, which constitute the great argument in favor of this reform. Primarily this whole question is an educational question, and if it may not properly enlist the earnest effort and sympathy of this body and of the National Educational Asso- ciation in general, I do not know for what these organizations exist. The teachers of the country, represented by their superintendents, are the most logical element in the com- munity, not only to move in this matter of simplifying spelling, as they have done, but also to see that good and wise leadership is provided and kept at the head. Is there a cause in the line of progress and reform more appropriate for the National Educational Association to foster, a cause more fit and logical for it to spend some of its money upon ? But, it is said, the superintendents are not at one on this question, nor are the great mass of teachers. So far as the mass of teachers are concerned, they are loyal to their superintendents. Let them know where the superintendents, as a body, stand on any educational question, and you will find the teachers with them. It would be deplorable and unnatural if it were not so. So far as this body of superintendents is concerned, and also the Board of Directors, who have the final voice, the question is simply one of majority rule. Why should it not be ? Did ever any great movement for the betterment of mankind command unanimous support ? Is it reasonable to say that this organization should never actively support any measure upon which its members are not all agreed ? Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 21 3 Such a principle is un-American; it is unreasonable. It would render human progress impossible. If the influence and weight of this body of educators are never cast in support of any measure until that measure has the support of all our members, the cause of human progress and improvement will never have reason to be grateful to the National Educa- tional Association or to this department. When this body, or any other like body of sin- cere, earnest, but fallible human beings, becomes unanimous in support of any advance step, the evidence will be clear that the movement has got beyond the need of such sup- port. If a majority favors this petition, the minority ought to — and they will — acquiesce. It is absurd to ask for delay until the minority approves. Let the majority rule, and don't say it would be unwise and injudicious to adopt this petition just because we are not all agreed. The affairs of this world cannot be run on the unanimity plan. In the slang of the street, the band-wagon of progress comes along, and those who refuse to jump in are left to trudge along by themselves. Testimony and experience are all on the side of simplified spelling, both that it is feasible and that, in spite of all drawbacks, it is desirable. Not a single philologist in this country or in England can be named who is not unequivocally in favor of amending our spelling. These experts say boldly and with one voice that the science of etymology will gain more than it will lose by the adoption of phonetic spelling, and, whether this were so or not, they say, and have said for years, that our spelling can be simplified, and that it should be. On this point of etymological or historical spelling the argument is absolutely closed, as everyone must admit who is familiar with the literature on this subject for the last thirty years. Conservatism, reverence for what is old and established, was wisely made a powerful factor in human nature. I would not show it disrespect. I only insist that on this question it shall stand squarely on its own ground ; that it shall not base its oppo- sition to change in our spelling upon any false position, but solely upon the only honest ground which is left to it, viz., that our present spelling is here, we've learned it, it is ours, it should be preserved because it is established, and on this ground any change in it must be opposed. That plea we can all respect. It comes home to everyone of us. But is this plea sufficient, in the face of the enormous burden imposed by our present spelling upon every child and adult who has to learn to read and write English, to justify this body in refusing to indorse this movement and to give it the full and wise support proposed in the petition ? My faith in the humanity and strong common-sense of our superintendents and educators makes me believe that the coming vote will show that the plea of conserva- tism must give way before the command of duty, the duty to let our children share in the blessings and advantages of the progress and improvement which are so marked in every other field of our modern life. Some oppose this petition on the ground that the reform is now making progress, and that the establishment of this commission might endanger all that has been gained. I do not share any such fear. If I understand the school superintendents of this country, they believe in progress, in a wise, moderate, steady, and sound advance, in every phase of education. The action of the National Educational Association two years ago was the first practical step in leadership of this movement by an influential body. Has not the result more than justified the courage and wisdom of this department in taking that initial step at Indianapolis, instructing the Secretary in printing its proceedings to adopt such simplified spellings as might be agreed upon by Dr. Harris, Superintendent Soldan, and Superintendent Balliet ? Did any harm to the cause result from that action ? Could any larger success be asked for under all the circumstances than has followed that first step ? It shows what may be expected if a commission fairly representing the learning, the social weight, the business success, and the educational strength of the country should stand forth, at the command of the National Educational Association, as the avowed 214 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago sponsor and promoter, not of unwise and harmful agitation, but of sound, moderate, and practical steps ; of intelligent, conservative, and matured plans and policies for nourishing spelling-reform sentiment and of helping toward the end sought. Even the publication broadcast of the names of the members of this commission as standing sponsor in a defi- nite way for wise and sane efforts in favor of rational spelling would be a most worthy thing for this association to accomplish. When four years ago it was proposed to introduce that first resolution in this body, the same objections were raised as now. Friends of spelling reform advised me to desist, not to introduce the resolution. It would stir up a muss. It would do no good. It would be defeated. I would hurt the cause. Only one man knows how near that reso- lution, after being prepared, came to going into the hotel grate that February morning in 1897. It was an anxious time until by an unquestioned majority the resolution was passed and the committee was appointed. If the counsel which is so determined now had prevailed then, nothing would have been done and the encouraging progress of the last four years would not have taken place. It is not pleasant to persist in presenting and urging this matter in the face of the opposition arrayed against it. But I believe it is the duty of this body, which it owes to itself and to the children, to take hold of this movement and give it character, and stand- ing, and intelligent and wise direction. Objection is made to spending the money of the association for such a purpose. Why? The association has a fund of nearly $90,000. What was it raised for ? Who will tell ? It has come into the treasury from membership fees without any specific pur- pose. Each one has done his share in accumulating it. I think no one will question that I have done mine. What member or set of members have a right to set up their authority and pronounce this proposed appropriation as an illegitimate use or waste of the association's funds ? Clearly that money is eligible for any use which is germane to the grand purpose of this organization. What is that purpose ? The preamble to our constitution distinctly declares that object to be (I quote the words) "to promote the cause of popular education in the United States." Can any proposition now before the public be named which, if adopted, would do as much, or a tenth part as much, " to pro- mote the cause of popular education" as the simplifying of our spelling, making it con- sistent and rational ? Every man and woman here knows. that, simple and easy to learn as is our English speech, the language that we speak with the voice, our irregular and illogical spelling is a very serious and wholly needless hindrance in the way of every child or adult who undertakes to learn to read and write it. There is no educational reform or improvement that, in helpfulness for the young and in easing the process of primary education, can be compared for a moment with the rationalizing of our spelling. The National Educational Association has never spent a dollar which was spent more wisely and legitimately than would" be the money asked for in this petition. There is no cause now ripe for the attention of this department and of the National Educational Association upon which the small amount of money named could be spent more judi- ciously and effectively. But what will the commission want money for ? is asked. Consider that the men and women who have consented to act on this commission, if it is appointed, are, every- one of them, busy to the last degree with the affairs of their own office or business. If this commission is appointed, it will find work to do, you may be sure. In the nature of the case, this work will have to be done largely by correspondence. Can these members be asked to pay their own postage and stationery ? So, to start with, there is stationery to be provided, and printing, and a competent stenographer-clerk to work under the president's direction. There must be conferences and reports, etc. The sum named is very small in comparison with the work which will develop. But there is ground for hope that after the commission once gets to work, and its beneficent object becomes understood by our philanthropic millionaires, funds will come to it sufficient to enable it Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 21 5 to carry on its work efficiently. Certainly no one fears that any money appropriated for the use of this commission will be spent in junketing, or wasted in any way. In conclusion, and as a general answer to all fears and objections, let me call atten- tion to the fact that the petition to the Board of Directors does not commit the association or the commission to any particular policy or opinion whatever in regard to spelling reform or its promotion. Everything is left absolutely to the discretion of the commission. In my correspondence with them this point was made very plain. If a majority of its members should share the fear of some of our friends that any proposition for even gentle agitation now would jeopardize what has already been gained, the commission could so announce, and matters would undoubtedly remain as they are. No reformer would be so foolish as to think of urging steps which a committee of such men would not approve. If the committee should deem it best for the present to do no more than discreetly to encourage and promote the use of the changes now before the public, for one I should think it wise. In this one particular alone the commission could do very effective service for many months. These gentlemen are nominated as known and avowed friends to the cause of sim- plifying our spelling, with the expectation and understanding that they will advise and take such steps only as they think wise. If their judgment is against agitation or any other step, they will act accordingly. If they deem it wise to agitate the matter in any way, it will be their duty, and they will be expected to do so. Is there any superintendent who cannot absolutely trust such a set of men to handle this question, or who cannot agree to follow their leadership ? I move the adoption of the resolution and the petition. John MacDonald, editor of Western School Journal, Topeka, Kan. — We read that "in the beginning it was said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." A few of the brethren met in Washington in 1898 and said, "Let there be orthography," and there was orthography. By a vote of eighteen to seventeen, at a meeting of the Board of Directors, eighteen men undertook to say to 150,000,000 people how they should spell twelve English words. What effect has that attempt had upon the English-speaking world ? What effect has it had upon 76,000,000 of people in the United States ? What effect upon the American press ? The main effects seem to have been that the reform is supported by two or three educational journals. Our reforming brethren might say to the people of the United States, in the language of the Scripture : " We have piped unto you, but ye have not danced." Now it is proposed to carry the reform still farther thru the agency of a committee of prominent educators. We might meet that by saying that "great men are not always wise, neither do the aged understand judgment." It is easy to say from this platform that all the philologists are in favor of the spell- ing-reform movement, but it ought to be noted that not a single name has been given here this morning as favoring it. English orthography is assuredly the most rugged in the world, but it is the out- come of the ruggedness, character, and characteristics of the English-speaking people. I maintain that there is no demand for a reform of this kind. I am opposed to depreda- tions on the English language and hope the depredators, like him we read of in the sacred writings, may soon be "clothed and in their right minds." Principal E. B. Prettyman, of Maryland. — Every time I have seen any of the twelve amended spellings in educational journals I have been greatly annoyed. The spelling of the English language has gone on to change in a natural way. It came about thru one plain, natural law — the law of the best usage. There have been many changes since Chaucer's time, and these have come about thru the operation of this law of usage. Many changes were suggested in earlier editions of Webster's Dic- tionary, but they were not all accepted by scholars. Many were ignored by literary men and scholars, and so were finally abandoned. 2l6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago We are a great people, but we are not prepared to ignore, or to propose for reform, what the great men of England regard as good English speech. I say : Let well enough alone. Let the law work out the changes surely and beautifully, as it will do. The old rule of the best usage should continue to prevail just as it has done. President F. W. Parker, Chicago Institute. — The evidence on this question is all in, and the ridicule as well, and it is all on one side — all on the side of the child. The children should learn to read and express thought without the handicap of the abomination of desolation of our unphonetic language. The manner of spelling words is simply fashion. Fashion changes, and why should not fashion in spelling change ? This is a question of intelligent education. Thousands of dollars are spent necessarily every year in teaching children how to spell anomalous words. Think of the waste of time ! Ask the teachers and they say : "We must spend time on spelling which we should devote to more important things, as geography, history, lit- erature." There is no argument against this movement except tradition. What would it give us ? O think what it would give us in the first three years ! Give the children release from bondage ! Think of the millions who are to learn to spell the English language — the people of our new possessions ! Think of the difficulties they will confront in acquiring a mastery of our wretched orthography ! What arguments are made against this reform ? Just the argument that it is wise to stand by the old. We must bring the force of this higher educational power to bear upon this question. If we do not save the children, who will? Slosson Thompson, of the Chicago Times-Herald. — Mr. Chairman: So long as the advocates of the disfigurement of the English language confined their efforts to printing their appeals in such magazines and periodicals as had space to waste on a futile kicking against the prickles of learning, there was no need for anyone to take up the cudgels in behalf of his mother-tongue. Adopting the lofty style of the only truly great lexicographer: "Sir, the orthography of the English language needs no defense." It stands, what it is, glorious and unapproachable in its incongruity, match- less in the potency and picturesqueness of its irregularities. I revere it for its unmastered difficulties, its verbal snares and pitfalls, its inexplicable spelling, and its sweet unrea- sonableness. I love it for the enemies it has made — and overwhelmed. English is not a perfect language. Heaven preserve it from the canker of perfec- tion ! The perfect languages are all dead. Regularity and reforms killed them. The irregular, unscientific English has outstripped every other living language. It has strangled Volapuk, the ideal language of the spelling reformers, in its cradle. But when the spelling reformers ask a representative body like this to expend $5,000 upon an undertaking to which the knight-errantry of Don Quixote was sanity, it is time the common-sense of the English-speaking multitude was heard in protest. By the way, how would the spelling reformers spell Don Quixote ? I would be the last man to rob Mr. Vaile of his rattle. Let him play with it. But when he asks a body of men devoted to teaching the English language to appropriate money to introduce scientific confusion of tongues into their teaching, I submit that he is trespassing on hallowed grounds. If Mr. Vaile were an arboriculturist as he is a verbali- culturist, he would prune the beauties out of our forests, he would trim the maple and oak leaves of their distinctive glories, pluck the odd leaf from the clover and shamrock, and put every trunk, limb, and branch of nature into a plaster cast. I suppose if educated Chicago were canvassed for the one man who by inveterate instinct and perverse practice spells English most incorrectly at every opportunity, and makes opportunities where they do not occur, I should have been its first choice. For twenty-seven years of daily newspaper work my spelling has been the despair of type- setters in three cities. But in all that time — blundering along, strewing my way with the fragments of the late queen's English — will you believe it, I cannot remember now to Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 21 'J have mispelled a single one "of the words which our good friends, the reformers, would mutilate, dismember, and disembowel, to make them easier to spell and shorter to write. What does this mean ? It would seem to mean that they are crying " Reform, reform ! " where there is no demand or need for reform. Have you ever stopped to consider the task of Sisyphus these spelling reformers have set themselves ? You might as well attempt to bail Lake Michigan with a gill dipper as to try to reform the English lan- guage by dropping a few letters out of two score words in it. The attempt is as preposterous as it is unnecessary. Let us consider the English tongue, which today is the noblest heritage of over 130,000,000 people. It is the most wonderful conglomeration that was ever evolved from the confusion that befell the build- ers of the tower of Babel. The mixture of blood in the race that is being assimilated in the schools and workshops of this land comes from a few sources compared with the multiplicity of sources from which the spoken and written language of that race is derived. The language is so tenacious of what it has once fairly taken into its maw that it is not safe to write " obsolete " against any word once in familiar use. Naturally a language so varied in its derivation, so flexible in its structure, so irregular and inexplicable in its idioms, abounds in words and phrases that are the joy of its possessors and the despair of philologers and professors. The latter have been trying to reform the life and letters out of the English tongue ever since it was recognized as such. It has never suited the scientific grammarians and philosophers. How do you explain the phenomenon that you cannot find a master of the English language in the ranks of the spelling reformers ? Scores of philologists rail against it ; not one great writer complains. I account for it on the theory that the good workman seldom finds fault with his tools. From Chaucer, an infamous speller, and Shakespeare, who could not spell his own name twice alike consecutively, and Milton, who could not see whether his daughter spelled "though" with a silent terminal or not, down to Rudyard Kipling and Robert Louis Stevenson, who ever heard a great writer thinking or caring whether his printer spelled " program " in long or short meter ? But there is a serious side to this subject which the spelling reformers in their per- sonal arrogance might well pause to consider. What right have they, in order to effect what must be at best a questionable reform, to attempt to break down the uniformity of printed English literature ? What compensation do they offer for the confusion of spell- ing which they would introduce into the books of 130,000,000 people ? I am inclined to say: Blessed are the dead languages, for their reformers are also dead. They at least are beyond the reach of the pride of personal conceit that would advocate lighting daylight with electricity because the sunlight causes a few weak eyes to blink. We who have lived long enough to observe the effect have seen no compensating advantage from the reform in spelling words like "honor," "labor," etc., without the «. For many years its sole result was the difference between the typography of books printed in England and America. There is a disposition now to revert to the original form in books printed for sale in both countries. Philology and reason were behind the change, but the genius of our glorious language revolts at reason and resents any reform that robs it of any of its idiosyncrasies. Do you want to know why the work of spelling reformers will prove vain ? It robs the printed language of ingrain dignity of form, and gives to it the ludicrous appearance of a stump-tailed fox. In the current phrase of the street, the spelling reformer makes good old English words like " though," " through," " thought," and even the Greek derivative "programme," look like "thirty cents." There is a beauty in the mere form of old familiar words that should be sacred from the reforming iconoclast. Language is a growth which no art can improve upon. The philologists have never added a single familiar word to the language. Why should they be permitted to "monkey" with it ? What the varied forms of molding, pillars, windows, arches, caps, and cornices, and above all proportion, are to architecture, the forms of certain words have become to 2l8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago printed English. Let me illustrate. You all know the thirteenth chapter of First Corin- thians : i. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal. 2. And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge ; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. 3. And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing. I need read no more. You know how disastrous has been the attempt to substitute the word "love" for "charity" in this passage. Let the reformers have their way with spelling the word "though," let them spell "prophecy" with an/, and the offense to the eye would be almost as great as was revision of " charity " to the ear and heart of every lover of English literature. The spelling reformers of today have not the plea of discovery or invention to offer for their crusade. Artemus Ward, Orphus C. Kerr, Josh Billings, and Petroleum B. Nasby took phonetic liberties with the English tongue, besides which their tentative reforms are like glow-worms to the blazing sun. These truly clever professors of sloth and illiteracy had the courage of their calling. They knew that the road to literary fame and fortune by the beaten road of original thought and verbal distinction was a long and hard one- to travel. They realized that bad spelling was the protest of the multitude against the superior attainments of the industrious few, and therefore they adopted the system of our friends, the spelling reformers, as their short-cut to the hearts and dollars of their countrymen. But do not conclude that A. Ward, Office Seeker, Billings, and Nasby were the original spelling reformers. The species has flourished in every age, since illiteracy provided an easy and humorous foil to learning. Shakespeare and the dramatists of his time showed themselves masters of the phonetic trick three hundred years before Artemus Ward con- vulsed two nations by spelling "before" with a letter and a figure. What we need is not a reform in the spelling of the English tongue, but a reaction against the ghastly failure to teach spelling in our schools at all. I was going to say a reform in the method of teaching spelling in our schools. But, thanks to the professors, they have no methods. Our children are no longer taught to spell. They visualize words. That is to say, they do not spell cat c-a-t, or dog d-o-g. They see the word written on the blackboard, and are told to associate it with the animal it represents. Of course, there is not the faintest suggestion of a dog or a cat in the form of the written word. So when your daughter comes to write "the cat killed the rat," you are in luck if she does not write, "the cow licked the can." When this visualization gets beyond simple objects it is necessarily absolutely and hopelessly at sea. Last summer my little girl of nine years, writing from the Massachusetts coast, wrote, " the tid was firy lo," and also that " the water was firy kol." She had her own system of phonetic spelling. She composes with natural facility, and her letters are a joy to all her grown-up correspondents. But they are making her mother gray before her time. Now, spelling, as taught in our public schools, is an attempt to revert to the Egyptian system of hieroglyphics. It would make bricks without straw — words without letters. It does not make each word consist of so many movable characters, but seeks to make each word a symbol. In this way our children are being taught by the Chinese method which requires a sign for every word. A printing establishment in China has to have fonts containing thousands of separate and distinct characters, where the American com- positor can set up hundreds of thousands of words from a single font of type containing only the twenty-six letters of the alphabet. This is the system which the visualists are forcing upon the innocent but doomed children of Chicago. They are seeking to make them fill their little minds with the association of ideas between printed words and myriads of objects, or ideas, for which they stand. Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 2ig Let me put this indictment of a monstrous system more plainly. Spelling by the visualizing method requires the child to identify arbitrary signs for innumerable things. Spelling by the system of our fathers required us to know only twenty-six arbitrary signs by which we can construct the names of everything in heaven above and in earth beneath and in the water under the earth. Professor Clark, of the Northwestern University, recently gave an account of the failure of a class of 191 to pass an examination in spelling 150 ordinary words. He pro- duced the list in proof that the words were in ordinary use. I have tried it on several of my acquaintances of the generation which learned spelling and also definition from the old-fashioned spelling-book. Not one of them stumbled over more than five words, and one of these was " Philippine," which is a trick word. And yet 153 of that class of 191 fresh from their studies failed to pass the examination, notwithstanding there was an allowance of twenty errors per paper. One of the graduates of the modern system ol spelling without letters incorrectly " visualized "77 words out of 150. The man who first invented and went about advising "visualization" ought to be indicted for larceny of the first principle of education. Verbal and literal iteration — that alone can store the memory with indelible and instantly available impressions. But, gentlemen, spelling reformers are humbugs. What they propose is not reform. It is mere freak abbreviation. Take, for instance, the twelve words which the National Educational Association indorsed as a feeler three years ago : program, tho, altho, thoro, thorofare, thru, thruout, catalog, prolog, decalog, demagog, pedagog. There is not an idea of reform or genuine simplification in one of these. Many of them have been used time out of mind with the apostrophe. The reformers are fond of telling the story of the man who said he never really understood the meanness of the term "demagogue" until he saw it spelled without the final ue. That man had a latent sense of the true dignity of words, and the reformer who first invented the story was so intent on his little point that he did not appreciate how the same abbreviation in spelling made catalog, prolog, decalog, and pedagog look like so many bumps on a log, or, to speak more accurately, like so many kites without tails. They are rudderless words, without pride of ancestry or dignity of form. In at least two of the words mentioned above the reformers have not followed their own pretense of spelling phonetically, since th-o-r-o does not spell thorough, and th-o-r-o-f-a-r-e does not spell thoroughfare. But what impression has spelling reform made on English during the past twenty years ? I leave it to you to say whether you believe the dent is any deeper now than it was when that March hare from Lafayette started the raid to make a printed page of English look like a bad case of delirium tremens superinduced by an overdose of gin fizzes of Efs and Jays and Zees. Today, thank heaven, the English language is flourishing like an ever-green bay tree. The new International Dictionary, made necessary after only ten years since the preced- ing revision, claims to have 25,000 additional words. It is still the standard American dictionary in court and counting-room. It still adheres to the correct principle of dictionary-making, and gives the language as it is, and not as this or that spelling deformer would make it. To teach the language as it is, I take it, is the simple, plain duty of the public schools of America. No matter how we may individually think it should be spelled, we must accept spelling, backed as it is by tradition, by growth, by history, by etymology, and by the printed literature of the two great branches of the Anglo-Saxon race in a multitude of books no man can number. It is downright profanation to think of making old junk of printed English books since the days of Edmund Spenser. We must adhere to a single common standard in spelling as in money and morals. It is your duty to set your faces like flint against the attempt to scatter the seeds of con- fusion in the spelling-books of the republic. Reform the methods of teaching spelling ; 220 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago they cry aloud for your immediate and prayerful attention ; but say " hands off" the uni- versally accepted spelling of English. My last word to you, whether it refer to reading, writing, ciphering, or spelling, is to stand fast by the old ways which have never failed, and to shun new and scientific nos- trums in education as you would the foul fiend who would lead the children committed to you thru flowery fields of dalliance to ignorance and destruction. Mere memory without understanding is nought. But understanding without a more or less full and accurately stored memory is ignorance. As for the English language — it is all right. By reason of its strength, its flexi- bility, its directness, its copiousness, its nobility, and its irregularity, it stands without a peer among the languages of the living. It has a literature that not only surpasses the literature of any other language living or dead, but it surpasses them all, for it practically comprehends them all. The work of the philologist is to trace the ancestry of words back to their roots. It has never given a single green twig or shoot to language. It multi- plies books and not literature. Skeats, the greatest of the philologists, acknowledges that " the speech of man is in fact influenced by physical laws, or, in other words, by the working of divine power." I know not how that may be, but, tho doubtless the philologists and spelling reformers might have produced a better language than English, doubtless they never have and never will. Superintendent Joseph Carter, Champaign, 111. — The power of the English language lies in the thought and the ease of its utterance, and not in its execrable orthog- raphy. It is because of the tongue, not because of the monstrosities of the spelling, that it is a powerful instrument. I have had difficulty with spelling so much that I have had to carry a dictionary in my satchel for recourse in my correspondence. I have had to waste time and life because of this difficulty. I have spent more time in learning to spell than I have to get rich. We do have the pupils visualize — but we also have them spell in the old-fashioned way. We do not know how many are killed in going thru the trying ordeal of learning to spell, but we want to spare the killing of the millions who are coming. We must think of the children. We are not thinking of what the editors say. We must think of relieving the children of the drudgery of mastering this spelling. This reform would save the children so much that we must urge it. Dr. E. E. White. — There should be a complete separation of this question. The question of spelling reform and the proposition to appoint a commission by the National Educational Association for the furtherance of that reform are two very different ques- tions ; the second is the real question before us. Spelling reform has been a disappointment to its friends. It has gone on very slowly. Notwithstanding the approval of it on the part of philologists and philological societies, they have not shown zeal enough to put their hands in their pockets to give it substantial support. What does this mean, if not that they do not see how it can be effected ? There is evidently little faith in its triumph. The Board of Directors of the National Educational Association at Washington in 1898 by a vote of eighteen to seventeen authorized a change in the spelling of twelve words in the printed proceedings of this department. This action was heralded as the action of the National Educational Association. The question was never before that body, and the Board of Directors had no authority to speak for the association on such a question. Its action was limited to the publishing of its proceedings. We are asked to take this action in behalf of the children, but in their interest I object to such an increase in the spelling burden. The children are not to be helped by a change in our orthography, for a change in the spelling of 40 to 100 words will add that many additional new spellings for the children of this and the next generation to learn. Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING Even the teachers must know the standard spelling as well as the new, especially when they come to make application for places. Every new spelling authorized adds to the task of learning to spell, and so the burden is not to be lifted in this way. The children are obliged to learn to spell English words as they are now written. It will take one hundred years to change the spelling of as many words, so that the new spelling will take the place of the old in English literature. This is not a proper work for this association. It is not its function. Spelling reform is not a definite and clear means of promoting popular education, as already shown. This National Educational Association should be kept free from the responsi- bility and annoyance of a commission reporting changes in spelling from year to year. The funds of the association should not be used to promote such a reform. Let it be left to the philological and spelling-reform societies in this country and Great Britain. Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O. — My name was placed on this com- mittee with my consent, but I came to this meeting with no enthusiasm for this move- ment. Since hearing the lack of argument upon the other side, I am heartily in favor of it. Superintendent Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y. — At the Washington meeting, when this question came up, I was one of the seventeen to vote against the reform. I am still opposed to it. An arithmetician has figured out that it would take 25,000 years to bring about the assimilation of the twelve amended spellings into our language. Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education.1 — One of the gentlemen who have spoken this morning has stated that the spelling reform dates back twenty-five or thirty years in this country. He refers to the movement as initiated by the action of the Philological Association of Great Britain and the indorsement of its action by the Philological Association in America — the spelling reform itself is twice as old. It originated chiefly in the work of Alexander J. Ellis, who was a scholar of Trinity College in Cambridge in the thirties and forties of the last century. It was his sound advice and deep skill in phonetics that Isaac Pitman made use of in the invention of phonography — the first great system of shorthand writing, which has come into use among the reporters of the English language everywhere. Mr. Ellis was greatly interested in discovering the history of the changes in pronunciation in the English language, and he saw quite clearly that if the nation used a phonetic alphabet it would photo- graph from one generation to another the status of pronunciation and enable the future scholar to trace the laws of change which prevail in orthoepy. Some time between 1840 and 1850 Mr. Ellis published a pamphlet under the title of A Plea for Phonotypy, by far the ablest document that has urged a reform in spelling of the English language. Mr. Ellis' final great work in his specialty, which has assisted the students' of English more than any other great work ever written, is a treatise on early English pronunciation, with a special reference to Shakespeare and Chaucer. The five volumes of this remarkable work bring together into one focus nearly all that has ever been taught or written that will throw any light on the ancient pronunciation and its progressive changes. The first volume of this work did not appear before 1869. The great scholars, such as Sweet, now professor in Oxford and author of many books on the dialectic varieties of English ; Alexander Melville Bell, the author of Visible Speech and another able advocate of reformed spelling, who attempted to form an alphabet of signs which suggest in themselves the vocal organs used in the utterance of the sounds represented, whose alphabet, slightly modified, has been adopted by Sweet and is used in all the universities where a scientific study is made of the elementary sounds of languages 1 Revised and extended by the author. 222 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago and their alphabetical representation ; J. A. H. Murray, of Oxford University, the editor of the great dictionary of the English language, and indeed the great dictionary of the world, for that matter, because it contains the results of the labors of three thousand Eng- lish scholars who have divided up the literature of the language and read all of its classical writings and brought together their results in such a way as to show the history of the first appearance and all subsequent changes of each word in the language ; these men and their disciples all gladly acknowledge a great debt to Alexander J. Ellis. Speaking of the date of the beginning of the spelling reform, upon reflection I see that it is fully fifty years since I began to be interested in it, having in 1851, thru the study of phonography, become interested, also in phonotypy thru A. J. Ellis' plea for it. I had great hopes from 1850 up to the time of our Civil War to see a general adoption of a reformed alphabet, each letter of which should represent only one sound, and which should contain a character for each sound in the English language. I have learned much since then, and know how difficult it is to make a change in any institution or usage which affects the population as a whole. I might add that the Anglo- Saxon population is the most conservative of all populations, because the genius of its government is that of compromise and that of foundation upon established usage without reference to logical arrangement or complete reasonableness. The constitution of Great Britain is a collection of established usages, each one representing the result at which two opposing parties compromised their extreme views and adopted a mixed view, not quite one thing or quite the other. It is not a theoretical constitution reasoned out and adopted by a people, but only a system of special rights and privileges fixed by compromise between two stubborn opposing interests. It is clear that a people whose local self-government depends upon the sacred observance of laws more or less irrational and contradictory, and made harmonious only by hundreds of years of supreme (or highest) court decisions, has acquired the habit of mind of respecting peculiarities of all kinds, not merely of law, but also of personal habits, and also of methods of writing and spelling the words of one's language. The philologists have long since proved that the peculiarities of English spelling do more to mislead than to aid one who investigates the derivation of words. The difficulties in the English spelling trace back to the patchwork of the Norman scribes, and then later on to the whimsical ignorance of men in the time of Samuel Johnson,who supposed that they knew the etymology of the words that they were using, but were mistaken, as scholars had been in the case of the word island, which in the sixteenth century (a century before Johnson) began to be spelled with an s, on the theory that it was derived from the Latin word insula, and that it was a compound word containing the French word tie or isle and land, whereas the old middle English word Hand or ealand was composed of the word land and the prefix ea, signifying "water" or "river." Murray's English dictionary enables each student to find the results of the history of English words, both as to pronunciation and derivation, arranged conveniently under each word. I remember my astonishment year before last when I found in one of the works of Professor Sweet the fact stated that the common pronunciation of the word children is chooldren, the ild being pronounced as if spelled with the 00 sounded as in the word "foot." I was astonished at this, because this was in my youth the-general pronun- ciation among the farmers of New England. It seems that their ancestors had brought this pronunciation from England, and that it still exists as common among the English dialects. The past summer I was traveling in Suffolk, in a part of England belonging with Norfolk to East Anglia. It was the place that sent most immigrants to Massachusetts from 1630 to 1680. I was surprised to find my Connecticut pronunciation of u after r still in use among the common people in that part of the country south of Norwich and not far from Ipswich. As a boy I pronounced true and fruit, not with the sound of 00 as in "food," but with the sound of u as in " pew," " endure," "sue." Long ago I Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 223 had been taught by teachers to change my pronunciation, but I remember once when visiting Harvard College making the observation that the majority of the tutors and under-professors, who came from the rural regions of New England and were not born in Boston, pronounced in conversation the w-sound in such words as " truth," not as 00 in " soon," but as a diphthong or glide from the sound of i in " it " to the sound of 00 in " foot," just as I did. In my visit to Suffolk county last summer I learned the reason for it. The people of the rural regions of a country retain from one generation to another, without much change, the pronunciation of their forefathers. Whereas the prevailing English uses a .y-sound with an 00-sound following it, pronouncing "due" almost as if it was spelled joo, yet in East Anglia and wherever in America the population is from rural New England this *w/-sound of u is preserved, notwithstanding the fight of the teacher against this usage. I have repeated these trifling circumstances in order to indicate the direction in which the labor of the English philologists who favor spelling reform is of great service in throwing light upon the English speech as it is written and spoken. I always wish to say a word for the great dictionary of Murray, which gives to our scholars, and to the scholars of every remote country where English is spoken, the ability to see as in a mirror the English language in its entire history. I have gone into these particulars also in order to intimate, in what I trust is a polite and acceptable manner, that those who object to spelling reform from a scholarly stand- point may be justly charged with some defect in their scholarship, and that they do not know the present situation of English philology. I do not hesitate to repeat on all occasions that I am, and have been, a believer in the desirability of effecting a reform in the spelling of English. But I do not believe that this can be done by the intense zeal of a few individuals, or even of a considerable class of people, such, for instance, as compose this association. I do believe that the unreasonable conservatism which widely prevails among the opponents of spelling reform can be undermined only by a gradual process, and that this association, in adopting a dozen simplified spellings, has taken a wise measure. Once habituated to the idea of reforming or simplifying our spelling, the mass of the population, in the next generation will be ready to make radical changes, whereas, if radical changes are attempted now, the conservative people will combine in self-defense, and shut the door against any semblance of change. This is a case where a thin wedge is needed, and where it is wisest to make as little agitation as possible. Hence, when my committee recommended, a couple of years ago, the list of twelve words — which, by the way, I obtained from my friend, Mr. Vaile — we hoped that the changes would be used in the publication of the proceedings of this association, and that as little as possible would be said about it. We did not approve of Secretary Shepard's action in printing the list of words and sending it out to the public press thru the eountry, because we knew that it would cause a reaction. At the Washington meeting we had a fight in the Board of Directors over the rule, and it was confirmed, as has already been stated here, by a vote of eighteen to seventeen. I shall not be surprised at all if a vote next summer reverses the whole matter by a vote of two to one. We thought, however, that we could hold the thin wedge where it is, if we said as little about it as possible and fought for the reten- tion of the small list of words that we had simplified. The next generation will become familiar with the work of simplifying the alphabet, and will demand and secure radical reforms ; at least this is what we hope. But we must not forget, any of us, that this is a National Educational Association, and that spelling reform, or temperance reform, or religious reform, or moral reform, is not the special object of this association. Our object is reform in school methods, namely, methods of instruction, methods of discipline, methods of organization, and methods of management. If our association becomes a spelling-reform association, another one specially devoted to school reform will become necessary. I am not in 224 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago favor even of the thin wedge which we adopted two years ago, if that is to be a cause of new struggles and ever-recurring discussions of the subject. I have already presented my views in correspondence with my friend, Mr. Vaile, on this point. I honor and respect Mr. Vaile for his unselfish and persistent advocacy of the spelling reform, but I certainly think that his movement is ill-timed and worse than useless as an aid or help to spelling reform. It will produce reaction and stir up feel- ings and sentiments in the matter where we ought to have only clear reasons and a judicial frame of mind. I am therefore opposed to the resolutions which he offers in detail and as a whole. Mr. Vaile and Colonel Parker have stated here that this reform is entirely in the line with the regular work of this association, but they do not show how it is related to the work of instruction or the work of discipline, or of organization and management. They certainly would not suppose that the teacher can introduce spelling reform into his school without the permission of his school committee, or that the school committee can do it without the countenance and support of the entire English-speaking people. It cannot, therefore, be a matter which relates directly to education in the schools. It can in no sense be accomplished by a few individuals, or even by a large association. One cannot take up this reform and carry it on alone. By attempting to do this he will simply make himself disagreeable to his fellow-men. He will be disagreeable because he will neglect the concrete and manifold interests of society and thrust unduly forward one simple interest, one reform out of an infinite number of possible reforms which ought to be secured. The spelling reform is, therefore, not a reform which can be secured by this National Educational Association, and those who favor the adoption of the resolution in question will, if successful, simply turn the work of the association out of its regular course into that of a spelling-reform association, and will divide the mem- bers of our association into two opposing camps on a question which does not relate directly or indirectly to instruction or discipline in the schools. Mr. Vaile, in closing the discussion,1 regretted that the responsibility of the closing address did not rest on other and abler shoulders, especially as he had to oppose his friend, Dr. Harris, with whom now for the first time in his life he found himself in opposi- tion. He was astonished at Dr. Harris' attitude on the matter under debate. He recog- nized the doctor's great influence in the association, but he hoped that at least the younger men would be independent and vote according to their own judgment. Then, directly addressing Mr. Thompson, Mr. Vaile said : I understand you, sir, to say in effect that a master of the English language cannot be found in the ranks of spelling reformers. Did I correctly understand you ? (The gentleman arose from his seat and admitted that he had so stated.) Mr. Vaile. — Do you admifthat Alfred Tennyson was a master of the English lan- guage or contributed anything of value to English literature ? Mr. Thompson. — Why, yes. Mr. Vaile. — Mr. Tennyson was a vice-president of an English spelling-reform association. Do you admit that Charles Darwin was a master of English or contributed anything of value to literature ? Mr. Thompson. — Yes, to the literature of science. Mr. Vaile. — Very well. Mr. Darwin was also a vice-president of an English spelling- reform association. Do you admit that William Dean Howells ever contributed anything of value to English literature ? Mr. Thompson. — I should like to discuss Howells with you. Mr. Vaile. — That is neither here nor there. What do you answer to the question ? Mr. Howells is, or at least was a few years ago, a vice-president of a spelling-reform league in the city of New York, and felt inclined to accept a place on the commission ' Revised and extended by the author upon receipt of a copy of the foregoing discussion. Superintendence] SIMPLIFIED SPELLING 225 named in this petition, but finally decided that he could not. Brander Matthews and Edward Eggleston are, or were, vice-presidents of that same New York spelling-reform society. The gentleman can hardly help allowing some mastery of English to William E. Gladstone, Herbert Spencer, and Charles Sumner. Every one of these men, not to mention others of eminence, is on record as an outspoken believer in spelling reform. Dr. White wants to know why I and other advocates of phonetic spelling do not adopt it. Look at the unfairness of the argument. I am dependent, like every other publisher or editor, upon my business for my living. I believe thoroly in simplified spelling for the sake of the children and the teachers. I use as much of it now, and have for years, as I dare to in my papers. Is it fair to ask me to run my head against the wall of prejudice on this subject which still exists, and which Dr. White personally exhibits and encourages, and thus to deprive myself and family of bread and butter ? Is it just, is it reasonable, for Dr. White to raise such an argument against this movement ? He finds fault with the philologists because they do not push the reform themselves. The philologists are active in supporting the cause of simplified spelling. Max Miiller declared his conviction that it is the duty of scholars and philosophers not to shrink from holding and expressing what men of the world call Quixotic opinions on this subject. He says : " I feel convinced that practical reformers should never slumber nor sleep. They should repeat the same thing over and over again, undismayed by indifference, ridicule, con- tempt, and all the other weapons which the lazy world knows so well how to employ against those who venture to disturb its peace." The literature of the last thirty years shows that philologists have done their duty in this direction. The charge has been made that reformed spelling is losing ground ; that reversion to former spellings is taking place. That is a mistake. A few publishers are so eager to cultivate a market for their books in Canada and England that they ignore the American public and American preference in this matter, and cater to British prejudice. Think of it! The irony of it! Dr. Harris, a devoted and lifelong advocate of simplified spelling, is compelled by the publishers of the excellent " International Education " series, of which he is the editor, to put the long-discarded u back into " color," " favor," etc. There is no reaction against simplifying our spelling. It is only the work of two American publishers who are willing for a very slight and doubtful compensation to take a backward step at the expense, so far as their influence goes, of the American people and of American children. Dr. Harris maintains that this is not a proper matter for this department or for the National Educational Association to take hold of ; that it is not an educational question ; that it is merely a side issue. If the removal of obstacles and hindrances from the path- way of the children in learning to read is not an educational question in the broad sense, what is it? If it does not tend "to promote the cause of popular education" — the very purpose of the National Educational Association, as declared in its constitution — what would promote that end ? For Dr. Harris to take such a position is inexplicable. He holds the office of Commissioner of Education of the United States. As such he disburses a certain amount of the nation's money, and for what purpose ? What is the object of his office ? Clearly it is to promote popular education, the same as the declared object of this association. Has Dr. Harris the right to use his office or the money of his bureau for any other purpose ? Clearly he has not. And yet, among the " Circulars of Information " which he issues as Commissioner of Education is a large and most excellent pamphlet on reformed spelling. If the simplifying of spelling is not an educational question, if in itself it does not promote popular education, what right has Dr. Harris to spend the money of his bureau in getting out such a pamphlet ? I might just as fairly censure him for abusing his office and misusing public funds as for him to stand on this platform and condemn my proposition as an illegitimate matter for this organization to take hold of and encourage. 226 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Nobody wants to see this association become a spelling-reform society, and there is no danger of its becoming such. But this association owes it to itself and to the children of this and all coming generations to do what it can consistently to encourage and pro- mote the simplification of our spelling. In the way I propose it can exert its powerful influence and not divert itself in the least from its true function. Dr. Harris digs deep, in his usual way, to find in the peculiarities of Anglo-Saxon character a powerful reason why prejudice against changing and simplifying our spelling must be respected. He overlooks two important points: (i) While the Anglo-Saxon is conservative, he respects consistency and right ; he is resolute and determined when his face is once set, whether toward reform or any other goal ; he is quick to adjust himself to new conditions when he sees their advantage. The progress and improvements of the century are due to the Anglo-Saxon. It is amazing that he has not yet waked up to the need of progress and improvement in his written speech. (2) The doctor takes no account of the influence of English spelling on English character. His philosophy can hardly deny that the inconsistencies which are so indelibly impressed on the child in his early school years serve to weaken his appreciation and reverence for logic and reason. Max Miiller forcibly reverses Dr. Harris in this way : What, however, is even more serious than all this is not the great waste of time in learning to read, and the almost complete failure in national education, but the actual mischief done by subjecting young minds to the illogical and tedious drudgery of learning to read English as spelled at present. Everything they have to learn in reading (or pronunciation) and spelling is irrational; one rule contradicts the other, and each state- ment has to be accepted simply on authority, and with a complete disregard of all those rational instincts which lie dormant in the child and which ought to be awakened by every kind of healthy exercise. I know there are persons who can defend anything, and who hold that it is due to this very discipline that the English character is what it is; that it retains respect for authority; that it does not require a reason for everything; and that it does not admit that what is inconceivable is therefore impossible. Even English orthodoxy has been traced back to that hidden source, because a child accustomed to believe that t-h-o-u-g-h is tho, and that t-h-r-o-u-g-h is throo, would afterwards believe anything. It maybe so; still I doubt whether even such objects would justify such means. Dr. Harris does not believe that a reform in spelling can be effected by the intense zeal of a few persons or of a large organization. Who does believe it ? Is not the whole tenor of my address in perfect accord with his opinion ? This whole effort is to control and harness intense zeal and help it to work along moderate and sensible lines. Does anyone discover any " intense zeal " in the personnel of the commission as named ? It may be that two or three of them might come under that description, but certainly wise moderation and good sense characterize every person named in that list. Not one of them would think of proposing radical changes now. But while even this association cannot of itself establish simplified spelling, it can do an immense deal toward spreading information and developing sentiment favorable to it. That is the purpose of this com- mission. In spite of all denials and explanations, Dr. Harris unaccountably persists in seeing in this commission only an agent for offensive and aggressive agitation. He does injustice to the men who have consented to act upon it. They all believe in the thin wedge just as much as he does. But of what service is even a thin wedge if no force whatever is applied to it ? One object of this commission, its great object, will be to watch the wedge and to apply force in just such degree and time as may be clearly wise. In that is there any danger of provoking reaction and stirring up resentful feelings among us? It seems to me that the doctor has gone too far in his loss of faith in the common-sense of the people and in his timidity on this question. Some sinister influence seems to have hold of him. Twenty years ago he did not talk this way. One of the great results, if not the greatest, to be gained by the appointment of this commission would be the publishing of the important fact that Dr. Harris, the eminent, revered United States Commissioner of Education, and a host of scholars and educators with him, are in favor of simplifying our spelling. What proportion of our people today, outside of school circles, know that Dr. Harris is a spelling reformer ? The number is very small indeed. I wonder if a large proportion of this audience was not surprised Superintendence] WORK OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 227 when they read the list of persons consenting to act on this commission. Information like this is potent in breaking down prejudice and in vitalizing reform sentiment. But this information cannot be .spread by suppressing it. I believe thoroly in discretion, and I feel that my proposition is wise and discreet. Am I mistaken ? The people need light on this subject and encouragement. How shall we get it to them without arousing antagonism ? Is not the plan under consideration a good one ? What bitterness could be created by any action which a majority of such a body of men would take ? It does not seem to me possible that the Board of Directors can take any such step next summer as the doctor seems to anticipate. Nothing has been done to warrant it. It is clear that such action can prevail only by Dr. Harris' encouragement and sup- port. Some superintendents and some school boards have allowed their schools the option of using the long or the short form in the spelling of the twelve words. Is there anything harmful or unreasonable in this ? I sincerely trust the doctor will not encour- age any movement to reverse a step which has already produced such good results. I earnestly hope that this petition will be approved and sent to the Board of Directors. Its purpose is to remove this question wholly from the arena of debate in this body and put it where it will be wisely and purposefully cared for, and where the directing and promoting power of the educators of the land will be unequivocally behind it. It is the sacred duty of the educational body to take hold of this matter. I move the adoption of the resolution. THE PAST AND THE FUTURE WORK OF THE DEPART- MENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE JAMES M. GREENWOOD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. The National Superintendents' Department was organized in 1865, and it is the oldest of the eighteen departments, but it was followed immediately by the organization of the Normal Department. Prior to 1870 all educational topics presented in these two departments were dis- cussed before the whole association. From 1857 to 1870 the name of the general association as an educational body was the National Teachers' Association. At the Cleveland meeting in 1870 it was changed to the National Educational Association. As at first constituted, it was an iron- clad organization. The first constitution of the National Teachers' Association, Art. II — Membership, reads as follows : Any gentleman who is regularly occupied in teaching in a public or private elemen- tary school, college, or university, or who is regularly employed as private tutor, as an editor of an educational journal, or as superintendent of schools, shall be eligible to membership. Ladies engaged in teaching may, upon recommendation of the Board of Directors, become honorary members, and shall possess the right to present in the form of written essays (to be read by the Secretary or any other member whom they may select) their views upon the subject assigned for discussion. In the amended constitution of 1870, Art. Ill — Membership, sec. 1 begins : Any person in any way connected with the work of education shall be eligible to membership. Such person may become a member of this association by paying two dollars and signing this constitution. 228 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The following list of subjects and the number of papers in each, omit- ting discussions, will give a good idea of the character and scope of work that has been done in this department : Papers 1. American Education 4 2. Civil Service in Public Schools ...... 2 3. Cost of Maintaining Schools ....... 3 4. Colleges and Universities ....... n 5. County Supervision and Rural Schools - - - - - - 16 6. Compulsory Education ........ 5 7. Criticisms of Public Schools --------3 8. Child Study 6 9. Courses of Study and Methods of Instruction .... 5 10. Drawing and Art --------- 4 11. Education and Census Reports - - - - - - - 3 12. Education in Alaska and among the Indians .... 7 13. Education in Foreign Countries ....... 10 14. Education of Dependent and Incorrigible Children - t - 3 15. Elementary Schools - - - - - - - - - 16 16. Grading and Promoting Pupils - - - - - - - 10 17. High Schools 10 18. Individualism in Mass Education 4 19. Kindergarten Education ----.-..5 20. Moral Education -.-...,... 4 21. Manual Training - - - - - - - - - -18 22. National Bureau of Education ------- 6 23. National Aid to Education -------- 22 24. National System of Schools ....... 15 25. Normal and Training Schools - - - - - - -11 26. Primary Education --------- 4 27. Psychology and Pedagogy -------.5 28. Qualifications of Principals and Teachers - - - - - 6 29. Reading Circles 5 30. Supervision of City Schools ------- 26 31. School Organization and Territorial Units - .... 7 32. School Statistics - -' 12 33. Schoolhouses and School Sanitation 13 34. School Boards, School Organization, and Administration - - 8 35. The Alphabet, Spelling, and Reading ------ 7 36. Teachers and Teaching -------- 9 37. The South, and Her Educational Problems 15 38. The World's Columbian Exposition 3 39. Teaching English and Literature ...... 7 40. The Library and the Public Schools ------ 2 41. Technical and Special Lines of Education - - - - - 12 42. Withdrawal of Pupils from School - I Total 345 Some of these subjects, it will be observed, never possessed any very great interest, either local or general, while others again have occupied a large sphere of the educational thought of this country. For instance, the discussion of manual training, which ran thru a period of eighteen Superintendence] WORK OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 229 years, containing eighteen set papers, besides voluminous discussions and suggestions, forms one of the most complete treatises on that subject, from a pedagogical standpoint, that have appeared in print. Another very important subject that has received very full treatment is the supervision of city schools, beginning in 1868 and still continuing, having covered a period of thirty-one years. It is presented in twenty-six different papers, a number of them of very great value. Could these papers and discussions be bound into a volume for the use of town, county, and city superintendents, it would be an invaluable contribution to the pedagogic literature of this country. Such a treatise is greatly needed, since we have nothing approaching a standard work on this sub- ject. Nearly every imaginable phase of the subject is herein treated with great fullness. I hope the Board of Trustees of the National Educational Association will take action upon this matter at an early date, authorizing the publica- tion of such a volume. The discussion of elementary schools, covering a period of sixteen years, is another contribution well worthy of publication. It has received the attention its importance demanded, and yet the last word has not been spoken upon courses of study, methods of instruction, or the tax- paying power of a community. Sixteen papers have been formally pre- sented and discussed by a strong array of teaching talent. It is one of the subjects at present still requiring further consideration. In the words of President Garfield: "When an elementary course is spread out too much it becomes exceedingly thin." The thickening and thinning processes are with us now. County supervision and rural schools first came on the program in 1868, and continued till 1896. Sixteen different papers contain what has been advanced upon this topic. This field of work has been well mapped out, but leaving much to be done along the lines of modifying courses of study in rural schools, the consolidation of school districts, massing pupils in public schools in the sparsely settled communities by convey- ing them from remote distances to the schoolhouses at public expense, and the establishment of township high schools. While these questions have been thoughtfully considered in some localities, they are destined in the near future to come more prominently before the public for discussion and action. Already some of them have passed into the realm of business economy and common-sense. National aid to education from 1872 to 1890 was continually in the foreground. The subject was one of great historic interest, and occupied a much wider range in discussion than some other questions of more vital importance. As a matter of history, illustrating one phase of educational thought, the discussion possesses now a permanent value, owing to the iegal issues involved. The condition which produced it having passed 230 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago away, it may be assigned to the realm of dead issues, liable, however, to be resurrected under some other, and unlooked-for, form. Colleges and universities, by virtue of their character and great educa- tional value, have ever held a prominent place in the department. Some of the ablest men in the nation have contributed very scholarly articles, and the discussion now going on presents new and unexpected phases each year. The transformations have been so rapidly pushed forward during the last two decades in college and university work that, com- pared with the former conservatism which had prevailed, it seems almost revolutionary to many, particularly in regard to elective courses and major and minor subjects for graduation and degrees. A strong reaction in some quarters is beginning to set in, and further concessions in the direction of conservatism will probably be made. College work, however, has been more sharply cut out from university work, and yet the line is a wavy one even on paper. The indications now are that each kind of institution will settle down into its own legitimate sphere, and neither will do the work that belongs strictly to the other. The weakest spot in our universities today is the vast amount of instruction assigned to tutors. As a matter of fact, the students do not come into close enough mental contact with men of superior attainments. The universities will adjust themselves to their work in due time. True manhood is an element of such vital importance that it must not be neglected in the training of young men. The high-school question has called forth some of the best papers presented during the existence of the National Educational Association. While these contributions have not been so extensive, yet those presented possess great merit. There are many serious questions connected with high schools that remain to be solved. The legitimate function of the high school is certainly not in a state of stable equilibrium. There is a furious striving among too many, of them to be more than high schools. A well-grounded feeling exists in many quarters that the sails are catching too much wind, and need "shortening. One thing is certain : the high schools should teach some things well, and not attempt to have the pupils absorb a little something of everything without knowing any one thing well. Another grave question is the proper adjustment of the pupils to the courses of study, so that those who can complete the work in four years may do so, and those who require five years should not be rushed thru it in four years. Another adjustment should come at the end of the seventh year in the ward schools, at which time pupils of average attainments are prepared, or should be well enough prepared, to enter upon high-school work. Six years in ward schools, followed by six years in high schools, would prove poor economy in any community, and would be injurious to the pupils. The subject of high-school statistics is also in a chaotic condition, Superintendence] WORK OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 231 altho I endeavored last year to initiate a movement which will give, if generally adopted, results more trustworthy than those heretofore pub- lished. Normal schools have been most fully treated in eleven articles, the first by Dr. Philbrick thirty years ago, and the last in 1898. The articles constitute a distinct and valuable treatise, notwithstanding what has been done in the Normal Department and in the National Council in this special line of work. Ten excellent articles, spread over a period of thirty-two years, have been presented before the department on education in foreign countries, two of these articles being by foreigners and the others by Americans. In recent years this subject has been most ably summarized by the present Commissioner of Education in his excellent annual reports. Another subject that has received generous treatment is that of schoolhouses and school sanitation, in twelve articles, some of which are by experts. Unless the subject shall be more completely worked out in the National Council, thru its present Committee on School Hygiene, it will admit of further elucidation. The present status of this subject is represented by the word "unfinished," and the same remark applies to several other topics that have been partially treated. The South and her educational problem, under different titles, has occupied much space, but not more than its importance demands. It was an absorbing educational topic for years, and one of deep interest. The heroic efforts of the southern people to work out the problem in their own way, and in harmony with their local conditions, is destined to constitute one of the most remarkable chapters in American history. The southern people are handling this complicated question successfully and much better than other people could do it for them. Thru indom- itable will-power, coupled with remarkable sagacity, they are accomplish- ing a great deal educationally, religiously, and socially for millions of people who can help themselves but little. School boards, school units, school organization, and school adminis- tration, in this department as well as in the National Council, have engaged the best and most experienced thought of educators for nearly thirty years, and it is still a matter of very earnest and deep discussion. Every definite deliverance, to the present, is no more than a tentative experiment to hit upon a workable, satisfactory plan of adjustment to social and economic conditions. Ten papers have been published on grading and promoting pupils, and the subject is still undecided. It is pertinent to remark that in the general association, or in some of the other departments, several topics have been more fully discussed than in the Department of Superintendence, and in arranging programs this fact has been kept in view each year by the president. This accounts 232 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago for the meager treatment of some phases of education in the scheme I have condensed. In my opinion the following topics will admit of much fuller treat- ment: child study on a rational and scientific basis; moral education, especially of the feelings ; what school statistics ought to be collected ; a more satisfactory and rational method of teaching the English language in the rural and city schools; an economic basis of conducting a system of public schools as dependent on the taxpaying power of a community; the relation of the superintendent to the board of education, with a view to avoiding useless and reckless expenditures and the exploitation of fads and frills; how to diffuse each year among the common-school teachers the best information published in the annual reports of the Commissioner of Education ; at what hours should ward schools and high schools open and close each day, and what are the best periods for intermission? what effect does the change of teachers in the high schools have on the pupils in regard to the eighth commandment ? a clear deliverance in regard to the subjects that are purely informational and those that are culture studies, or the difference between form and content studies ; courses of study for elementary schools, including what subjects shall be in the course, and what shall be the aim and scope of the treatment ; how shall small graded schools be best supervised, and what kind of course of study is best adapted to the needs of such communities ? the ways and means to secure the best results in manual training in the grades so as not to detract from the efficiency of the regular work; what, how much, when, and by whom shall this be done ? how much of domestic science and agriculture should be taught in the rural schools? what is the educational value of marking cadets at West Point and Annapolis? have examinations a legitimate place in the public schools? Some of these subjects should be referred to committees for special investigation, and others assigned .to individuals for additional discussion at future meetings of this department. DISCUSSION Superintendent Frank B. Cooper, Salt Lake City, Utah. — It seems to me that this body rests under much obligation to Superintendent Greenwood for the pains and labor taken by him in preparing a re'sume' of the work of this department, so concise and satis- factory. It would have been interesting and beneficial if one so conversant with the department and so long identified with its meetings could have included in his analysis an estimate of how far the discussion of these thirty-five years has affected the develop- ment of supervision. This department has three well-defined functions. It exercises thru its social fea- tures, as well as thru the medium of its programs, an inspirational influence especially valuable ; it has a didactic and instructive function afforded by addresses and dis- cussions ; it also has a definitive function exercised thru its declarations. The first Superintendence] HISTORICAL SKETCH OF DEPARTMENT 233 two have always been fulfilled. The last has not been, in my opinion, sufficiently used. This body has not touched the highest point of its usefulness when it has merely fur- nished opportunity for social contact and for able discussions of the problems connected with school supervision. All that is good and useful, but the effects are neither definite nor pervasive enough. Only once within the past few years has the department risen to this highest point. That was at the Cleveland meeting, when the report of the Committee of Fifteen was rendered and discussed. Superintendent Greenwood suggested that there should be "a clear deliverance" by the department upon " those subjects that are purely informational and those that are cul- ture studies." There should be at intervals a succession of "clear deliverances" upon topics legitimately connected with the work of supervision. Such declarations, clearly defined, put forth as the well-digested conviction of this body, would be authoritative and would have inestimable value. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSO CIA TION BRIEF SKETCH OF ITS EARLY HISTORY1 EMERSON E. WHITE, LL.D., COLUMBUS, O. At the meeting of the National Teachers' Association held in Harris- burg, Pa., in August, 1865, the superintendents present had several conferences looking to the organization of a national association. A pre- liminary organization was effected, with Hon. B. G. Northrop, of Massa- chusetts, chairman, and Hon. L. Van Bokkelen, of Maryland, secretary. It was decided to call a meeting of state and city superintendents in Wash- ington, D. C, the following February for the organization of a national superintendents' association and the consideration of subjects related to school administration. The special purpose of holding the meeting in Washington was to interest Congress in the creation of a national bureau of education, and the writer was appointed to prepare a paper on the subject for the Washington meeting. The proposed meeting for organization was held in Washington, Feb- ruary 6, 7, and 8, 1866, Hon. B. G. Northrop, chairman, and Hon. L. Van Bokkelen, secretary. The constitution adopted named the organization the National Association of School Superintendents ; declared its pur- pose to be the consideration of subjects related to "school organization and management;" and limited membership in the association to "state, city, and county superintendents of schools" (Proceedings, 1868, p. 40), this provision being subsequently so modified as to make ex-superintend- ents, who were members when in office, eligible to membership. It pro- vided for the annual election of a president, three vice-presidents, a secretary, a treasurer, and an executive committee of five members. At this meeting papers were read by Superintendent Charles R. Coburn, Pennsylvania, on " School Statistics ; " by Superintendent L. Van 1 The amended spellings adopted by the Board of Directors do not appear in this address. [See reso- lution of Board of Directors, Los Angeles meeting, July 13, 1899.] 234 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Bokkelen, Maryland, on "The Practicability of Greater Uniformity in State School Systems ; " by Superintendent C. M. Harrison, New Jersey, on "Defects in Our State School Systems;" by Superintendent Newton Bateman, Illinois, on " Leading Features of a Model State School Sys- tem ;" and by Commissioner E. E. White, Ohio, on "A National Bureau of Education." This last paper was adopted by the association, and a committee, consisting of E. E. White, Newton Bateman, and J. K. Adams, Vermont, was appointed to memorialize Congress on the establishment of a national bureau of education. The committee prepared a memorial and drafted a bill, and the next day the memorial and bill were introduced in the House of Representa- tives by General James A. Garfield, of Ohio. The importance of a national bureau of education had been presented to the National Teachers' Association on several occasions, first in 1859, and at the Harrisburg meeting it elicited very general interest, the estab- lishment of such a bureau being advocated by President Greene in his inaugural address; by J. P. Wickersham, Pennsylvania, in a paper on "Education and Reconstruction;" and by Andrew J. Rickoff, of Ohio, in a paper wholly devoted to the subject. Resolutions strongly favoring the movement were passed. A second meeting of the association was held in Indianapolis, Ind., August 12 and 13, 1866, in connection with the annual meeting of the National Teachers' Association, Hon. B. G. Northrop, president, and Superintendent L. Van Bokkelen, secretary. A paper was presented by Superintendent J. W. Bulkley, Brooklyn, N. Y., on "The Cost of Educa- tion per capita in the Different States;" a report by Superintendent Charles R. Coburn, on "State School Statistics," which was referred to a committee of three to report back the next day, when the subject was thoroughly discussed by the most competent experts in the body ; and a report by the committee appointed at Washington on the national bureau of education, stating that an approved bill establishing a national department of education had passed the House of Representatives and was pending in the Senate. A committee, consisting of E. E. White, O. Hosford, Michigan, D. Stevenson, Kentucky, J. W. Bulkley, and L. Van Bokkelen, was appointed to bring the House bill to the attention of the Senate and urge its passage. Committees were appointed on state school statistics, city school statistics, and on the relation of education to crime and pauperism. The third meeting of the association (second annual) was held in Nashville, Tenn., August 17, 1868, in connection with the meeting of the National Teachers' Association, no meeting of the national association being held in 1867. E. E. White was president and L. Van Bokkelen secretary. The subjects considered at this meeting were: (1) "School Funds — How Best Raised, by State or Local Taxation, How Apportioned, Superintendence] HISTORICAL SKETCH OF DEPARTMENT 235 How Disbursed," the subject being introduced by a paper by General John Eaton, state school superintendent of Tennessee; (2) "School Super- vision," introduced by Superintendent J. W. Bulkley, Brooklyn, N. Y.; and (3) " School Organization in Townships," introduced by Superintendent D. B. Hagar, Salem, Mass. At the evening session the president delivered an address on "The Family, the Community, and the State in Education." The sessions were attended by members of the legislature of Tennessee and other citizens interested in the organization of school systems. I have thus given somewhat fully the proceedings of the first three meetings of the association as evidencing concretely its aims as originally organized. The minutes of the subsequent meetings to 1880, and later, show that the time of each meeting was largely devoted to the considera- tion of practical questions related to school organization and manage- ment. Little effort was made to draw or entertain promiscuous audiences. The very few exceptions were due to a failure of the officers to recognize the main purpose of the association or duly to appreciate the vital prob- lems in school organization and management needing solution. The superintendents met to widen their knowledge and increase their efficiency in school administration. The subjects were not discussed in a series of formal papers, but in a free interchange of views, often in the so-called "round table" manner. • The first seven meetings were held in the reconstruction period, in which nearly half of the states and many cities reorganized their school systems. In the first twenty years nearly half of the meetings were held in Washington in February or March, the special purpose being first the organization and subsequently the defense and strengthening of the Bureau of Education, and also the securing of national aid to education in the South. At the Cleveland meeting, in 1870, the National Teachers' Association was reorganized with the title of the National Educational Association. The revised constitution provided for four departments, viz.: School Superintendence, Normal Schools, Elementary Schools, and Higher Instruction, with the provision (Art. Ill, sec. 2): Each department may prescribe its own conditions of membership, provided that no person shall be admitted to such membership who is not a member of the general association. This section was a part of the constitution for twenty-five years. The National Association of School Superintendents was organized as the Department of School Superintendence, and the only changes in its constitution were in the title (as above) and the condition of membership, only members of the general association being eligible. The minutes of the meetings from the organization in 1866 to 1890 show that the election of officers took place at the meeting held in 236 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago connection with the annual meeting of the general association, and only superintendents and ex-superintendents were elected to office. At the Nashville meeting, in 1889, Professor Woodward, of St. Louis, was nomi- nated for president pro /em., but he properly declined, and Mr. Rickoff was elected ; and, if the writer's memory is trustworthy, only those who were eligible to membership, as prescribed in 1866, voted in the election of officers. Since 1890 the department has held its annual meetings in February or March (no meeting being held in 1893), and the officers have been chosen at these meetings. Since 1890 the meetings of the department have assumed more and more the character of mid-year meetings of the general association, and their programs have increasingly attracted the attendance of persons not directly connected with school administration. Meanwhile important and even vital problems in school management are waiting for solution. It is true that superintendents are interested in nearly all departments of school work, but it is also true that school supervision has its special functions and duties. If the several departments of the National Educa- tional Association are to justify their existence, there must be a closer differentiation of function, and the special problems in each should receive the attention of experts of ability and experience. In the revision of the constitution of the general association in 1895 the provision relating to membership in the departments (Art. Ill, sec. 2) was omitted, and under the constitution, as amended, each department has been free to prescribe its own conditions of membership, but only members of the general association have been eligible to office (Art. IV, sec. 4). The amendment adopted by the active members at the Charleston meeting, 1900, provides that only active members shall have the right to vote in the association or its departments. The Department of Superintendence has full authority under the constitution of the association to limit its membership to superintendents, supervising principals, and other officers directly connected with school administration, and by regulation it may restore the aim and purpose prescribed at the organization of the body. The way is clear for such action if the members of the department deem it advisable. The only limitation is that all members entitled to vote must be active members of the general association. MEDICAL INSPECTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS DR. W. S. CHRISTOPHER, CHICAGO, ILL. [AN abstract]1 Medical inspection in the Chicago public schools had its origin in a local epidemic of diphtheria in the Alcott School. The principal 1 The author of this paper failed to furnish a copy for publication, Superintendence] MEDICAL INSPECTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 237 reported five cases from that school in two days. I was appealed to for advice, but could do nothing. That condition indicated a necessity for some plan of relief. Just four weeks from that day a system of medical inspection was started in the Chicago schools. The plan of medical inspection in Chicago is different from that employed in New York or Boston ; the teachers there being the channels by means of which attention of inspectors is called to suspicious cases. In Chicago the teacher is the instrument too, but we have advantage of the rule that when the pupils are out four consecutive days they are excluded until they have been inspected by the proper authorities. Such regulation is necessary, because scarlet fever in a mild form is not easily detected. It becomes extremely desirable to detect milder forms of contagious diseases, because children so infected become bearers of the disease in its more serious forms. We are not accustomed, in Chicago, to admit children upon certificate of the attending physician, because such certificates are utterly valueless. I do not blame the physicians for giving certificates when one is demanded by the patient, because their livelihood is at stake in many cases. That being the case, they cannot be independent, and will often give a certificate without proper warrant, upon the demand of the patient. In the case of the medical inspector, he can be independent, because he has nothing at stake whether he issues the certificate or not. I deem it a very great advantage to have the medical inspector directly under the control of the board of education, and not under the control of the board of health. I believe it is much more efficacious when administered by inspectors who are directly responsible to the board of education, since only about one-seventh of the cases of contagious diseases in the public schools are reported by the health department. One of the difficulties that we meet is in disposing of the pupils who have been absent four days upon their return to school ; formerly they were required to report at the principal's office upon their return, and there wait until the arrival of the medical inspector. It often happens that the inspector cannot reach the office until n or 12 o'clock. Parents object, and not without reason, to having their children herded together in this way. We meet this objection by sending the pupils to the rooms to which they belong, there to await the arrival of the medical inspector, pupils awaiting inspection to report to him at once. Another objection which we have to overcome, and which still exists, arises from the opposition of parents* to having their children examined by medical inspectors. Most parents fail to understand the object in view ; a few, however, appreciate the benefits of the plan and heartily support it. Recently one of the patrons of the schools refused to have his child subjected to the examination of the medical inspector, claiming that the certificate of the family physician, which the child presented, 238 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago was sufficient evidence for school authorities. Suit was brought to compel the board of education to receive the child upon the physician's certificate, but the judge held that the board of education had a right to require inspection. We ought to have in Chicago one hundred and fifty inspectors instead of fifty, so that inspection could be completed earlier, that is, within a half-hour after the opening of the schools in the morning. We spent last year $13,000 for medical inspection, but the appropriation has now been cut down to $9,000. If we could have more money and more inspectors, we could make the system much more efficacious. In the city of New York there were examined during the period of ten months 140,000 pupils; number excluded, 7,606. In Chicago, dur- ing a period of seven months, there were examined 115,000 pupils; the number of pupils excluded was 7,600. The number excluded in New York was .5410 per cent, of the number examined, while in Chicago dur- ing a shorter period .66 per cent, were excluded. Out of 7,606 pupils excluded in New York city, 3,500 pupils had parasitic disease in the head, as against 500 from the Chicago schools during seven months for the same reason. In Chicago we have done double the work that they have done in New York, with one-fourth the force, at one-half the cost. The medical inspectors in New York and Boston report once a month ; in Chicago they report once a day. In 1898 thirty -two cases of scarlet fever were reported as having been excluded from the New York schools ; in Chicago 501 pupils were excluded in seven months for the same reason. I do not offer this statement in criticism of our neighbors, but to com- pare the methods of the two systems used. DISCUSSION Superintendent Aaron Gote, Denver, Colo. — The objection raised this morning, that the question then under discussion was not legitimately a part of the work of this department, does not apply to this question. The question of medical inspection touches the work of the superintendents in a vital way. I do not know much about the compara- tive merits of the systems employed in different cities, and must refer to medical inspec- tion as I know it. This is a practical matter and one that I very heartily indorse. The regulation of contagious diseases is not the only subject of medical inspection. The eyes and ears should be tested, and I am not sure but the teeth are proper subjects for inspection. The use of the card catalog in keeping a record of the items of physical conditions deemed proper for inspection is a valuable help. This card should give the name of the pupil, state whether vaccinated, with the date, and give indication of bodily defect of any kind. This card goes with the pupil, whether he remains in the system or goes elsewhere. In Denver eight expert opticians have placed themselves at the disposal of the principals. No embarrassment arises from our use of this help, because, when defective vision is discovered, the teacher merely informs the parent that the child's vision is Superintendence! MEDICAL INSPECTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 239 seriously defective. We positively decline to give out information contained on the cards and deny access to them by speculative traveling doctors. Superintendent E. P. Seaver, Boston, Mass. — Chicago may have been able to establish a system of medical inspection in four weeks, but we have found it too great a task to perfect a system in so short a time. We have, however, had medical inspection for seven years, while Chicago has had it in operation for two years. The medical inspectors of Boston visit the schools every morning, and inspect, not only the pupils selected by the teachers, but also many others. The Boston inspectors have done more than inspect ; they have established pleasant relations with the boys and girls. The teachers have learned much from them about the symptoms of contagious diseases. The measures taken regarding scarlet fever, etc., are very thoro. It is true that this inspection occurs under authority of the board of health, but the relations of inspectors and school authorities have been pleasant and harmonious thruout. The physicians who constitute the board of medical inspectors do this work for the schools, not because they are adequately paid, but because it is a part of their duty to the public. One advantage our system has is that a large number of the medical inspectors are agents of the board of health, and they therefore have double authority. But they may not only inspect, but may also isolate cases in the homes. They may send pupils home from school who appear to be ill, and then later on in the day may visit the homes of such children, as agents of the board of health, investigate the illness, and isolate the pupil in case of contagious disease. Such a pupil may be kept at home by the authority of the inspector until the recovery is completed. Numbers of possible epidemics have been stamped out thru the agency of medical inspectors. Superintendent W. H. Maxwell, New York city. — I am prevented by considera- tions of good taste from noticing more than one or two points of the address of Dr. Chris- topher. I give attention to these only because of a possible reflection upon the fidelity of the inspectors of New York. Being in a position to know, I deny emphatically that the reports submitted by them are padded or represent conditions other than as they occur. An injustice appears in the comparison of the number of scarlet fever cases reported in Chicago and New York. The thirty-two cases reported in New York represent the cases found in the schools, and not the total number of cases excluded. Dr. W. O. Krohn, Chicago, 111. — The object of the American school is to develop the best type of citizenship, best physically, best mentally, best morally — a complete, well-rounded-out, well-developed personality. Such a type of citizenship is impossible without the soundest physical basis, a healthy body. Therefore the state owes two duties to children : first, the preservation of health ; second, education. In order to obtain the second we have compulsory attendance at school. It is not only illogical but unjust to maintain that we should have compulsory- education laws in the absence of good laws for the medical inspection of our schools. By what reasoning can we warrant ourselves in compelling children to go into the midst of danger, when we know that the school is frequently a focus for the spreading of disease ? There is greater difficulty in enforcing medical inspection in the smaller cities and towns than in our large cities, for in the smaller community the sense of individualism is more pronounced. The smaller community is more nearly a social democracy. In the city the administration is more impersonal ; enforcement is easier. The most important argument for medical inspection is, to my mind, the educational benefit to the community at large, because the direct and aggressive tendency in the operation of the medical inspection of the schools is to bring to the attention of the parents in particular, and the community in general, a knowledge of the common laws of health. This knowledge soon becomes universal in spite of the most lethargic conditions. A better, more intelligent citizenship results. 240 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicaeo The cry of the objector to medical inspection is paternalism. There is no real argument in this sordid cry of paternalism. It is simply a cry. We have heard this campaign slogan of paternalism before. It is always voiced when any movement is undertaken for improving social conditions. We have heard it when factory and sweat- shop laws were proposed. We have heard it when we attempted to care for the step- children of the state, anywhere. If it be paternalism to care for the health of the children and of the community by providing medical inspection, then let us have more paternalism. THE USE AND CONTROL OF EXAMINATIONS PRESIDENT ARTHUR T. HADLEY, YALE UNIVERSITY Every practical educator knows that an examination has two distinct aspects : one looking toward the past, the other toward the future. It is a means of proving the student's attainment in that which has gone before ; it is also a means of testing his power for that which is to come. It sums up the result of previous work in such a way as to help us in meting out praise or blame for what he has already done. It at the same time indi- cates the degree of his mental advancement, and enables us to place him for the coming year in those classes from which he will gain most profit and for which his powers will be most fully adequate. It protects our schools against waste of time in the days which precede it, by setting a mark which the student must reach. It protects our colleges against waste of time in the days that follow it, by giving us a basis on which to group our classes and arrange the tasks which are imposed. It is at once a measure of proficiency in what has been previously learned, and of power for what as yet remains unlearned. Unfortunately, these two qualities do not always coincide. We have all had experience with pupils who have been faithful in the performance of their duties, and have acquired that kind of knowledge which enables them to pass a well-conducted examination creditably, but who do not possess that degree of mental training which fits them to go on toward higher studies side by side wkh those whose acquirements may be less, but whose grasp of principles is stronger. Proficiency in subjects studied during the few months previous to the examination is at best largely a matter of memory; and it not infrequently happens that such memory is most highly developed in those very pupils who have done comparatively little real thinking for themselves. This difficulty may be lessened by skill in arranging the examination ; but, strive as we may, it can never be wholly eliminated. On the contrary, it is a thing which is increased by many of our modern changes, both in courses of study and in methods of examination. In many of the older subjects of study the difficulty hardly exists at all. Take mathematics, for instance. In this group of sciences pro- ficiency in one grade is almost synonymous with power to go on with the Superintendence] USE AND CONTROL OF EXAMINATIONS 24 1 next. There may be a few children with minds so peculiarly constructed that they are accurate " lightning calculators," and of very little use for anything else; but such children are the exception, and not the rule. In general, the boy or girl who has mastered the simple operations of arith- metic is competent to go on with the more complex ones; while the boy or girl who fails in these simple matters shows corresponding unfitness for what is more advanced. Similarly, knowledge of arithmetic as a whole is a test of fitness to study algebra ; knowledge of algebra, a prerequisite to analytical geometry; analytical geometry, a necessity for the student who would go on into the differential calculus. What is true of mathematics is true of grammar, and of those older forms of linguistic study which were based upon grammatical drill as a foundation. With proficiency in the elements, advanced class work was made possible and profitable ; without it, the pupil wasted his own time and that of his fellows. But with new subjects, and with new modes of teaching, this necessary sequence is less marked. In studying literature, or history, or descriptive science, by the methods which are now regarded as most modern, there is no such connection between attainment in what is past and power over what is to come. It is not certain that the pupil who remembers the answers to the questions which are asked in most of our literature exami- nations thereby proves his fitness to go on with the works which are to follow. It is not sure that power to remember the facts of history which are taught in elementary classes connotes a corresponding power to use those facts in advanced studies. It is even less probable that the results of a course in descriptive science pursued at an early age show any indica- tion of power to pursue these subjects farther. I do not wish to be under- stood as objecting to modern methods of science study. For those who are not going to carry these matters to a point where power in scientific research is needed they are a very valuable means of general information. But for that minority who do need to develop power in research such premature acquirements are often a hindrance rather than a help. One of the few men in the country who combine high attainments in theo- retical and practical physics — a man eminent alike as an investigator, a teacher, and an inventor — is authority for the statement that you cannot make a really good physicist out of a boy who has been put thru a full course of descriptive science before he has studied the mathematical principles which underlie it. I do not know whether this broad generali- zation can be proved. I am inclined to think it an overstatement. But the fact that such a statement can be made by a responsible man shows that there is no necessary connection, but rather a conspicuous absence of connection, between acquirements in elementary science, as now taught, and power to go on with that science into classes which do work of a really advanced character. Side by side with this change in subjects there has been a change of 242 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago methods of examination. Two generations ago a large part of our tests were oral. Today the increased size of the classes has necessitated the use of written examinations. That the change has been on the whole a salutary as well as a necessary one I do not question. In an oral exami- nation the personal element is so strongly accentuated that it is almost impossible to have a guarantee of fairness in its administration. How- ever good may be the intentions of the examiner, he cannot always keep himself free from his own prejudgments; while the absence of any per- manent record to which appeal can be made prevents us from applying any corrective to the wrong impressions of the moment. But the effect of the change has been to make the examination more exclusively a test of proficiency in what is past and less available as a measure of power for what is to come. In the oral method, if it was well conducted, the examiner found some branch of the subject with which the pupil was familiar, and there proved or disproved the thoroness of his knowledge. By so doing, the examiner could find out what the pupil really thought about the subject, rather than what he more or less mechanically remem- bered. But the written examination, even in the best hands, is apt to be a test of the range of a student's proficiency rather than of its thoroness. In the majority of the subjects on which we have to examine it is almost impossible to construct a paper which will test the student's reasoning power as adequately as it tests his memory. It is apt to become a mere inquiry as to the extent of the pupil's knowledge. Whenever this is the case, it loses the major part of its value as a measure of fitness for any- thing which is to come. The evils thus far described are felt in all examinations, no mat- ter by whom they may be conducted. But they show themselves with peculiar force whenever the student passes out of one school or one stage of educational work and into another. In rising from class to class within the limits of a single institution, the pupil remains under the charge of a head master, who can, to a large degree, correct the evils inherent in the examination system. He can direct his subordinates to base their scheme of promotion on records of special work and other matters outside of the scope of the examination itself. He can so arrange the course of study that entrance to higher grades depends upon merit in particular lines, rather than on general proficiency or faithfulness. When, however, the student passes from the control of one authority to another independent one, it is very hard to carry any such policy into effect. The difficulty is seen at its worst in civil-service examinations, where a student's entrance into government employment is made to depend upon tests of past acquirement which can, at best, very imperfectly indicate his fitness to serve the country in the line which he has chosen. I would not for one moment undervalue the good which has been done by the adoption of the examination system as a basis for appointment in our civil service ; Superintendence] USE AND CONTROL OF EXAMINATIONS 243 but I believe it to be generally admitted, even among the friends of that system, that its value depends upon its effect in eliminating the grossly incompetent, who rely on political influence alone, rather than upon its accuracy in determining the candidate's probable usefulness as a public servant. The same difficulty exists, tho in less degree, in the transition from one grade of educational institution to another. It is felt in the pas- sage from grammar school to high school, from high school to college, and from college to professional school. In going from grammar school to high school, or from college to professional school, the difficulty is to some extent lessened by the fact that there is so often a common board of control which makes co-operation and consultation easy between the authorities of the two parts of the educational system. In the passage from high school to college, on the other hand, the evil is felt most seri- ously, because of the complete separation of control and the remoteness of location which so often makes a system of personal consultation impos- sible. It is in this application that the problem of examinations gives rise to the most acute controversy. How shall we arrange our tests of the stu- dent's proficiency in what is behind him in such a way as to assure our- selves of his power to go on with what is before him ; to give to the school the necessary freedom in its methods of instruction ; to give the college the assurance that its pupils will be well prepared for their work ; and to give the students themselves, as they pass from one grade to the other, the certainty of reasonably fair treatment ? This is the ques- tion which is before us. With so many conflicting requirements, it is no wonder that there is divergence of opinion with regard to the proper answer.. Three distinct methods have been devised for meeting this difficulty : 1. To make the range of examination questions wider, so that the student shall have every possible chance to show what he knows. 2. To supplement the written examination paper by other tests, such as certified notebooks, objects produced by previous work, etc. 3. To depend on certificates given by the teachers who have pre- viously had the candidate in their charge; thus taking the work of entrance examination out of the hands of the college authorities and rele- gating it to the preparatory schools. The first of these methods has a certain amount of merit. A skillful examiner can make a paper so broad in its scope that a candidate who knows anything whatsoever about his subject will find some topic on which he is at home. He thus in some measure reduces the element of chance and renders real help to those candidates who understand one part of the subject better than another. But, unfortunately, this increased range of inquiries may prove almost as helpful to the undeserving candidate 244 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION TChicago as it does to the deserving. The multiplicity of questions gives a great opportunity to the coach who makes a specialty of preparing can- didates for a particular series of tests, instead of educating them for their life-work. Knowing how wide a range of topics the examiner must cover, he can predict, with reasonable certainty, some specific things which the paper is likely to contain. The chances are that his pupils will do well on these questions for which they have been specially prepared ; and thus the deserving but unskillfully prepared candidate, tho he makes a bet- ter absolute showing under the system of long papers than he did with short ones, finds his relative position even worse than before. Moreover, the inevitable hurry and confusion incident to the attempt to deal with a long paper hurts the deserving student far more than it hurts his com- petitor who has been skillfully crammed for this particular trial. These evils are clearly exemplified in the English civil-service examinations. The amount of time and thought which has been spent on the preparation of papers for these examinations is very great indeed. There has been an honest effort on the part of those in charge to get the very best aspirants for the public service of the British empire. Yet, in spite of all these things, it has become proverbial that success depends upon skillful coach- ing far more than upon intellectual merit or good general training. What is true of the English civil-service examinations is true, in only less degree, of the English university examinations ; and the same evils are making themselves felt in this country wherever we approximate the English practice. The system of accepting certified notebooks to supplement and correct the results of examinations is essentially a compromise. It has at once the merits and defects which are incident to a compromise system. It is, I believe, used with good effect at Harvard in some of the subjects which the faculty require on their entrance examinations. But the arguments which can be urged in its behalf can for the most part be urged even more strongly in favor of a frank .adoption of a certificate system as a whole. There is something quite illogical in accepting the pupil's record of his own past work, and not accepting the master's judgment as to the effi- ciency of that work ; for, unless the master is a clear-headed and honest man, the record is practically worthless, and, if the master is thus clear- headed and honest, he can judge far better than any examining board the degree to which the pupil has profited by lectures and experiments. When once a subject presents such characteristics that the examiners confess their inability to judge of the student's work by the paper which he writes under their direction, it certainly seems a rather unnecessary waste of time and strength for them to insist on having any paper at all. The third method — admission to college on certificate instead of on examination — has many advocates. I shall not here attempt to discuss Superintendence] USE AND CONTROL OF EXAMINATIONS 245 its merits and demerits in full. It is a subject which would take for its full analysis more time than we now have at command. It is unquestionably true that a good preparatory-school teacher can, in nine cases out of ten, judge of the fitness of his pupils to enter college far better than any college examining board can possibly hope to do. It is also true that the right of admission by certificate allows such a teacher a freedom in the choice of methods which is of great advantage, both to him and to his pupils. In spite of these facts, it has disadvantages which have prevented some of our leading institutions from adopting it, and which cause the present trend of movement to be away from the certificate system rather than toward it. In the first place, to take the most obvious objection, by no means all of our secondary-school teachers are good ones. A large number cannot be trusted to give certificates. An equally large number — and a more difficult class to deal with — are not so good that we can safely trust them, nor so bad that we can safely refuse to trust them. Under these circumstances the colleges have only shifted the seat of their perplexities. Instead of selecting their students by an examination, they select the teachers whom they are to trust by a process less automatic and more invidious than any scheme of examinations. In the second place, the abandonment of an examination system by the colleges takes away an important stimulus for keeping up the stand- ard of admission requirements. The competition of men in different schools to prepare their pupils to pass examinations has the same sort of mixed effect that competition has in any other form of business. It causes methods to be adopted which are not always of the very highest type; but it at the same time brings out an amount of initiative and energy in teachers and pupils which can be attained in no other way. Even the authorities who admit by certificate say frankly that they would be very reluctant to have that practice become universal. They are free to say that the influence of those colleges which require examinations is the thing which keeps our best schools up to that standard which enables other colleges safely to admit their students by certificate. Finally — and this is the decisive argument for the retention of the old plan — those colleges which insist on examinations think that they get a better class of students by that means than they would by any other. They get those boys who do not shrink from a trial of intellectual strength; boys who welcome the chance to measure their power with that of their fellows in entering college, as they will inevitably be called upon to measure it if they seek first-rate successes in later life. We all remem- ber the fable of the choice between the doors : on the one hand, " Who chooses me shall get what he deserves;" on the other, "Who chooses me must hazard all he has." The certificate system attracts those who would go to the former door; the examination system calls to those who are 246 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago willing to venture the latter. We all know the two types, and their rela- tive merits. If each of these alternatives thus proves unsatisfactory, is there not some possible combination which may be suggested ? I venture to believe that such a possibility exists, and that it may be found in a classification of collegiate requirements into different groups, susceptible of separate treatment. If we look at the requirements for admission into any of our larger colleges, we shall find that they naturally fall into three classes : first, those subjects which are required because the student must know them in order to have the power to go on with his subsequent studies; second, those which are required because the college authorities believe them to be desirable means of attaining such power ; and, third, those which are required because the men in the secondary schools desire them and ask for the moral support of the colleges in promoting their study. As a notable example of the first class we may take mathematics. In our scientific schools, and to a less degree in all our colleges, some knowledge of mathematics is an absolute necessity for the successful pursuit of studies included in the course. The pupil must know a certain amount of algebra in order to study trigonometry ; he must know a certain amount of trigonometry in order to be able to pursue successfully the arts of railroad surveying or of bridge design. The same characteristic holds good of most of our language requirements. Every student what- soever needs to understand something of the use of the English language, because without such use all his communications of thought, if not his underlying thoughts themselves, are sure to lack precision. Any benefit which is expected from complex ideas by a man or woman who does not know how to express them is likely to prove illusory. And every student who is to pursue foreign literature in his college course must first have a knowledge of the elements of the language in which it is written, because without such knowledge he will waste his own time and that of his fellow-men. Side by side with these requirements which are indispensable come others of a more auxiliary character. Not content with requiring a knowledge of English expression, the colleges prescribe the reading of certain books in English literature. Not stopping with the test of power to read and parse individual passages in Latin, the colleges prescribe a certain quantity of Latin reading as essential to the purpose in hand. They also require with each year an increasing knowledge of modern languages, not because the student is necessarily going to use both French and German in his college studies, but because no man is regarded by them as fitted for higher education unless he has a certain reading knowledge of both these languages. There is also a third group of studies required, not as a necessary basis for subsequent work, but as a part of the general scheme of Superintendence] USE AND CONTROL OF EXAMINATIONS 247 secondary education in the country, to which it is desirable to give fair recognition. So many men in our schools desire to teach history, and can teach it well, that they wish this subject to be recognized in the college requirements, lest, by a failure to recognize it, its position in the schools should be degraded. What is true of history is true of a great deal of that descriptive science which has so large a part in our school courses at the present day. It is put in the scheme of require- ments for admission to college, not because of a direct need of the college student, nor even because of its indirect bearing on meeting such a need ; but because of a desire on the part of the colleges to co-operate with those who are engaged in the preparation of their pupils. It is obvious, however, that the attempt to put all these different classes of subjects on the same basis is quite illogical. The student who rightly and deservedly is found radically deficient in studies of the first class has no business to go on with his course. No pupil who is ignorant of arithmetic can study algebra without injuring himself and his fellow- students. No pupil who is ignorant of elementary algebra and geometry should be allowed to go on with the scientific school course, no matter what may be his attainments in other lines. In like manner, a knowledge of the essentials of English expression and of certain fundamental points in those other languages which the student is likely to use in his college course is a matter of vital necessity. No amount of acquirements and attainments in literature can logically be allowed to make up for a deficiency at this central point. It is on these subjects that the case for college examinations is strongest. This is the point at which any deficiency of preparation on the part of the candidates will hurt them most. It is also the point where an examination system is most feasible ; where cram counts for least and power for most ; where the school-teacher with high ideals of education has least reason to complain of the require- ment that his pupils should be examined by an independent authority, because no method of education which falls short of meeting this test can possibly be considered good. In the second group of studies — those which are auxiliary to the attainment of this power — greater latitude can be allowed. I should be in favor at once of putting all examinations on the extent of knowledge in these auxiliary subjects into the hands of a common examining board, in which different groups of educators were represented. Whether it would be wise to go one step farther, and introduce the certificate system in subjects of this group, is a matter which I should hardly like to pre- judge at present. In the third group of studies the certificate system could be allowed from the very outset. It is just here that the arguments for that system are strongest, for in this group the possible variety of methods is greatest, the difficulties of examination most unavoidable, and the reasons strongest 248 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago for preferring the teacher's judgment to that of an independent examiner or examining board. If a phrase is needed to describe the principle on which this whole system of division rests, I should formulate it as follows : Divide our requirements into three groups of subjects: (i) prerequisites for power to go on with collegiate study; (2) attainments auxiliary to such power; (3) attainments chiefly useful in the general scheme of education. Let the tests of power as to what is to follow be in the hands of those who are to have charge of the student in the years which are to follow. Let the tests of attainment on what is behind be in the hands of those who have had charge of the pupil in the years which are behind. This combination would have the advantage of reducing the number of our college examinations — in itself an extremely desirable thing — of preserving a standard of quality which schools would compete with one another to reach, and of allowing at the same time the utmost possible latitude in the methods employed by different teachers to bring their pupils up to that standard. On the other hand, it would be attended with certain dangers and difficulties. The chief objections which are likely to be thus raised may be stated as follows : 1. The attempt, which has been more than once made, to lay special stress on tests of power rather than on knowledge — for instance, sight- reading of Latin and Greek authors, translation of English into Latin, etc. — has disappointed the expectation of its advocates. 2. In the inevitable uncertainty attending the results of entrance examinations — due partly to luck, partly to the personal equation of the examiner, and partly to the varying physical condition of the candidates — the substitution of a small number of decisive examinations for the very great number now existing will cause some candidates to be unjustly rejected who, under the present requirements, atone for their deficiencies in some lines by indication of ability in others. 3. The necessary withdrawal from the examination scheme of subjects like history, descriptive botany, or parts of the English papers, will serve to give them an apparently inferior position, and will result in their neglect in those schools which desire to prove their success on the basis of the showing made by their candidates in college examinations. Let us take up these points in order. The first of these objections is, I believe, historically well founded. It is, however, based on the experience of a time when neither teachers nor examiners knew their business as well as they now do. Latin prose com- position, as taught in the schools of a generation ago, was simply a piece of mechanical drill on certain fixed phrases, without any infusion of the spirit of the language. The examiners, themselves trained, for the most part, in these same defective methods, set papers which were not real tests of power, and encouraged cramming of a bad sort. The same thing may Superintendence] USE AND CONTROL OF EXAMINATIONS 249 be said of most of the examinations in sight-reading of classical authors. They furnished no measure of that kind of power which is required by the college student in his subsequent use of the Latin or Greek language. Many of these papers depend far more upon the quick command of a vocabulary, at times when the candidate is specially nervous, than upon knowledge of linguistic structure. In the easy Latin or Greek which is gen- erally given, the candidate who can remember the vocabulary can guess at the structure far better than the candidate who knows the structure can extemporize the vocabulary. Nor can this difficulty in the sight paper be wholly avoided by notes which give the meaning of a few words ; for those words which help one boy may prove useless to another. The partial fail- ure of sight papers to accomplish their end proves chiefly the defectiveness of the means, and little or nothing as to the unattainability of the end. Of course, it may be freely admitted that it would require great ability to carry out the proposed plan by right methods instead of wrong ones. It would perhaps be a number of years before we should know what fur- nished, on the whole, the best means of testing the student's power. But I feel quite confident that nothing which has hitherto been done indicates that the question could not be fairly well solved within a reasonable time. The argument concerning the dangerous fewness of the papers under the proposed plan deserves careful consideration. Anyone who knows the uncertainty attending the results of examinations in general, and of written examinations in particular, will be reluctant to reduce the variety of chances given to the student to prove in different kinds of papers his probable fitness for any course which he desires to undertake. Yet I believe that the dangers which arise in this way would be more than offset by the safety due to an increased care of reading which the substi- tution of the few papers for the many would render possible. If we should further extend to teachers of proved ability the opportunity to recommend, at the risk of their own reputation, for provisional admission to our freshman classes, pupils to whom the new system seemed to have done injustice, we should have in our hands a check which would not be greatly liable to abuse, and which would help to protect deserving stu- dents from the consequences of ill luck. The objection regarding discrimination between studies is perhaps the one which will be most strongly urged. Yet I believe this objection to be based on what is in the long run not a fault, but a merit. It is natural enough that a master in a secondary school who has special ability in teaching science or history should wish for the oppor- tunity to prove what his pupils can do in collegiate examinations. He will urge that, if they are not given this opportunity to be examined, they will neglect the subjects in such a way as to do injustice to him and harm to themselves. It may seem hard to tell him that the apparent force of these arguments is based upon an overvaluation of the usefulness of his 250 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago work to boys and girls who are going to college. Yet I believe this to be the truth ; and if it is truth, it should be told plainly. I am not underrating the importance of these things in the scheme of secondary education. For the pupils who are going directly from the high school into practical life study of history and natural science is indispensable. Most of these pupils must get their knowledge of these subjects then, if they are to get it at all. For those who are going to pursue these studies afterward, on the other hand, such preliminary acquaintance with history and with science does not take, in any adequate degree, the place of language or of mathematics. History and natural science are studies which mark the culmination of an educational course, and which, if overdeveloped far before the close, have a tendency to weaken rather than to strengthen the student's powers of application. If by including these things in the examination system we give an artificial stimulus to their pursuit by boys or girls who are afterward going to col- lege, I believe that we delay the advent of a reform in our school system which is of vital importance to us all. That reform will consist in the separation of our classes, both in the grammar schools and in the high schools, into groups that are about to finish their school days and groups that are preparing to advance farther. In almost all our previous groupings we have tried to classify pupils on the lines of their different tastes, real or supposed. There is a great deal to be said in favor of a different system, which should classify them on the basis of the probable duration of the studies. It is a false idea to assume that those things which are taught to the students whose courses near their end are thereby cheapened or made inferior in value ; and it is a yet worse mistake if, in the effort to avoid such cheapening, we put them into a place where they do not really belong. Our system of secondary education has reached a point of achievement where it can stand on its own merits. Those .in charge of it recognize that they have outgrown the stage where their best usefulness was found in being mere preparatory schools. Let us emancipate ourselves from a set of ideas which are but the remnant of a state of things which we have now out- grown. Thus, and thus only, shall we obtain the best preparation for college, and the fullest development of the value and freedom of our secondary education. A REPORT ON MANUAL TRAINING IN THE DETROIT ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, WITH A DISCUSSION ON THE DISCIPLINARY VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING J. H. TRYBOM, SUPERVISOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, DETROIT, MICH. Among the many definitions of " education " that we find in current educational writings there is none that expresses one phase of the issue Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN DETROIT SCHOOLS 251 more definitely to my mind than one by Professor James in which he says that " the aim of education is to make useful habits automatic." Habits of action, habits of thought, and habits of feeling are all included in this definition, the highest powers as well as those usually considered on a lower level. In so far as we are able to develop vigorous, useful habits in our pupils, in so far are we able to make them happy, useful citizens. We are molded by our experiences to the extent that the habits formed practically control our whole conscious life ; or, to quote Dr. Carpenter : The importance of rightly directing the habits of thought and feeling during the whole stage of bodily growth comes to be still more apparent when we regard those habits as really shaping that mechanism whose subsequent action mainly determines our intellectual and moral character, and consequently the whole course of conscious life. The aim of every subject in school is the development of habits of reaction. Any particular bit of knowledge is simply a power to react in the proper manner in the presence of a certain stimulus. How does manual training, as an agent for the formation of these habits of reaction, differ from the more theoretical subjects of the curriculum ? This differ- ence lies in the character of the reaction that takes place. There is no mental activity entirely void of the motor element, but the reactions may be of a more or less evident nature, or even entirely below the level of consciousness. It is this fact that will help us to distinguish a difference between manual training and the other studies of the curriculum. In studies where the object is chiefly the acquisition of particular knowledge the motor reactions are not in evidence. Take history, for instance. The accumulations of historical data imply no necessary reaction for the time being ; they prepare the student for possible reactions in the future. In arithmetic the process implies a motor reaction in the solving of the problem, but except in so far as the writing of the figures is con- cerned, it is a purely mental reaction, a reaction thru processes of associa- tion. This fact is characteristic of all the theoretical subjects taught in school. The reaction taking place is principally a purely mental process, anticipating similar reactions in the future. In other words, it is not learning by doing, but a storing-up of ideas by means of sensory impulses accompanied by processes of association. The group of subjects to which manual training belongs, on the other hand, is characterized by a result in the form of necessary immediate reactions appearing as contractions of various muscles or groups of mus- cles. These subjects, besides manual training, are physical training, art edu- cation, and penmanship. As far as the physical processes are concerned, each of these three latter subjects aims at some special results character- ized by the processes involved : gymnastics, the physical training of the organism ; art education, the inculcation of ideas pertaining to art, such as form, proportion, beauty, etc., besides the special training of the hand 252 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago in the elements of some of the decorative arts ; penmanship, the training of the hand in reproducing the letters of the alphabet. The specific purpose of manual training, on the other hand, is not the inculcation of some special power in using the scissors, the plane, or the saw. Our aim is not the development of technical skill as a preparation for a special trade, but we use these processes of construction with the broader aim of general training. The aim of manual training, expressed in a concise form, is the development of useful habits of a general nature. . It is true that every subject has in the same sense a disciplinary value, but as this is the characteristic feature of manual training, it should be particularly emphasized in relation to this subject. The fact of- repetition is admitted to be the cornerstone of all theories of development. Repeated processes in any one particular field are sure to lead to the development of habits. In every good manual-training lesson the following processes are repeated: (i) objectifying of mental images; (2) muscular activity of the hands and arms; (3) exercises implying order and neatness; (4) attainment of accurate results ; (5) prolonged concentration of attention ; and (6) final success in accomplishing the task in hand. The repetition of these processes must lead to the development of the following habits : (1) thought-expression, giving unity and definiteness of mental content; (2) muscular control ; (3) habits of order and neatness ; (4) habits of accuracy or truth ; (5) habits of perseverance; and (6) habits of confi- dence or self-reliance. Another result of the lessons in manual training is habits of an ethical content. I have tried to summarize the aims of manual training and the con- ditions for reaching these aims in the following synopsis : A SYNOPSIS OF THE AIMS OF MANUAL TRAINING Processes Resulting Habits Conditions for their Develop- ment by Means of Con- structive Work Objectifying of mental im- ages. Thought-expression giving unity and definiteness to mental content. A resulting product repre- senting the mental image. Variety of material. Acts of service. Habits of an ethical con- tent. A useful article the product of the constructive exer- cises. Exercises involving muscu- lar activity. Muscular control, skill. Variety and repetition of technical difficulties. Occupations giving oppor- tunity for actions involv- ing the elements of order and neatness. Order and neatness. A place for everything and everything in its place. Prolonged efforts crowned by success. Perseverance. Attractive models, interest, accurate work. Successful efforts in reach- ing accurate results. Accuracy or truth. Careful progression of the exercises. Final success in various ex- ercises. Self-reliance Never to ask a class to do what it cannot do well. Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN DETROIT SCHOOLS 253 Let us now consider more in detail the conditions for the develop- ment of these habits : 1. Thought-expression. — Manual training is of vital significance as a means of expression. Such materials of construction should be used as will facilitate the objectification of the pupils' thoughts. Thought and expression are practically one in the mind of the young child ; hence the importance, at this stage, of furnishing every possible means of expression. 2. Habits of an ethical content. — Manual training should be instru- mental to acts of an ethical nature. A little boy in his manual-training lesson has succeeded in making a calendar-stand. He is happy because he has accomplished something which now becomes his own. The next question with him may be : "To whom shall I give it ?" Who is nearer than his father ? Observe this child when he reaches home. His happy countenance tells us what pleasure he finds in giving this product of his own activity to his father. Acts of this kind must be the raw material out of which the habit of service is developed. He is happy in doing the act. It may be very insignificant in itself, but it is of the right sort. He derives pleasure from right doing, and this pleasure, this interest, this desire, when leading to action, is our moral will. By using as models articles of apparent use to the pupils, manual training may prove very effective in this respect. 3. Habits of muscular control. — We should use models requiring for their construction a variety of muscular "movements, with sufficient repe- tition of each, in order to make them a permanent content in the form of a habit. 4. Habits of order and neatness. — The manual-training teacher should insist that the pupils take the work seriously, use the tools and instru- ments with care and appreciation, and leave them at the end of the les- son in an orderly condition. 5. Habits of prolonged concentration, of attention, or perseverance. — The condition for the development of this habit is the proper progression of the exercises, so that they at every stage call into action the very best effort that the pupil is capable of. In the interest of the best results in this respect, the pupil's motive for this extended effort should be interest in the activity itself or its results. 6. Habits of accuracy or truth. — Never to ask a class of pupils to do what they cannot do well, together with insistence upon accurate work, are the conditions for the development of these habits. A pupil is accustomed thru the manifold exercises in cardboard construction and wood-work to reach a certain degree of accuracy in his efforts on the dif- ferent models. What influence is this discipline likely to have upon the pupil ? In the first place, he is taught that four inches is four inches, and not a sixteenth more or less. This consciousness that only what is right is right, and that something only approximately true is wrong, will influ- ence his work in every line of activity. 254 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Why should not this clear consciousness of what is right and wrong in the material world be carried over into the moral and ethical field ? Is not a pupil who has been accustomed never to hand to his teacher a model as true that is not true, after several years of similar experiences, likely to insist upon truth in other relations also ? 7. Habits of self-reliance or confidence. — Condition : Never ask a class of pupils to do what they cannot do well. Every individual effort which succeeds in a certain field will add to the consciousness of power in that field. By a certain arrangement of the exercises a boy is able to get high credit for his work. He gets the approbation of the teacher, and, further- more^— this is the stronger factor — he sees for himself that he has been able to do a certain task well. These experiences are repeated time after time. Every one of these successful efforts will add to his consciousness of power in the field in question ; in other words, it will add strength to a habit under formation, the moral habit of confidence, based upon power. Manual training is well adapted to further the development of this habit, because the success of the effort is apparent to the pupil himself. He will not have to be told by the teacher, as the case is in most other subjects. I look upon the development of this habit as one of the chief ends of manual training. It is evident, however, that this habit of confidence is as many-sided as there are fields of activity. Manual training will arouse confidence in one's power in anything where similar difficulties are present. Success in arithmetic will develop confidence in one's power in solving arithmetical problems, etc., but we can claim for manual training, however, a wide range of application in this respect, on the ground that there are com- mon elements in all fields of manual activity. And in so far as these common elements exist, the confidence gained thru a systematically arranged course of manual training can be carried over into other, related fields of activity. This qualification applies to all the other habits mentioned above. We do not by any means claim general training as the result of manual training, except in so far as related elements exist in the different fields of activity. The aim of an educational subject decides the methods to be employed. On the basis of the previous discussion we may now arrive at some gen- eral conclusions in regard to the teaching of manual training, the pro- gression of the exercises, etc. The progression of the exercises in a course of manual training should be such as to manifest to the pupil a constantly growing power, this being the condition for a growing interest. We should never ask a pupil to do what he cannot do well. His work in manual training should be a line of continuous victories Superintendence] MANUAL 7 RAINING IN DETROIT SCHOOLS 255 over difficulties gradually increasing, but not surpassing his power at any stage. Continued failure is worse than no attempt. Success is a greater factor in the educational value of manual training than in any other sub- ject. If we ask a pupil to make a box of cardboard of a certain size, he should be prepared for that model thru previous simpler exercises. The remark that a child cannot read perfectly the first time a book is put into his hand, or make a perfect sketch at his first trial, has no application to manual training. Our aim is not the development of technical skill, but the development of habits. The fact that a boy cannot read well the first time he opens a book is no excuse for accepting an imperfect model as the earlier results in manual training. If a boy does not succeed in cut- ting his card to accurate dimensions, in the fourth grade for instance, he has lost the vital educational results of the exercise. Continued failure in this respect will have injurious effects upon the child's development. The habits we have enumerated above will fail to develop, and in place of them he will acquire habits of carelessness, inaccuracy in its moral and actual significance ; moreover, he will lose confidence in the use of his hands. Manual training under such conditions becomes a farce. The very fact that pupils are making certain articles out of wood or cardboard does not make their activity manual training. Above all other things I look upon thoroness as the vital end of our instruction in manual training. Accuracy, as we have noticed, is an element that enters as a condition for the development of the most important habits resulting from manual training. It is therefore of importance to illustrate what this term " accu- racy " implies during the different school periods. In the previous discussion the word "accuracy" has been applied to two different aspects of manual training, namely: (i) accuracy of expres- sion ; (2) accuracy of measurements. If a primary class in studying the baker's trade is making, as a matter of illustration, a baking-pan of paper, we expect this model to give a com- paratively exact illustration of the shape of this utensil, so that a clear and exact idea remains as the result of the constructive exercise. This kind of accuracy does not include measurements ; it is simply accuracy in expression. On the other hand, if the pupils in a grammar class are mak- ing a box, the drawing of which calls for a certain length, we expect the pupils to make a model of the length called for by the drawing. This I have called accuracy of dimensions. It is only accuracy of expression that we should strive for in the first three years in school. This, besides neatness in arranging and planning patterns and carefulness in cutting, should be the only requirements of the work in the first three grades in regard to accuracy. In the fourth grade another element enters ; that is, accuracy of dimen- sions. The idea of measurements should there be introduced. In this grade the pupils are perfectly able to use the rule with absolute accuracy, 256 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago and I believe it should be insisted upon. That is, if a model is to be 4^ inches long, there is no reason why not 85 per cent, of the pupils should get it this dimension, and not -^ inch more or less. We should never, however, ask. for accuracy before the pupils are properly prepared for such exercises as imply this element ; but at the age of nine it does not seem too extravagant to expect a pupil to locate a point a certain distance from another point, when the process simply means putting the pencil point opposite a certain figure. Neither are the cutting exercises beyond the pupil's power, if cardboard is used as the material of construction. Just as we insisted upon the accuracy of expression during the first three years in school, we should thereafter insist upon accuracy of dimen- sions or measurements. Later in school life we introduce accuracy of a higher grade or nature which will call into action the aesthetic ideas of proportion and beauty. Accuracy in one sense or the other is the keynote to the disciplinary significance of manual training. This discussion on accuracy will again emphasize the necessity of care- ful progression of the exercises. At no stage of the work should we ask a class of pupils to do what they cannot do well. I look upon it as unfortunate that this principle is being often violated. TABLE OF STATISTICS OF MANUAL TRAINING IN THE DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS Grade M OS 0 * 0 a z M pd 9 03 u < a H O (A W 0 sa a E Oh 1 0 w g*l PS PS g a PS 0 X a x <-> 0 B < £ X u < M B. en ■" BO Ph H h Z O M W S in £j z a w cr gsw w , PS x g > w j 3 tn a K Z g; < w » H o.Ph >- a 4. « a 5 < j y j " 5 < *2S Fourth Cardboard construction Grade teacher 40 Boys and girls 1 1 50 #35 $0.06 $0.06 Fifth Cardboard construction Grade teacher . 35 Boys 1 1 25 None #0.08 #0.08 Sixth Knife-work in cardboard and wood Grade teacher 25 Boys 1 1 25 $ts $0. 12 #0.12 Seventh Wood construction Special teacher is Boys iH 15 25 #400 #0.35 #2.92 Eighth Wood construction Special teacher 12 Boys iH 15 25 None $0.45 #3-°2 What has been said above in regard to accuracy of dimensions applies especially to the regular series of models that is followed by all the pupils Superintendence! DOMESTIC SCIENCE IN CHICAGO SCHOOLS 257 in the class. More freedom should be given to the pupils in their work on models of their own invention. Independent activity of this nature should be encouraged, and, if accuracy has been attained on the regular models, the pupils will be guided by the habits thus formed in this inde- pendent work. In the chart of the statistics of manual training in the Detroit public schools you will notice that we have special teachers for the boys only in the seventh and eighth grades. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades the work is in charge of the regular grade teachers, each class of boys receiving their instruction in manual training while the girls have their lesson in sewing from special teachers. The course, as you notice, is cardboard construction in the fourth and fifth grades, and knife-work in cardboard and in wood in the sixth grade. I instruct the grade teachers in the different exercises and illustrate the method of teaching the different models, besides emphasiz- ing the aim of the lesson. In my first talk to new teachers I spend quite a good deal of time defining the aim of manual training as definitely as possible, besides giv- ing as many lessons as my time permits to the different classes in the presence of the teachers. With this assistance I believe the grade teachers can teach the boys manual training just as well as, or better than, special instructors. In the first place, they know their pupils ; secondly, they can correlate the instruction in manual training with that of other, related sub- jects, thus helping to make this new subject an integral part of the curricu- lum ; and, thirdly, they have had extensive experience in teaching. These three conditions are not so easily fulfilled by a special teacher, and they are vital conditions for the success in teaching manual training. THE PROGRESS AND AIMS OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF CHICAGO HENRY S. TIBBITS, PRINCIPAL SPRY SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. The teaching of cooking and sewing, for local reasons called " house- hold arts," was introduced into the Chicago public schools two and a half years ago. A special committee of five members of the board of educa- tion inspected at the Hammond School the teaching of these subjects which they had permitted at private expense. Twenty-five thousand dol- lars was appropriated for providing equipment and initiating the work for its first year. Of this but $18,500 was used. Equipments for cooking were placed in eleven schools, and have been placed in the new Dewey School. Each of these has been a center to which several neighboring schools have sent the girls of the seventh and eighth grades for cooking lessons, one period of an hour and a half each week. The number of 258 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago pupils taught at a center averages 450. In other schools, not contiguous to cooking centers, eleven teachers of sewing have given lessons of an hour and a half each week to the girls of the seventh and eighth grades, the teachers being peripatetic. November 1, 1900, 4,372 pupils were receiving instruction in cooking and 4,853 pupils in sewing, or 9,225 out of a total of 13,000 girls of those grades. The teachers are required to be high-school graduates who have taken a course in domestic science in some secondary institution. This secures an able corps of teachers, several of whom have been called to more lucrative positions in other cities. The courses of lessons in both cooking and sewing are eclectic, having been arranged by the respective associations of teachers. They have been revised and modified as experience has dictated. The cooking lessons are distinctly a plain-food course — lobster salad and charlotte russe being omitted. Each pupil cooks the prescribed food, and either eats it or carries it home. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. The success or failure of a lesson is immediately apparent. Much effort has been given to securing the practical helpfulness of the lessons of the day in the home, where a failure is analyzed and perplexities are dissolved. The grade teachers have often wisely correlated with cooking, physiology, nature study, and some topics of practical arithmetic. Instruction in sewing is practical in a similar way. A study of the nature of cloth is succeeded by the various processes of its adaptation to clothing. Finally, simple garments are made by the pupil for her own use. The related subjects of invention, growth, and manufacture of cloth materials, fibers and fabrics, good taste in dressing, shopping, and laundering, are developed. Sociologically considered, the church industrial schools have been vastly improved upon in the public school, where not simply the poor, good girl is taught sewing, but every girl in the schoolroom, rich or poor, open-minded or clam-like. .." The cost of domestic science is $1.81 per pupil per year; the cost of manual training is $3.34; the cost of German is $4.86. This is based upon the average for the past year. These figures are significant for com- parison either with other studies or with domestic science in other cities. The salaries of teachers of cooking and sewing in Chicago are the same as those of grade teachers, ranging from $500 the first year to $900 for the tenth year. Much of the success of the teaching of cooking depends, of course, upon the method. It is distinctly a laboratory subject, and, like all other laboratory work, is vastly superior when individual equip- ment is supplied. Hence we have the individual sets of dishes and a stove for each pupil. By using small portions, when they suffice, the expense for material is inconsiderable, even with individual instruction. Superintendence] DOMESTIC SCIENCE IN CHICAGO SCHOOLS 259 One and one-fourth cents per pupil per week is the allowance in Chicago. While individual desires will ever increase the cost of equipment, it is possible and wise to equip for the teaching of cooking upon just as accurate and scientific principles and practical use at the expense of $150 for a class of twenty-four as at the rate of $500. One of the noblest movements of the present day is that which would magnify the home. The chair, bright light, and gorgeous embellish- ments are a more harmful element in the saloon than its alcohol. If the honest arts of the home may be made less irksome because they are better understood, and more attractive because they are more artistic, we shall have come to the root of this matter. The evening meal of the factory hand may be made more tempting than the lunch counter, and the clothing of the family, as well as the arrangement and tidiness of the living-room at home, may be as attractive as the gilded home of vice. Domestic science may become the unsuspected, and yet not the least efficient, enemy of the saloon. Instruction in cooking in Chicago is well amplified in its scientific relations. The simple biology of yeast and vinegar is developed. A careful classification of food values as fats, proteids, carbohydrates, mineral matter, etc., accompanies the study of the composition of the human body and its food requisites. The dietetic principles of suitable proportions of these food elements are given, and the complementary nature of certain foods is shown. The reasons for the use of hot or cold water; the relative merits of boiling or baking, of the raw and cooked states, of acid and base — such scientific data, adapted to the age and knowledge of pupils, enter into cooking lessons and furnish the science to enrich the household arts. The dealing- with material things introduces elements of accuracy and order not found in the strictly intellectual sub- jects. Just as in all forms of manual training, small groups of muscles are co-ordinated and deft manipulations mastered, thus realizing complete and extended reactions. The useful hints, skilled methods, and adept ways acquired by the teachers in their special training are imparted in turn to the pupils, and, as in all education, the experience of the race is placed at the disposal of the child. The girl accustomed to black bread and beer for dinner, to poorly cooked food wastefully used, learns to prepare palatable dishes from economical materials. It is difficult to measure the beneficent practical value of domestic science in these humble homes. It is a theme for eloquence, and insures permanency to the subject of study, no matter how much it may be temporarily buffeted about as a fad. To the girl of luxury, with servants at home, whose life may be distinctly social, frivolous, and gay, domestic science yields an appropriate sense of the importance of the human body, its nourishment and clothing — thus introducing a more harmonious and reasonable life. In the wealthier 260 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago school districts of Chicago domestic science has been as welcome to the girls as in the districts of humbler homes. It has never been seriously charged or believed that domestic science demeans the course of study, or is a preparation for domestics. We teach cooking and sewing at the age when pupils unconsciously learn that honest toil is not disgraceful. Mrs. Richards found in Boston that fourth-grade girls gladly received lessons in scrubbing and cleaning which older girls disdained. The impotency of the woman who says she cannot sew on a button or mend a rent is a disease peculiar to modern urban life. The young bridegroom may profess to the wife who forgets to salt her first oatmeal that he likes the oatmeal very much better that way; but sentiment does not blossom freely from a ground of indigestion. Aside from the general effects of domestic-science training, its specific effect, upon every third or fourth girl of distinctly motor predominance, is marked and extremely salutary. Every teacher of manual training, cooking, or sewing will bear witness to the aptitude of certain otherwise backward pupils in these studies which involve the more extended motor reactions. The course of study is thus flexibly adapted - to the pre- dominant activity of the pupil. The teaching of sewing and cooking may be considered again in the light of school occupations. While they train hand and eye, there is ever present a directing mind having in view a distinct end. " I made this loaf of bread." "I planned and sewed my own dress." The peculiar advantage of cooking and sewing as school occupations is that they each parallel practical arts at home. The home is the practice department for the lessons of domestic science. No need can be more evident than that of food and clothing. It springs from a fundamental instinct. Few desires are more strong than to be well fed and well clothed. Reason gives as a secondary basis the desire for long life and a life of bodily comfort. Theoretically this gives us a most substantial basis for interest. Practically it proves a true -basis, for pupils of cooking and sewing in Chicago never ask to be excused from the studies because they dislike them. There is increasing call for the introduction of the studies in the schools which do not now have them. Despite the disadvantages of being compelled to walk a. long distance from the home school once a week in variable weather, the girls who study cooking are enthusias- tic and regular in their attendance, altho the subject is quasi-optional and no other subject compels such travel. The interest is sufficient to overcome all reluctance to preparing material and cleaning utensils. An interest in digestion becomes an all-around satisfied interest when the pupil actually cooks and eats and comfortably assimilates the food of which she has just been studying in her physiology. Domestic science is an integral part of any scheme of sound correlation. Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN MENOMONIE SCHOOLS ' 261 If the school of the future does not bend all subjects into a mechani- cal circle of correlation, it will certainly harmonize subjects, multiply interrelations, and remove many of the present partitions. It will find its basis of interest largely in the occupations. Cooking and sewing are occupations closely related to the life of woman. The educational commission of the city of Chicago in 1899 indorsed domestic science, sewing, and cooking for the curriculum of the Chicago public schools. The objection to special teachers for special subjects, so called, whether German or Latin, manual training or cooking, singing or draw- ing, is overcome in the face of the diversity of modern life. With the great variety of specialists in the medical profession, for example, can it be reasonably demanded that there shall be but one kind of teacher ? A very considerable portion of the business world is occupied in sup- plying the food and clothing for mankind. Hence the relation of domestic science to the economics of the world. Scientists inform us that man does not live as long as he might in comparison with the life of animals. The relation of malnutrition and indigestion to the harmful effects of foods and to the shortness of human life is clear. The theory may be boldly stated that, if man ate wisely appropriate food, he would live longer and more happily. It is the aim of teachers of domestic science to teach and bring into practical use knowledge of proper food and the best methods of preparation. Domestic science has been styled a fad by a certain portion of the public, along with drawing, music, physical culture, manual training, and German, and has endured with them the storm and stress period in Chicago. One week ago the board of education raised the salaries of teachers of Chicago, as one expressed it, "scraping together" all the money they could for the teachers. At the same time they scraped off two months of the term of domestic science, providing this year for only eight months' instruction. This will be restored ; but shows the neces- sary nursing which the subject requires. The most helpful sign of the progress of domestic science in Chicago is the increasing interest in the subject among teachers and principals, and especially among the pupils. It is easy to predict that another generation will take a more generous interest and largely increase the teaching of this subject. MANUAL TRAINING IN THE MENOMONIE PUBLIC SCHOOLS SUPERINTENDENT JUDSON E. HOYT, MENOMONIE, WIS. I am requested by the president of this department to present a brief paper which shall constitute a " Report of Work in Manual Training in the Menomonie Public Schools." 262 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Following the interesting and instructive papers from two cities which nobody has difficulty in locating on the map, the only excuse which a somewhat obscure town of less than six thousand inhabitants has for occupying time in this important session is that it has been the fortunate subject of a rare opportunity and the scene of a relatively extraordinary educational development. In this attempt at exposition there is room for grave doubt as to whether by mere brief statement of the nature, aims, and extent of the general scheme, and by outlines of the manual-training courses, unaided by pictures of appliances, or exhibits of pupils' products, showing subject- matter and quality of work, we shall be able to convey such a true and adequate conception as will seem to justify the prominence that is gener- ously accorded to this enterprise. Menomonie is the county seat of Dunn county in the northwestern part of Wisconsin, and is on the main line of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway between Chicago and St. Paul, sixty-five miles southeast of the latter city. In 1846 Mr. John H. Knapp and Captain William Wilson, who with their families were the first permanent settlers, laid here the foundations of a lumber-manufacturing enterprise which has grown into the now extensive, wealthy, and widely known corporation, the firm of Knapp, Stout & Co. This business establishment was the nucleus of the town, and still remains its leading industry, tho others of considerable proportions have in recent years sprung up, which will insure for the town permanence and growth beyond the time of inevitable extinction of the forest wealth. Over a period of thirty-eight years, from 1852 to 1890, the school sys- tem of Menomonie had a gradual growth from a one-room school, which was established and for five years supported by or under the management of the company, to a city system occupying five buildings in different parts of the town, having twenty-:four separate schools and employing twenty-seven teachers. In 1890, the year of the introduction of manual training, there was a total population in the city of 5,500, a school popu- lation (ages between four and twenty years) of 1,750, and an enrollment in the schools of 1,350, of which 109 were in the high-school department. In this earlier period only an organization and curriculum of the usual type were aimed at. Free-hand drawing and music were the only special branches. At the present time the population of the city is 5,650 ; the school population, 2,250; the total enrollment of pupils, 1,650, of which 148 are in the high school. Nine buildings, providing for twenty-nine separate schools, are occupied and forty-seven teachers employed, of whom five are teachers of special subjects. While in this ten-year period little change has taken place in the total population, and the ratio of school population to school enrollment Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN MENOMONIE SCHOOLS 263 remains practically the same, great and fundamental changes, amounting to a complete revolution, have taken place in the aims and character of the instruction thru the enlargement of facilities and teaching force, and the incorporation of the ideas of the new education as these are embodied in the kindergarten and the manual-training school. The school system now consists of a kindergarten system of three kindergartens, which, with the primary schools of the city, is under the immediate care of a supervisor, who also is head of the kinder- garten and primary training school ; of twenty-five lower-grade schools ; of a high school which offers four four- year courses; and of the manual- training school which, having, as now conducted, no separate student body, belongs to the school system as a whole and is an aggrega- tion in one building of the rooms, appliances, and instructional force for the teaching of the purely manual, industrial, and art phases of the manual-training courses, together with the special knowledge-matter on which these are based. To Hon. James H. Stout, a resident member of the firm of Knapp, Stout & Co., a gentleman of large means, philanthropic disposition, and deep interest in all forms of educational effort, the city of Menomonie is indebted for its initial prompting, as well as the provision of the material means for the introduction of both manual training and the kindergarten work into the public schools. We have here an instance of a people being led out into a way which they knew not, which they did not choose origi- nally for themselves, by the deeper insight, strong purpose, and wise leader- ship of a single public-spirited individual, supported by a liberal use of private funds. The first step toward manual training was taken when in October, 1890, Mr. Stout made to the board of education the following proposi- tion : I will place upon the school grounds, in a place to be designated by the board of education, a building of proper size and kind, furnished with all the equipments necessary for the instruction of classes of boys and girls in the subjects included in the first-year course in manual training. I will also pay the salaries of the necessary teachers, the cost of all necessary materials and supplies, and all the contingent expenses for three terms or for a time equivalent to three school terms, except such a part thereof as shall be paid by five hundred dollars which is to be provided by the board of education. The proposition was of course accepted, and the building and equip- ments were provided. The work of instruction was begun, in high-school classes, in January of the following year. So successful and popular did the manual-training work, in all its phases, soon become, and so cordially was it supported by the people, by whom, after the first year, funds were supplied for the running expenses, that Mr. Stout was encouraged to provide the school with a more ample and convenient building and a whole complement of furniture and equip- ments, which should enable the extension in due time of manual-training 264 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago courses, for both boys and girls, over the entire lower grades and high- school period. The test of the popular appreciation, as well as of Mr. Stout's devo- tion to the enterprise, came when, after four years of the use of this second building, it, together with the large central school building on the same grounds, was destroyed by fire. There was no wavering on the part of the people. They appropriately indicated to Mr. Stout, by a memorial numerously signed, their recognition and appreciation of the benefactions already received, their wish that the provisions for manual training might be restored, and their ready Willingness to carry still, as they had hitherto done, the increased taxation necessary to provide for the running expenses of the work. Mr. Stout, on his part, awaited only an unmistakable assurance of this wish and attitude. The great opportunity was now at hand for planning two buildings, each the counterpart of the other, which together should embody the material arrangements and appliances corresponding to a broad scheme of elementary and secondary education in accordance with approved modern conceptions. One of these buildings was to house a gymnasium, a kindergarten, nine lower-grade schools, and the high school, providing the latter amply with library, recitation rooms, and laboratories. The other was to afford facilities, as its forerunner had done, for extensive courses in manual training, including, for boys, free-hand and mechani- cal drawing, sloyd, cabinet work, wood-turning, pattern-making, molding and casting, forge-work, and machine-shop practice; and, for girls, draw- ing and art work, sewing and dressmaking, cooking and serving, house- keeping and laundry work. Liberal plans were amply realized, and the buildings, with their furni- ture and equipments, stand today the wonder and delight of every intelli- gent visitor, and a model for progressive schoolmen. Detailed description would not be in place here, but some idea of their extent and quality may be obtained from their cost. Upon the central school building the city has expended $60,000, and Mr. Stout has made additions in various forms amounting to fully $25,000, while the manual-training building, with its furniture and equipments, represents a cost of over $190,000, which was, of course, provided wholly by Mr. Stout. The aim of the undertaking in the Menomonie schools has been from the outset to provide manual training and art education in suitable courses to all pupils, in and from the kindergarten thru the high school, as a collateral and complement to the usual oral and text-book instruction, to the extent of making some exercise in doing a part of the daily experience of every pupil, arid for the purpose of securing to the pupil all the various advantages which these courses are adapted to give. Both boys and girls are provided for. The artistic and educational conceptions of manual training have been kept in ascendency over the Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN MENOMONIE SCHOOLS 265 utilitarian and technical, tho the claims of the latter have not been ignored. In the lower grades the work is required. In the high school it is pro- fessedly optional ; but, with only an occasional exception, the associated manual-training branch is elected. Three academic subjects and one fifty-five minute manual-training period per day constitute the standard amount of work. While it is possible for a pupil in a regular high-school course to get, within school hours, more than this allotment, still the manual-training subjects are held quite strictly as collaterals to academic work. However, separate arrangements are made for pupils who for any reason have abandoned their academic studies, and for young men and women from within or without the city, by which they are enabled to devote their time quite exclusively to manual-training subjects, and so get a more specialized and technical training. The courses in the several manual-training subjects have from the first undergone a progressive development, and at some important points are still in transition. But the place of each process, and the kind and amount of work to be expected of the pupil under the particular condi- tions which obtain at our school, have been approximately settled. No claim of originality is made ; no presumption is indulged in that a pace has been set which any other school should follow. We have simply selected from the common stock of manual-training knowledge and usage the kinds and amounts of work that are adapted to our needs. Time will not permit such a detailed statement of our courses as will reveal whatever may be distinctive, but the following outlines may be of interest : THE MANUAL-TRAINING COURSES I. IN GRADES BELOW THE HIGH SCHOOL A course in free-hand drawing, for boys' and girls alike, extending over the entire period from the kindergarten to the high school, is taught by the regular teachers in the several schoolrooms, under the supervision of the art teacher of the manual-training school. It is based on the art idea, and has little direct reference to construction, except that in the first four years, before other forms of manual work begin, it is made especially full in exercises involving manipulation of materials, such as stick-laying, paper-cutting, clay-modeling, paper-folding, cardboard construction, brush-drawing, color-painting, and basket-weaving. In the later years this course gives itself wide latitude in the choice of mediums, processes, and subjects ; uses pencil, charcoal, pen-and-ink, and brush, in sepia and in color. It concerns itself in regular sequence, frequent recurrence, and in due degree with nature study, model- and object-drawing, illustration, measurements and working drawings, light and shade, historic ornament, the planning of ornament, conventionalizing of natural forms, water-color painting, design, and perspective. This may seem an ambitious and too varied program, but in the test 266 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago of use under good teaching it yields a very considerable insight and skill, and develops interest and real artistic feeling. The course in plain sewing, for girls, begins in the fourth grade and runs, at two periods of thirty to fifty minutes a week, thru the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. All pupils above the fourth grade, except those of one remote school, come to the manual-training building for this work. The usual course in plain sewing, in which each new exercise isolated for the purpose of teaching is followed more or less closely by application in a completed whole, is taught with much insistence on accuracy and neat- ness. This practice is accompanied by the presentation of much informa- tion matter about fabrics — their raw materials, manufacture, characteristics, and utilities. The seventh year is given almost wholly to garment- making. The sewing work is interrupted at this stage in order that the eighth- grade year may be given to the introductory stage of a three-year course in cooking, serving, housekeeping, hygiene, and sanitation. The aim of the instruction in this year is to give to all girls, especially to those who will not go on into the high school, the requisite knowledge of food-stuffs and food classes, of fundamental processes, and a degree of skill in their use, which will enable the successful preparation of the common foods. For boys, the work in the grades consists of a course of bench-work based on the sloyd idea. This begins in the fifth grade with a series of exercises in whittling and the making of surface forms in thin wood. It passes on to the use, by gradual introduction, of all the usual tools, in the execution of a graded series of exercises as represented in models, involving form-work and joinery, in increasingly complicated, completed products. The lay-out of the model to be made is placed before the pupil in blue-prints or . blackboard sketches, and the work demonstrated when desirable. The reading and making of working drawings are taught in this connection, but little of "the pupil's time is applied to the making of those which he actually uses. In addition to the standard series of models, which is not held to as a sine qua non, the boy is given large opportunity to make things in which he is himself interested, and to express himself in plan and style of work. The time allotment of this course is two fifty-five minute periods per week thru the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. II. CONTINUATION OF THE MANUAL-TRAINING COURSES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL The drawing courses. — Drawing has thus far been taught in the several schoolrooms, substantially the same work being given to both boys and girls. When the high school is reached, mechanical drawing comes into prominence as a separate subject, and claims the time of the boys, and Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN MENOMONIE SCHOOLS 267 such of the girls as are specially interested. The girls as a rule continue in the line of free-hand drawing and art study. All pupils henceforth come to the manual-training building for their exercises. The general aim of the art work is to educate to an appreciation of the beautiful, to stimulate the artistic and inventive faculties, and to train the eye and hand to become the ready servants of the mind in the expres- sion of ideas. These aims are sought to be realized by surrounding the pupil with an environment of beauty in the schoolrooms, and especially in the several rooms of the art department, by a study, in connection with practice, of the principles involved in the several forms of art essayed, and of examples in curios, pictures, and casts of historic and present-day art. Relatively speaking, the school is well provided for in these directions. A rich and varied, but well systematized, course is given, which cannot be adequately represented in a brief outline. Mechanical drawing is taught as a mental discipline, as concrete math- ematics, as training of eye and hand, as the language of construction, and as technical training. That the course may be more systematic and thoro, little attempt is made at correlations with the shop-work. Exercises to give command of the instruments, lettering, geometrical problems, pro- jections, intersections, development of surface, mechanical perspective, line and wash shading, conventional colors, are each laid under contri- bution, and together give a fair degree of mastery of mechanical drawing as a method and means. Two years having been thus occupied, the remaining two years are given to applications in either of the two lines, machine or architectural drawing, with a view to the acquirement of something like technical knowledge and skill. This course is held by graduates of the school to be a most valuable general discipline, apart from the use of the attain- ment in practical ways. Two fifty-five minute periods a week are given to this course for four years. The work in domestic arts in the high school consists in the continua- tion of the course in cooking which was begun in the eighth grade, and a course in dressmaking. Three fifty-five minute periods per week are the allotment of time in each of these subjects. In the first high-school year a review and extension of the study of food-stuffs, of their composition, dietetic values, and proper combination, are accompanied by practice in the preparation, cooking, and serving of all the usual foods. Marketing, housekeeping, and care of laundry are engaged in, both for training and in the service of the school. What may be regarded the refinements of cooking receive atten- tion in the second high-school year. In addition, study and practice in planning, marketing for, and serving of meals and lunches to invited guests, and assistance in preparation of, and serving at, occasional ban- quets, afford attractive and valuable experience. Hygiene and home 268 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago sanitation, invalid cookery, and the care of the sick and injured receive a liberal allotment of time proportioned to their importance. The course in dressmaking runs thru the third high-school year. In this instruction effort is made to base the work on principles, and to give a mastery of processes which will be available beyond the limited amount of practice that can be had under the eye of the teacher. Plan- ning, selecting of materials, measuring, the making and use of patterns, use of models, fitting, trimming, and other like means, receive careful teaching. Discussions of the characteristics and suitableness of materials for various uses, of comparative cost, of hygiene and good taste in dress, and other relevant topics, accompany the work as occasion requires. The domestic-arts courses are well taught, are attractive to pupils, and command the confidence and cordial support of the mothers and all patrons of the school. The mechanic-arts courses are, with the exception of one sloyd class, all taught in the manual-training building. Each has a time allotment of three fifty-five minute periods per week. The boy having thru his lower-grade work been confined to one shop and to a series of processes upon wood, involving the use of com- paratively few tools, now upon entering the high school has opened to him quite rapidly the range of the mechanic- arts shops. He is intro- duced to machinery, and is subjected to the necessity of bringing his own action into correspondence with the motion of the machine. Wood-turning is the first machine process, and upon this he spends the first high-school year. Pattern-making, molding, and casting, in a series of alternations, fill the second year, and give the boy a practical introduction to foundry work. Casting is done in iron and brass. The third year is passed in the blacksmith shop, where an especially well-planned course in the common processes of forging, welding, and tool construction is taught. No course in the series is more attractive to the boys or more. effective as-training than this. The machine shop, into which the pupil passes for the work of the fourth year, is a model in its completeness, and in the grade of the machine tools and the thoroness of their installment. The meager time which pupils in the regular courses can give to the work of this shop prevents full realization of the opportunities here afforded. A period of bench-work in chipping and filing is followed by the sys- tematic working of a series of exercises in iron and steel, involving use of the engine lathe, the speed lathe, the drill press, and the shaper. Inci- dentally, knowledge of the utilities and insight into the working of several other more special and complicated machines are acquired, but practice with these is left to an advanced course after high-school graduation. The foregoing review of courses is necessarily incomplete, but it errs Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING IN MENOMONIE SCHOOLS 269 on the side of omission rather than overstatement. Classes are now fully differentiated, and all the lines of work enumerated are in actual operation. A committee of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Edu- cation is now investigating the assigned subject, "American Industrial Education — What Shall it Be ?" The preliminary report of this com- mittee, presented in New York last July, having mentioned by name the school which is the subject of this paper, makes this strong statement : " Both the appliances and the instruction in this school are of the highest order, and the results are well calculated to astonish anyone who has never seen this system of public instruction in successful operation from the kindergarten through the high school." DISCUSSION President F. W. Parker, Chicago Institute. — In 1883, in a basement of the Cook County Normal School, with a few rude benches and a good teacher, we introduced manual training. That was probably the first attempt to put manual training into elementary schools in this country. Manual training is not for external uses, but for internal development. In its earlier history it was begun in the high schools. Things nearly always begin at the wrong end. It is better and will be better for the children when the youngest of them can have the benefit of the right kind of manual training. It has not been so very long since this subject was not very favorably considered by an educational body. Manual training was demolished by a number of educational gentle- men in Washington in 1884, but since that demolition nothing has flourished like manual training. I never saw a child that did not like manual training. Boys and girls love it alike. The fundamental error (Dr. G. Stanley Hall suggested this a number of years ago, and I saw it) lies in logical sequence. This is the fundamental error in all education. What we have learned is that the child is full of activity. When children go into the shops and find that they have to do something themselves, delight seizes their souls. They take the school home with them. When education penetrates the home and when home penetrates the school, then things move on. Mr. J. H. Stout, Menomonie, Wis. — We are not facing the conditions of today in our school work. We are looking too much to the past. We need to look to the con- ditions that are confronting us now in providing measures and methods in education. Among the adjuncts of the public schools there is one especially valuable, and that is the library. The traveling-library plan is an excellent one. Wisconsin has spent a million and a quarter dollars for libraries in the last year or two. Mr. Bevans, Aurora, 111. — I wish to speak in favor of employing useful objects in manual-training work. The boy's interest in manual training is increased if the object which he makes has a use to which he may wish to put it. In Aurora a boy failed on a simple piece involving a principle given him by his teacher. The same boy wanted to make a bookcase. His teacher let him try, and he turned out a creditable product. Superintendent Joseph Carter, Champaign, 111. — There is danger now in our smaller towns, after the experience at Menomonie, of the prevalence of the feeling that, unless some rich man will do something toward manual training, one cannot do anything. 270 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION TChicago It has been my fortune to serve as superintendent in the schools of two towns, neither of which could be said to be especially well-to-do. In both of these towns something in the way of manual training was undertaken. We would teach the use of a few common tools — of the saw and the needle — and this without very much cost. I honor rich men who make ma»ual training in the schools possible. I honor more a community which says that it ought to do these things for the children and proceeds to do them. Professor C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. — I experience a deep feeling of satisfaction that the department is in such excellent temper as I find it in today. It has not always been so well disposed toward manual training. Some years ago there was a good deal of opposition to it, but now all are looking one way. There is much more in manual training than in making carpenters and blacksmiths. It develops capability in more than one direction. Manual training has brought in a good deal. It has grown down until it meets the young children and answers their needs. One of the bugbears, as to expense, has been done away with. In St. Louis it costs 1 cent per day per pupil. Domestic science has taken on a systematic educational method, so that there is a chance of its blossoming into something of a larger shape. I wish to testify to the interest of the children in domestic economy. In a certain colored school in St. Louis, where this subject is taught, it costs pupils 10 cents a day to get there, but the attendance in that school is the best in the city. It is easy in any community to establish manual training, if you have faith in yourself, faith in your cause, and faith in the community. Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y. — I have thought that some figures as to the expense of conducting manual training might be interesting. For the instruction of 2,800 pupils the cost is as follows : For five teachers $4,200 For supplies ............ 540 For additional equipment gg Making a total cost of #1.73 per pupil. The original and total cost of equipment is as follows : for two kitchens, one manual-training room, and equipment in each of four- teen ward schools, in fifth and sixth grades, #1,744. Professor J. H. Trybom, Detroit, Mich. — Both sewing and cooking may be made to serve the ends of manual training — sewing in particular. Altho the same variety of tools and materials as in wood construction, for instance, may not be possible, it can not be said by any means that the girls have not the advantages of manual training. In regarding the value of manual training, the economic side is worth some consideration. With due emphasis upon the educational side in teaching sewing, with careful progression of the exercises, and with models suitable to the age of the pupils, the aims of manual training can well be realized thru this subject. POSSIBILITIES OF MANUAL TRAINING FOR MORAL ENDS R. CHARLES BATES, SUPERVISOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, TOME INSTITUTE, PORT DEPOSIT, MD. I have been asked by our president to give some observations upon my work at Elmira, N. Y., covering five years as director of manual training at the New York State Reformatory, and I have consented to do so, altho my relations with that institution terminated over a year ago. The characteristics of manual training at the reformatory, as compared Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING FOR MORAL ENDS 271 with manual training in our public-school system, arise from the fact that it was organized and operated for the special purpose of treating forms of mental and moral diseases, much as hospitals and sanitariums exist for the treatment of special maladies ; and, next, that it was of value as a stimulus toward reformation for many who were not susceptible to other agencies. Manual training as a reformative agent became acceptable only after searching investigation covering numbers of inmates of varying ages, nationalities, and degrees of intelligence, and after extended observa- tion covering a long period of time. In order that you may fully appreciate what influence manual training had upon these specially abnormal pupils, I shall define somewhat the characteristics of the subject, his environment before and during con- finement, and his relation to society after his release. Investigation shows that of all persons committed to reformatories about 85 per cent, have not had the advantages of good home training during the formative period, or of even respectable parents. These spores of society have been left to roam ad libitum ; many could not read or write. Before conviction for felony they have figured in juvenile crimes cataloged as misde- meanors ; many have spent the larger part of their lives in houses of refuge, homes for boys, boys' farm schools, or like institutions. In time these boys have grown into young manhood without that training which should fit them for the duties of American citizenship. As a result of their environment they have learned to be deceptive, to misrepresent, to dissemble, to be defiant, and, what is worse, to feel that they have been segregated because of their heroism ; for it is a peculiar trait in the character of the criminally abnormal classes to feel that all society is wrong ; that they are sufferers at the hands of scheming speculators in human will and sovereign freedom. The state of New York maintains juvenile reform schools. Catholic and Protestant societies are sponsors for similar schools. Into these places the spores of infected humanity are crowded ; but these schools do not change criminal habits or supply new motives thru well-directed self-activity. In short, they are not fitted to deal with this abnormal element ; they have neither the personnel in their teaching force nor the apparatus ; they are for the most part officered by men who have not been trained for this work ; neither are these officers sufficiently interested in the problems of social regeneration to fit them- selves for their onerous task. So these reform schools and protectorates become houses of detention rather than schools for training in the duties of citizenship. In many cases they are simply treadmills of useless routine without appliances for stimulating to strength of purpose or for developing active intelligence thru profitable industry ; neither do they appeal thru the physical sensory organs to the higher self, to the end that each individual may adjust himself to the existing social laws. The real purpose of reform schools, protectorates, and reformatories should be to 272 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago suppress the disposition toward criminal habits by supplying new motives, by teaching frugality and industry, and by cultivating ideals worthy of a pure manhood. At the Elmira Reformatory these ideals have been wisely wrought out under the direction of that seer, Hon. Z. R. Brockway. For a large number of inmates the usual industrial, literary, and civic regulations were sufficient to inspire to a more perfect manhood, and in almost all • cases there has been sufficient response to these reformative agencies to show that the discharged inmate has complied with recognized legal standards of correct living. There were, however, a number of inmates who did not respond to these agencies, and for such manual training was established, the results of which lead us to the subject of this paper, " Possibilities of Manual Training for Moral Ends." With the knowledge gained from a wide experience with manual training in public schools, and its value as related to the problems in education, we have a basis for operation. Manual training for defectives is based on this psychological fact, namely, that for every important part of the body under control of the will there is a region of the brain from which these parts are controlled; these are known as motor centers. For instance, what we commonly call muscular paralysis is but the result of a suspension of the motor function of that part of the brain control- ling that set of muscles ; or conversely, if these sources of stimuli are undeveloped or have become diseased, it is possible that they may become accelerated in functioning thru a development of the muscle or muscles which they control. This fact has been quite largely developed under the direction of Professor Scripture, of Yale University ; many of his experiments have been based upon data furnished by me while at Elmira. The influence of manual training upon the life of any pupil depends upon two things : first, the nature of. the tool-activities ; and, secondly, the relation of these tool-activities to the life of the pupil thru the things furnished as a project. These are further modified by the personality of the teacher and his special fitness for the work. At Elmira the selection of tool projects and the processes for the performance of these ends were designed to meet and overcome the special defect in particular groups by using materials of paper, wood, metal, and clay. From these materials and carefully designed models we could illustrate a principle in mathematics or enforce a moral law; thus, a force may be set in motion which shall act upon the mind, the brain, and the body to produce healthy beneficial thought and action. If this manual work is intelligently maintained, new interests are awakened, well- ordered habits lead to active discrimination, and earnest concentration and decisions are formed which lead to increased mental and moral enlargement. Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING FOR MORAL ENDS 273 By careful selection of these non-responsive prisoners, based on closely tabulated daily observations, we discovered that these inmates could be properly grouped under one of three general classifications of recognized defectives. Our duty now lay in adapting manual training to overcome these defects and to restore the individual to a more normal condition, wherein he would become susceptible to reformative influences affecting his release, and thereby fit himself for his return to society as a contributive citizen rather than a parasitic individual. To speak analytically on these classifications, I must name the groups and show causes for classification : Group 1, mathematical defectives. — These pupils fail specially in arith- metic, likewise in trades classes where the demand for mathematical acute- ness and manual expression therefrom make it difficult for these defectives to comprehend or intelligently pursue the outlines. This defect, if allowed to continue or await its eradication under the usual school instruction and trades teaching, would mean much incumbrance to the class organization, and thus deprive those fitted to advance of that share of active intellectual work which they need to qualify for parole release. As soon as this arithmetical defect is recognized, the pupils are assigned to the manual-training school, and retained there for treatment until such time as we feel they are capable of pursuing the routine work of the school of letters and the mathematics involved in the projects of the technological class to which they are assigned for trades teaching. The manual subjects selected for this class of defectives are as follows : first term — 35 hours a week for 17 weeks: mechanical drawing, sloyd, wood-work, athletics and calisthenics, clay-modeling, and mental arith- metic; second term — same as above, except cardboard constructions substituted for clay-modeling; third term — same as above, except wood- turning substituted for cardboard constructions. The time at my disposal does not permit giving a detailed description of methods and showing the relation of the several tool processes to the development of mathematical acquisitiveness, or of showing quantita- tively the moral improvement among those pupils whom I shall later designate as "control defectives," or even the third group, designated as "mentally deficient." You must accept the statements of results as I know them, and as they are attested by such eminent authorities as Professor Scripture, of Yale University ; Professor Richards, of Teachers College, Columbia University ; Dr. Henderson, of the department of sociology, University of Chicago; the late Charles Dudley Warner; Edward Atkinson ; Hon. Frederick Wines, of the Census Department, Washington, D. C; and others who might be named. It is difficult to express degrees of human intelligence or moral predi- cation in terms of percentages; yet it is the accepted method for compari- son, and I follow it for want of a better. So I give briefly these statistics : 274 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago total number assigned during one year for treatment as mathematical defectives, 120; those improved, 46 per cent.; those unimproved, 53 per cent.; average time of attendance, 9 months, 3 days. Group 2, control defectives. — These are persons who in the reformatory community are anti-social. Their indifference to the rules governing free society, with added antipathy to all forms of regulation which mean the subordination of depraved tastes and vicious habits to well-ordered habits, follows in the social organization of the reformatory ; this depravity is yet a part of their organism as they enter into this new life of enforced observance of those necessary qualifications for citizenship ; so they do not easily adjust themselves to the regulations of the new environment which requires that their habits shall be such as will develop self-respect, recognize authority, and become self-sustaining thru well-directed indus- try, thereby forming a part of a well-adjusted fraternity. That these spores of humanity do not conform to regulations approximating those in free society is evidence to us of a defect in character. This is a defect in self-control, and it exhibits itself in many ways. These improper physi- cal and mental manifestations indicate certain other mental and moral lesions ; these must be met and overcome before the subject is amenable to his environment, which so nearly approaches that of organized society. As soon as this control defect is recognized, the pupils are assigned for treatment in the manual-training school for the purpose of supply- ing a more intensive atmosphere. Our object is to secure a conscious self-activity in right directions by doing the things which make for self- respect ; to secure thru manual performances a more earnest expression of permanent change of habits; to habituate them to do definite, honorable acts thru honest tool performances, and thru good designs, paintings, etc., to suggest enjoyment for the beautiful in life ; in short, to lead them to higher motives and more noble purposes. We follow out this idea of manual occupation by securing projects which subordinate the physical nature, projects which tend to lift the mind above the ignominy of its confinement and thru regularity of tool performances secure a habitual orderly employment of all the many forces which these active but badly adjusted individuals have at their command. The tool processes selected for these control defectives are as follows : first term — 35 hours a week for 17 weeks: athletics and calisthenics, geometric constructions, wood-turning, pattern-making, mechanical and free-hand drawing, wood-carving ; second term — same as above, except substitution of molding for wood-turning; third term — same as second term, except chipping and filing for molding. Statistical data of results in the case of control defectives : total number assigned and under treatment, 257 ; those improved, 30 per cent.; unim- proved, 70 per cent. Superintendence] MANUAL TRAINING FOR MORAL ENDS 275 Group 3, general defectives. — This class of pupils are among the low- est order, intellectually and physically, in prison society ; men in whom hereditary influences for generations show a legacy of diseased bodies, disordered minds, enervated brains ; and these organs have been further weakened by unnatural sexual practices. These pupils are between the densely ignorant and the imbecile ; many of them should not have been sent to the reformatory, but to some permanent home for imbeciles. For many of them we can, thru manual processes, physical training, baths, dietary, and special elementary-school work correlated to manual training, develop sufficient mental expression to cause them to respond to the general demands of school and demeanor regulations, and thus fit them for some kind of honest labor after release. The manual processes for these defectives are as follows : athletics and calisthenics, free-hand drawing, elementary wood-work, mental arithmetic, and sentence-building. Total number assigned for treatment, 61; those improved, 30 per cent.; those unimproved, 70 per cent.; average time in attendance, 11 months, 18 days. From the foregoing remarks we have seen that manual training is not only of value as an educational factor leading to self-activity and mental development, but it becomes, in the hands of the scientist — one conversant with pedagogy, physiology, psychology, and applied mechanics — a potent factor for moral ends. It opens up avenues for activities which are in direct consonance with the laws governing moral expression. All morality is but a harmonious adjustment of one's higher nature with known ele- ments in human character, which elements are the vital forces in society that lift it above license, above conspiracy, above abuse. It is that force in human affairs which removes the disposition to riotousness, to self- abasement, and puts one in an atmosphere of conscious relation to divine law. It is clear to my mind that the presence of manual training in our public-school system will have a far-reaching influence upon human activi- ties, because it gives that delightful balance in mental growth which indi- cates the wisely educated person. For defectives in public institutions it is possible thru manual training to awaken dormant consciousness of creative force ; and, further, it brings into use the neglected motor areas of the brain thru the enforced functioning of their corresponding muscu- lar agents. I cannot close this paper on the "Possibilities of Manual Training for Moral Ends " without reference to the pertinent remark of Ruskin, made long before the science of teaching was as well understood as at the pres- ent : " A boy cannot learn to take a straight shaving or drive a fine curve without learning a multitude of other matters which the life of man could not teach him." 276 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago ROUND TABLES ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF LARGE CITIES LEADER SUPERINTENDENT F. LOUIS SOLDAN, ST. LOUIS, MO. General topic : Organization of the Work of Inspection and Supervi- sion thru Assistant Teachers and Principals, so as to Reach the Grade Teacher. In opening the discussion of the topics submitted by the president of the department, Mr. Soldan called attention to some of the inherent difficulties growing out of the fact that the number of teachers is usually so great as to render personal acquaintance with their work by the superintendent impossible, and to the necessity of depending in a large measure upon the visits of inspection made by assistants and principals. Superintendent L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O. — The superintendent himself should make a series of visits to the same teacher on the same day — three or four visits of short duration, say five minutes. On the next day he should visit the same teacher again to observe how the lessons succeeding the ones which he had observed are given, to deter- mine if the teacher had benefited by the suggestions offered by him on the preceding day. The superintendent cannot visit all teachers in this way, but he can visit the best teachers and the poorest teachers ; then thru meetings with the supervising officers he can establish the general policy which shall govern the work. Meetings with principals should be of the same nature. Superintendent W. F. Slaton, Atlanta, Ga., with one assistant supervises the work of 258 teachers. He visits each one once in each year. He emphasizes the need of protecting the individuality of the teacher. He holds grade meetings, followed by general meetings of all the teachers. Superintendent Soldan, the chairman, pointed out the need of encouragement, showing that even criticism can be made in such a way as to stimulate the teacher to renewed effort. He spoke of the importance of personal talks with the teacher to cor- rect faulty methods of questioning and kindred errors. He raised the question whether supervision is for the purpose of stimulating or for lopping off, or for the combination of both. Superintendent Jones said that conference for the purpose of stimulating to better work was the only kind that should be conducted in the schoolroom. Interviews for any other purpose should be conducted -in the superintendent's office. Superintendent H. O. R. Siefert, Milwaukee, Wis., emphasized the importance of acquaintance with the teacher. Principals are the superintendent's cabinet. Teachers are to be influenced thru the principal. The superintendent really knows a class only by taking it himself. He should, whenever possible, commend the work of the teacher as shown by the work of the class. He corrects his own record of a teacher's efficiency by comparing it with the record of his assistant and of the principal. Men, as a rule, are more helpful as principals than women. In grade meetings the teachers form their own organization. District Superintendent Leslie Lewis, Chicago. — It is the duty of superin- tendent and principal to aid the teacher to succeed. Quite generally, if the teacher fails, it is our fault. To help the teacher there must be acquaintance. Such acquaintance can- not be made in five- or ten-minute visits. Criticisms may sometimes be made in the pres- ence of the principal. Criticisms may be kindly given, and when so given are as a rule gratefully received. Men and women are equally valuable as principals. Teachers must be informed kindly but firmly of the exact ground of the criticism. Superintendence] ROUND TABLES OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 277 Mr. Soldan quoted one of Lincoln's sayings, "One drop of honey catches more flies than a gallon of vinegar," and another from the Talmud, " There is a soul of good- ness in things evil." He then raised the question of how to avoid collision of authority in making suggestions to teachers. Mr. Lewis answered that he makes such suggestions in the presence of the prin- cipals. Mr. Siefert advised telling the teacher, "Do as the principal told you," and then working with the principal to make the correction. Mr. Jones recommended such an understanding with supervising officers that such difficulties will rarely occur. Superintendent W. N. Hailmann, Dayton, O. — The superintendent must deal directly with the principal, conferring with him before making criticisms of teachers. Let the principal deal with the matter without help, unless he wishes it. Kindness and ben- evolence should be exercised, but, in some instances, a time comes when a teacher must be asked to resign. The principal must be made to feel his responsibility as well as his power. Organizations help. The superintendent should seek the advice of his princi- pals, should encourage free discussion, should give credit for assistance. He should not require things done in this way or that way, but should aim only at the accomplish- ment of certain results. Thru teachers' meetings teachers realize their own shortcom- ings. Teachers may sometimes be transferred to a more appreciative principal. Both principals and teachers should be led to understand that they, not the superintendent, make the school. Teachers in Dayton are divided into chapters for the study of certain lines of work, as literature, history, geography, etc. Those deficient in any direction are advised to join the chapter devoted to the study of that subject. The superintendent calls attention to sources of information. He places the stress of supervision upon the attitude of the teacher toward the children. Ex-Superintendent Anderson, Milwaukee, Wis., holds that the superintendent's services are more effective in speaking to the entire body of teachers about meritorious as well as about faulty methods, since he can select those which are typical. He does not approve of meetings presided over by elected officers. He would appoint the officers. Superintendent Hailmann has three times a year what he calls a house-cleaning day. The good things observed are summed up, and errors pointed out. Teachers of recognized ability are invariably selected by the teachers to lead the chapters ; high- school teachers often being among them. Superintendent Soldan explained the character of the teachers' meetings held in St. Louis. At the opening of school each year the 1,700 teachers are invited to come together to hear an address given by the superintendent. Attendance is voluntary, yet more teachers attend than when attendance was required. The opening lecture is a con- densation of the experience of the previous year. There are weekly meetings of teachers in various departments, all of which are voluntary. These meetings occur usually at 3 : 30 in the afternoon, with permission to those who wish to attend to close their schools in time to reach the place of meeting. Principals' meetings occur as often as once in six weeks. The superintendent formulates certain broad principles as a basis for discussion. Teachers are encouraged to criticise the administration. Thanks are always returned to the teachers for such criticisms. Tho anonymous criticisms deserve nothing better than the wastebasket, yet, on the ground that no principal should be kept in ignorance of any statement affecting the work, such communications are sent to the principal to whom they refer, with an explanation of the superintendent's low estimation of their value and with the request that they be returned. Teachers in St. Louis are appointed from among the graduates of the city normal 278 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago school after one year of apprentice teaching. They meet every second Saturday during that apprentice year for the purpose of receiving instruction or for observing a model lesson given by a teacher of some class that has demonstrated the excellence of its work. A pedagogical society was organized in 1869, with membership dues of $1 a year. Membership at present is 900. Thru this organization professional spirit is enhanced. Superintendent Z. H. Brown, Nashville, Tenn., never criticises a teacher until the principal has been consulted. The superintendent may sometimes be mistaken. His visits to teachers last from five minutes to thirty minutes. His teachers meet by groups to study certain subjects, each teacher being required to attend one of two possible meet- ings every two weeks. A large majority of them attend both meetings. These meetings occur at 3 : 30 in the afternoon, and last forty-five minutes. When a subject occurs in the grades, extending up into the high school, the high-school teacher of that subject is the leader of the class. Superintendent William J. M. Cox, Moline, 111. — Criticism, when it must be given, had better be given in the presence of the teacher alone. Mr. Brown never criti- cises a teacher in the presence of a third person. He expects the principal to request the teacher to correct such faults as he himself may discover, or as the superintendent may point out. District Superintendent Miss M. Elizabeth Farson, Chicago, considers it just as wrong for the superintendent to be continually talking about poor teachers as it is for the teacher to be continually talking about bad children. Show the teachers how to become better teachers. Superintendents of Chicago, Miss Farson believes, are visiting their schools largely for the sake of learning. Superintendents can learn far more than they teach. Their function is to find commendable things and extend them. On taking charge in her district, in the first four days she visited each principal in her district. Before making suggestions she heard what each had to say. This was also her course with the teachers. What the teachers need is more courage. No superintendent has a right to go into a schoolroom except as an expert. He must be able to do every- thing that he expects his teachers to do. Everything in the room is a sign of the teacher. Everything in a building is a sign of the principal. All meetings of teachers are voluntary. In closing she said : " Test the atmosphere of the schoolroom, look for the strong things, show the principals and teachers that you are there to help them. Try to create an atmosphere in which the teacher can work out her own salvation with freedom." Superintendent T. M. Balliet, Springfield, Mass., called attention to the danger confronting the superintendent of losing himself in a mass of petty details. The tend- ency in college administration and in school supervision is to make so prominent the business side as to consume all the time at command in the mechanism of the work, to leave no time for personal growth, on which all effective leadership depends. The super- intendent must secure time for study. Unless he is a student, he will find it absolutely impossible to get his teachers to study. The things we have to do should be classified. Some of them are so comparatively unimportant that we should put them off until the next day and then forget to do them at all. It is more important with another class of duties to make a decision promptly rather than carefully. Any decision is better than delay. Then there is a third class of duties that must be performed only after the most careful consideration and after consul- tation with principals and teachers of special ability. Set apart sacredly one half-day each week for study. Go where no one can find you. Mr. Balliet stated that his own practice had been to devote the month of April mainly to study; in that month visiting schools only occasionally and not with any defi- nite purpose. He emphasized the value of scraps of time for reading. If we let our Superintendence] ROUND TABLES OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 279 interest in study die, we ought to resign. Read thoroly in one or two lines and broadly in other lines. In our meetings it is a mistake to confine our discussions to details. For instance, a talk upon discipline once in ten years should be sufficient. Let results of reading come out in teachers' meetings. We need to reach a certain point before we get the desire to go on. The high-school graduate and the graduate of the normal school have not reached this point. If the superintendent has reached it, he can inspire his teachers to reach it. Mr. Jones said the superintendent has two chief duties : first, to develop ideals and standards ; second, to inspire teachers to work. Superintendent E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky. — Some work must be detail work. You cannot give the teacher adequate help in general meetings. Those are for inspira- tion. On account of their excellence some rooms need to be visited but seldom. The superintendent is employed as an expert. He is a physician who must diagnose dis- eases. If the teacher is a noisy teacher, help may be given by taking her without com- ment to visit a room of the same kind in a distant building. After such a visit one teacher said, after observing the example for a few minutes : " Let me go back to my room ; you needn't say a word." Teachers work better if they themselves discover their failings. It is Mr. Mark's practice to hold conferences with teachers, inviting to such confer- ences those needing help and those able to give the help needed. He would avoid creating antagonism. District Superintendent A. G. Lane, Chicago. — The agencies set in motion by the superintendents should be to aid the teacher to greater efficiency. The principal is the central power in directing the work. The greatest efficiency is secured thru those principals who can step into a schoolroom and illustrate the kind of work that should be done in any grade ; therefore he should help the principal to become master of every part of the work. Sympathy between superintendent and teacher, and between teacher and pupils, is essential. The superintendent should hold meetings with principals to incul- cate high ideals and to cultivate the proper spirit. The principal has the general direc- tion of the work in his building. The superintendent goes into the rooms to see that these directions are carried out. About one-half of the principals promptly carry out sug- gestions. Individual work has to be done with the others. One of the most effective means for improving work and establishing high ideals is the grade meeting in which illustrative class exercises are given by skilled teachers and observed by visiting teachers. The week before the opening of school in September is devoted to voluntary meetings of teachers whose professional spirit brings them together to make preparation for the work of the year. Superintendent C. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb., emphasized the importance of the business side of supervision. The office of superintendent of schools is of American origin. Each superintendent has developed along individual lines. In time we shall have the man strong on both the business and the educational side. Mr. Pearse commended the idea that the superintendent is to set up standards. He held that it is sometimes necessary to speak of the poor teachers, of the "dead wood" in the profession. We cannot deal wholly with inspiration, tho that is pleasant. District Superintendent Charles D. Lowry, Chicago, finds teachers always willing to do hard and tiresome things because they require the least thought. He finds it difficult to get them to give up useless drudgery. He regards it important for the superintendent to show them how to do their work with as little expenditure of energy as possible, as for instance in the minute marking of examination papers. A teacher can easily use all of her time and that of a secretary in doing unprofitable routine work. She should reserve her strength for teaching rather than for recording, for personal rest and for broad study. 28 o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago ROUND TABLES OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF SMALL CITIES SECTION A LEADER SUPERINTENDENT L. E. WOLFE, KANSAS CITY, KAN. General topic: The Work of the Superintendent in Small Cities in Developing Greater Efficiency in the Teaching Force. Sub-topics: i. What must the superintendent do to insure the advancement of pupils thru the grades along a straight, rather than a broken, line of progress ? 2. Necessity for grade teachers knowing the purpose, scope, and plan of work in grades higher and lower than their own. 3. What knowledge of the grade work should high-school teachers have ? 4. Means for increasing power of individual teachers in testing, teaching, drilling, and in the proper assignment of the lesson. Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb, Lowell, Mass. — " What must the superintend- ent do to insure the advancement of pupils thru the grades along a straight, rather than a broken, line of progress ? " I question whether there should be uniform progress thru the grades. I take the question to mean uniform opportunity. I believe in allowing teachers the largest possible liberty. In Lowell the teachers are made sufficiently uniform in method by being intro- duced into the corps thru a year's work in the training school. 1 commend teachers' meetings. I also give examinations for promotion of pupils, having as one object the showing of teachers what work it is expected to accomplish, and the power which pupils are expected to possess in passing from the grade. Superintendent J. H. Glotfelter, Atchison, Kan. — Some teachers will not keep their work up to the general level of excellence required. If the superintendent has realized his aims in any degree^he has, thru his teachers' meetings and personal work, developed the varied excellencies of his corps. The new teacher will get the inspiration needed in the teachers' meetings, from contact with other teachers, and from conference with the superintendent. The superintendent may also direct the professional reading in part, and thus give direction to their methods. The teachers' grade meeting, visiting other teachers in their rooms, conversation with other teachers, and personal visitation, with sympathetic criticism, directing of the professional reading, are the means a superintendent may employ in unifying the work of his teachers, so that each may offer inspiring, interesting work. Superintendent W. F. Selleck, Austin, Minn. — The visiting days are excellent means of acquainting new teachers with the work of the schools. Superintendent Joseph Carter, Champaign, 111. — In Champaign the teachers of each grade hold teachers' meetings at the room of one of their number while school is in session. The work of the room is discussed, and the supplies are examined. Each teacher is allowed a sum of money to purchase such materials as she wants. The super- intendent leaves the teachers together to discuss their work, and feels that their discussion will be freer in his absence. The teachers are also sent to other cities to visit. Superintendent Darius Steward, Stillwater, Minn. — An institute of one week, conducted by the superintendent, held just before the opening of school, is an excellent means of unifying the work of the various teachers. The superintendent should hold examinations for the purpose of getting acquainted with teachers ; he should also do illustrative teaching in their presence. President I. C. McNeil, West Superior Normal School, Wis. — " What must the superintendent do to insure the advancement of pupils thru the grades along a straight, rather than a broken, line of progress, with experienced teachers ? " is a question that should claim the attention of superintendents of small cities, and the attention of others Superintendence] ROUND TABLES OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 281 who are interested in the problems of education. As I look at the question, the super- intendent must know what a straight line of progress is, and how it may be estab- lished. In order that this knowledge may be his, the superintendent should be a man of liberal culture, of active sympathies, of wide experience with the affairs of the world, and of methodical professional training. The fact that a person has graduated from a university is but a small element in the qualifications he should possess in order to have a true knowledge of the duties and responsibilities of a superintendent. The superintendent needs all the help that may come from courses in normal schools, or from pedagogical courses in universities that are equipped to invite the attention of men and women to the problem of instruction or of school management. It is true that many of the most capable and distinguished superintendents in this country today have learned thru failures — thru harm done to pupils and teachers — what to do and what to avoid. It is quite true that many qf the things that are harmful, and that draw attention away from the straight line of progress, may be overcome by a proper study of super- vision and its allied problems, in properly conducted professional institutions. It is equally true that there must be something in the aptitude of the individual for the work attempted, for many never can become apt, tactful, forceful superintendents. The super- intendent with insight and adjustability must learn, somehow and somewhere, what the straight line of progress is, and how to establish it. Again, the superintendent should, thru personal contact, by observation of class- room work, and by noting the development of pupils, have an intimate knowledge of the working power, scholarship, educational philosophy, habits, and abilities of his teachers to stimulate the advancement of pupils thru the grades in a straight line. Knowing, as the superintendent should, what ideals are right and what are wrong ; knowing what methods are wasteful and what methods are helpful ; knowing what philosophy tends to movement along straight lines and what brings little returns ; knowing what character is steady and what character is vacillating; and knowing how to adjust means to ends, he will find the problem partly solved by being factored. When the teacher's qualifications, methods, character, and aims are understood, the superintendent must put himself in such relations with each teacher as will cause her to keep on doing well the things that are now done well, and to change ideals and philosophy in those items of work that are done poorly. In the final summing up it will be found that occasionally a person cannot be led or persuaded to approach a straight line of progress because of deficiency in character, in scholarship, or in educa- tional ideals. The next step in solving the problem is to determine what is best to be done after the causes of waste, friction, or demoralization are known. Occasional removals of teachers who do not strive to approach a straight line of progress and to make growth will stimulate to better endeavor others who are weak on the character side. Teachers of right character, but weak in scholarship, should be induced to seek sufficient academic training in good professional schools, and they should find their positions open to them again when they have had the training which results in sound scholarship. It is a wonderful help to schools to have teachers leave for a year or two to study. Example is contagious ; many superintendents in Wisconsin have found the plan outlined a good one. Scholarship and professional investigation will raise educational ideals as nothing else can. Agitation of educational questions, leading to personal introspection and conse- quent assimilation, will help to keep the teachers of experience in the grades along the straight line of progress ; provided the superintendent, because of natural and acquired powers, is able to guide his own activity, and that of others, to direct and purposeful ends. Superintendent Arthur Powell, Marion, O. — A good course of instruction, correlation of work by teachers, and large common-sense on the part of the superintend- ent are the essentials. 282 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ["Chicago Superintendent R. A. Ogg, Kokomo, Ind. — There is danger of placing too much emphasis on the course of study — danger that the teacher will become " professional," and that the influence of her personality will be lost. Superintendent F. Treudley, Youngstown, O. — There is danger of becoming so entangled in the school machinery that the womanliness of the woman or the manliness of the man will be lost. Men and women of rare culture and great spirit should be brought before the teachers. They should be led to study something besides the course of instruction, in order to liberate themselves from their own whims. President John R. Kirk, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. — Lectures by the superintendent the day or week before school opens in the fall are not likely to be very profitable. They are usually full of abstractions and platitudes which the superintendent has collected during the summer. Most of them are difficult to digest and impossible to assimilate. To the superintendent himself they may be very satisfying. To the teachers at large they are often nauseating in the extreme. The teachers sometimes listen respect- fully, because they cannot help themselves. Of course, I may be mistaken, but it does seem to me that the superintendents who have spoken here today do enormously exagger- ate the importance of their official dogmatizing before their teachers. Certainly all teachers should know what is taught in the grades above and below theirs, but the whole tendency of our time is against such knowledge. Each college professor devotes his life to his specialty and usually has little sympathy with anything outside of it. He is engaged in plowing out for himself grooves which sometimes hide him from the eyes of men. Teaching in one grade for several years has a strong tendency to circumscribe the horizon and destroy the versatility and the adaptability of the mind. We are all more or less creatures of habit. The longer we work in a single department or with a single grade the more completely automatic we become, and the more largely our mental action passes below the plane of consciousness. So great is the tendency to specialize in the high schools and in specific grades that a great many excellent people become useless for any purpose excepting the work of their department or their grade. They therefore become almost as mechanical as the wheels in any other machine. In too many cases the chief business of the superintendent seems to be to make the machine as perfect as possible, regardless of the effect on the wheels. The summer school is the salvation of many souls that are pedagogically and academ- ically dying. The teacher in the grades should spend at least each alternate summer in such a school, refreshing and expanding the soul by actually studying out and reciting something in advance of former studies. It is sheer folly to suppose that anyone is hurt by summer work. The healthiest people are those who work in summer. Teachers in the grades usually suffer from an excess of stuff alleged to be pedagogy. They need the emancipation which comes from the habit of delving in fresh new knowl- edge. They need to be transferred from one grade to another about once every three years or oftener. Otherwise they are likely to become little more than automatons. Superintendent M. A. Whitney, Elgin, 111. — Teachers of grades should know the work of every grade. Specialization is detrimental to harmonious development thru- out grades. Superintendent F. V. Hubbard, Redwing, Minn. — The Redwing schools are leaning toward specialization in the seventh and eighth grades. The teachers should visit other schools to get better views on their special lines. Superintendent John Richeson, East St. Louis, 111. — So much emphasis of the course of study tends to a loss of the feeling of personal responsibility on the part of the teachers. They want to shift it upon the superintendent. Specialization is a curse in the grammar schools. The teachers should be specialists only in boy study and girl study. Every teacher should be able intellectually to take any grade. Superintendence] ROUND TABLES OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 283 Superintendent A. K. Whitcomb, Lowell, Mass. — Many schools do not have supervising principals to unify the work of the teachers. How shall teachers be made to appreciate the work of grades above and below their own ? Superintendent G. V. Buchanan, Sedalia, Mo. — Teachers ought to know, and do know, each year's work. Teachers' meetings in the buildings in which the problems of all the grades are discussed keep teachers posted on the entire work. Revisions of the course of study are made with the assistance of a committee of teachers from all grades. Teachers visit all grades ; thus they keep in touch with the entire work. Superintendent McDonald, Henderson, Ky. — I secure courses of instruction from other superintendents and place them in the hands of my teachers for study. Teachers' meetings at which the methods of teaching single subjects are discussed are excellent for keeping teachers posted on the entire grade work. Teachers will benefit by being required to plan work for all the grades. Professor C. M. Woodward, St. Louis. — It takes more than a year to complete each year's work. Teachers sin tremendously in keeping children back who ought to go on. The ages of pupils in each grade ought to be published in our reports. Superintendent Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo. — Teachers ought to be very familiar with the work of all the grades. This discussion has dealt too largely with the machine. Temperament, beauty of character, and adaptability should be made the basis of assign- ment. The teacher with the temperament, character, and spiritual power adapted to small children ought to be teaching them, and her salary for such work should be no less than for a more advanced grade. Let us have less worry over the mechanical side and more attention to the spiritual side — the character side. Superintendent P. R. Walker, Rockford, 111. — Teachers should know the grade work fully. High -school teachers who do not understand what is done in the grades misjudge pupils entering their classes. Better results will be secured in every grade when the teacher knows the work of the preceding grades. Superintendent George Griffith, Utica, N. Y., in discussing sub-topic No. 4 said : I shall assume that my sub-topic covers all that we are wont to include under the expression good teaching. I exclude from special consideration the items of discipline, personal influence, loyalty, etc. The question thus becomes : " How shall we secure better teaching from those under our supervision ? " Next to that of selecting good teachers, this is the most important of a superintendent's duties. I shall presuppose that the superintendent is competent, is absolutely honest in his work and dealings with the teachers, has sympathy with the teachers and with the chil- dren in all he does, and has to some extent the power of inspiration. In order that we may bring, not simply a few, but all, of our teachers to a higher efficiency, three mediate results must be accomplished : (1) The right spirit must be gener- ated among the teachers collectively and individually. We must secure the wish to grow and the willingness to work for that growth. (2) Our teachers must be given the opportun- ity to know what better work is and how to do it. (3) Those not reached in other ways must be compelled to improve, or resign. The means for accomplishing these three results are as well known to you as they are to me. We differ mainly in the relative importance we attach to some of them. Allow me briefly to classify these means with reference to the above-mentioned three results, and to place my personal emphasis upon some of them. To bring into our teaching corps the desire to grow and the willingness to work, we need teachers' meetings of various kinds ; a professional library and some way to get the teachers to read it ; a chance for teachers to see, either in their own schoolrooms or in schools where they may be visiting, some really skillful teaching; and, lastly, the certain knowledge that improvement and superior work will be rewarded by promotion. 284 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Teachers' meetings are of various kinds and for various purposes. The kind to which I refer in this connection is for the entire body of teachers, is not too frequently called, and is addressed by some inspiring educational leader, like Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Dr. E. E. White, Colonel Parker, or President Draper (I speak of those we have had); or, on rare occasions, may be addressed by the superintendent himself when he has some living mes- sage to deliver. Visitation by the teachers to other schools is very important. If I were asked to name the one thing that, more than anything else, brought a new spirit of progress into our Utica schools, I would say that it was the visitation, by different teachers, of schools in other cities. It is one of the very best antidotes to the poison sure to come into any city school system by the policy of training and employing only local teachers. It endangers the complacency almost certain to creep into any system long continued under one management. Leave of absence without loss of pay should be freely granted teachers who will visit schools in other places. In some way the inspiration they thus catch, and what they thus learn, should be communicated, upon their return, to their fellow-teachers. Most of us and most of our teachers are human, and if there is to be a universal desire and determination to improve, there must be certainty of reward for the superior teacher. We should help our teachers to the better positions in our own city. We should help our best teachers to better positions in other cities. Do you say this course will lose to us our best teachers ? True. We lost eleven one year, and I am happy to say I helped nine of them to get these better positions. Our board of education knew I did it. I say to the board and to my teachers that I shall continue to do this. The board says that it is right, and immediately releases a teacher, or raises his salary, whenever he can do better elsewhere. Altho by this policy we lose some of our teachers every year, our belief is now well established that it puts all teachers on their best endeavors, pays in all respects, and is just. Among the means a superintendent may use for bringing to the knowledge of his teachers what better work is and how to do it, I mention teachers' meetings, study classes, professional reading, summer schools or institutes, illustrative teaching before the teacher, and visitation of other schools. I emphasize study classes and illustrative reading. With few exceptions, we have under our supervision a large number of teachers who have never had an opportunity for systematic scientific study of education, and many of them are anxious to do that kind of work. Now, if we as superintendents can unite such teachers into a class to take hold of the subject and study it week after week thru a year, we can do an incalculable amount of good. All these classes should be elective to the teachers. They join on their own option •, but when 'they have once joined, they are enrolled, the roll is called, attendance is expected so long as they belong to the class, and the preparation of lessons is expected. Such classes I have carried on in psychology, in child study, in methods in two or three common branches, and in the study of valuable educational books. I know my teachers have been helped by them. Let me emphasize that these are not the regular teachers' meetings, that they are not lectures, but that they are regular classes for study. There is a power and there is a danger in the use of illustrative or model teaching before a teacher as a means of increasing her skill. Nothing makes a direction or sug- gestion so well understood by the average teacher as to see it put into concrete form then and there. This should also be followed by discussion of what was done. This illustra- tive teaching may be done by the superintendent or principal in a teacher's room for her individual benefit, or by the superintendent or some teacher before a body of teachers as an illustration of principles or as a basis of discussion. Wherever it is done it has the power always attaching to the concrete. The attendant danger against which we must guard is that it may be done or received simply for imitation. Deliver me from the superintendent who sets a pattern when he should illustrate a principle, and from the teacher who adopts when she should adapt what she may have seen. Superintendence] ROUND TABLES OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 285 What I shall say under my third head belongs, perhaps, more to the general topic of this round table than to my special sub-topic ; still I think it has legitimate bearing upon the lesser topic. Those teachers not reached in other ways must be compelled to improve or resign. We should deal with them frankly, in a straightforward manner, and with no shifting about at all. We should have plain talks with them. We should offer criticism, favorable and encouraging, wherever there is any work upon which to base such com- mendation. We should look for such things as we can justly praise ; but when the sum total of a teacher's work is decidedly bad, honesty to ourselves, fairness to her, and justice to the children should preclude us from leaving the impression upon the teacher that she is doing as well as she should. There will be some times with some teachers when we shall be obliged to say with all soberness : " That was poor work ; " or, " You are doing poor work. I want you to go home and think about it and then come and see me again ; " or, " You are doing no better than when I talked with you before, and I am forced now to the position of saying to you frankly that, unless there is improvement within a certain reasonable time, I shall be obliged to report you to the teachers' committee for dismissal." If this, added to all other possible efforts, does not bring the desired result, the time has come when I, as a superintendent, must realize my responsibility and save the little children who are helpless and almost hopeless in the hands of such teachers. How shall I do it ? I will tell you what I believe in doing, and what I have done time and again. I have put a recommendation in writing — in black and white — directed to the teachers' committee, recommending that such and such teachers' resignations be asked for, and if they are not forthcoming, that their places be declared vacant, for reasons which are definitely stated. " Now, gentlemen," I say, " the responsibility is no longer mine." I tell you, fellow-superintendents, that there are not many teachers' committees which will not feel, under such conditions, that your recommendation is based upon the right in the matter. They will take that written recommendation and will act upon it. I can talk to them and suggest, and even urge, such action, but frequently there is no action taken ; but when I put that recommendation into black and white, it will accomplish something. Such a course has definitely placed the responsibility, and there are few boards that will not take action. A word in closing. I want to say that I would never dictate to teachers. I want to give the greatest possible freedom to my teachers. I wish them to study and think. So far as possible I wish them to be original in their methods. I do not want uniformity in my schools. The highest tribute I ever received to my work was when an able super- intendent said to me, after a day or two spent in my schools : " I have not found two schools alike." From this somewhat long, and I fear tiresome, inventory of ways of working to improve teachers in service, we must select and modify according to the conditions under which we work or the ends we would attain. Over and above all ways of working are the clear recognition by the superintendent of high ideals, well-digested plans for attain- ing the desired ends, and a never-failing determination to "get there." SECTION B. LEADER — SUPERINTENDENT WILLIAM J. SHEARER, ELIZABETH, N. J. General topic: Grading for Efficient Organization in the Interests of Pupils. Superintendent Shearer, the leader, stated that the need of greater elasticity in grading and promoting was generally conceded. He quoted from data collected by Dr. Harris in confirmation of his position. He also called attention to the fre- quency of this general topic on the programs of the Department of Superintendence for a number of years back, as showing the deep interest in the question. He said that 286 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago no single scheme should be adopted to the exclusion of all other plans, but insisted that, in all schemes, the individuality of the pupils should be given that freedom essen- tial under our American ideals. He stated the three essentials of a good plan of grading and promoting to be : first, accurate classification of pupils ; second, proper provision for reclassification ; third, a proper apportionment of work, with no specific assignment of a given quantity of work to be done in a given time. In closing, he urged that written examinations should not be made the basis of promotions. Superintendent E. M. Coleman, Fort Dodge, la., in opening the discussion stated that he had been requested to present the plan of grading and classifying that he had been using for the past nine years. In doing this, he wished to be understood as not claiming his plan as the only one, or as a perfect one ; but said that he had found it well adapted to the conditions under which it had been used. He also took occasion to give the credit to Dr. Harris, as it was essentially the plan of short intervals between classes used by the doctor in St. Louis some years ago. He recommended the plan for any school having eight grades below the high school. In the lower four of these grades three classes should be given to each teacher, and in each of the other four grades, only two classes. As the work of the grades is generally considered to consist of eight years' work, of thirty-six weeks each, or 288 weeks in all, these twenty classes would make the class interval about fourteen weeks, if the rate of progress of the slower or average pupils be taken as the standard. But the rate of advancement should be determined by the needs of the best and of the poorest in the class. That is, the work should be given as rapidly as the best of the class can maintain a strong standing in it, and not rapidly enough to prevent the slowest members of the class from getting a fair hold on the work being passed over. In actual practice this rate is found to be about twice as fast as when the effort is to have all, or most, of the class master the work the first time over. From this it appears that the rate of progress over the course reduces the class interval from about fourteen weeks, as given above, to about seven weeks. In order to protect the pupils who do not master the work the first time over, each class is turned back to the place in the course of study just reached by the next lower class, at intervals varying in practice from six to ten weeks, and the work is again passed over at about the same rate as before. This gives to the pupils who did not at first master the work the chance to take it a second time, while it is still fresh in their memo- ries ; and experience has shown that they profit greatly by this opportunity, as very few pupils under this plan are in a discouraged or indifferent attitude of mind. On the other hand, it is urged that the habit thus engendered of trying to do the best they are capable of doing changes many a so-called dull pupil into a strong pupil. As each class turns back to the place reached in the course of study by the class next below it, and then takes the work* at the pace suited to the needs of the best and of the poorest, as explained above, it is an easy matter to provide for the very strong members of each class at the time of these reviews, by simply advancing them into the class that has reviewed back to meet their class. In other words, these strong pupils merely omit the review, and go on without omission of any of the work. The only difference that has been made with them is that they are now reciting with another set of pupils, where it may not be so easy for them to stand at once at the head of the class. In practice most pupils pass over the work at least twice. A great many of the pupils who were in the lower class of a room remain with the same teacher a whole year, while it is seldom that a pupil changes teachers more than once in a given year, if he starts in the lower class of a room. It is possible for a pupil to change teachers twice in the year, if he is in the higher class of his room at the opening of the year, but the number so doing is not as large as might be imagined, nor has it seemed to be seriously to their dis- advantage when it has occurred. The basis for determining the fitnes of pupils to advance is the judgment of the teacher in charge of the work. Written work may be given by her as often as desired, Superintendence] ROUND TABLES OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 287 but it is never to be made the sole basis of promotion. It is not only what a child has done, but also what he can do, that should determine this question ; and it is sometimes simply a question as to where he will get the most good, even tho he has not attained to a satisfactory standard of work passed over. Some children should be promoted to the next work simply because they have done all they are able to do with the work already passed over. In closing, Superintendent Coleman said that he valued the plan more for the interest it develops in a school, and for the influence it exerts toward bringing out the best that is in a child, than he does for any capacity it may have for getting children rapidly over a given amount of work in a given time. Great interest was manifested in the discussion which followed, and the expression of approval of the principles presented was practically unanimous. A number of superin- tendents explained how they were reaching a similar result by plans varying more or less from the one outlined by Superintendent Coleman. SECTION C LEADER SUPERINTENDENT T. A. MOTT, RICHMOND, IND. General topic: Correlation of High-School and Grammar-Grade Work. Superintendent F. D. Boynton, Ithaca, N. Y., emphasized the following points : 1. By such correlation one year of time can be saved for advance work without increasing the burden of either teacher or pupil. This can be done by correlating the work of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. 2. A better secondary program can be offered. The question is : Are we giving value received in our high-school work ? High schools should be distributed geographi- cally over the city and thereby brought nearer the masses. 3. Pupils will come under the teaching of both men and women. He would advo- cate the employment of more men as teachers in the higher grades. Boys at this age should have the advantage of being taught by both sexes. 4. The grammar-school program will thereby be . truly enriched with the essentials of knowledge — Latin, French, German, English, with history. Enrichment of the grammar-school course has taken the form of additions instead of correlations. The problem before us is : How can we induce our pupils to continue their work into the high school ? He would give only a usable knowledge of geography ; would stop the study of English grammar early, and give an option in the seventh and eighth years in Latin, French, German, or literature. No subject in the public-school course is so impor- tant and so essential as history, and especially civil government. These should be put so low down in the course that the pupil will stay there until he gets them. They should be given him before he reaches the age at which he escapes the truant law. Manual-training and commercial courses should be continued into the high school. 5. The financial problem outside the great cities does not present insurmountable difficulties. In the large cities the present grammar-school buildings may be used. Professor A. F. Smith, Kansas City, Mo., showed that seven years covered time spent in the elementary schools of that city, and eleven years the time spent in both ele- mentary and high school. Professor Daniel E. Phillips, Denver University, had canvassed various systems of schools, and strongly indorsed the position taken by Superintendent Boynton. Principal George H. Rockwood, Chicago, would look at a subject from the standpoint of the child and would not scatter the fiigh schools. The question is, after all, a financial one. He spoke of a reaction in some schools against algebra and Latin in the 288 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago eighth grade. He did not think that Latin in the seventh and eighth grades had accom- plished all that had been expected from it. Superintendent T. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind., described the working of the system in his schools. All seventh and eighth grades in the city are collected in one building, and work is done on a departmental plan. In one and one-half years pupils do a strong high-school year's work in Latin and German. Parents elect whether pupils shall take Latin and German. Subjects such as algebra, etc., are well fitted for eighth-grade children. Superintendent Smith, Danville, 111., gave it as his observation and experience that pupils taking algebra in the eighth grade were not better prepared for high-school work. Superintendent J. F. Keating, Pueblo, Colo., gave as his judgment that the work in algebra was not applicable to grade pupils, and could not be taken in grammar grades without anticipating the work of the high school. Superintendent Justin N. Study, Fort Wayne, Ind., gave his experience in two cities. The algebra work of the grades introduces the student to the work of the high school. He would have pupils get technicalities out of the way as early as possible. The testimony of high-school teachers is that algebra work well done in the grades is advantageous to high-school work. Superintendent Edward Ayres, La Fayette, Ind., stated that algebra is a sub- ject adapted to eighth-grade pupils. This is evidenced by the intense interest manifested in its study. It encourages pupils to enter the high school. Superintendent J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind., said that courses of study must not be enriched by adding on. We must take out some of the things already in the course, if we wish to enrich it. Work in reading and language must be strengthened. All work must be done well, and children must have time to grow. Superintendent B. F. Moore, Marion, Ind., advocated the introduction of depart- mental work in the higher grammar grades. High-school and grammar-grade methods might be correlated as well as subjects. SECTION D LEADER AUGUSTUS S. DOWNING, TEACHERS' TRAINING SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. General topic: Literature in Grades below the High School. Sub-topics: i. What knowledge of literature should pupils have before completing eighth-grade work? 2. When should the teaching of literature be begun in the grades, and how organized so as to make it continuous, systematic, and valuable for knowledge; for power in appreciation, thought, and expression; and for the development of ideals, taste, and love for good literature ? 3. What material is needed, and how can it be made available? MISS MAE E. SCHREIBER, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. The pupil who has studied literature in our public schools should leave the grades with a taste for good literature developed and the habit of reading formed. He should know and practice a method of reading which is right, natural, and practical, and which he can use after he leaves school. He ought to know how to handle a book, how to use an index, how to read to a topic, i. ) to arouse and direct the native history sense. If the particular idea to which the interest of children is to be directed be the civilizing and culturing influence upon the race of tool- using and mechanical invention (and this may be very profitably begun as early as the second or third school year), it can be approached and exemplified by a study of the mechanical tasks of some primitive people, their unaided handwork, the crude products and poor service, and few home and personal comforts, and the low plane of life, as compared with others better situated ; or the study may begin with a more developed people, whose life is easier and richer; or it may find material for the same study in the comparison of the commercial products and social conditions of their own time and community as revealing skilled or unskilled labor. There is little preference, per se, in any of the three orders. The first may be better suited to certain conditions, the second or third to others. But a course of study would fail of its purpose were it confined to a single prescription, or to follow, for successive years, the same unvarying order. 4. These co-ordinate topics, in sequence thru the elementary course, would form so many possible series, in a given subject, any one of which might be followed according to the preference of teacher or principal, or as might be made necessary by the equipments of the school, or the character of the contributing population. This will appear most clearly perhaps in the course in literature. The major series may be fixed by the series of books adopted for reading texts ; the readers proper ; or a series in history ; or a series in collateral geography readings ; or one in descriptive and appreciative nature stories ; or a line of art readings ; or a line of standard fiction ; or classical and modern biographies chronologically arranged ; or master- pieces in literature suited to the several ages. Not all of these certainly can find a place to any large extent, in any one school, for all pupils. But children would learn to read, and to read appreciatively, and have room for a growing literary sense, by following any series named. The last surely should not be neglected ; but any one of the remaining series might, without serious mistake, be made the basis of the reading course, and be supplemented by readings from such of the others, or so many of them, as time and the furnishings of the school will permit. Superintendence] A STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY 307 5. Except in certain formal subjects, perhaps, each series should be continuous thruout the elementary-school years. The continuity of all lessons thru the several years of a child's school life is itself a means of education. Lessons^ in all human interests, personal, social, and institutional, home life and occupations, the forces and institutions of culture, religion, art, conventionality, and government, should be begun in the earliest years, and be fairly connected for the entire elementary-school period. These exercises may be, for some subjects, daily thruout the course, for others daily for a shorter period, and less frequently thereafter, as the importance may seem to make advisable ; but interest in them should be kept up thru the years. The same observations, in a general way, would be pertinent of geog- raphy, nature study and science, mathematics, literature, physical train- ing, music, drawing, etc. 6. While a minimum amount of work in one or more series of each grade should be required of all, additional studies as voluntary work, in others series in the same grade, should, within generous limits, be not only permitted, but encouraged, both to individual pupils and to strong classes. This thesis is submitted as a third distinctively characteristic recom- mendation of the paper : that voluntary work, pertinent to the course for the year, but additional to the prescription, be, within generous limits, not only permitted, but encouraged. One is educated effectively, chiefly, by what he does from his own initiative. Home work that is required by the regulations of the school, and which is measured into the day's school record for a standing, and failing of which one may fail of a passing grade, may be only nauseating. Home work or other out-of-school work, or extra exercises during the school period, done for love of the work and with the purpose of accom- plishing a specific result, whose only "must" is one's own interest and intelligent determination, is educative beyond anything — any other best thing — the school can do for the child. The wise teacher or principal will learn how to give such voluntary work due recognition and as much credit as may seem deserved. The course should suggest more books in reading for each step than the class can use, more reference texts in history and geography and travel, more literary masterpieces and kindred writings, more observa- tions of nature and experiments and investigations in science, more con- structive exercises, than school conditions make possible. These voluntary contributions, if intelligently made, should be almost as various as are the children themselves. They will include original, and perhaps very simple, studies among living forms, natural-history collections, constructive uses of natural forces, the manufacture of toys, 308 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago machines, and useful articles, the conducting of simple experiments, the reading of books along collateral lines, free-hand or mechanical drawings, painting, carving, modeling, musical composition, original calculations, observations and reports upon particular social or industrial conditions, the growing and care of domestic or wild animals or plants, experimental gardening, the training of animals, and such like. But whatever the form or importance of this supplementary effort that results in some voluntary performance, the product and the personal power should be utilized in the school, to reinforce what the pupil is doing by assignment, and to make clearer the connection between the school and the non-school life. The course of study must be so flexible, and be so free from mere prescriptions, that due recognition may be made of these voluntary offer- ings. 7. Such training exercises as current conventionality requires (lan- guage, social and business forms, contemporary local institutions, codes of right behavior, etc.), or such as the culture of the times demands, should be carefully prescribed and mastered. 8. The course as a whole, and, as far as applicable, every series thru- out the several years, should provide exercises for both interpretation and use, for understanding and expression, for perception and con- struction. It need not be argued here that no process is complete as an act of experience that does not in some way finally round itself out in use. Whether it be knowing one's letters, or distinguishing the right, or understanding a civil law, or comprehending the calculations of bridge strains, or seeing the meaning of a literary paragraph, or finding the elements of a work of art, or following the reactions of a chemical process, or interpreting the steps in a scientific experiment — the process falls far short of its full promise unless the letters are used freely, the right is lived habitually, the law is intelligently obeyed, similar calcula- tions of bridge strains become necessary and are made, something of the beauties of the literary paragraph and the work of art is worked into one's own life, the chemical process be directed and the scientific experi- ment controlled with a purpose. A course of study must therefore provide exercises involving con- struction and use, not less than understanding and appreciation. The doing may follow the knowing, and always does follow close upon more or less of understanding what is to be done. Aimless doing is no more profitable than do-less knowing. Or the knowing may follow or accom- pany the doing and be enriched by its reactions. In history and literature, not less than in mathematics and science, problems may be set, and investigations started, and comparisons inspired, that will call knowledge into use, and afford reason for the exercise of more or less of free skill and resourcefulness. Superintendence] A STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY 309 Manual training will be elsewhere considered, and should be made a part in one form or another of the elementary as well as secondary- school course. 9. At every stage in the course, and daily, exercises should be pro- vided for sight, or impromptu, or unprepared work ; and these exercises should be such as, on the one hand, for purposes of training, are easily within the pupil's skill ; or, on the other, for purposes of education, challenge his understanding. To be able to meet the exigencies of life as they arise, often strange and unannounced, one must, at some time, have had practice in using what knowledge one has in stock in meeting exigencies. To work out at the moment an unprepared lesson which the teacher has been careful to see lies fairly within reach of the pupil's experience, reinforced by a reasonable resourcefulness, and to have fixed a habit of so doing by repeated tasks of facing the unfamiliar prepares one for meeting diffi- culties in subsequent employment and conduct, as the most liberal knowing alone cannot do. Of course, if the purpose be to cultivate skill in training, many processes using familiar steps in new ways will need to be employed. Hence supplementary texts for sight-reading should be chosen for their easy words and simple form. There should be much singing of familiar music, and easily intelligible scores, and often-recurring melo- dies, if facility in using musical notation be desired; the frequent employment in drawing of the common elements of form and perspective and grouping in the efforts to express graphically the sense of mani- fold forms and combinations ; practice in putting into the choicest language familiar conventional intercourse ; and repeated interpretation of more or less familiar geographic phenomena, where some minor factor is new. But, for purposes of education, where powers are put to the stretch and the judgment must go prospecting, unprepared tasks must be occa- sionally set, less obviously of the nature of what is known, to challenge the understanding and put the wits to test. Here effort and resourceful- ness count for more than answers and a finished product. But answers and a product should be reached. It is no re-citation, but a new use of old citations, that is wanted. It means the construction, from old material, which is at best little more than raw material, of a new set of experiences organically related after the maker's own patterns. These exercises must be such, indeed, as to challenge all of the pupil's resources. Not how he is able to pass an examination simply, involving the answer to catch questions and the resolving of improbable situations, but how he can interpret real difficulties of limit and right and responsibility and physical law and civic interest and fine-art influences and the personal life, is the test of his progress in learning and manliness. 3IO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago This requirement and the voluntary work mentioned in the sixth the- sis are of vital importance, and cannot safely be left to the options of indifferent and often immature teachers, but should be provided for in the adopted scheme of instruction. As supplementing the course pre- scribed, which is to be or may be made the basis of the school's system- atic instruction, let there be added, as suited to the attainments of pupils, for each class, a carefully graded and suggestive list of real problems — practical problems, gathered from the science of the day ; the economic life; travel and geography; civic and political movements; more or less obvious forces that are modifying contemporary history ; current manners and customs ; primitive life and habits, involving an explanation and investigation of their origin and decline ; literary and art products, and their interactions ; industrial movements, and the incident social and domestic conditions; and such like. These would be rather for the pupil's use than for the teacher's, and constitute the voluntary collateral of the course, the free interest in which, by pupils, will be a most satisfactory mark of good teaching. 10. The ideal to be kept in mind should aim at a distribution of sub- ject-matter thru the course, rather than reference to books merely. Indeed, Theses i, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 9 would make this necessary. The book in most upper grades would come to be a text for a topic, possibly for an entire grade in that subject, but not necessarily, not probably, for different grades or for different rooms or classes of the same grade. The last requirement, however, should, even in the extremest form, permit the use of books officially adopted as texts upon which to base the class consideration of subjects. The book would then count for not less, but more ; or, rather, books and things and men and human action and achievement and physical forces and phenomena would be co-ordinate as stimuli to the mind and the raw material of experience. The book must always fill a large place in all formal schooling, and should. But much independent doing and observation and the shaping o"f knowledge to one's own uses, and helps to an original initiative, should be added. And the course of study must not neglect either because the other seems so important. Indeed, a course based upon texts may very properly be greatly shortened. A course fixing the distribution of subject-matter, rather than making assignment of book exercises, would be more extended, less specific, liable to much misinterpretation, and subject to distortion by incompe- tent teachers and supervisors having strong biases. But even so, it is not the text that is to be taught. The movements of nature, the doings of men, the life of institutions, the art product, the constructive process, the social intercourse, the economic relations — these, not what somebody has said about them, only or chiefly, are the means of mental growth and per- sonal enlargement. Superintendence] A STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY 311 This connection of the day's lessons with the science of the books, not the books of science ; with history in the making, now or then, not an indoctrination into someone's views ; with real literature rather than a scrap-book manual or anthology; and with the business and customs of actual life rather than with arbitrary forms that fit to no business — such connection of the day's lesson is both vitalizing as a means of education and usable when books are laid aside. The school should connect with life not less than with the records of life. The school years should be a period of training for participation in this life on the highest plane of personal and public efficiency. 11. As far as the exigencies will permit, all arts of expression should be connected with, and grow out of, the (school and non-school) interests of the children in real knowledge and their use of it. This thesis needs but little comment. Only its relation to the outline course makes its introduction here pertinent. The very term " expres- sion " implies experience to be expressed. The experience must be the child's own. Experience for him means, not what has come to him thru the senses, but what he has brought thru senses ; not what he has heard, but what he has assimilated; not the temptations that besiege him, but those he has embraced ; not the perceptions, but the apperceptions ; not life barnacled onto his, but the life he has domesticated. Of such experi- ence only can he talk or write or draw or sing or carve or paint. And when such impressions have been brought into his life, or assimilated, or embraced, or apperceived, or domesticated, he will be able to talk and write and draw and sing and carve and paint. These will then become for the pupil forms of real expression ; not certainly fine arts, of necessity, but modes of setting himself forth, for which the school should make abundant provision, and the school course take formal recognition. 12. For children in our public schools to fix an acquaintance with, a habitual use of, and adjustment to, the requirements of American civic and social life should be a constant and leading purpose recognized in the course of study. The traditional course of study for elementary schools in cities makes little of either history or civics, or similar subjects; the rural-school courses even less. Recent movements have been toward the story and biography, the myth and primitive life ; and gradually the instruction is becoming more comprehensive of human relations and more systematic. But in many schools, even yet, the efforts include scarcely more than the story, often mechanically told and with doubtful meaning, for the earliest years ; moralizing thru biography for the two or three intermediate grades ; and a text in history — United States history — introduced into the seventh or eighth grade, sometimes both ; with more or fewer lessons, often scrappy and generally technical, upon government and civil rela- tions, and almost no simplest attempt to lead the child to find himself in 312 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago the great stream of race and individual effort ; or to equip him so that, as a man, he will certainly find himself an intelligent part of these human groups. The course here suggested assumes that an acquaintance with our American civic and social life, and the habitual use of that knowledge, and the power and disposition to adjust one's self to its requirements, should be a concern of the teacher for every pupil. This instruction should begin in the first school years, and without break, tho not of neces- sity daily, and much of it is as an incident of the schoolroom life, and the home and street and market experience ; continue thru the elementary- school period, the text-book consideration, the historical story, the study of primitive peoples, classical myths, the literatures of different periods, colonial and frontier life and customs, the development of industries, the change in moral standards, the origin and readjustment of local and national institutions, the fine-art reference among different people and under varying conditions, popular rights and responsibilities and their improvement, and the marvelous economic and material progress of the contemporary nations ; being woven into one whole of interest and char- acter for the child, who is to take his place as a citizen, who has responsi- bilities as well as rights, and who may reasonably claim from the schools a fair equipment for his task. Such studies, too, lay the foundation for the true civic character. It calls for no contention here that this involves more than a knowledge of the forms of government, the provisions of constitutions and charters, and acquaintance with official duties. Civic relations are citizenship rela- tions ; the place and functions and privileges and duties of subjects, not less than sovereigns ; public and neighborhood support of law and order and decency; and the equal citizenship right of protest and petition that makes for the common welfare as well as the stability of the state. From the child's earliest familiar intercourse with neighbors and strangers, officials, dealers, teachers, physicians, companions, friends and enemies ; from his first acquaintance with the post-office and city administration, and public policing and conventional order, and family rights and the place of the church, and the meaning of the school, he has been gather- ing the experience out of which must be organized the notion of his civic life. This is not something that must be left until he takes up a book upon civics or the constitution or political order, but should be treated as the atmosphere in which the school life of lessons and restriction and command goes on. A right inventory and sequence of these human- istic lessons must make up one important part of the course. 13. As a means of cultivating alertness of mind, and manifoldness of interest, and a familiar use of the causal relation, exercises in interpret- ing, enjoying, and using nature and natural forces should be prescribed thruout the course. Superintendence] A STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY 313 This does not at first, or of necessity, mean science — organized knowledge of nature ; but acquaintance with the physical world of aggregate phenomena, of which some do, and some do not, appeal to the growing child, but the door to which may be opened that shall give every material happening an interest to the observant among children. The teacher should see that if a child have a habit of following up his thread of interest in something, anything that appeals to him strongly, so that it be something real, the bent of mind is already fixed for the larger interest that embraces all of nature. If the school be really interested, the material can be found. Every phase of nature undertaken should be investigated in part, and in as large part as the circumstances of the school will permit, where this phase of nature is native. Study the plant where it grows and as it grows ; the animal alive and at freedom, watching its habits and behavior ; the soil in the midst of its soil surroundings; minerals in their ores and housed by the sheltering hills ; coal in its fixed deposits; snow, ice, and rain, and the conditions of their forming ; seeds in their germination and growth; insects as they pass thru their several stages ; crystals in their self-shaping ; vegetation in the process of decay; streams at their work ; the disintegra- tion of rocks and the making of soils ; and whatever nature does, at its doing. Free opportunity for field excursions should be provided for and made as much a part of the instructional machinery as are books and les- sons and schoolroom exercises. Where it is possible for the small chil- dren in cities to have a corner of the yard for a school garden, for the growing of plants and trees, not much may be done with plants and trees, but the result with the little ones will be worth all of the trouble. Make use of the home garden, if there be one, of house plants at home and at school, of public gardens and parks, home and personal pets among animals, zoological collections, choice pictures, and specimens of materials — presenting as nearly as may be their natural surroundings and growth and uses. If the result coveted were mere information about nature, such an arrangement would not be possible, certainly not practicable. But if the purpose be to cultivate alertness of mind, an abiding interest in one's surroundings, and a habitual taking into account of the causal relation among happenings, the uniformity of subject-matter in lessons becomes less important. Use each season for what it can be made to do for the pupils, and the integration of experiences will take care of itself. 14. Of mathematics for the elementary grades the course should include the simple number and form lessons for the first year or two, used incidentally; the four fundamental processes of arithmetic, with important applications, up to and thru the seventh school year ; and the elements of algebra and constructive geometry in the year following. 314 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago .The reader of the paper is not unmindful of the disciplinary uses of a mathematical course ; but it seems altogether probable that these advantages or their equivalent may be secured by an arrangement that gives less than one-third of the school period to the work, and which now too often comprises little else than the most mechanical tagging in the wake of a memorized and ill-understood rule. The mastery of the sim- pler number and form lessons, and facility and accuracy of calculation under the fundamental forms, come now thru the use of number and form and calculation as needed, not thru the solving of possible tho improbable problems, assigned because they are difficult and tax the logical ingenuity. Magnitude and multitude relations should be constantly used with all experiences to which size, form, and number are applicable. The con- nection should be seen to be a natural one, and the need for their use apparent. The necessity for accuracy; ideas of proportion and magni- tude relation ; the studies of force, and the changes in matter and form and size ; the work of the natural forces in earth and air and sky and among animals and plants ; in mechanics and invention and human achievement; in personal and domestic economics, will make sufficient requisition for calculation and the quantifying of experience to give abundant practice. The lessons in logic will then have familiar experi- ence upon which to work. 15. Thruout the course, language as a means of expression, and lan- guage as a means of interpretation, must receive constant attention ; both uses having recognition from the earliest years, the former predominating in the primary grades, the latter gaining in importance relatively with the advancement of pupils. Thruout both the earlier and later years of the course, however, far more than the usual attention should be given to training in expression by the voice. All must talk, and should be encouraged to talk, and the school should fix the habit of_ talking well — not eloquently, nor oratori- cally, nor of necessity rhetorically, but effectively; with confidence, as one who has a message ; intelligently, as one who has reflected upon his speech ; skillfully, as one who has been accustomed to talk at his best. The home cannot do this for the child, and the street will not do it. It is one of the great burdens laid upon the school. Reading aloud for its own sake is perhaps less important than was once thought; but for its influence upon one's speech it is both power- ful and discriminating among all the means of training. The silent example of the teacher is great. She should be both an appreciative reader, thoughtful of the effect of her reading, and careful of her daily speech. But the school, as a purposeful instrument of education, should make her personal and professional intercourse among the children a training in right habits in these particulars. Superintendence] A STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY 315 But more important than this power of strong and authoritative expression, much as it means in a free neighborhood democracy, is a keen insight into and appreciation of the meanings and niceties af language as heard and read. To make boys and girls good listeners, and masters of the printed page, to the end that they are made possessors of the wealth of the world's best thought and skill and science, is an achievement to be coveted, by the teacher for the children and by the children as their legitimate claim upon the schools. The course of study must take daily into account this need of children for an appreciative sense of the best literature suited to their attainments and their ideals. The library must be made more and more a factor in accomplishing the school's pur- poses. That there are libraries is not sufficient. The teacher must see to it that the libraries are rightly used ; and they must be where they can be so used, or so administered thru the school's co-operation, that the riches of the shelf are used to good ends. What is learned in the class-room is forgotten ; but the books remain, and new ones are pub- lished hourly; and the sharp, fine sense of joy over a new thing, or an old one well said, is an abiding power that makes for all sorts of righteousness. 16. In a similar way, drawing, writing, music, manual work, etc., have their primary use as a means of expression, and should be freely drawn upon to reinforce the language exercises — talking and reading — but should look toward fine-art appreciation in their respective domains as a fuller later development. The pictures which primary children sketch do not mean much as pictures. They are generally crude ; they are not certainly works of art. They are not very successful as forms of expression. The label or the context only saves some of them from being meaningless. But as a mark of effort to express the real perception of the child they are eminently successful. They are improved as the thought takes on more definite shape, and as the mind's control of fingers and tools is surer. The habit of expressing one's self so is of more significance than the artistic finish of the product or the skill in the process. A like observation may be made of writing. What system is used is relatively unimportant. Three results may fairly be sought : (a) easy legibility ; (b) a. clean, attractive page ; and (c) so much facility and rapidity as the uses of writing require. It is no more important that children write alike or uniformly than that they draw alike, or speak with the same movement and intonation, or walk with equal stride, or use the same solution of a problem, or note the characteristics of a flower in the same order, or use the same phraseology in their essays. If a boy have the artist's instinct for that sort of work, it will be discovered, and should be recognized ; but why must we expect all others to pattern after his greater skill ? Concerning manual exercises it only remains to be said that there are 316 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago two or three reasons why, in cities, these in some form or other should be included as a part of the regular prescribed course. (i) As was mentioned under Thesis 8, no experience is complete until it has been rounded out in some form of concreted product. Man- ual work is an attempt to realize in material form what the mind has discriminated. No course that omits this can well be made to serve the child fully. In the present day the deficiencies are only the more noticeable. (2) A second reason for including manual training in the common- school course lies in the fact that it serves to retain many children of both sexes in school, who would and do otherwise leave their sludies as soon as the law allows. (3) A third reason is incident to these two. Constituted as society is, and fitted to labor as is man's estate, every child is in need of a training that shall fasten upon him the manufacturing habit. I trust that my hearers will generously construe this last statement in the light of what has heen said elsewhere, as a context. But if there were no other reason than this for the prescription of manual training, as a part of the elemen- tary-school course, for most children under fourteen years of age, the result would justify the means. But drawing, music, and manual work have in common another, and doubtless a higher, function to perform in schooling. In the words of the bare thesis, they should all look as their fuller or later development toward fine-art appreciation in their respective domains. For most chil- dren of any community the schools must be held to do this rather than the home. The best pictures, in reprints at least ; the best statuary and casts ; the best architectural illustrations ; the best specimens of fine print- ing; beautiful works of mechanic art; examples of fine products of nature — trees, flowers, landscapes; the best musical compositions, and dramatic representations of superior artistic and historical merit ; the best available examples of excellence in platform and pulpit speaking, and in public reading, should, as occasion offers and the resources of the school will permit, be kept before children of all social classes, and, in all natural connections with their work, called consciously to their attention, in such way as to furnish standards of superior achievement, cultivate a familiar interest in them, and a habit of enjoying them. While the primary func- tion of these arts may be to strengthen the pupil's expression, and aid him in utilizing his experiences, much may be done, even with the young- est children, in facing them toward excellence in their own efforts. And this is the true fine-art reference, as I take it, for the improving child. The school must see to it that whatever is best and finest in nature or art is given a place in the child's experience. It softens the asperities in a life that, for most of them, is stern enough at best ; it transfers the center of interest and concern from self to some "other" that lies in the outside, larger Superintendence] A STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY 3J7 universe; it raises the plane of living, by raising the plane of enjoyment, and dignifies all human purposes. Thru learning to love the beautiful anywhere there is cultivated a sense for beauty elsewhere. Drawing, music, reading, the bodily carriage, social intercourse, the exercise of authority, and mechanical skill are exalted above the level of mere doing, to doing at one's best. All of which is on the way to fine art. 17. Thruout the years of childhood there should be systematic and carefully graded instruction upon the nature and functions of the body and the bodily organs, the conditions of health, and the physiology of exercise, sleep, eating, etc.; and the purposeful daily practice of simple physical exercises and hygienic rules for sound, vigorous bodies ; to the end that a habit may be fixed of intelligently and regularly caring for these things. Here, as elsewhere, men know enough of what ought to be done, but the years of training in the right way have been too few, or the instruc- tion has been desultory or perfunctory ; while the ignorant practice of the wrong way has been all but constant. The right care of one's body is no exception. That health may be preserved, and the years of productive life length- ened, and the sum of happiness increased, is reason enough for carefully ordering a system of instruction in, and practice of, the best-known prin- ciples of private and public hygiene. The course, including daily exer- cises in one or another form of the subject, should continue thruout the elementary period. 18. As a corollary to what has been said in former paragraphs, it remains to be stated that such a system of purposeful teaching as is out- lined would be partial in its results and incomplete in its scope, unless the kindergarten for children from four to six years of age be made an organic part of the system. That the kindergarten has not been universally commended by school people, and is not now, requires no extended statement. Children so started upon their school career do not readily adjust themselves to a rigid "must" and "must not" order of deportment. Their behavior is often not "good" as measured by the standards of quiet prescribed in many schools. Even for their age they take fewer things upon mere authority than do those who have entered at once upon book lessons. They are more restless under restraint. And if that restraint be arbitrary, they are likely to resent it. But all of these are qualities that show pro- test against needless forms of behavior and manifold directions from the teacher. The kindergarten, if it be a sensible one, has laid the founda- tion for a wise self-initiative that the schools often fail to reach, and for an intelligent alertness that the schools have generally repressed. It has given deftness of finger and the manufacturing impulse. Things are worked with, combined, and made up into new forms, often after the little 318 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago one's own design, and self-helpfully. It has cultivated .resourcefulness and paved the way for a many-sided interest in the subsequent school years. It has fixed the habit of reasonable social intercourse, and the considerateness that marks the behavior of the gentleman or lady. To the kindergarten-trained child the constructive exercises of the grades makes a natural appeal. Simple handwork in the primary years, sloyd, and carving and sewing later, and tool-work in the grammar grades, follow in easy succession. The kindergarten furnishes an excellent pre- paratory training for these constructive exercises. Moreover, the argument should not be ignored that without these two kindergarten years the most responsive period of a child's life, educa- tionally, are neglected. Almost no home in this busy day in cities can give the little one just the attention he needs. Certainly not the house- hold of those where both father and mother must spend ten to twelve of the child's waking hours at their own tasks ; not in the house of the rich and leisure class, where the little ones are largely left to servants ; nor yet in the hovel, whose adult members are often indifferent. Besides, the kindergarten is organized to generate just those qualities of mind and life for which books and the formal lessons of the school are, theoretically, employed to secure to the child : clean lives ; habits of industry and honesty; vigor of mind and body; joyous, hopeful, aggres- sive boys and girls. DISCUSSION President A. S. Draper, Champaign, 111. — We have just heard a very carefully prepared document by Dr. Boone, a past master in pedagogy. The paper teaches the importance of freedom in schools and flexibility in teaching. I should like to ask if there is anything that should not be undertaken by a school. How much of the course presented in the paper may the child safely undertake ? Too much attention is being given to standardizing courses of study. The teacher of the grade below should not have to give too much attention to the work of the grade above. More attention should be given to., the teacher and the quality of the teaching. More attention should be given to pupils' temperaments and environments. Too little attention is being given to what a child may easily do in our schools. Teachers in cities are asked to do more than they can do well. The teacher's work should look to generating enthusiasm. When children become interested in a subject, they will continue investigation without the direction of the teacher. Much of the work done in the schools is discouraging to the child. Many superintendents and teachers attempt to do what they are not prepared to do, and confusion is the result. There can be no standardizing of courses of study. Teach teachers to teach some- thing and to teach it well. More stress should be laid upon the companionship between pupil and teacher. If certain tendencies in the public-school work are not corrected, the schools will cease to be common schools. There is nothing more important than that the common schools should remain common. Superintendent M. A. Whitney, Elgin, 111., asked : " Where should the pruning of courses of study begin ?" Superintendence] A STANDARD COURSE OF STUDY 319 President Draper replied that he would permit the doctors of pedagogy to answer that question. Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis. — I am in hearty sympathy with this paper. A systematic course of study relieves the principals and teachers of much worry and responsibility while performing the duties of their respective positions. Every course of study grows out of the large experience of the teacher. Since pupils pass from one teacher to another, a course of study is necessary in order to prevent confusion. With a general course of study to follow, the teacher is not left in doubt as to what she is to do. A rational course of study, marking out the territory to be covered, is not an infringe- ment upon the liberty and freedom of the teacher. It does not hamper her in her work. Dr. C. A. McMurry, State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. — We are inclined to think sometimes that a course of study is a product of the malicious feeling of the schoolmaster. It is no new thing to find that the course of study is overloaded. The filling up and over- loading of the course of study is not the work of the schoolmaster. It is the result of our civilization. The course of study is the expression of the life of the people. It represents those things that are common in the life 'of the people. The difficulty arises from the fact that we are endeavoring to absorb into the course of study so many of the demands of the life of the people. The world is pressing for recognition, and is no longer satisfied with the courses of study of our grandfathers. The present course is a conglomerate mass — the teacher is not yet ready to grasp with the problem. There is a great necessity for a condensation or simplification of the materials now in use in our courses of study. This ought to receive attention by this association of schoolmasters. Literature can be made an engine of power to introduce many facts of education by this process of correlation. Superintendent W. N. Hailmann, Dayton, O. — I am in hearty sympathy with Dr. Boone. He has beautifully and systematically presented the essentials of a course of study. We' do not believe in the theory of those who are beginning to yield to the signs of the times. We take no stock in that strawman. The course of study is not over- loaded. Those who criticise the present course speak of the frill of nature study, the frill of music, art, etc. The so-called frills have transformed the world. These frills help to make life worth living. The function of the frill is to help make the school subjects more vital in the life of the child and in the life of the school. These frills give the child a higher notion of life. There is no amusement aimed at in the kindergarten. It is real enjoyment that the kindergarten proposes to give the child; a joy that comes by doing — by doing things ourselves and thus making our environments more pleasing. Dr. Harris has so clearly shown us that the importance of teaching the different sub- jects of the course of study is not for the sake of the study, but rather to give the child power and skill. President R. H. Halsey, State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis. — The course of study should be more prescriptive and less suggestive. The same principles that should govern in the self-activity of the child should govern in the training of the teacher. Give the teacher more responsibility in the initial training of the child. Co-ordinate topics should be introduced into the different grades for the sake of variety. We must look toward the training of both classes of pupils — the bright and the dull. It is a dangerous thing to put the bright pupils ahead of the other members of the class. Thoroness should precede promotion. Give the pupil more work in the grade of which he is a member, rather than remove him by special promotion. Pupils who" enter the high school are too often very poorly prepared for the work. They should remain in the same grade with additional work, giving them new territory, rather than have them pass over the same territory again. 320 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago Superintendent Boone. — There should be a course — a real sequence of topics — so correlated that it becomes a unit. It may suggest typical studies for each grade, but the same grades in a city need not study the same subject, but the typical subject. The subjects to be studied must be determined by the locality, equipments of the school, etc. Children should have a chance to do something and do it well. The work should be largely voluntary. In the matter of the promotion of a pupil it is not a question of having completed the work of a grade, but the question is : Can he get more work out of the next grade than he can out of the one of which he is a member now ? SOME ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL TRAINING PROFESSOR L. B. R. BRIGGS,' HARVARD COLLEGE Whoever looks into systems of education is almost sure to see some- thing that needs reform, and is inclined to believe that the methods of his own day are all wrong. Thus it has come to pass that every year or every month, according to the degree of progressiveness in the com- munity, new theories of education are sprung on us, and, it may be, tried on our children. Now, as everybody knows, it is ten times as easy to destroy as to reconstruct, and a hundred times as easy to find fault as to suggest practicable and wise and durable improvement. The history of education, like the history of the world, is a history of countless mis- takes, with much noble effort and many noble results. There is no reason why education should not admit new light as other sciences admit it — as medicine, for example, admits it; reform in education has been, and still is, alloyed with religious prejudice, with politics, and with per- sonal power and whim, till in our less hopeful moments the education of boys and girls seems the stamping-ground of experiment and fad. In these experiments for the enlightenment of colleges and schools we sometimes forget the oldest and the best truths of education itself. From Milton, tho parts of his one pamphlet on education are an astounding example of the reformer's lack of practical sense, we may get as good a definition as has ever been devised. " I call a complete and generous education," says Milton, "that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war." Accepting this definition, I come with an old story, a story which I have told before, and must tell the worse when I try to put it into new language ; a story, therefore, which here and there I shall let other people tell for me. At the start I must disclaim any inside knowledge of school systems ; and for this reason it may seem that I ought not to speak of school sys- tems at all. My excuse is twofold — the a priori principle in the relation of hard work to solid success, and the unmistakable signs that in modern theories of education this principle is often slighted or ignored. In a Superintendence] SOME ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL TRAINING 321 certain sense I speak as an outsider, yet as an outsider who has, and who feels his right to have, a conviction — a conviction that the end of the American public school is to insure the intellectual discipline which is itself a moral force, and which may point for its result to an educated nation. The first lesson of education is the lesson of getting down to hard work, and doing the work thoroly. It may be learned by a boy or girl who never goes to school, learned in a mill or on a farm ; but the highest work in this part of the world must commonly be done by people who for a greater or less number. of years have spent the best part of at least five days out of seven for some forty weeks a year in what we call educa- tion. The first business of a school is to teach concentration, applica- tion, power of tackling intellectual work — qualities which sooner or later a man must have if he is to succeed in life, and which he got in his boy- hood if he had the right kind of parents, was the right kind of boy, and went to the right kind of school. (I speak of boys. I bid good-by to the girls here and now, leaving them to be "understood" thruout most of what I have to say.) Some of us now in middle life recall the days when, as one of my old neighbors puts it, "we were on earth the first time," and we recall the grammar schools of those days ; the bare walls, the single dictionary as the library of each room, and the curriculum, which nobody had dreamt of "enriching" — reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic (quite enough arithmetic), English grammar, and Quackenboss' History of the United States; nothing to attract the eye, no festivity except at recess, no music, no intellectual food outside of the curriculum except an occasional address of five minutes by a more or less illiterate mayor and an occa- sional question from a rather bashful superintendent (those were early days). For discipline, besides a flogging now and then, the boy who turned his head round to the boy behind him had to stand on the plat- form with a spring clothespin on his nose till he saw another boy turn his head and transferred the clothespin to him. Such education had its drawbacks, moral, intellectual, and above all aesthetic ; yet some of us may well look back to it as the surest and truest discipline of our lives — for we were taught to work. Sometimes, if you are to turn a college loafer into a man, you send him to a factory, with long and early hours, and immediate responsibility to an officer. You do this because his salvation is work, and because, blind as he now is to the beauty of the intellectual work that he may do, he needs to be edu- cated by manual labor that he must do. You give him work as education. All education is work. This obvious but endangered doctrine is what I am here to preach. Work [says Bushnell] is activity^?- an end ; play activity as an end. One prepares the fund or resources of enjoyment ; the other is enjoyment itself. When a man goes into 32 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago [agriculture, trade, or the shop, he consents to undertake a certain expenditure of care and labor, which is only a form of painstaking (rightly named) in order to obtain some ulterior good which is to be his reward ; but when a child goes to his play, it is no painstaking, no means to an end ; it is itself, rather, both end and joy. Now, the tendency of education in this country is to turn work into play, just as the tendency of outdoor games in this country is to turn play into work. For early education we have the kindergarten ; for foot- ball we have relentless training. Have you ever thought of one reason why athletics in American colleges mean so much ? It is athletics in which many a youth, pampered at home and at school, gets his only taste of the stern discipline without which he cannot be a man. His studies he evades, and his friends pardon the evasion ; his football he cannot evade, or he is branded as a "quitter, as "soft," or "sandless." From his studies he gets more or less culture, but no backbone ; from his football he gets the stuff and substance of his education. The business- man often prefers in his office a successful college athlete to a successful college scholar; for the athlete, as the business-man says, "has done something." The public school should have at least as much educational power as football. Setting aside the question of manual training, a question of great importance to many boys, and speaking of a grammar school, which has for its object intellectual discipline, I believe that the business of the grammar school is to teach a few subjects, essential or of prime importance, and, in teaching them, to give the training which enables people "to do things." The grammar school is for the greatest good of the greatest number. If we are inclined to condemn it for ignoring the individual, we should remember that strength may come to the individual from being ignored, from being treated as one among many who are treated and trained alike. Individual education is the right of a man ; to a less degree it is the right of a youth ; to some degree it is the right of every- body; but everybody has also that other right of education in common with his equals, with his superiors, and even with his inferiors, education in which he may see the effect of teaching on a variety of minds, each dif- ferent from his own, and may learn from his fellows as they may learn from him. Again and again I have seen, in college, students who have become almost hopelessly debilitated from excessive attention to their individual needs — or, rather, to what their parents have believed to be their individual needs ; who have never known the stimulus of competition ; whose sharp corners have been carefully sharpened more and more, and never rounded off ; the bent of whose minds has been followed till their minds have lost all power of attention and concentration — unless some- thing new has come to fascinate them, so that their very attention has seemed a weakness rather than a strength, a yielding of the mind rather Superintendence] SOME ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL TRAINING 323 than a conquering by the mind. The business of the grammar school is not to follow the mind, but to lead it; nor is it to entertain or amuse, tho a good teacher will entertain and amuse incidentally; nor is it to teach so many things that none can be taught well. It is to drill and drill and drill, to teach accuracy, concentration, self-command, so that he who has been faithful in a few things may be fit, with increasing years and ripen- ing powers, to be ruler over many things. In the grammar school few subjects are essential. Chief among these is the use of the English language. If enough sensible trainers of the voice could be found, I should be tempted to add elocution. Who does not know the strained, high voice of a reciting child or of a chiding schoolmistress ? Who that has to use his voice in a large room does not know the weariness of not using it well ? A little mathematics, a little geography and history, possibly a little physics, and a great deal of reading, writing, and speak- ing in the English tongue — these things well taught make a foundation on which any structure of intellectual education may safely rest. Narrow, if you will, but about as wide as a child's foundation can be laid and laid firmly. A few fundamental studies with the habit of mastering the work in hand are an infinitely better basis for the child than a heterogeneous collection of half-learned, cultivating diversions over which he may sprawl, but on which he can never stand. A few studies rightly taught are the first intellectual step toward " that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war." Sometimes people complain of drill as benumbing the mind of a child; and the complaint, if the child is young and the drill severe, has foundation. Yet these same persons fail to see how demoraliz- ing to the minds of children an excessive number of studies may be. Children, as everybody knows, love repetition in their amusements, and can stand much more of it in their instruction than their elders can. By multiplying the subjects which we set before them, we run the risk, not merely of dissipating their minds, but of overstimulating them. I do not mean that even a grammar school should ignore the value of variety, and I am glad that music is now taught in our public schools. I mean much what a correspondent of mine meant when he wrote: "I would have a boy use the English language decently, even if he loses the opportunity to study German in the grammar school." What threatens our early education nowadays is the amusement and variety theory. Working upward from the kindergarten it bids fair to weaken the intellect and to sap the will. A well-known teacher in Boston had no difficulty in picking out the members of his school who had begun their education in the kindergarten ; and he picked them out because of a weakness in their intellectual processes. There are exceptions and notable ones ; and there is, as everybody knows, a lovely side to the kindergarten ; but the danger of the kindergarten principle is felt by many a teacher who hardly dares 324 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago hint at it. An elective system in college gives a noble liberty to the man who has been so trained that he can use his liberty wisely ; but when an elective system goes lower and lower into our schools till it meets children who have been amused thru the years in which they should have been educated, what chance have these children for the best thing in education? " On a huge hill Cragged and steep, Truth stands ; and he that will Reach her about must, and about it go, And what the hill's suddenness resists, win so." That I am not fighting shadows or knocking down men of straw, the testimony of a hundred teachers and parents makes clear. The amuse- ment theory, starting in an honest and benignant desire to show children the beauty of the world about them and to rouse their interest in study, especially in the study of nature, may end with the sacrifice of strength in the pupil and of truth in the teacher; may become a sweetmeat theory, giving the children food which debilitates and deranges the organs that crave it. Certainly the education of boys should not be a bore and a bugbear, nor should it ignore culture. Yet the culture should not crowd out train- ing ; it should rather be atmospheric; it should come to the boy from the finer, maturer, and more sensitive character of his teacher; it should take little or no visible or tangible part in the school program ; it should per- vade the whole. In the best teacher, also, is a personal force that inspires some boys with the desire to work and compels others to work, till work becomes a precious, even a priceless, habit of their lives. He is not full of devices and patent appliances for interesting his pupils; he is not full of theories and fads ; he does his own work, even the drudgery of it, with enthusiasm for it and for his calling. He corrects, chastens, guides, kindles the love of learning ; and constantly he gives to eager eyes some glimpses of that high enjoyment to which learning and discipline may lead; but he never sacrifices the discipline to any royal road of pleasure. This is another way of saying that the good teacher does not sacrifice truth "to make things interesting." I have lately read an admirable paper by Miss Soule, of Brookline, Mass., on the foolish untruthfulness of some booksdesigned to interest children in nature. Miss Soulecitesawell-known superintendent of public schools who maintains that plants, if they are to interest children, " must be instinct with human attributes ;" and to illustrate his theory about animals as well as plants she has collected from books for children a good many specimens of biological mendacity. Children, she says, are taught that " the kind cow " gives them her milk ; that "a plant does not like to send its young, delicate leaves and flowers into the cold world without wrapping them up, any more than your mother would like to send your baby brother out for the first time without a great deal of such bundling up ;" that the queen bee "is very generous to the young queen, Superintendence] SOME ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL TRAINING 325 who of course is her own daughter, and leaves all the furniture and silver spoons and everything of that sort behind." "What," says Miss Soule, "is gained by this?" She tells the effect of it on two children. One who was literal said : " Why, she couldn't leave furniture and silver spoons, because she didn't have any to leave. That is not a very true book, is it?" Another, and brighter, child exclaimed: "How silly that is! It is so stupid to pretend things like that when they could not ever be." "Yet," says Miss Soule, "this child is very imaginative, delights in fairy tales, and lived Alice in Wonderland for weeks." Imaginative literature may do what it likes with plants and animals. Alice in Wonderland, tho she may not teach children respectful manners, cannot teach them biologi- cal untruth. Mr. Kipling's Rikki Tikki Tavi is one of the best stories in the English language for old or young; and his Toontai of the Elephants has a poetic beauty which it is a distinction for a child to feel. Imaginative literature is one thing, and books for instruction are quite another. Yet one teacher cited to Miss Soule that dismal joke about the queen bee and the silver spoons as "so taking, so cute!" "This method of awakening interest," says Miss Soule, " puts child and animals into false relations, and nothing is gained by it except possibly an added interest on the part of the child. Since this interest is based upon conditions which do not exist, the child has no right to it. The animals are not interesting in that way." In the same paper Miss Soule compares "soft pedagogies " with peptonized food. After reading Miss Soule's paper, one of the best graduates of one of the best kindergarten schools wrote to the author that she (the teacher) "was circulating that paper among all the teachers she knew, because it had shown her that she and the other kindergarten teachers were doing dishonest work for the sake of ease and arousing interest, and that the modern schoolbooks all tended to increase this dishonesty." "It is better," said an American humorist, " not to know so much than to know so many things that ain't so." An able teacher in Boston, struggling against what she believes to be debilitating methods in the education of today, writes of her own work as "an uphill, out-of-date attempt to keep a simple, healthy school;" and adds that in the attempt she is "constantly losing her grip on the Back Bay." From another teacher of long experience, who writes about modern methods of teaching languages, I quote at some length : Since the attack on the old system of teaching languages, English as well as Latin and Greek, became effective in an iconoclastic sense, and ineffective in the way of sug- gesting a better system, the teacher in the secondary schools has been swamped in what I, remembering my friends' experiences with Dr. Sauveur many years ago, have been inclined to call Sauveurism. Sauveurism in teaching, you will remember, spread rapidly, attacked many college centers, and infected violently the opponents of the classical sys- tem. It was for a time hailed as the true scientific treatment of all language study, and it really had in it one element of true scientific method, the cumulative gathering of facts 326 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago on which to theorize ; but the gathering of facts proved in the main to be desultory and the theories nebulous and valueless. This Sauveur rage, while it had its good side in practical training for the spoken language, struck at the root of all sound scientific method in language study. The good in it was as old as the hills, and was already as effectively used in good schools of the classical order as it ever was by Sauveur. The evil in it was its claim that a no-system was better than a system. It threw out what was known and classified. Where true science teaches by rule and tests by experiment, this held that cumulative laboratory work was all-in-all. The Sauveur method was the first wild attempt to replace with a working system the old grammatical training of the schools. It failed and is forgotten. Taking what was good in it — not from Sauveur, but from the old methods, as old as the hills — a few practical teachers, like Daniell and Collar, themselves trained in the old schools, have reintroduced good grammatical work in Latin and Greek instruction. This is elementary training only, but it serves to shorten the period of drudgery and open up early the rich stores of Latin and Greek literature — stores to be best enjoyed without the excess of annotation and cross-reference which some of the literature specialists are attaching to our English classics intended for schools. English grammar also has its method and should, I believe, be taught early and thoroly — the dry details not shunned. In getting these the memory may receive as exact a training as it used to get in the old [Boston] Latin School under Gardner. Once bedded in the mind, the grammatical details should be allowed to repose there, as well forgotten as the flower seed is forgotten when the blossom is sweet in the winds. If they are stirred again, as the young college specialists (not the best of them) are stirring them, I believe the mind will never acquire that fine sense of literary charm that used to be acquired under Channing and Child. I have recalled Sauveur only because he stands in my memory as the bete noir of some years of my life spent in teaching English and the classics. But he has passed and is forgotten. Other fads have taken the place of his in language and other studies. This teacher expresses "doubt as to the robustness of vigor acquired by rolling downhill along the lines of least resistance," "as if," he says, " mental vigor were to be got in the malarial tracts and not on the windy and difficult heights." "Some years ago," he adds, "when I asked my boy what he would like to do for a living, his answer was : ' I would like to loaf on salary.' As he has had no such soft elective open to him, he is now doing very honest work." The windy and difficult heights ! Can any healthy man or woman compare the pleasure of "loafing on salary" to the pleasure of scaling " the windy and difficult heights " ? Indeed, the cry of those who scale these heights is : " Give a boy liberty, and he too will scale them. He will use liberty wisely, because in the wise use of it he will find the keenest enjoy- ment of the intellectual life." But a boy, while he is a boy, does not see all this. A student from a famous preparatory school, the head master of which is a vigorous and cultivated man, knew almost nothing of the English language. "With the methods of teaching they have now," said his father, "I do not see how a boy learns anything. I really believe," he added, " that the reason my boy does poorly in his mathematics is because he does not know the language in which it is taught. It would never occur to him to look up a word in the dictionary." This is the kind of boy who expects in college that form of education which Mr. Superintendence] SOME ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL TRAINING 327 Dooley describes when he says : "Th' prisidint takes him into a Turkish room, gives him- a cigareet, an' says : ' Me dear boy, what special branch iv larnin' wud ye like to have studied f'r ye be our compitint professors ? ' " the kind of boy that leads the same philosopher not to care what the children study so long as it is disagreeable to them. Now and then a man born of the best stock, trained with the best training of an earlier generation, filled with high purpose and noble enthusiasm, fails to see that the average child of today may be swamped by a liberty which to him would be buoyant life. He has learned the triumphant happiness of difficult work well done, and forgets the time when even he, in a school of today, might not have learned it. Let us thank every teacher who has helped us to see that, if we do anything as well as we can and keep on doing it, it must become interesting. I too believe that boys and girls should enjoy education, should love the work of it. By and by they must spend the greater part of their waking hours in work; and if they cannot enjoy work, the work that lies before them, they will lead unhappy lives. The late Professor Dunbar assigned as one cause of President Eliot's extraordinary success his keen enjoyment of work. Some men live on "the windy and difficult heights," mountain- climbers by instinct and by training ; but will the youth of vulgar herit- age and custom-made education grapple with the cliffs, or will he light a cigarette and lie down ? I am not attacking the elective system in colleges. I believe with President Tucker that " a considerable amount of unawakened, uninterested mind in our colleges has been recovered by this system ;" that "it repre- sents the final appeal to the indifferent student;" and that "it gives responsibility and stimulus to the diligent." Yet its representing the final intellectual appeal is a confession of weakness in some early pro- cesses. Besides, if the elective system gets into the grammar school, it will in some measure defeat its own end in the college. It will cut off many a boy from the liberty in whose name it was created, by sending him to college unfit for a number of the elective courses which would otherwise be open to him. Then, if roused at last to an interest in work, he will "feel the weight" of the "chance desires" which led him blindly away from what was to be his goal. Suppose he loves literature, but not language, and in the complacency of youth sets out to be a specialist in literature with " no use," as he says, for the ancient classics : the higher he rises in his specialty, the more keenly he will feel the want of the Greek and Latin which he might have mastered once so much more readily than he can master them now. Or, not to mention Greek and Latin, suppose he loves to write, but not to study grammar : he may be clever and may acquire skill in writing; but the greater his success, the deeper will be his regret, if he comes to write of difficult subjects, that he threw away the opportunity of early grammatical training. 328 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago The early studies, I repeat, should be the studies that are at the root of all. These are the right studies for boys whose book-learning stops with the grammar school ; they are equally right for boys who will in time be doctors of philosophy. In the hands of a good teacher they are inter- esting, with no strain on truth; first, because to an awakened mind every study has its charm ; and, next, because thru them a good teacher may train a boy to the enjoyment of vigorous work. I am talking of intellectual work. Sewing for girls and carving for boys are first-rate things and may well be taught in public institutions; but they should not in an American grammar school crowd out intellec- tual opportunity. As to the hundred pretty and interesting things with which we are tempted to decorate school programs, let us remember that " the foundation must be stronger than the superstructure." " Fine stock- ings, fine shoes, fine yellow hair," and a "double ruffle round her neck " did not make up in Ducky Dilver's lamented wife for the want of a petticoat; and it is even so with frills in education. Without the essential garments of the mind the frills may become a mockery. Says Cardinal Newman : I will tell you, gentlemen, what has been the practical error of the last twenty years [we must add many more years now]. Not to load the memory of the student with a mass of undigested knowledge ; but to force upon him so much that he has rejected all. It has been the error of distracting and enfeebling the mind by an unmeaning profusion of subjects ; of implying that a smattering in a dozen branches of study is not shallow- ness, which it really is, but enlargement, which it is not ; of considering an acquaintance with the learned names of things and persons, and the possession of clever duodecimos, and attendance on eloquent lecturers, and membership with scientific institutions, and the sight of the experiments of a platform, and the specimens of a museum — that all this was not dissipation of mind, but progress. All things now are to be learned at once ; not first one thing and then another ; not one well, but many badly. Learning is to be without exertion, without attention, without toil, without grounding, without advance, without finish. There are youths [says the same great writer] who certainly have a taste for read- ing, but in whom it is little more than the result of mental restlessness and curiosity. Such minds cannot fix their gaze o*n one object for two seconds together ; the very impulse that leads them to read at all leads them to read on, and never to stay or hang over any one idea. The pleasurable excitement of reading what is new is their motive principle, and the imagination that they are doing something, and the boyish vanity that accompanies it, are their reward. Such youths often profess to like poetry, or to like history or biography ; they are fond of lectures on certain of the physical sci- ences; or they may possibly have a real and true taste for natural history or other cognate subjects ; and so far they may be regarded with satisfaction ; but, on the other hand, they profess that they do not like logic, they do not like algebra, they have no taste for mathematics; which only means that they do not like application, they do not like attention, they shrink from the effort and labor of thinking, and the process of true intellectual gymnastics. The consequence will be that, when they grow up, they may, if it so happen, be agreeable in conversation ; they may be well informed in this or that department of knowledge ; they may be what is called literary; but they will have no con- sistency, steadiness, or perseverance ; they will not be able to make a telling speech, or to write a good letter, or to fling in debate a smart antagonist, unless so far as, now Superintendence] SOME ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL TRAINING 329 and then, mother-wit supplies a sudden capacity, which cannot be ordinarily counted on. They cannot state an argument or a question, or take a clear survey of a whole trans- action, or give sensible and appropriate advice under difficulties, or do any of those things which inspire confidence and gain influence, which raise a man in life, and make him useful to his religion or his country. Elsewhere Cardinal Newman says : The displays of eloquence, or the interesting matter contained in their lectures, though admirable in themselves, and advantageous to the student at a later stage of his course, never can serve as a substitute for methodical and laborious teaching. A young man of sharp and active intellect, who has had no other training, has little to show for it besides a litter of ideas heaped up in his mind anyhow. He can utter a number of truths or sophisms, as the case may be ; and one is as good to him as another. He is up with a number of doctrines and a number of facts ; but they are all loose and straggling, for he has no principles set up in his mind round which to aggregate and locate them. He can say a word or two on half a dozen sciences, but not a dozen words on any one. He says one thing now, and another presently ; and when he attempts to write down distinctly what he holds upon a point in dispute, or what he understands by its terms, he breaks down, and is surprised at his failure. He sees objections more clearly than truths, and can ask a thousand questions which the wisest of men cannot answer ; and withal he has a very good opinion of himself, and is well satisfied with his attainments, and he declares against others, as opposed to the spread of knowledge altogether, who do not happen to adopt his ways of furthering it, or the opinions in which he considers it to result. Still again : But the intellect which has been disciplined to the perfection of its powers, which knows, and thinks while it knows, which has learned to leaven the dense mass of facts and events with the elastic force of reason, such an intellect cannot be partial, cannot be exclusive, cannot be impetuous, cannot be at a loss, cannot but be patient, collected, and majestically calm, because it discerns the end in every beginning, the origin in every end, the law in every interruption, the limit in each delay ; because it ever knows where it stands, and how its path lies from one point to another. Men look at any system of education, and are dissatisfied because no system does for everybody what education should do. They would gather grapes from thorns and figs from thistles. They forget that even the best seed may fall on stony ground or be eaten by the fowls of the air. They forget that no schoolmaster and no school system can make over a boy's ancestors, or banish his temptations, or give eyes to the blind ; and they have their visions, their theories, their panaceas ; and people rush after their panaceas as people rush after other panaceas, to find that the panacea comes and goes, while the disease abides; and the steadfast old teacher almost loses heart, like the steadfast old physician who sees people stake their money and their lives on a new patent medicine, on irrational healers of all sorts, on people who prescribe from examining locks of hair or from looking at the stars ; but by and by he says to him- self : "This, too, shall pass. Of the new teachers the dishonest will soon reveal themselves ; and from the honestly mistaken some good may come. I will stand by a few things that I know. I know that it is better to con- centrate the mind than to dissipate it, to train it than to pamper it. I know that there is no courage and no intellectual joy like the courage and 33° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago the joy of that effort which ends in mastery. New systems may come and go. I will take with gratitude whatever in any one of them adds beauty, interest, helpful variety, cultivating influence, any kind of strength or glory, to a task as perplexing as it is noble ; yet not for one moment shall I forget that sound training comes before varied accomplishment ; that there is no strength and no glory like that of duty steadily and bravely done." DISCUSSION Dr William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education.1 — Being called out to make some remarks on the general subject of discussion, I shall utter some of the reflections which passed thru my mind as I listened to the fascinating paper which has just now been read. The objection to the kindergarten which was quoted in the paper reminds me of forebodings which were often published thirty years ago in regard to the kindergarten when the first experiments were in progress in this country. I do not think, however, that experience verified those forebodings, for it would seem that, on the whole, the chil- dren from the kindergarten have a more highly developed power of interesting them- selves in their regular work than those who have not received kindergarten training. They are, on an average, somewhat better able to help themselves. They do not depend upon the teacher quite so much as the others. It goes without saying that, while this is generally true, there are many exceptions. The difference caused by the training of a good kindergarten is often more than made up for by native talent, or by some species of training obtained in the experience which the child has found in his life ; and it must be admitted that some kindergartens of a most unhappy sort have a tend- ency to develop in children the faculty of getting in the way of each other, and of needing constant supervision on the part of the teacher, who is obliged to interfere with their work. Most of my reflections related to what the speaker said with reference to formal dis- cipline. I recall vividly my protest in early life against formal discipline in the college. I was told that Latin and Greek were useful as disciplinary studies. In fact, the argu- ments made for Latin and Greek would seem to apply to Arabic and Sanscrit and languages of the Turanian tribes. I became thoroly tired of all this talk about mental discipline as secured thru the study of dead languages. But in later years I changed my view on this subject, and found that the study of Latin and Greek is generally of great value in one's education. In fact, there is no substitute for Latin and Greek so far as the Anglo-Saxon or any other Teutonic people is concerned, because Latin and Greek are the languages of the two classes of people who have furnished us the most valuable elements that enter our civilization. Our civilization is composite, getting one strand from Greece and one strand from Rome. The languages of those two nationalities belong to the culture- studies of our youth, because they help one to understand the two strands which enter his civilization from those sources. I invented the expression " embryology of civiliza- tion" to make clear this thought. Inasmuch as one has to study an animal in its embry- ology in order to know it scientifically, so, it seemed to me, one has to study his own civilization in its embryology in order to understand it. But I will readily admit that the study of Latin and Greek remains in some instances only a study of embryos, without furnishing valuable concrete results, without strengthening the youth to grapple with the problems of life as they are now. I have seen students at Oxford and Cambridge, resi- dent graduates at those venerable institutions, who had devoted so much time to the embryology of civilization that no leisure or taste remained for the study of the civiliza- tion which had hatched out of those embryos. i Revised and extended by the author. Superintendence] SOME ASPECTS OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL TRAINING 331 It seems to me that it is a mistake to claim for the study of Latin and Greek a value simply as a mental discipline, for a thoro study of Spanish, or French, or German, or Arabic, or Chinese would develop an equal or greater amount of mental discipline. And hence the modern school might use one of those branches as a substitute for Latin and Greek ; but no one of those branches could give the youth an insight into the devel- opment of his civilization ; he would not be mentally prepared to understand the Roman contribution nor the Greek contribution to the laws and usages of civil society and to the forms of literature and art and science. This may be taken as a counter-statement to the position set forth by Dean Briggs in his paper. But I had in my own mind a general assent to all that he said, and I was very glad to hear what he said. My suggestion is only that more stress should be laid on the fitness of the college studies to prepare the person for thinking out the problems of later life, and not so much merely on the formal discipline ; that is to say, on" the mere training of the will to industry. I think that this will be apparent when one considers that mere dogged industry in some branches does not produce the effects that the same industry produces in others. The one who studies Latin and Greek has more insight into human nature as revealed in his own civilization than the one does who devotes his life to the study of the native dialects of the Sandwich Islands. The one who learns the nigher mathematics has more insight into the laws that control matter and forces in nature than the one who devotes himself exclusively to manual training, but with equally stubborn industry. So, too, the industrious athlete at college does not acquire an ability to combine the human forces of an army of men into an all-conquering unity so much as the study of the branches taught at West Point would do. It is true 'that Wellington learned to conquer at Waterloo, as he said, from his early experience in the football game at Eton, but it was at the military college that he learned the mathematical prin- ciples which gave him an insight into the football game and enabled him to understand how to apply the principles involved in the combination of the football rush on the grand scale of the field of Waterloo. I have always felt some degree of impatience with my college teachers because they did not impress upon us students the true view in regard to the studies which we pur- sued— they did not interpret them in the light of civilization. I had accidentally heard something of German philosophy. There was at one American college in the early fifties professors with some insight into the great revolution going on in German thinking ; a revolution which was inaugurated by the {publication of the great Critique of Kant ; some insight, I would say, into the upheaval in German thinking which lasted for fifty years or so, namely, until after 1830. This revolution involved not only new insights into all realms of intellect, but also revolutions in statecraft and productive industry. For German thought introduced comparative, methods, not only into philosophy and natural science, but also into the study of national economy and civil service. Its far-reaching revolutions became visible to all the world on the fields of Kdniggratz and Sedan, and later they can now be seen in the specialization of German industry, by which the northern nations have learned how to emancipate themselves from a depend- ence on the tropical population for sugar. The most important thing, perhaps, is the study of comparative religion, inaugu- rated by the new German studies in philosophy. But seventy years after the publication of Kant's Critique there was only one professor in an American college who possessed an insight into the work sufficient to explain it to a class of students ; or, indeed, to advise an earnest-minded young man as to a course of reading on the subject. I mention this because I think that the narrow view of formal discipline was the cause of this scandalous neglect of philosophy. For not only was German philosophy neglected, but the ancient Greek philosophy fared no better. Very absurd notions prevailed as to the doctrines taught by Plato and Aristotle, and as to their relations to each other. I have always considered it a piece of good fortune to me that I revolted against 33 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago formal disciplinary studies and struck out for myself with the vague ambition to master the philosophy of the Germans ; a philosophy so difficult that after many months' study I could not tell what any page of it meant. I hasten to say, in closing, that I admit that there is much good in mere industry and in the discipline of exerting one's will so as to conquer at a piece of work, at the blacksmith's forge, or the carpenter's bench, or in the college boat-race, or in the study of the language of a savage tribe, or in a game of chess ; but I wish to affirm that there is great virtue in the branches that form the regular course of study in the college or uni- versity. They afford insight as well as discipline. THE SITUATION AS REGARDS THE COURSE OF STUDY PROFESSOR JOHN DEWEY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Horace Mann and the disciples of Pestalozzi did their peculiar mis- sionary work so completely as intellectually to crowd the conservative to the wall. For half a century after their time the ethical emotion, the bulk of exhortation, the current formulae and catchwords, the distinctive principles of theory have been found on the side of progress, of what is known as reform. The supremacy of self-activity, the symmetrical devel- opment of all the powers, the priority of character to information, the necessity of putting the real before the symbol, the concrete before the abstract, the necessity of following the order of nature and not the order of human convention — all these ideas, at the outset so revolutionary, have filtered into the pedagogic consciousness and become the commonplace of pedagogic writing and of the gatherings where teachers meet for inspira- tion and admonition. It is, however, sufficiently obvious that, while the field of theory and enthusiasm and preaching was taken possession of by the reformer, the conservative, so far as the course of study is concerned, was holding his own pretty obstinately in the region of practice. He could afford to neglect all these sayings ; nay, he could afford to take a part in a glib reiteration of the shibboleths, because, as a matter of fact, his own work remained so largely untouched. He retained actual control of school conditions ; it was he who brought about the final and actual contact between the theories and the child. And by the time the ideals and the- ories had been translated over into their working equivalents in the cur- riculum, the difference between them and what he as a conservative really wished and practiced became often the simple difference between tweedle dum and tweedle dee. So the "great big battle "was fought with mutual satisfaction, each side having an almost complete victory in its own field. Where the reformer made his headway was not in the region of studies, but rather in that of methods and atmosphere of school work. In the last twenty or twenty-five years, however, more serious attempts have been made to carry the theory into effective execution in the school- room, in subject-matter as well as method. The unconscious insincerity Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 333 in continually turning the theory over and over in terms of itself, the unconscious self-deceit in using if simply to cast an idealized and emo- tional halo over a mechanical school routine with which it was funda- mentally at odds, became somewhat painfully apparent ; consequently the effort to change the concrete school materials and school subject- matter so 'as to give the professed ends and aims a pou sto within the school walls and in relation to the children. Drawing, music, nature study with the field excursion and the school garden, manual training, the continuation of the constructive exercises of the kindergarten, the story and the tale, the biography, the dramatic episode, and anniversary of heroic history found their way into the school- rooms. We, they proclaim, are the working counterparts of the com- mands to follow nature ; to secure the complete development of the child ; to present the real before the symbolic, etc. Interest was transferred from the region of pedagogic principles and ideals, as such, to the child as affected by these principles and ideals. The formulas of pedagogics were reduced in importance, and the present experience of the child was magnified. The gospel of the emancipation of the child succeeded the gospel of the emancipation of the educational theorist. This gospel was published abroad, and verily its day seemed at hand. It was apparently only a question of pushing a few more old fogies out of the way, and waiting for others to pass out of existence in the natural course of events, and the long-wished-for educational reformation would be accomplished. Needless to say, the affair was not quite so simple. The conservative was still there. He was there not only as a teacher in the schoolroom, but he was there in the board of education ; he was there because he was still in the heart and mind of the parent ; because he still possessed and controlled the intellectual and moral standards and expectations of the community. We began to learn that an educational reform is but one phase of a general social modification. Moreover, certain evils began to show themselves. Studies were mul- tiplied almost indefinitely, often overtaxing the physical and mental strength of both teacher and child, leading to a congestion of the curricu- lum, to a distraction and dissipation of aim and effort on the part of instructor and pupil. Too often an excess of emotional excitement and strain abruptly replaced the former apathy and dull routine of the school. There were complaints in every community of loss of efficiency in the older studies, and of a letting down of the seriousness of mental training. It is not necessary to consider how well founded these objections have been. The fact that they are so commonly made, the fact that these newer studies are often regarded simply as fads and frills, is sufficient evidence of the main point, viz.: of the external and mechanical position occupied by these studies in the curriculum. Numbers of cities thruout the country point the moral. When the winds blew and the rains fell — 334 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago in the shape of a financial stringency in the community and the business conduct of the school — the new educational edifice too often fell. It may not have been built entirely upon the sand, but at all events it was not founded upon a rock. The taxpayer spoke, and somehow the studies which represented the symmetrical development of the child and the neces- sity of giving him the concrete before the abstract went into eclipse. It is, of course, agreeable for those who believe in progress, in reform, in new ideals, to attribute these reactions to a hard and stiff-necked gen- eration who willfully refuse to recognize the highest goods when they see them. It is agreeable to regard such as barbarians who are interested simply in turning back the wheels of progress. The simple fact, however, is that education is the one thing in which the American people believe without reserve, and to which they are without reserve committed. Indeed, I sometimes think that the necessity of education is the only settled article in the shifting and confused social and moral creed of America. If, then, the American public fails, in critical cases, to stand by the educational newcomers, it is because these latter have not yet become organic parts of the educational whole — otherwise they could not be cut out. They are not really in the unity of educational movement- — other- wise they could not be arrested. They are still insertions and additions. Consider the wave by which a new study is introduced into the cur- riculum. Someone feels that the school system of his (or quite frequently nowadays her) town is falling behind the times. There are rumors of great progress in education making elsewhere. Something new and important has been introduced ; education is being revolutionized by it ; the school superintendent, or members of the board of education, become somewhat uneasy; the matter is taken up by individuals and clubs ; pressure is brought to bear on the managers of the school system ; letters are written to the newspapers ; the editor himself is appealed to to use his great power to advance the Cause of progress; editorials appear; finally the school board ordains that on and after a certain date the par- ticular new branch — be it nature study, industrial drawing, cooking, manual training, or whatever — shall be taught in the public schools. The victory is won, and everybody — unless it be some already overburdened and distracted teacher — congratulates everybody else that such advanced steps are taking. The next year, or possibly the next month, there comes an outcry that children do not write or spell or figure as well as they used to ; that they cannot do the necessary work in the upper grades, or in the high school, because of lack of ready command of the necessary tools of study. We are told that they also are not prepared for business, because their spelling is so poor, their work in addition and multiplication so slow and inaccu- rate, their handwriting so fearfully and wonderfully made. Some zealous soul on the school board takes up this matter ; the newspapers are again Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 335 heard from ; investigations are set on foot ; and the edict goes forth that there must be more drill in the fundamentals of writing, spelling, and number. Moreover, in the last year or two there are many signs that the older and traditional studies do not propose to be ignored. For a long time, as already intimated, the conservative was, upon the whole, quite content to surrender the intellectual and emotional territory, the sphere of theory and of warmly toned ideals, to the reformer. He was content because he, after all, remained in possession of the field of action. But now there are symptoms of another attitude ; the conservative is, so to speak, coming to intellectual and moral consciousness himself. He is asserting that in his conservatism he stands for more than the mere customs and traditions of an outworn past. He asserts that he stands for honesty of work, for sta- bility, for thoroness, for singleness of aim and concentration of agencies, for a reasonable simplicity. He is actively probing the innovator. He is asking questions regarding the guarantees of personal and intellectual dis- cipline, of power of control, of ability to work. He is asking whether there is not danger of both teacher and child being lost in the portentous multiplication of studies. He is asking about the leisure requisite to intellectual and mental digestion, and subsequent growth. He is asking whether there is not danger to integrity of character in arousing so many interests and impulses that no one of them is carried thru to an effect- ive result. These are not matters of mere school procedure or formal arrangement of studies, but matters fundamental to intellectual and moral achievement. Moreover, some recent magazine articles seem to indicate that some few, at least, of the reformers are themselves beginning to draw back ; they are apparently wondering if this new-created child of theirs be not a Frankenstein, which is to turn and rend its creator. They seem to be saying : " Possibly we are in danger of going too fast and too far; what and where are the limits of this thing we have entered upon?" My sketch, however inadequate, is yet, I hope, true to the logic, if not to the details, of history. What emerges from this , running account ? What does it all mean ? Does it not signify that we have a situation in process of forming rather than a definitive situation ? The history reflects both our lack of intellectual organization and the developing recognition of the factors which must enter into any such organization. From this point of view, the renewed self-assertion, from the standpoint of theory, of the adherents of the traditional curriculum is a matter of congratulation. It shows that we are emerging from the period of prac- tical struggle to that of intellectual interpretation and adjustment. As yet, however, we have no conscious educational standard by which to test and place each aspiring claimant. We have hundreds of reasons for and against this or that study, but no reason. Having no sense of the unity of experience, and of the definitive relation of each branch of study to 336 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION | Chicago that unity, we have no criterion by which to judge and decide. We yield to popular pressure and clamor ; first on the side of the instinct for progress, and then on the side of the habit of inertia. As a result, every movement, whether for nature study or spelling, for picture study or arithmetic, for manual training or more legible handwriting, is treated as an isolated and independent thing. It is this separation, this lack of vital unity, which leads to the confusion and contention which are so marked features of the educational situation. Lacking a philosophy of unity, we have no basis upon which to make connections, and our whole treatment becomes piecemeal, empirical, and at the mercy of external circumstances. The problem of the course of study is thus, in effect, a part of the larger problem so pressing in all departments of the organization of life. Everywhere we have outgrown old methods and standards ; every- where we are crowded by new resources, new instrumentalities ; we are bewildered by the multitude of new opportunities that present themselves. Our difficulties of today come, not from paucity or poverty, but from the multiplication of means clear beyond our present powers of use and administration. We have got away from the inherited and customary; we have not come into complete possession and command of the present. Unification, organization, harmony, is the demand of every aspect of life — politics, business, science. That education shares in the confusion of transition, and in the demand for reorganization, is a source of encouragement and not of despair. It proves how integrally the school is bound up with the entire movement of modern life. The situation thus ceases to be a conflict between what is called the old education and the new. There is no longer any old education, save here and there in some belated geographic area. There is no new edu- cation in definitive and supreme existence. What we have is certain vital tendencies. These tendencies ought to work together; each stands for a phase of reality and contributes a factor of efficiency. But because of lack of organization, because of the lack of unified insight upon which organization depends, these tendencies are diverse and tangential. Too often we have their mechanical combination and irrational compromise. More prophetic, because more vital, is the confusion which arises from their conflict. We have been putting new wine into old bottles, and that which was prophesied has come to pass. To recognize that the situation is not the wholesale antagonism of so-called old education by the so-called new, but a question of the co-operative adjustment of necessary factors in a common situation, is to surrender our partisanship. It is to cease our recriminations and our self-conceits, and search for a more comprehensive end than is represented by either factor apart from the other. It is impossible to anticipate the exact and final outcome of this search. Only time, and the light that comes with time, can reveal the answer. The first step, however, is to Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 337 study the existing situation impartially, as students, not as partisans, and, having located the vital factors in it, consider what it is that makes them at the present juncture antagonistic competitors instead of co-operative forces. The question is just this : Why do the newer studies, drawing, music, nature study, manual training ; and the older studies, the three R's, practically conflict with, instead of reinforcing, one another? Why is it that the practical problem is so often simply one of outward annexation or mechanical compromise ? Why is it that the adjustment of the con- flict is left to the mere push and pull of contending factors, to the pressure of local circumstances and of temporary reactions ? An answer to this question is, I believe, the indispensable preliminary to any future understanding. Put roughly, we have two groups of studies ; one represents the symbols of the intellectual life, which are the tools of civilization itself ; the other group stands for the direct and present expression of power on the part of one undergoing education, and for the present and direct enrichment of his life-experience. For reasons historically adequate, the former group represents the traditional educa- tion ; the latter, the efforts of the innovator. Intrinsically speaking, in the abstract, there is no reason to assume any fundamental, or even any minor, antagonism between these two groups. Such an assumption would mean that the requirements of civilization are fundamentally at war with the conditions of individual development ; that the agencies by which society maintains itself are at radical odds with the forms by which indi- vidual experience is deepened and expanded. Unless we are ready to concede such a fundamental contradiction in the make-up of life, we must hold that the present contention is the result of conditions which are local and transitory. I offer the following proposition as giving the key to the conflict: The studies of the symbolic and formal sort represented the aims and material of education for a sufficiently long time to call into exist- ence a machinery of administration and of instruction thoroly adapted to themselves. This machinery constituted the actual working scheme of administration and instruction. The conditions thus constituted persist long after the studies to which they are well adapted have lost their theoretical supremacy. The conflict, the confusion, the compromise, is not intrinsically between the older group of studies and the newer, but between the external conditions in which the former were realized and the aims and standards represented by the newer. It is easy to fall into the habit of regarding the mechanics of school organization and administration as something comparatively external and indifferent to educational purposes and ideals. We think of the group- ing of children in classes, the arrangement of grades, the machinery by which the course of study is made out and laid down, the method by which it is carried into effect, the system of selecting teachers and of 338 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago assigning them to their work, of paying and promoting them, as, in a way, matters of mere practical convenience and expediency. We forget that it is precisely such things as these that really control the whole system, even on its distinctively educational side. No matter what is the accepted precept and theory, no matter what the legislation of the school board or the mandate of the school superintendent, the reality of education is found in the personal and face-to-face contact of teacher and child. The conditions that underlie and regulate this contact dominate the educational situation. In this contact, and in it alone, can the reality of current education be got at. To get away from it is to be ignorant and to deceive ourselves. It is in this contact that the real course of study, whatever be laid down on paper, is actually found. Now, the conditions that determine this per- sonal relationship are, upon the whole, the survival of the period when the domination of the three R's was practically unquestioned. Their effectiveness lies in their adaptation to realizing the ends and aims of that form of education. They do not lend themselves to realizing the purposes of the newer studies. Consequently we never get the full benefit either of the old or of the new studies. They work at cross-purposes. The excellence which the conditions would possess if they were directed solely at securing progress in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and allied topics, is lost because of the introduction of material irrelevant and distracting from the standpoint of the conditions. The new studies do not have an opportunity to show what they can do because hampered by machinery constructed for turning out another kind of goods; they are not pro- vided with their own distinctive set of instrumentalities. Granted this contradiction, the only wonder is that the chaos is not greater than it actually is; the only wonder is that we are securing such positive results as actually come about. Let us study this contradiction somewhat more intimately, taking up one by one some of its constituent elements. On the side of the machinery of school work I mention first the number of children in a room. This runs in the graded schools of our country anywhere from thirty-five to sixty. This can hardly be said to be an ideal condition, even from the standpoint of uniform progress in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and the symbols of geography and history ; but it certainly is indefinitely better adapted to securing these results than that of the symmetrical and complete development of all the powers, physical, mental, moral, aesthetic, of each individual child out of the entire fifty. From the standpoint of the latter aim, the discrepancy is so great that the situation is either ridicu- lous or tragic. Under such circumstances, how do we have the face to continue to speak at all of the complete development of the individual as the supreme end of educational effort ? Excepting here and there with the genius who seems to rise above all conditions, the school environment Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 339 and machinery almost compel the more mechanical features of school- work to lord it over the more vital aims. We get the same result when we consider, not the number of children in a given grade, but the arrangement of grades. The distribution into separate years, each with its own distinctive and definite amount of ground to be covered, the assignment of one and only one teacher to a grade, the confinement of the same teacher to the same grade year by year, save as she is "promoted" to a higher grade, introduce an isolation which is fatal, I will not say to good work, but to the effective domination of the ideal of continuous development of character and personal powers. The unity and wholeness of the child's development can be realized only in a corresponding unity and continuity of school conditions. Anything that breaks the latter up into fractions, into isolated parts, must have the same influence upon the educative growth of the child.1 It may, however, be admitted that these conditions, while highly impor- tant as regards the aims of education, have little or nothing to do with the course of study — with the subject-matter of instruction. But a little reflection will show that the material of study is profoundly affected. The conditions which compel the children to be dealt with en masse, which compel them to be led in flocks, if not in hordes, make it necessary to give the stress of attention to those studies in which some sort of definite result can be most successfully attained, without much appeal to individual initiative, judgment, or inquiry. Almost of necessity, attention to the newer studies whose value is dependent upon personal appropriation, assimilation, and expression is incidental and superficial. The results with the latter are naturally often so unsatisfactory that they are held responsible for the evil consequences ; we fail to trace the matter back to the conditions which control the result reached. Upon the whole, it is testimony to the vitality of these studies that in such a situation the results are not worse than they actually are. Unless the teacher has opportunity and occasion to study the educative process as a whole, not as divided into eight or twelve or sixteen parts, it is impossible to see how he can deal effectively with the problem of the complete development of the child. The restriction of outlook to one limited year of the child's growth will inevitably tend in one of two directions : either the teacher's work becomes mechanical, because practi- cally limited to covering the work assigned for the year, irrespective of its nutritive value in the child's growth ; or else less local and transitive phases of the child's development are seized upon — phases which too often go by the name of the interests of the child — and these are exagger- ated out of all due bounds. Since the newer studies give most help in making this excessive and sensational appeal, these studies are held responsible for the evils that subsequently show themselves. As a matter 1 1 am indebted to Mrs. Ella F. Young's thesis Isolation in the School for many suggestions. 34° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago of fact, the cause of the difficulty lies in the isolation and restriction of the work of the teacher which practically forbids his considering the significance of art, music, and nature study in the light of continuity and completeness of growth. This unity and completeness must, however, be cared for somehow. Since not looked out for on the basis of the teacher's knowledge of the whole process of which his own work is one organic member, it is taken care of thru external supervision and the mechanics of examination and promotion. Connection must somehow be made between the various fractional parts — the successive grades. The supervisor, the principal, is the recourse. Acting, however, not thru the medium of the conscious- ness of the class-room teacher, but thru the medium of external prescrip- tion and advice, the inevitable tendency is to arrest attention upon those parts of the subject-matter which lend themselves to external assignment and conjunction. Even music, drawing, and manual training are pro- foundly influenced by this fact. Their own vital aims and spirit are compromised, or even surrendered, to the necessities for laying out a course of study in such a manner that one year's work may fit externally into that of the next. Thus they part with much of their own distinctive and characteristic value, and become, to a considerable extent, simple additions to the number of routine studies carried by children and teacher. They serve no new purpose of their own, but add to the burden of the old. It is no wonder that, when the burden gets too great, there is demand that they be lopped off as excrescences upon the educa- tional system. The matter of promotion from grade to grade has a precisely similar effect upon the course of study. It is, from the standpoint of the child, just what the isolation and external combination already alluded to are from the side of the teacher. The things of the spirit do not lend them- selves easily to that kind of external- inspection which goes by the name of examination. They do not lend themselves easily to exact quantitative measurement. Technical proficiency, acquisition of skill and information, present much less difficulty. So again emphasis is thrown upon those traditional subjects of the school curriculum which permit most readily of a mechanical treatment — upon the three R's and upon the facts of external classification in history and science, matters of formal technique in music, drawing, and manual training. Continuity, order, must be somehow maintained — if not the order and method of the spirit, then at least of external conditions. Nothing is gained by throwing everything into chaos. In this sense the conservative is thoroly right when he insists upon the maintenance of the established traditions of the school as regards the tests of the pupil's ability and preparation for promotion. He fails, however, to recognize the other alternative : that the loose- ness and confusion, the vagueness in accomplishment and in test of Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 341 accomplishment of which he complains, may be due, not to the new studies themselves, but to the unfit conditions under which they operate. I have already alluded to the fact that at present the teacher is hardly enabled to get a glimpse of the educative process as a whole, and accordingly is reduced to adding together the various external bits into which that unity is broken. We get exactly the same result when we consider the way in which the course of study is determined. The fact that this is fixed by board of education, superintendent, or supervisor, by a power outside the teacher in the class-room who alone can make that course of study a living reality, is a fact too obvious to be concealed. It is, however, comparatively easy to conceal from ourselves the tremendous import of this fact. As long as the teacher, who is after all the only real educator in the school system, has no definite and authoritative position in shaping the course of study, that is likely to remain an external thing to be externally applied to the child. A school board or a superintendent can lay out a course of study down to the point of stating exactly the number of pages of text-books to be covered in each year, each term and month of the year. It may pre- scribe the exact integers and fraction of integers with which the child shall make scholastic acquaintance during any period of his instruction ; it may directly or indirectly define the exact shapes to be reproduced in drawing, or mention the exact recipes to be followed in cooking. Doubt- less the experience of the individual teacher who makes the connections between these things and the life of the child will receive incidental attention in laying out these courses. But, so long as the teacher has no definite voice, the attention will be only incidental ; and, as a further consequence, the average teacher will give only incidental study to the problems involved. If his work is the task of carrying out the instruc- tions imposed upon him, then his time and' thought must be absorbed in the matter of execution. There is no motive for interest, of a thoroly vital and alert sort, in questions of the intrinsic value of the subject- matter and its adaptation to the needs of child growth. He may be called upon by official requirements, or the pressure of circumstance, to be a student of pedagogical books and journals ; but conditions relieve him of the necessity of being a student of the most fundamental educa- tional problems in their most urgent reality. The teacher needs to study the mechanics of successfully carrying into effect the prescribed matter of instruction ; he does not have to study that matter itself, or its educative bearing. Needless to say, the effect of this upon the actual course of study is to emphasize the thought and time given to those subjects, and phases of subjects, where there is most promise of success in doing the exact things prescribed. The three R's are again magnified, and the technical and routine aspects of the newer studies tend to crowd out those elements that- give them their 342 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago deeper significance in intellectual and moral life. Since, however, the school must have relief from monotony, must have " interest," must have diversification and recreation, these studies become too easily tools for the introduction of the supposedly necessary excitement and amusement of the child. The judicious observer who sees below the surface, but not to the foundation, again discounts these studies. Meanwhile the actual efficiency of the three R's is hampered and lessened by the super- addition of the new ways of employing time, whether they be routine or exciting in character. It may easily be said that the class-room teacher at present is not sufficiently educated to be intrusted with any part in shaping a course of study. I waive the fundamental question — the question of democracy — whether the needed education can be secured without giving more respon- sibility even to the comparatively uneducated. The objection suggests another fundamental condition in our present school procedure — the ques- tion of the status of the teacher as regards selection and appointment. The real course of study must come to the child from the teacher. What gets to the child is dependent upon what is in the mind and con- sciousness of the teacher, and upon the way it is in his mind. It* is thru the teacher that the value even of what is contained in the text-book is brought home to the child ; just in the degree in which the teacher's understanding of the material of the lessons is vital, adequate, and com- prehensive, will that material come to the child in the same form ; in the degree in which the teacher's understanding is mechanical, superficial, and restricted, the child's appreciation will be correspondingly limited and perverted. If this be true, it is obviously futile to plan large expansions of the studies of the curriculum beyond the education of the teacher. I am far from denying the capacity on the part of truth above and beyond the comprehension of the teacher to filter thru to the mind of an aspir- ing child; but, upon the whole, it is. certain beyond controversy that the success of the teacher in teaching, and of the pupil in learning, will depend upon the intellectual equipment of the teacher. To put literature into a course of study quite irrespective of the teacher's personal appreciation of literary values — to say nothing of accurate discrimination as to the facts — is to go at the matter from the wrong end. To enact that at a given date all the grades of a certain city shall have nature study is to invite confusion and distraction. It would be comic (if it were not tragic) to suppose that all that is required to make music and drawing a part of the course of study is to have the school board legislate that a certain amount of the time of the pupil, covering a certain prescribed ground, shall be given to work with pencil and paper, and to musical exercises. There is no magic by which these things can pass over from the printed page of the school manual to the child's consciousness. If the teacher has no standard of Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 343 value in relation to them, no intimate personal response of feeling to them, no conception of the methods of art which alone bring the child to a corresponding intellectual and emotional attitude, these studies will remain what precisely they so often are — passing recreations, modes of showing off, or exercises in technique. The special teacher has arisen because of the recognition of the inade- quate preparation of the average teacher to get the best results with these newer subjects. Special teaching, however, shifts rather than solves the problem. As already indicated, the question is a twofold one. It is a question, not only of what is known, but of how it is known. The special instructor in nature study or art may have a better command of the what — of the actual material to be taught — but be deficient in the conscious- ness of the relations borne by that particular subject to other forms of experience in the child, and, therefore, to his own personal growth. When this is the case we exchange King Log for King Stork. We exchange an ignorant and superficial teaching for a vigorous but one-sided, because over-specialized, mode of instruction. The special teacher in manual training or what not, having no philosophy of education — having, that is, no view of the whole of which his own subject is a part — isolates that study and works it out wholly in terms of itself. His beginning and his end, as well as the intermediate materials and methods, fall within manual train- ing. This may give technical facility, but it is not (save incidentally) education. This is not an attack upon special or departmental teaching. On the contrary, I have just pointed out that this mode of teaching has arisen absolutely in response to the demands of the situation. Since our pres- ent teachers are so largely an outcome of the older education, the so-called all-around teacher is for the most part a myth. Moreover, it is a mistake to suppose that we can secure the all-around teacher merely by instructing him in a larger number of branches. In the first place, human capacity is limited. The person whose interests and powers are all-around is not as a rule teaching in grade schools. He is at the head of the great scientific, industrial, and political enterprises of civilization. But granted that the average teacher could master ten dis-tinct studies as well as five, it still remains true that without intellectual organization, without definite insight into the relation of these studies to one another and to the whole of life, without ability to present them to the child from the standpoint of such insight, we simply add an overburdened and confused teacher to the overburdened and confused child. In a word, to make the teaching in the newer studies thoroly effective, whether by specialists or by the all-around teacher, there must, in addition to knowledge of the particu- lar branch, be sanity, steadiness, and system in the mental attitude of the instructor. It is folly to suppose that we can carry on the educa- tion of the child apart from the education of the teacher. 344 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago If I were to touch upon certain other matters fundamentally con- nected with the problem of securing the teachers who make the nominal course of study a reality, I should be started upon an almost endless road. However, we must not pass on without at least noticing that the question is one of political, as well as of intellectual, organization. An adequate view of the whole situation would take into account the general social conditions upon which depends the actual supplying of teachers to the schoolroom. The education of the candidate, of the would-be teacher, might be precisely that outlined above, and yet it would remain, to a large extent, inoperative, if the appointment of school-teachers was at the mercy of personal intrigue, political bargaining, and the effort of some individual or class to get power in the community thru manipulation of patronage. It is sentimental to suppose that any large and decisive reform in the course of study can take place as long as such agencies influence what actually comes in a living way to the life of the child. Nor in a more comprehensive view could we be entirely silent upon the need of commercial as well as political reform. Publishing com- panies affect not only the text-books and apparatus, the garb with which the curriculum clothes itself, but also and in direct fashion the course of study itself. New studies are introduced because some pushing firm, by a happy coincidence, has exactly the books which are needed to make that study successful. Old studies which should be entirely displaced (if there be any logic in the introduction of the new one) are retained because there is a vested interest behind them. Happy is the large school system which is free from the congestion and distraction arising from just such causes as these. And yet there are those who discuss the relative merits of what they are pleased to call old and new education as if it were purely an abstract and intellectual matter. But we cannot enter upon these larger phases. It is enough if we recognize the typical signs indicating the impossibility of separating either the theoretical discussion of the course of study or the problem of its practical efficiency from intellectual and social conditions which at first sight are far removed ; it is enough if we recognize that the question of the course of study is a question in the organization of knowledge, in the organization of life, in the organization of society. And, for more immediate purposes, it is enough to recognize that certain conditions imbedded in the present scheme of school administration affect so profoundly results reached by the newer studies, by manual training, art and nature study, that it is absurd to discuss the value or lack of value of the latter, without taking these conditions into account. I recur to my original proposition : that these studies are not having their own career, are not exhibiting their own powers, but are hampered and compromised by a school machinery originated and developed with reference to quite different ends and aims. The real conflict is not between a certain group Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 345 of studies, the three R's, those having to do with the symbols and tools of intellectual life, and other studies representing the personal develop- ment of the child, but between our professed ends and the means we are using to realize these ends. The popular assumption, however, is to the contrary. It is still the common belief (and not merely in popular thought, but among those who profess to speak with authority) that the two groups of studies are definitely opposed to each other in their aims and methods, in the mental attitude demanded from the child, in the kind of work called for from the instructor. It is assumed that we have a conflict between one group of studies dealing only with the forms and symbols of knowledge, studies to be mastered by mechanical drill, and between those which appeal to the vital concerns of child life and afford present satisfaction. This assumed opposition has been so clearly stated in a recent educational document that I may be pardoned quoting at length : In regard to education we may divide the faculties into two classes — the doing faculties and the thinking faculties. By the doing faculties I mean those mechanical habits which are essential to the acquisition of knowledge, and are pure arts, such as the art of reading ; that of performing arithmetical operations with rapidity and correctness ; that of expressing thoughts in legible characters, and in words of grammatical arrange- ment. These arts can only be acquired by laborious drilling on the part of the teacher, and labor on the part of the pupil. They require little instruction, but repetition until they are performed with ease and almost pleasure. To neglect to impart these habits is to do a great injury to the child; nothing should be substituted for them, though instruc- tion in other branches which require more thought and less art may be mingled as recreations with them. I have never seen so condensed and comprehensive a statement of the incompatibility of aims and method for both teacher and pupil as is given here. On one side we have " doing faculties," by which is meant powers of pure external efficiency. These find their expression in what are termed "arts," which is interpreted to mean purely mechanical habits — sheer routine facility. These are acquired by continued drill on the part of the teacher, and continued laborious repetition on the part of the child. Thought is not required in the process, nor is the result "instruc- tion " — that is, a real building up of the mind; the outcome is simply command of powers, of value not in themselves, but as tools of further knowledge, as "essential to the acquisition of knowledge." The scheme of contrasting studies is not so well developed. It is made clear, however, that they appeal to thought, not to mechanical habits, and that they proceed by instruction, not by drill. It is further implied that their exercise is attended not so much with labor as with pleasure on the part of the child — which may be interpreted to mean that they have a present value in the life of the child, and are not mere instrumentalities of further advancement. The situation as regards school work is contained in the proposition that the mechanical facilities based upon sheer drill 346 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago and laborious repetition must make up the bulk of the elementary educa- tion, while the studies which involve thought, the furnishing of the mind itself, and result in a direct expansion of life, "may be mingled as recrea- tions." They may be permitted, in other words, in the schoolroom as an occasional relief from the laborious drill of the more important studies. Here is the dividing wall. The wall has been somewhat undermined; breaches have been worn in it ; it has, as it were, been bodily pushed along until the studies of thought, of instruction, and of present satisfaction occupy a greater bulk of school time and work. But the wall is still there. The mechanical habits that are essential to the acquisition of knowl- edge, the art of reading, of performing arithmetical operations, and of expressing thought legibly and grammatically, are still the serious business of the schoolroom. Nature study, manual training, music, and art are incidents introduced because of the interests they provide, because they appeal to ability to think, arouse general intelligence, and add to the fund of information. A house divided against itself cannot stand. If the results of our present system are not altogether and always satis- factory, shall we engage in crimination and recrimination — setting the old studies against the new and the new against the old — or shall we hold responsible the organization, or lack of organization, intellectual and administrative, in the school system itself? If the old bottles will not hold the new wine, it is conceivable that we should blame neither the bottles nor the wine, but conditions which have brought the two into mechanical and external relation to each other. If my remarks in dwelling upon the split and contradiction in the present situation appear to take an unnecessarily gloomy view of the situa- tion, it should be remembered that this view is optimism itself as com- pared with the theory which holds that the two groups of studies are radically opposed to each other in their ends, results, and methods. Such a theory holds that there is a fundamental contradiction between the present and the future needs of the child, between what his life requires as immediate nutritive material and what it needs as preparation for the future. It assumes a fundamental conflict between that which nourishes the spirit of the child and that which affords the instrumentalities of social progress. The practical consequences are as disastrous as the logical split is complete. If the opposition be an intrinsic one, then the present conflict and confusion in the schoolroom are permanent and not transitory. We shall be forever oscillating between extremes : now lend- ing ourselves with enthusiasm to the introduction of art and music and manual training, because they give vitality to the school work and relief to the child ; now querulously complaining of the evil results reached, and insisting with all positiveness upon the return of good old days when read- ing, writing, spelling, and arithmetic were adequately taught. Since by the theory there is no possibility of an organic connection, of co operative Superintendence] SITUATION AS REGARDS COURSE OF STUDY 347 relation, between the two types of study, the relative position of each in the curriculum must be decided from arbitrary and external grounds ; by the wish and zeal of some strong man, or by the pressure of temporary popular sentiment. At the best we can get only a compromise ; at the worst we get a maximum of routine with a halo of sentiment thrown about it, or a great wish-wash of superficiality covering up the residuum of grind. As compared with such a view, the conception that the conflict is not inherent in the studies themselves, but arises from maladjustment of school conditions, from survival of a mode of educational administration that was adapted to different ends from those which now appeal to us, is encouragement itself. The problem becomes first an intellectual and then a practical one. Intellectually what is needed is a philosophy of organiza- tion ; a view of the organic unity of the educative process and educative material, and of the place occupied in this whole by each of its own parts. We need to know just what reading and writing and number do for the present life of the child, and how they do it. We need to know what the method of mind is which underlies subject-matter in cooking, shop-work, and nature study, so that they may become effective for discipline, and not mere sources of present satisfaction and mere agencies of relief — so that they too may become as definitely modes of effective preparation for the needs of society as reading, writing, and arithmetic have ever been. With our minds possessed by a sane and coherent view of the whole situation, we may attempt such a gradual, yet positive, modification of existing procedure as will enable us to turn theory into practice. Let us not be too precipitate, however, in demanding light upon just what to do next. We should remember that there are times when the most practical thing is to face the intellectual problem, and to get a clear and compre- hensive survey of the theoretical factors involved. The existing situation, with all its rigidity and all its confusion, will nevertheless indicate plenty of points of leverage, plenty of intelligent ways of straightening things out, to one who approaches it with any clear conviction of the ends he wishes to reach, and of the obstacles in the way. An enlightenment of vision is the prerequisite of efficiency in conduct. The conservative may devote himself to the place of reading and writing and arithmetic in the curriculum so that they shall vitally connect with the present needs of the child's life, and afford the satisfaction that always comes with the fulfill- ment, the expression, of present power. The reformer may attack the problem, not at large and all over the entire field, but at the most promis- ing point, whether it be art or manual training or nature study, and con- centrate all his efforts upon educating alike the community, the teacher, and the child into the knowledge of fundamental methods of individual mind and of community life embodied in that study. All can devote 348 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Chicago themselves to the problem of the better education of the teacher, and doing away with the hindrances to placing the right teacher in the school- room ; to the hindrances of continued growth after he is placed there. The American people believe in education above all else, and when the educators have come to some agreement as to what education is, the com- munity will not be slow in placing at their disposal the equipment and resources necessary to make their ideal a reality. In closing let me say that I have intentionally emphasized the obstacles to further progress, rather than congratulated you upon the progress already made. The anomaly and confusion have, after all, been of some use. In some respects the blind conflict of the last two generations of educational history has been a better way of changing the conditions than would have been some wholesale and a priori rearrangement. The forms of genuine growth always come slowly. The struggle of the newer studies to get a foothold in the curriculum, with all the attendant con- fusion, is an experiment carried out on a large scale ; an experiment in natural selection, in the survival of the fit in educational forms. Yet there must come a time when blind experimentation is to give way to something more directed. The struggle should bring out the factors in the problem so that we can go more intelligently to work in its solution. The period of blind striving, of empirical adjustment, try- ing now this and now that, making this or that combination because it is feasible for the time being, of advancing here and retreating there, of giving headway now to the instinct of progress and now to the habit of inertia, should find an outcome in some illumination of vision, in some clearer revelation of the realities of the situation. As this comes, the time grows ripe for scientific experimentation ; that is, for a more organ- ized philosophy of experience in education, and for a corresponding attempt to regulate conditions so as to make actual the aims recognized as desirable. It is uneconomical to prolong the period of conflict between incompatible tendencies. It makes for intellectual hypocrisy to suppose that we are doing what we are not doing. It weakens the nerve of judg- ment and the fiber of action to submit to conditions which prevent the realization of aims to which we profess ourselves to be devoted. My topic is the situation as regards the course of study. In a some- what more limited and precise view than I have previously taken of the situation, I believe we are now nearing the close of the time of tentative, blind, empirical experimentation; that we are close to the opportunity of planning our work on the basis of a coherent philosophy of experience and of the relation of school studies to that experience ; that we can accordingly take up steadily and wisely the effort of changing school conditions so as to make real the aims that command the assent of intel- ligence. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION CONSTITUTION PREAMBLE The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of general interest and public importance, and the presentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions, and the conclusions formulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educa- tional questions ; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting its discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the subject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds and reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis of opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object, to encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion, together with the completest statement of grounds for the same. It shall further require the careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall invite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discus- sions. Any member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the grounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council. It shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year, and placing before the association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall embody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any action on the part of the association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number, committees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the exchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of the profession or of the public. ARTICLE I — MEMBERSHIP 1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from the membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the asso- ciation identified with educational work is eligible to^membership in the Council, and after the first election such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter provided. 2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members for six years, two for four years, and two for two years ; and the Council shall elect eight members — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and annually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five members, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (section 5), to serve six years, or until his successor is elected. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with the annual meetings of the association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any 349 35° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National reason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by the Council. 4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first election shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged to the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members, with the privilege of attending its regular sessions, and participating in its discussions. No state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members. ARTICLE II — QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP All members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National Educational Association. ARTICLE III— MEETINGS There shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as the meeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to this meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the Executive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary. A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at any meeting, whether regular or called ; but any less number, exceeding eight members, may constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as defined in this article. ARTICLE IV — THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL The Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the thoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council ; also to conduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association, or any of its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds. ARTICLE V — THE APPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES AND EXPERTS In the appointments of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers, it shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether mem- bers of the Council or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations. ARTICLE VI — THE PROGRAM It shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and approval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall realize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exists. ARTICLE VII — STANDING COMMITTEES 1. There shall be three standing committees : an Executive Committee, a Committee on Membership, and a Committee on Educational Progress. 2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and of three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member may be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899. 3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by selecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to Council] OFFICERS 35 1 conduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry- out the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for the report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments. 4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council and six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may be filled every year, beginning with 1899. 5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next meeting, a report on " Educational Progress During the Past Year," in which a survey of the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given. This committee need not be selected from the members of the Council. ARTICLE VIII — THE DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL 1. It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational Association, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general. 2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a "round table" character. ARTICLE IX — AMENDMENTS This constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by a two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular meeting by unanimous consent. By-laws not in violation of this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of the Council. OFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS OFFICERS FOR 1900-1901 CHARLES M.JORDAN Minneapolis, Minn President Miss BETTIE A. DUTTON . . Cleveland, O Vice-President J. H. PHILLIPS Birmingham, Ala Secretary EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The President, ex officio Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal Term expires in 1901 Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y Term expires in 1902 Joseph Swain, Bloomington, lnd. Term expires in 1903 OFFICERS FOR 1901-1902 J.H.PHILLIPS Birmingham, Ala President Miss MARY E. N ICHOLSON Indianapolis, lnd Vice-President J. F. MILLSPAUGH Winona, Minn Secretary EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The President, ex officio Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y Term expires in 1902 Joseph Swain, Bloomington, lnd Term expires in 1903 Richard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O Term expires in 1904 352 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National OFFICERS FOR 1901-1902 — continued COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP The President, ex officio J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo Term expires in 1903 J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md Term expires in 1903 W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C Term expires in 1905 E. E. White, Columbus, O Term expires in 1905 Vacant by reason of non-election Term expires in 1907 L. D. Harvey, Madison, Wis Term expires in 1907 MEMBERS Note : The* letter " A " following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the asso- ciation ; the letter " C," by the Council. Term expires ♦Charles F. Thwing, Cleveland, O A 1902 ♦Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111 A 1902 Edwin A. Alderman, New Orleans, La. . . A 1902 •Charles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn. . . A 1902 *J. F. Millspaugh, Winona, Minn A 1902 *W. M. Davidson, Topeka, Kan C 1902 E. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O C 1902 *0. T. Corson, Columbus, O C 1902 *James E. Russell, New York, N..Y C 1902 •Oliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111 C 1902 *W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C A 1903 *C. B. Gilbert, Rochester, N. Y A 1903 •William R. Harper, Chicago, 111 A 1903 •George J. Ramsey, Richmond, Va A 1903 Charles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y A 1903 •Charles C. Rounds, New York, N. Y C 1903 •L. H. Jones, Cleveland, O C 1903 •Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal C 1903 *W. H. Black, Marshall, Mo C 1903 •Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y. C 1903 •Richard G. Boone, Cincinnati, O. A 1904 *F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo A 1904 *L. D. Harvey, Madison, Wis A 1904 •L. H. Halsey, Oshkosh, Wis A 1904 •Carroll G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb A 1904 •Francis W. Parker, Chicago, 111 C 1904 •Mrs. Josephine Heermans, Kans. City, Ma. C 1904 •James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md C 1904 John Dewey, Chicago, 111 C 1904 *N. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111 . C 1904 Term expires *W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky A 1905 •Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass A 1905 •I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis A 1905 *E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa A 1905 *J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo A 1905 •Reuben S. Bingham, Tacoma, Wash C 1905 ♦Joseph Swain, Bloomington, Ind C 1905 •Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa. ... C 1905 •Lewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo C 1905 *Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo C 1905 •James A. Foshay , Los Angeles, Cal A 1906 •J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala A 1906 Emerson E. White, Columbus, O A 1906 •James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo A 1906 Oscar H. Cooper, Waco, Tex A 1906 •Lucia Stickney, Cleveland, O C 1906 •Irwin Shepard, Winona, Minn C 1906 *Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo C 1906 •J. W, Carr, Anderson, Ind C 1906 •Frank A. Hill, Boston, Mass C 1906 •James M. Green, Trenton, N. J A 1907 •Augustus S. Downing, New York, N. Y.. A 1907 •A. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111 A 1907 •Charles D. Mclver, Greensboro, N. C A 1907 *R. B. Fulton, University, Miss A 1907 George P. Brown, Bloomington, 111. C 1907 •Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O C 1907 •Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn C 1907 •Edward R. Shaw, New York, N. Y C 1907 •William F. King, Mt. Vernon, la C 1907 HONORARY MEMBERS Earl Barnes, London, England. William N. Barringer, Newark, N. J. Newton Bateman, Galesburg, 111. D. Bemiss, Spokane, Wash. Thomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I. Albert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass. Anna C. Bracken, New York, N. Y. John E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass. * Edward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa. William L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind. John T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y. Matthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt. David N. Camp, New Britain, Conn. James H. Canfield, New York, N. Y. Clara Conway, Memphis, Tenn. John W. Cook, De Kalb, 111. •Present at the Council sessions at Detroit, 1901. Council] MEMBERS 353 HONORARY MEMBERS — continued William J. Corthell, Gorham, Me. J. L. M. Curry, Washington, D. C. Charles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y. V. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C. John W. Dickinson, Newtonville, Mass. Andrew S. Draper, Champaign, 111. John Eaton, Washington, D. C. Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass. William W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn. W. R. Garrett, Nashville, Tenn. Daniel C. Gilman, Washington, D. C. James C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass. W. N. Hailmann, Dayton, O. G. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass. Paul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass. Walter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y. Edwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111. J. George Hodgins, Toronto, Canada. Ira G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal. James H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal. George W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal. James L. Hughes, Toronto, Canada. Thomas Hunter, New York, N. Y. Ellen Hyde, Farmington, Mass. E. J. James, Chicago, 111. E. S. Joynes, Columbia, S. C. David L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn. Thomas Kirkland, Toronto, Canada. Henry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y. James MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa. Albert P. Marble, New York, N. Y. Francis A. March, Easton, Pa. Lillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal. William H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y. Charles A. McMurry, De Kalb, 111. Thomas J. Morgan, Washington, D. C. Lemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn. William A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass. Mary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind. John M. Ordway, New Orleans, La. Warren D. Parker, Madison, Wis. W. H. Payne, Ann Arbor, Mich. Selim H. Peabody, Chicago, 111. John B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, O. William F. Phelps, Duluth, Minn. Josiah L. Pickard, Brunswick, Me. Edward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal. William B. Powell, New York, N. Y. J. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss. John T. Prince, Boston, Mass. Frank Rigler, Portland, Ore. William H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va. Ellen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis. Henry Sabin, Des Moines, la. J. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y. H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la. H. E. Shepard, New York, N. Y. Edgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa. Euler B. Smith, Athens, Ga. Homer B. Sprague, East Orange, N. J. J. W. Stearns, Madison, Wis. Thomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I. Grace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb. John Swett, Martinez, Cal. H. S. Tarbell, Providence, R. I. W. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga. H. S. Thompson, New York, N. Y. L. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J. Arnold Tompkins, Chicago, 111. Julia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala. Delia L. Williams, Delaware, O. J. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C. Lightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa. H. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb. C. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo. DECEASED MEMBERS Robert Allyn 1804 Israel W. Andrews 1888 Joseph Baldwin 1899 Henry Barnard 1900 Norman A. Calkins 1895 Aaron L. Chapin 1892 N. R. H. Dawson 1895 Larkin Dunton 1899 Samuel S. Greene 1883 John M. Gregory 1898 George T. Fairchild 1901 Daniel B. Hagar 1896 John Hancock 1891 William D. Henkle 1882 Elnathan E. Higbee 1889 Burke A. Hinsdale 1900 George Howland 1892 John S. Irwin 1901 Henry N. James 1901 H. S.Jones Merrick Lyon James McCosh M. A. Newell Birdseye G. Northrop Edward Olney Gustavus J. Orr S.S.Parr John D. Philbrick Matilda S. Cooper Poucher. Zalmon Richards Andrew J. Rickoff James A. Smart R. W. Stevenson Eli T. Tappan Charles O. Thompson James P. Wickersham S.G.Williams .1894 • 1893 .1898 .1886 .1888 .1900 .1885 .1900 .1899 .1899 .1900 • 1893 .1888 .1885 .1891 .1900 354 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY FIRST SESSION.— Monday, July 8, 1901, 9 a. m. The Council met in the Y. M. C. A. Auditorium and was called to order at the appointed hour by President Charles M. Jordan. After a vocal solo by Miss Cora Cross, United States Commissioner William T. Harris presented a paper on "Isolation in the School — How it Hinders and How it Helps." Discussion of the paper was opened by Miss Ella F. Young, of Chicago, and contin- ued by Francis W. Parker, F. Louis Soldan, F. A. Fitzpatrick, Aaron Gove, John W. Cook, J. M. Greenwood, and Charles B. Gilbert. SECOND SESSION.— Monday, July 8, 2 p. m. The Council reconvened in the Y. M. C. A. Auditorium. After a violin solo by Miss Margaret Street, Elmer E. Brown, of California, presented a paper on " Educational Progress During the Past Year." The president appointed the following Committee on Nominations : L. H. Jones, of Ohio. C. B. Gilbert, of New York. F. A. Fitzpatrick, of Massachusetts. The Council adjourned at 3:45 P. M., to accept an invitation to a boat ride courte- ously extended to the members of the Council and officers of the association by the citizens of Detroit. THIRD SESSION — Monday, July 8, 8 p. m. The Council reconvened in the Y. M. C. A. Auditorium. After a musical selection by a quartet, President James B. Angell of the Uni- versity of Michigan delivered an address in memory of the late Dr. B. A. Hinsdale. The quartet rendered another selection, " Beyond the Smiling and the Weeping." Addresses in memory of the late Hon. Henry Barnard, LL.D., were then presented as follows : 1. "The Establishment of the Office of United States Commissioner of Education," by United States Commissioner William T. Harris. 2. " Henry Barnard's Influence in the Establishment of Normal Schools," by E. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania. 3. "The Influence of Henry Barnard on Schools in the West," by Newton C. Dougherty, of Illinois. 4. " Henry Barnard's Home Life, and His Work and Influence upon Education as Commissioner of Connecticut and Rhode Island," by Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut. 5. " Henry Barnard as an Educational Critic," by Francis W. Parker, of Illinois. SECOND DAY.— Tuesday, July 9, 9 a. m. The Council was called to order by the president at the appointed hour. After a cornet solo, papers were presented on " Lessons of the Educational Exhibit at Paris," by Miss Anna Tolman Smith, of the United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C, and J. Howard Rogers, of New York, director of education and social economy, United States Commission to the Paris Exposition. The papers were discussed by Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Colorado, and Mr. Cloudesley S. H. Brereton, of Melton Constable, England. Council] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 355 The report of the Committee on a National University was then submitted by the chairman, President W. R. Harper of the University of Chicago. The report was dis- cussed by President James H. Baker of the University of Colorado, ex-Governor John W. Hoyt, of Washington, D. C, and Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York. President Swain of the University of Indiana offered the following resolution and moved its adoption. Seconded : Resolved: i. That the report of the committee be received and the committee discharged. 2. That the National Council of Education hereby reaffirms the declarations of the National Educational Association in favor of the establishment of a national university. Dr. Angell, being called upon, stated that he had attended one meeting of the com- mittee. He gave as a reason for not signing the committee's report that in his opinion the George Washington Memorial Association did not afford a sufficient basis for working out so important an undertaking as that upon which the committee had been appointed to report. Dr. Cyrus Northrup, trustee of the Washington Memorial Association, favored accepting the committee's report, not as presenting the best possible plan, but as pre- senting a plan that would not in any way interfere with establishing a national uni- versity. If he could not get the ideal thing at once, he favored accepting the next best thing rather than standing still and refusing everything except in a certain form. Mr. Keyes favored Mr. Swain's motion, saying that it saves us from expressing oppo- sition to a national university, and leaves us free to take whatever measures may com- mend themselves to us in the future. Mr. Pearse, of Omaha, thought that the Council is not ready to take a position adverse to a national university, and he therefore favored the resolution offered by Mr. Swain. The motion, being put to vote, was adopted, twenty-two to four. THIRD DAY.— Thursday, July 11,2: 30 p. m. The Council met at the Y. M. C. A. Auditorium, and enjoyed a vocal solo by Mrs. Jennie Standart. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University, then presented a paper on " The Ideal School." The paper was discussed by Messrs. Aaron Gove, of Colorado ; J. M. Green- wood, of Missouri ; Francis W. Parker, of Illinois ; J. W. Cook, of Illinois ; and Miss Stickney, of Ohio. J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri, chairman of the special Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, submitted a communication from the Board of Directors regarding the appropriation of $200 to defray the expenses of a committee to collect information concerning the progress, means, and results of consolidating rural schools. The commu- nication was referred to the special Committee on Appropriations. FOURTH DAY.— Friday, July 12, 2 : 30 p. m. The Council convened at the Y. M. C. A. Auditorium, and was opened by a vocal solo by Miss Esther St. John. A communication from the secretary of the American Medical Temperance Associa- tion was then submitted by the president, which, on motion, was received and ordered filed. The report of the special Committee on High-School Statistics was then read by the chairman, J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri. A motion was made by L. H. Jones, of Ohio, that the report be accepted and the committee continued, to report next year. After some discussion by Messrs. Jones, Gove, Greenwood, and Brown, the motion prevailed. Chairman Greenwood of the special Committee on Appropriations then presented the following resolutions, submitted by the Board of Directors for advisory action: 356 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National Resolved, That the sum of $200, or so much thereof as may be necessary, be, and hereby is, appropri- ated to defray the necessary clerical expenses of the committee named by a round table of the Department of Superintendence to collect information regarding the progress, means, and results of consolidating rural schools; provided that all bills against this appropriation shall be certified as correct by the chairman of the committee aforesaid. J. M. Greenwood, Chairman, Nicholas Murray Butler. Augustus L. Downing. L. D. Harvey. The following substitute, presented by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, was adopted : Resolved, That the Council expresses its sympathy with, and approval of, the movement for the con- solidation of rural school districts and the transportation of children to central schools. The report of the Committee on Prize Essays on School Hygiene was then sub- mitted by its chairman, A. R. Taylor, as follows : To the Members of the National Council of Education: At the Chattanooga meeting of the Department of Superintendence a Committee on School Hygiene was appointed. That committee, thru its chairman, W. T. Harris, made a brief report at the meeting of that department at Columbus, in February, 1899. By request, the report was also read before the Council at the meeting at Los Angeles, in June of the same year. It proposed the offering of prizes for essays on heat- ing, lighting, seating, and ventilation. The recommendations of the committee were approved, and the Board of Directors of the general association appropriated $1,200 for prizes. Four first prizes of $200 each, and four second prizes of $100 each, on the subjects designated, were authorized. The conduct of this competitive contest was intrusted to a committee of five, consisting of W. T. Harris, W. T. King, Aaron Gove, George P. Brown, and A. R. Taylor. This committee adopted suitable regula- tions for the competition and issued several thousand copies of a circular, which were mailed to superintendents, principals, school-supply houses, health boards, sanitary experts, educational and scientific journals, and to the general press. Dr. Mowry, of Hyde Park, Mass.; Principal W. E. Wilson, of Ellensburg, Washington; and Principal John R. Kirk, of Kirksville, Mo., were appointed to pass upon the merits of the essays submitted. The result shows that little interest was awakened, for scarcely a dozen essays, few of those being of any merit, were submitted. The regulations of the competition reserved the right of the committee to reject all manuscripts, if they were found to be inferior. The judges were unanimous in reporting that in their estima- tion no essay submitted is worthy the award of a first prize and of publication by the association. Your committee regrets this outcome of its efforts to secure the desired essays. We are pleased, however, to note the appearance of several meritorious books on the general subject of school hygiene, and indulge the hope that the emphasis now given to the need for an authoritative and scientific treatment of the various prob- lems involved may soon result in a treatise meeting the ideals set forth in the report to the Department of Superintendence. Respectfully submitted, July 12, 1901. A. R. Taylor, Chairman. W. F. King. W. T. Harris. j- Aaron Gove. The Committee on Nominations, thru its chairman, L. H. Jones, submitted the fol- lowing report : To the National Council of Education: Your Committee on Nomination of Officers has the honor to make the following recommendations : For President — J. H. Phillips, of Alabama. For Vice-President — Miss Mary E. Nicholson, of Indiana. For Secretary — J. F. Millspaugh, of Minnesota. For Member of Executive Committee — Superintendent R. G. Boone, of Ohio. For Members of Committee on Membership — Superintendent J. H. Van Sickle, of Maryland; Super- intendent L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin. (Signed) L. H. Jones. Report of the Committee on Membership : To the National Council: Your committee respectfully submits the following nominations : George P. Brown, Bloomington, 111., to succeed himself. Charles H. Keyes, Hartford. Conn., to succeed himself. Chas. B. Gilbert. Frank A. Fitzpatrick. Council] ISOLATION IN THE SCHOOL . 357 William F. King, Mt. Vernon, la., to succeed himself. Bettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O., to succeed herself. All of the above for the full term, six years. Edward R. Shaw, of New York, to succeed William B. Powell, full term. John Dewey, Chicago, 111., to succeed the late B. A. Hinsdale, term to expire 1904. Z. X. Snyder, of Greeley, Colo., to succeed Edward T. Pierce, term to expire 1905. C. H. Keyes. J. M. Greenwood. J. H. Van Sickle. W. T. Harris. After a roll-call of the Council, which disclosed the fact that forty-nine members had been present at its sessions, the president announced adjournment sine die. J. H. Phillips, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ISOLATION IN THE SCHOOL— HOW IT HINDERS AND HOW IT HELPS W. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION One of the earliest points at which educational reform begins to attack whatever it finds to be established as the order of school education for its day is the isolation of the work of instruction and discipline from the home life of the child. There is a separation more or less abrupt between the occupations within the home and those in the school. There is a contrast in manner of behavior; the school expects a degree of self-restraint on the part of the child, a considerate attention to the demands of the task before him, not only as to its demands upon him, but also as to those on his fellow- pupils and on his teachers. He leaves behind him in the home a certain spontaneity of action and becomes self-repressive and sometimes painfully conscious of all his little impulses and tendencies. He must inhibit such action as will inter- fere with the grand purpose of the school. In his six years of life he has already accumulated a stock of interests that relate to the members of his family and the possessions of his house- hold. He has supplemented this by experience in his neighborhood and discovered very much that goes to supply wants or needs in the stock of interests in his own home. At the age of six he enters the school and commences to study letters and numbers as his chief business. The school seems bent on changing him from an ear-minded person to an eye-minded person — from one to whom language consists only of spoken words heard by the ear, to one for whom language consists of printed or written words, or of characters such as the Arabic notation furnishes. All his home and neighborhood interests are set aside in the 358 . NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National schoolroom, or at least subordinated to new disciplines of a compara- tively abstract character. For reading and writing deal with arbitrary characters conventionally used to represent, not words, but sounds. The child knows words by ear, but he has no theory of elementary sounds; they are not observed by him, because he does not get so far as to analyze his words. Letters, printed or written, and also the sounds that' they represent, are alike strange objects to the child. But eye-minded- ness will mean to the child the possibility of holding the word with such a firm grip that he can think more precisely than he can with words known orally, but not visually. It will mean that he can get beyond his merely colloquial vocabulary of a few hundred words of a loose and uncertain meaning, and master new vocabularies invented by poets to express all the shades of feeling and character that human nature is capable of, and other new vocabularies invented by specialists in science to collect and combine all the facts that man knows about nature and man. Civilization depends on the written and printed word. It has long appeared to be a necessity of society that the child should go to school, just for the sake of becoming eye-minded. But the work of the school is very different from the occupation of the child in the family in his first six years. It is isolated from the home life, and only refers to it incidentally for illustrations and examples ; for applications and rudi- mentary experiences that help to understand the lesson of the day. Whenever a topic comes up in school that relates in any way to the child's experience, the good teacher always appeals to this body of -origi- nal observation as a sort of apperception fund — a fund of direct informa- tion which helps explain the subject presented in the school lesson. So, too, the kindergarten has been invented, and a series of games and occupations offered to younger children as a method to connect more closely the school and the home. But the child does not find the home life continued in the kindergarten — not the home life of caprice and wild play. He has come into a social whole, and he must conform to the regulations necessary for the existence of a social whole. He must play the game chosen by the "teacher and work at the occupation set for his class. Everything is prescribed for him. His occupations are not such as he has seen at home. They deal with elements that enter certain processes of manufacture, that exist in his neighborhood, but they are almost as abstract as the letters used to spell words. This fact has been well observed by educational reformers, and peda- gogy has received the fruits of their labors to improve its methods. The isolation of the school from the home life is made less by turns of skill in methods of instruction, or in methods of discipline; by inven- tions of a long series of short steps and easy gradients that place it within the power of the child to climb to difficult heights. Council] ISOLATION IN THE SCHOOL 359 Were the child taken from the home entirely and kept in the school- room constantly, it would pretty effectually quench what the child had acquired of individuality in home life. This has been a great evil in a certain class of boarding schools and in orphan asylums. But, as a fact, the ordinary primary school takes only five hours of the day, five days of the week, and forty weeks of the year. This gives one- ninth of the entire time to the schoolroom. If the child consumes four- ninths of the time in sleep and four-ninths of the time in continuing his home and neighborhood life, he will have, in the average case, sufficient elasticity to react against the cramp which is threatened by school life. The concentration of mind on the part of the professional teacher to invent means to lessen the step from home life to school life has tended to make him lose sight of the educative value of what is peculiar to the school itself. The school is sometimes regarded as a sort of necessary evil, which it would be well to eliminate entirely from society, if a suitable substitute could be found. Sometimes, too. it comes to seem as if the home life of the child contained all that is truly desirable. The one who holds this point of view is prone to fall into the same error in regard to the state. He will think that the family should be all in all, and that the state — that is to say, the political life of the people — should be dis- pensed with, and thereby an enormous saving effected in the life of man. Something of this trend of thought in modern pedagogy is found prevailing in the thought of Europe in the last century. It was put into application on a grand scale in France. It was a sort of object- lesson for all that part of mankind that read and think. The French Revolution had been for fifteen years a spectacle to all Europe of a people trying to clear up its mind with regard to the relation between the individual and the state. In the Reign of Terror all Europe made the discovery that with mere individualism each person of necessity comes to suspect every other person. In such a condition society becomes a mob, and the individual finds no safety from suspicion and violence. The reaction in France from the time of the Reign of Terror led farther and farther away from mere individualism, and not only from this, but from any mere life of nature. There came to be an insight into .the necessity of the government, the institution of the state, as the guarantee of the life and liberty of the citizen. This insight came with more force to the thinkers living in other countries, and especially in Germany, than it did even to the people in France. In Germany it began to be seen that not only the state, but other institutions, such as the church and the com- munity of productive industry and the family, are institutions which are needed to make possible the life and liberty of the citizen. The ideal nature of man gets realized in his institutions. The family is an organization which protects the individual in his immature years of 360 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National infancy, in his old age of decrepitude, and, in other words, equalizes the difference of sex, age and condition of health, etc. Civil society is organized so that by division of labor each worker becomes skillful and can accomplish a maximum of production, and yet each person depends upon others in his community, and, in fact, upon all the race, for the variety of articles which he needs to supply his wants. By commerce this dependence is converted into independence. Each citizen is made independent of want by belonging to a social whole. The state, on the other hand, protects the weak against the strong, and secures justice, not by the individual, which would be private revenge, but by the state. The state is the reality of the rational self, which is only partially realized in each individual. Again, the church devotes itself to the preservation of the wisdom of the past. It teaches a view of the world as one in a rational purpose ; it offers a summary of this wisdom to all the people, whether mature or immature ; it applies this wisdom more or less per- fectly or imperfectly to the practical issues of the day in the life of each individual. The relation of the individual to this larger self incarnated in institu- tions is that of obedience to authority. The institution, which is a social whole in one of its forms, prescribes to the individual, and he obeys. In all lower and lowest conditions of civilization the punishment of death is most frequently awarded to the individual who deliberately disobeys this authority, vested by institutions in responsible officers, or chiefs ; in the family, in civil society, in the state, in the church. With the phenomena of the French Revolution before them, Euro- pean thinkers saw how this element of authority comes by and by to be questioned by an educated or enlightened people. Mere authority seems to be alien to the rational will of the individual. Hence, one school of thinkers came to call this rational world, embodied in institutions, the world of self-estrangement (Selbstentfremdung). The individual who becomes intensely conscious oi his personality, in the beginnings of a scientific education, comes to attack all authority as a foreign or alien affair. He does not see that it embodies the realization of his greater self. He does not see that to obey institutions is to obey his rational self. To him it is a matter of blind obedience to what is irrational. Mind, as it appears in infancy and childhood, is the potentiality of man, but not the reality of man. In order to become man in his maturity, the immature child must estrange itself — become foreign to what it finds itself to be as child or infant — and it must study the grounds of the commands of authority until it gets an insight into their rationality. Then it returns out of its estrangement and becomes at home in the forms of reason that have been realized in the long course of the history of the human race. The child or infant has no longer the intense delight in his immediate environment, but he delights in finding Council] ISOLATION IN THE SCHOOL 361 again and again a new province of rationality at first strange or foreign to him, and mastering it so that he becomes at home in it and becomes able to add its strength to his strength. Man thus goes from a state of weakness and feebleness, and of conse- quent subordination to his environment, over to the condition of master- ing his environment, conquering nature, and making it his instrument of self-estrangement. He eats his daily bread and meat and assimilates or digests it as a foreign material, making it over into a tissue of his own body. Thus, too, he takes the wisdom of the race, both its forms of doing and its forms of thinking, its scientific and spiritual insights, and, so to speak, digests or assimilates them by seeing their rationality and learning how to do or act in right forms, and understand those forms. All the while the little individual is growing in might by this process of assimilation. He is reinforcing his little will-power by the will-power of the race ; he is reinforcing his feeble intellect by the aggregate intellect of man as a social whole. Quite frequently the philosophy of education has followed this way of looking on the institutional world as a world of self-estrangement, and the individual infant or savage is regarded as the point of departure, as an already complete world of reason, and the institutions are regarded as something less real and substantial than the various parts of education — namely, that of the family — in the etiquette that makes possible the life of the individual in the family or home; the conformity to the law of the state, which makes the individual into a citizen, and the spiritual purifi- cation and holiness that come from obedience to the church, all these kinds of obedience are looked upon as something alien, as something isolated from the substantial and real life of the individual. According to this there is an isolation in the school, in the education of the state and the church and the family, and in the training for one's vocation ; these are all species of isolation. But it is better to turn this view around and look upon the individual himself, when an infant or savage, as isolated from his true rational being. One could say that all education, whether in the school, the family, the state, the church, or civil society, is an attempt to overcome the iso- lation of the undeveloped individual, the immature specimen of the human race, i. e., the infant or the savage, for the child or the savage is isolated from the rationality of his true being. His thought is feeble, because he cannot reinforce it by the thought of the race. His action is feeble, because it is not reinforced by the action of all mankind. Educa- tion strives to emancipate the individual child from his isolation. It is the child and not the school that is self-estranged. In the school the child recovers his true self. But self-estrangement as a principle helps one understand many things in education that are otherwise enigmatic; for example, how 362 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National the culture of all races proceeds by a mastery of a classic literature : the study of Confucius and Mencius in Chinese education ; the study of the code of Manu, the Vedas, the Hitopadesa, among the East Indians ; the study of the Koran among the Mahommedans; and the study of the Bible and of Greek and Latin classics among modern Christian nations. It is a sort of vicarious living over again of the far-off world — far off from the present, and offering an earlier epoch of the nation's civilization. The child cradled in his immediate present takes it for all in all and for an isolated complete whole, but his education teaches him that it is not independent, but that it is in causal relation with all its past, and in a causal reaction with all that exists, however distant from it in space. Finding himself mistaken as to the completeness of his present life in this isolation, the youth begins to take his steps with increasing wonder and delight at finding new worlds that were before invisible to him, but which, when once seen, help explain to him what is here and now. Every intellectual nation in the world, whether one begins with the Persian or East Indian, the Egyptian, or the Greeks and Romans, has studied not only its own classics, but also such elements as it possessed of abstract science — like mathematics and astronomy — and has undertaken foreign travel as an element of education. At home the school has symbolized its isolation, or its difference from the everyday life of the immediate present, by the adoption of certain formal usages ; the wearing of some special garb to distinguish the order from the rest \oi the community; the adoption of some mode of life different from that of the family of the average citizen. The student, perhaps, has been aided in, rather than hindered from, mastering the strange and far-off phases of the life of his people by these matters of immediate garb, and the com- munity life in the school or college. He takes some pride in thus cele- brating his arrival at a step removed from the commonplace life which he lived as an immature youth. • In the school, where he expects to be enlarged in his life by the addition of the will and intellect of the race, he takes some pleasure in "making this distinction of his new life from his old life visible by a cap and gown, and by a college life in a system of barracks (college dormitories), rather than in the family life adopted by his civilization. All culture begins with this first estrangement of the immature indi- vidual toward his immediate surroundings, material and spiritual, and with the effort to make himself at home in what is at first strange and different, but which he will soon render familiar by study and practice. He will begin to see, step by step, his own rationality as realized in civilization, and identify it with the purpose of the life of his race. He will make over for himself a second nature in these other stages of rational life, isolated by time and space from him. He will increase proportionally in his ability to think and to do. He Council] ISOLATION IN THE SCHOOL 363 will not be surprised at the discovery of a first difference from the man- ners and customs of his family or neighborhood. He will not be aston- ished at the habits of doing and thinking which he sees among foreigners, but will explain them in the light which he has obtained from the com- parative study of manners and customs and modes of doing things. He will be able to criticise his own manners and customs and methods of doing, and will see how to reform them in such a manner as to bring about a better conformity with what is rational. It is in connection with this process of self-estrangement that a series of phenomena arises which take on the character of reaction against the ordinances of the institutions of culture — the phenomena of student life. It is marked in the entire history of the race that the culture world, the world of self-estrangement, as organized in the school, the church, the state, and especially in the family, always assumes the attitude of authority and demands implicit obedience on the part of the child or the individual citizen. This obedience — more in ancient times than now — has been insisted upon to such an extent as to threaten to produce the effacement of the individual. It was thought that the indi- vidual must be effaced before he could become a participator in the intellect and will of the social whole. It sounds paradoxical to say that the pupil must be effaced before he can be reinforced. All the improvements and reforms in pedagogy from the beginning have made it a point of effort to correct this defect and prevent the complete effacement of the pupil ; for the more one can save of the strength of the pupil in will and intellect, the better, provided it is turned in the direction of conformity to the will and intellect of the social whole. Insight, as we have before stated, emancipates the person from authority. When insight is obtained, there is no longer any blind authority, for the person does his deed freely and intentionally thru insight into its rationality. He does not do it to oblige some other person merely, but because he sees that it is in itself reasonable. Isolation of the school thus seems to mean something deeper than the mere lack of continuity with the home life, or even with the life of civil society in which the home life moves. It means the emancipation of the youth from the immediate sway of what is near and the bringing of his mind into an appreciation of what is far off in time and space, but which nevertheless has been powerful in making the present world what it is. It is a process of correcting the judgment of the individual as to what his true self is, and as to what is of permanent value in human endeavor. DISCUSSION Mrs. Ella F. Young, University of Chicago. — It is very difficult for me to oppose anything said by Dr. Harris ; I owe so much to him. His generous encouragement in the past has been to me a source of continued inspiration. Doubtless many of you have 364 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National enjoyed similar experiences in your acquaintance with him. He has, however, asked me to discuss his paper, and he knows that there is a difference of opinion between us on this subject. The word " isolation," as used in the paper just read, has not its customary signifi- cance. In the translation of Rosenkranz's Philosophy of Education, edited by Dr. Harris, the term "self-estrangement" is not used as synonymous with "isolation." lam not going to raise any opposition to " self-estrangement and its removal " as presented in that book. But when the essayist treats the two, "estrangement" and "isolation," as identi- cal, he is plunging us into a war of words, because we are using the word " isolation " from different standpoints, or with different meanings. Self-estrangement is simply a stage in development of mind. The next stage in the process of culture, however, is the overcoming of the estrangement. Isolation is a different thing. The child, the teacher, is put or puts himself into a place to do a prescribed thing, in the doing of which he is not co-operative ; that is, a certain result is demanded of the isolated worker who does not have determining power in originating the method of the work. To indicate just what product a teacher or a learner is to aim to secure is to dictate the method of the individual. There is no greater bit of nonsense afloat than that which says : " I leave the teacher free. It is results only for which I ask." That means the teacher may work as she prefers in trying to duplicate the result which my mind has constructed. Carry this into the school, and there ensues that pedagogical cramp which the essayist described as resulting from the continual bracing of the teacher against the child's tendency to break away from the aim of the school work. Now, here you have the effect of isolation of the determination of the end for which the child works, from his own mental activity. Great stress was laid by the speaker on the desirability of differentiating the method of the school from that of the home. I can't see the necessity for such a differentia- tion. In that very change lies the answer to that oft-repeated question : Why does a child learn so much by himself in the first six years of his life and so little, comparatively, in the school in the second six years ? If the method of the first period, the working on material to obtain the answer which the child has raised, were adopted in the school, teachers would not suffer from pedagogical cramp. If this method should obtain thruout the school, neither the children nor the teachers would be isolated, as too frequently they are, from that self-activity which Dr. Harris in his writings urges as the essential of life, and yet which, in the mere hearing of the paper, I miss. Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo. — Some of us who are present, superintendents of larger and smaller cities, I am sure will be gratified if the discussion can take a more practical form. We are fond of the poets and philosophers, but some of us, who are neither poets nor philosophers, are placed in the practical part of the work and confronted with obsta- cles, the removal of which is necessary. I am one of a large number of superintendents who have been made to realize within the last few years that the preparation of grammar- school pupils for the high school has not been as well done as formerly. Principals of the high schools complain that pupils come to them fairly well versed in general knowl- edge, but lacking in accuracy in the essentials demanded for intelligent work in the first year of the high school. This, we believe, has come about by the mellow training which they have received in the grammar school as contrasted with the more severe discipline of previous years. If this be true, generally, a halt must be called either in the number of subjects involved in the preparatory course or in the character of the training. It is help- ful for the young person to know whether the horse lies down first in front or behind ; whether the maple grows faster than the poplar ; why mules and not horses are shipped to South Africa for military purposes ; but it is far more important, and quite necessary, that the same young person shall be able to compute an arithmetical problem accurately, and be so well skilled in the elementary branches as to enable him to pursue intelligently the studies of the high-school course. Council] ISOLATION IN THE SCHOOL 365 Mrs. Young. — I broke off suddenly, a few moments ago, in discussing this paper, because my remarks were taking on a practical nature, and it was evident that the essayist wished a discussion of only the theoretical phase of the question. The two phases are so intimate that it is almost impossible for me to treat one and neglect the other. As regards the work in the secondary schools at the present time, I believe it to be far in advance of that of twenty years back. While it is true that the schools of the most modern type are weak in developing in the pupils the idea of rounding out their knowl- edge of that which they seek, yet there is the gain that the boys and girls are approach- ing science and history from their own past ; are not looking at those subjects as if they dealt with something far above and away from the world in which the learners live. The home, the past, of the pupils must be recognized in the school, otherwise peda- gogical cramp and isolation will continue to play havoc in our work. Charles B. Gilbert, Rochester, N. Y. — There is here clearly stated a vital issue. Between the two views is a great gulf fixed. The question is wholly of initiative. Is the work of the school to be predetermined in accordance with principles wholly apart from the child, or is it to be continually determined in accordance with the demands of his growing spirit ? Is education — in other words, growth — a force acting from within out thru the child's self-activity, or is it something to be put on like a coat, and that regardless of fit ? Are the child's previous growth and attainment to be ignored, or are his apperceiving masses to be made use of in determining the subject-matter and method of his education ? I for one desire to be put on record as believing that education is growth and not a plaster. Dr. Harris, in his paper, if I correctly heard it, spoke of the necessary effacement of the child before he can come into his heritage. How does that differ from the old belief in the necessity of breaking the will or the theological dogma of total depravity — both dreadful ? The child's entrance into the heritage of civilization and history is not cataclysmic ; it is the gradual and gentle movement characteristic of growth. The difference between the two is as wide as the world. John W. Cook, president State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. — I understand it to be the wish of the president of the department that the discussion of this remarkable paper should assume the character of a round table. I trust that its distinguished author will correct me if I indicate by what I shall attempt to say that I do not understand its purport. The term " isolation " is new to me in this connection. I assume that it is substan- tially synonymous with our old friend " estrangement," which Dr. Rosenkranz has made familiar to students of the philosophy of education. I assume, further, that Dr. Harris, as is his usual custom, is seeking a fundamental category upon which our thinking may ground itself in dealing with the problem of education. I am not surprised at the antagonisms which his discussion of his theme has aroused. Such words as " constraint," " self-restraint," " self-repression," " effacement of individ- uality," and others of their kind are the especial horror of a certain school of — not edu- cational thinkers exactly, for that term does not describe their most characteristic quality — educational leaders who are looking at the problem from the side of method rather than from the standpoint of the philosopher who is seeking the fundamental principle. These men and women live in the schoolroom. They are in the constant companionship of childhood. They have witnessed the blight and mildew that are the inevitable conse- quence of the wretched methods that have characterized the schools of the past. We all know how Rousseau cried out against the enormities of the word-worshipers, and how the tender soul of Pestalozzi was stirred by the senseless formalism of his time. I sympathize deeply with the solicitude of these ladies and gentlemen lest the children should be deprived of their birthright of joy and freedom by the discipline of the school. But it surely will be clear to these good soldiers in the great cause of educational liberty, if they 366 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National will dismiss their fears for a moment, that this is not a discussion of method, but of what is true of the educative process. _ With this fact in mind, I am unable to see how issue can be maintained with any proposition that Dr. Harris has uttered. Pray, what is it to become educated, if it is not to find one's self at home in regions that were before foreign, and consequently unknown ? Is the child to live forever with the inanities of the nursery ? What is the binominal theorem to the darlings of the kin- dergarten, in their little world a mile square ? Yet the time will come when superb formulae will be as simple as a nurse's tale. How ? By successive invasions of strange realms, strange as a Greek letter to a three-year-old Polynesian, until they have lost their strangeness because they have revealed to the explorer their kinship to his larger self. And when the soul is no longer confronted by an alien world and challenged to press itself against its mysteries, that soul has reached the vanishing point of education. And is this to be achieved without constraint or self-repression or submission to the authority of the next year's self ? Is there to be no " effacement " of a small individ- uality in the interests of a large individuality ? " Individuality " is a ticklish word to deal with in a " free " country. Was Huxley wrong when he asserted that " the only freedom that I care about is the freedom to do right ; the freedom to do wrong I am willing to part with on the cheapest terms to anyone who will take it of me." Is inhibition really to be banished from the educational terminology in the interests of the spontaneity of the child ? Of course, when we are sane and not engaged in controversial discourse, we are not going to urge such absurdities, for when inhibition goes we know that a large slice of attention will go along with it. No, gentlemen ; I much mistake if every dissenter on this floor today will not be in substantial agreement with the main contention of Dr. Harris when the opportunity for a careful study of what seems to me to be his most delightful and revealing contribution to this aspect of educational thought shall be afforded by the publication of his address. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR ELMER E. BROWN, PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. One year ago the annual report on educational progress was presented to this Council by Professor Hinsdale, of the University of Michigan. I cannot enter upon the similar task to which I have been assigned with- out first calling up the memory of that great teacher, who in the interim has been called from this earthly life. Burke Aaron Hinsdale was one of the most useful and distinguished members of this Council, of which he was president in 1897. His scholarship was notably broad and accurate; his judgment was sane and sure. In the meetings of the National Council and Association we have had many opportunities of seeing how illuminating and conclusive he could be in public debate. His logic was seasoned with genial humor; there was about him a very human apprehension of actualities ; he was never a doctrinaire. Some of his strongest work was done in the field of history, and particularly in the history of American education. The last time I saw him he told me, with an almost boyish appearance of diffidence, that he had ventured to think of writing a general history of Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 367 education in the United States. We have great reason to regret that this project could not have been carried out. As a member of some of his earliest classes in the University of Michigan, I desire to bear personal testimony to the helpful suggestive- ness of his instruction, particularly in his seminary work in educational history. Doubtless many of those here present could tell of intellectual uplift and stimulus received in his class-room. And many more might speak of his personal kindliness. His massive frame was well matched by his broad sympathy and large-heartedness, and his interest in the homely necessary things of life. " O mayster dere and f adir reverent — Alas that thou thine excellent prudence In thy bed mortel mighteste not bequethe ! " It is well that in considering our educational progress we should not forget those who have fallen by the way. Henry Barnard is gone — full of years and of honor; Thomas Davidson, that knightly spirit, pre- eminent in learning, has been taken, in the very strength of his years; only yesterday came the news that the venerable and honored Joseph Le Conte has passed away in the Yosemite Valley which he so greatly loved ; and others, worthy of such goodly company, have passed with them. These men have deserved remembrance of their country and of their brethren. Our forward step is surer that they have lived and wrought with us. Now, in making a survey of the year's educational progress, we must try to avoid bewilderment among particulars. We are too near to the facts considered to get any true historical perspective; but already we can see that they are bound up with the general progress of our civilization. Aside from all things educational, this has been a year of mighty move- ments. Much has been said about " expansion." In more ways than one, expansion has been the striking characteristic of the past twelvemonth. Five years ago Mr. McKinley was elected president for the first time, after a campaign which had turned largely on economic questions. Bimetallism had been thrust forward as the best available embodiment of a rising social unrest. But the new presidential term was only well begun when a question of foreign policy overshadowed all things else. The war with Spain was fought, and its success brought forward great international problems, such as our people had not faced before. The congress at The Hague set us thinking of the world-peace and our part in maintaining it for the future ; but we now found ourselves thinking what it meant to be a world-power, and what we should do as a world- power in the immediate present. The terrible business in China set us thinking fast and hard. We were already a world-power in the thick of the world's affairs. Mr. McKinley was elected for the second time, and the campaign which he won this time was fought mainly on questions 368 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National growing out of our new foreign relations. The policy of expansion was approved by the voters; and it has now received judicial confirmation in one of the most important decisions ever rendered by the Supreme Court of the United States. It has been determined that the United States not only possesses the power inherent in all true nations to expand in what- ever way she can and will, but that this power may be exercised under the old constitution handed down to us by the fathers. In the meantime the industrial distresses which found such half- articulate expression in the campaign of 1896 have been only temporarily obscured. They, too, are growing pains. Before long they must be acutely felt again. For industrial expansion is going along with politi- cal expansion, and within the past few months it has advanced at an astonishing rate. Railway combinations, more or less completely accom- plished, for the control of lines belting the land from coast to coast, with a pendant of ocean steamers at either end ; industrial combinations, steadily increasing in magnitude; and now the United States Steel Cor- poration, overtopping all the rest, with a capital stock "of over $1,100,- 000,000 and a bonded indebtedness of over $300,000,000 — are all in evidence. It is not the mere amount of money involved in these transac- tions that challenges the imagination, but the tremendous combination of forces and organizations brought into working unity. All of these movements, political and industrial, have kept men straining hard to think thoughts large enough to meet the new situations presented. Other movements have taken place, under the influence of such indus- trial and international readjustments, and some of these have been of very great significance. One of them may be mentioned more particu- larly. I refer to the rise of a new South. The division of 1861 lasted in some sense till 1898, when the nation, without regard to sections, went into the war with Spain. Northern Republicans had stood in an attitude of tutelage toward the South ; southern Democrats in an attitude of pro- test toward the North. Now. the southern states are simply proceeding to work out their own problems in their own way, as northern and west- ern states have done. Some of the results may be bad in the South, as they have been in the North and in the West ; but the ultimate outcome will surely be for good. Enough has now been said to remind us that the past year has been marked by far-reaching changes in our national life ; and that these changes are the accompaniment of accelerated growth, of increasing com- plexity of internal and external relations. In such a milieu American civilization has been making its way onward during the year just past. Religion, philosophy, science, art, literature, polite society, medicine, jurisprudence, engineering, invention — all the great capital interests of human life have felt the tremendous stir that is still going on. Such a time of sudden enlargement has in it Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 369 much of good and much of evil, sorrow and joy all mixed together. But it is mightily exhilarating to live in such a time, and to do even the smallest thing toward making the better part overbalance the worse. With such accompaniments education has been making its way. The opinion of mankind has continued to give it an honorable place. Edu- cation has been seeking to keep itself in working adjustment with the expanding life of other human concerns. It has endeavored to dis- charge a growing responsibility for making the better part triumph over the worse. The most of the year's happenings and movements, which we have to record, will be found in some sort of connection with this progressive adjustment to new conditions. One further fact should be noted here, the fact that, in the social expansion of our time, educational interests are expanding, not only actually, but also relatively. It is evident that social progress is becom- ing more and more largely dependent upon educational progress. The responsibility resting upon our educational institutions is already beyond any parallel in the history of the world, and what it is to be we cannot at all foresee. Now, let us consider a little more particularly the kind of educational progress that the past year has seen. The development and consolida- tion of American industries have been accompanied, not only by enor- mous accumulations of wealth, but also by enormous gifts on the part of the accumulators of wealth ; and these gifts have taken more generally the direction of contributions to educational inst itutions than any other. It appears from such statistics as are now at hand that the gifts to educa- tional institutions for the year 1900 amounted in the aggregate to not far from $23,000,000 ; and the gifts to libraries not directly connected with schools, to about $3,000,000 more. These statistics relate to gifts of not less than $5,000 each, which were made, became operative, or were completed during the year 1900, and do not include the ordinary con- tributions of churches and other denominational organizations, nor public appropriations, local, state, or national. Mr. Carnegie, of course, has been one of the largest contributors to this enormous sum. Mr. Rockefeller, who has been similarly distin- guished, both as an accumulator and as a giver, recently proposed, at the convocation of the University of Chicago, that cheers be given for Mr. Carnegie, whom he described as one " who has given away more money than any other living man." In fact, Mr. Carnegie's recent career is profoundly interesting. He had doubtless done more than any other one man to bring the steel industry of this country up to the point where the next step was the formation of the United States Steel Corporation. He had proved himself one of the most successful accumulators that this country has ever seen. At this point in his career, in accordance with a well-considered theory of life, Mr. Carnegie brought his operations as an 37° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National accumulator to an end and entered upon the very different occupation of a distributor. It takes a high degree of versatility to achieve equal suc- cess in these two very different parts. But Mr. Carnegie has made a very promising beginning in his new role. He has made a gift of $5,000,000 to be used for the benefit of the employes of the companies with which he was connected in Pittsburg and its vicinity. The income of a large part of this sum is to be used for the maintenance of a system of pensions to employe's, but another large part is to be devoted to the maintenance of libraries and other purposes essentially educational. It is well known that Mr. Carnegie has made numerous gifts for the erec- tion of library buildings in various cities of this country. How many such buildings he has erected it would be difficult to say. His most magnificent performance in this line is the proposal to establish sixty- five branch libraries in different portions of New York city, at an esti- mated cost of $5,200,000. As in the most of such instances, this gift is conditioned upon action by the community which receives the benefit. New York is called upon to provide sites upon which these branch libra- ries may be built. There can be little doubt that the sites will be pro- vided and the buildings secured in due time. The latest news of this sort is that this beautiful and hospitable city of Detroit has been simi- larly honored. Up to April 1 it was estimated that Mr. Carnegie's gifts had reached the sum of 530,000,000. Since that time he has been in Europe, where his visit has been signalized by the gift of $10,000,000 for the promotion of university education in Scotland. It is understood that the income of a portion of this fund is to be used in defraying the expenses of capable and needy students in the four Scotch universities. Another consider- able proportion is to be devoted to the development of university instruc- tion, especial stress being laid upon scientific, economic, and historical studies. Provision seems to have been made for the especial encourage- ment of graduate students and advanced research. So far as we can judge from the accounts that have come to us, Mr. Carnegie has provided for the effective administration of this gift, and has not limited the administrators unduly as to the objects to which the funds may be applied. The recent commencement season has called forth the announce- ment of numerous gifts of great importance to American colleges and universities. Among the most notable of these is that of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan to Harvard University, of $1,000,000, to be devoted to the pro- motion of research in the field of applied biology, that is, more particu- larly, of biology in its relation to medicine. Harvard received in the course of the academic year, in addition to this gift, somewhat more than three-quarters of a million of dollars. Brown University has completed a fund of $2,000,000, which she has been raising with large assistance from Mr. Rockefeller. Yale University, preparatory to the celebration of Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 37* her bi-centenary, has nearly completed the raising of a $2,000,000 fund. A beginning has now been made on the great architectural composition proposed by Mrs. Hearst for the University of California. And the list might be very greatly extended. It is evident that we are in the midst of a great era of gifts to institu- tions of higher learning. It is difficult to find anything in the history of the world with which these facts can be compared. There were times in the Middle Ages when enormous gifts were made to institutions of a spiritual character; but those institutions were primarily ecclesiastical and only secondarily educational. The greatest industrial development that the world has ever seen is found to have as its corollary the greatest liberality in giving, and that particularly in giving to the extension of facilities for education. This is a fact of the utmost significance. It is not strange that a fear should have arisen lest educational institu- tions should, under these circumstances, lose somewhat of their spiritual independence ; and we find that the past year has been especially marked by the reappearance in critical cases of the question of academic freedom. Several institutions have been concerned with this question during the past year ; but interest has centered in occurrences at the Leland Stanford Junior University. In the fall of 1900, soon after the presidential election, Edward A. Ross, professor of sociology in that institution, was dismissed under circumstances which have received vari- ous interpretations. It is known that Mrs. Stanford, the surviving founder of the institution, is virtually sole trustee during her lifetime. Certain utterances of Professor Ross, with reference especially to the question of Chinese immigration, had given serious offense to Mrs. Stan- ford, and she desired his removal from the teaching force of the institu- tion. President Jordan did not agree with Mrs. Stanford in this matter, but found it advisable to follow her expressed desire. The removal of Professor Ross was variously regarded, not only in the outer world, but also within the teaching force of the university. A large majority of the members of the faculty sustained President Jordan. Other members declared emphatically their disapproval of his action, giving expression to their criticism both publicly and privately. The result has been that in the course of the year ten other members of the faculty have ceased to be connected with the institution, thru resignation or removal. I will not undertake to pass any final judgment in this celebrated case. That may be left to writers who are able to make distance from the scene serve for historical perspective. Such writers have, I believe, generally agreed that the rightful freedom of instruction has, in this instance, been invaded. So much as this, however, should be added : The sensitiveness dis- played by the American people whenever the question of freedom of speech arises in any form is likely to prevent any serious abridgment of 372 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National such freedom in the future. Freedom of the press and freedom of instruction go together, and both are intimately bound up with the highest interests of our civilization ; but there is no such thing as free- dom apart from responsibility. The university man, like every other man, must exercise his liberty in the light of his duty to society. Uni- versities, too, like all other institutions, live only in the co-operation of their members. It is not enough that a university man speak the truth ; he must help his university to speak the truth as a university — to speak it with a united voice which must be heard. It is not only in university football that team work must be done. Team work must be done in university faculties. The responsibility for doing such team work goes hand in hand with the university instructor's claim to liberty of speech. Liberty is essential ; but such things as these must be considered in deter- mining where liberty lies in any given case. The question of freedom of instruction is bound up with the question of university responsibility in another subject which has been under sharp debate during the past year. I refer to the subject of scientific instruc- tion in the effects of stimulants and narcotics. The discussion of this subject has laid new emphasis upon our American conception of the unity of educational interests. We will have no school science which is not in accord with real science, and universities are responsible to the schools for determining the rightful content of instruction. This is a sacred responsibility, and the sense of its sacredness is growing with the growth of our educational institutions. As the part of education in the making of our civilization grows larger, it becomes more evident that educational institutions of all sorts must work in unison. No other nation has grasped this conception as has our own. The perfecting of our integration of educational forces is going steadily forward ; and even the nations of Europe are coming to have some sense of its significance. One of the chief forms in which the responsibility of universities to the lower schools has been coming to recognition is the training of teachers for those schools, and particularly for schools of secondary grade. It was the state universities which first came to an understanding of this responsibility. Within the past year some very important steps have been taken by our state universities in the direction of the improve- ment of their courses of pedagogical instruction. But the most impor- tant of recent movements in this direction seem to have been taken by Columbia and Chicago universities. At Columbia University the Teachers College has had a very pros- perous year. It has grown so greatly in numbers that the extensive buildings which it occupies are no longer large enough to accommodate both the college and the training school. A valuable piece of land has been acquired in the immediate vicinity of the college, and upon this has been erected a new building which provides separate accommodations for Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 373 the training school. This extension has cost half a million of dollars. In addition to this, the college has received a gift of $ 100,000 from Mr. and Mrs. James Speyer, for the establishment of an experimental school. This school will be opened in one of the less-favored portions of the city. With it will be connected a Columbia University Settlement. Ample provision will be made for the introduction of the newer lines of school instruction. This school will be very different in its organization and purpose from the training school, and so will add greatly to the facilities at the disposal of the college for illustrating the processes of education in their greatest variety. The university now gives to graduates of Teachers College the degree of bachelor of science. In other important ways the integral relation of the college to the university has been abundantly emphasized. At Chicago the important step has been taken of bringing the Chicago Institute into union with the university. The educational world has been deeply interested in this institute, from the time when Mrs. Emmons Blaine first announced her intention of establishing such a school. From the start it has seemed unfortunate that the institute should not be con- nected with the University of Chicago. It has finally become evident to both boards of trustees that the two institutions could accomplish much more unitedly than they could ever hope to accomplish separately. Accordingly, President Harper was able to announce at the university convocation in March that the union of the two had been accomplished. The institution in its new connection will be known as the University of Chicago School of Education. Mrs. Blaine, it is reported, has given a million dollars to further the work of this school. The Chicago Manual Training School, one of the pioneer institutions of this sort, which has achieved great successes ; and also the South Side Academy, an efficient private secondary school, have been merged in this new School of Educa- tion. This makes a most notable combination of educational forces, devoted to the training of teachers for the elementary and secondary schools. Meanwhile, the University Elementary School, carried on by the department of education of the university, under the direction of Pro- fessor John Dewey, has continued its remarkable work. The conviction is growing among schoolmen that this elementary school, in its present form, constitutes one of the most significant experiments in the history of American education, or, in fact, of world education. We have here, what has rarely been seen, an actual school embodying a profound phi- losophy of education. Professor Dewey's doctrine that the school is life, in its variously significant bearings, is here put to the test in daily school work under a carefully selected corps of teachers. It would seem of the greatest importance to American education that this experiment should continue. It can hardly be doubted that the university will honor itself, 374 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National and continue its service to the cause of public education, in continuing this school under the most favorable conditions obtainable. Two years ago Superintendent Harvey, of Wisconsin, read a notable paper before this Council on the question, "Do we need a university trust?" The question was answered in the affirmative. More recently President Hadley of Yale has said in a public address : "We educators must form an educational trust." We may be sure that these eminent school- men have used the word "trust" in its better sense of an economical combination of forces, and not in its worse sense of a monopoly. Dur- ing the past year the question of an economical combination of univer- sity forces in this country has been repeatedly discussed. One of the most important organizations actually effected for some such purpose as this is the Association of American Universities, which held its second annual meeting at Chicago last February. This organization consists of fourteen of the leading universities of this country. Thus far it has attempted nothing in the nature of legislation, and has refrained even from proposing legislation to its constituent members. But its discus- sions are tending steadily toward a union of action among our foremost universities in matters relating to graduate instruction. It cannot be doubted that the existence of such an association will do much to secure unity in the conduct of higher education in the United States, and a just recognition of American higher education abroad. It would seem to many that the one effective form of university trust needed in this country is some sort of federal university at the city of Washington. The discussions of this subject within the past few years have called forth widely divergent views ; but unanimity has been reached in the conviction that we need some sort of organization of advanced research in the capital of the nation. The difference of opinion as to the form of organization best calculated to accomplish this purpose is as great as ever ; but a highly important step has now been taken by those who believe that what we need is not a new university added to the goodly number of really national universities which we already possess, but rather an effective co-ordination of the opportunities for research already provided in the various departments and institutions at Washington. This step is the organization of the Washington Memorial Institution. It is well known that provision had already been made by act of Congress extending to competent students the privileges of the various libraries and other means of investigation which abound in Washington. What has been lacking has been the means of bringing such students most readily into relations with such libraries and laboratories. The newly organized institution supplies this lack. One of the noteworthy university happenings of the year was the with- drawal of President Gilman from the headship of the Johns Hopkins University, after a highly successful term of service of a quarter of a Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 375 century in the initial presidency of our initial experiment in the real higher education. The serious character of the new movement at Washington is emphasized by the fact that President Gilman was immediately called to the directorship of the new institution. No better man could have been found for the purpose. The personnel of the board of directors is such as commanded the confidence of the educational world as soon as it was announced ; and that confidence has been strengthened by the appoint- ment of President Gilman as their first director. It seems reasonable to expect that with the establishment of this institution — less than a university, to be sure, in that it does not give degrees ; but more than a university in that it exists in and thru its co-operation with many universities and insti- tutions of government — the higher education of our country will receive some such impetus and unification as it has so greatly needed. The Washington Memorial Institution should have, and doubtless will have, the hearty support of the friends of American university education. We need further information, however, with reference to its form of govern- ment and the range of its activities, before we undertake to determine the question whether it offers such organization of advanced research as we should ultimately have at our national capital. It is a significant fact that the year has brought new emphasis upon the promotion and endowment of research. This emphasis has appeared in the establishment of the memorial institution to which reference has just been made. It has appeared also in Mr. Pierpont Morgan's gift to Harvard Uni- versity. It has appeared in another and very notable form in the gift by Mr. Rockefeller of $200,000 for the promotion of research in the sciences directly connected with the practice of medicine. It is understood that this gift of Mr. Rockefeller's is intended only as a beginning. A board of trustees has been organized to administer the fund and direct the investigations. Some of the investigations, we are told, will be conducted at the headquarters of the new institute in New York city. Others will be conducted by various co-operating university laboratories. The field open to such an institution is highly attractive, and embraces, moreover, numberless problems of the utmost importance to the whole people. It is fortunate that the personnel of the board of directors is such as to com- mand public confidence, and particularly the confidence of competent scientific men. We have every reason to expect from this new movement results of the highest value, and its progress will be watched with the utmost interest. It would seem a far cry from the consideration of the highest prob- lems of university work to a discussion of the new problems of elementary education in the South ; but the connection of all institutions of edu- cation is becoming so close in this country that the education of any sec- tion, in any grade or in any social class, is seen to be bound up with the education of all. 376 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National There is, moreover, a peculiarly intimate connection between the work of the University Elementary School in Chicago and the work of the insti- tution for the education of colored people at Tuskegee in Alabama. The question of education in the South turns largely on the question of the education of the colored people. The colored people are now making their own contribution to the solution of that question. Their contribu- tion consists in a new recognition of the fact that education is life, and makes for life ; and they are working it out in one of the most interesting forms at Tuskegee. No educational book of the past year has excited more widespread interest than has the autobiography of Mr. Booker T. Washington. The unity of American interests, and particularly of Ameri- can educational interests, has been emphasized by the reading of that book in all grades and classes of our society. The new political movement in the Sonth is understood by some to be chiefly a movement for the disfranchisement of the negro because he is a negro. In its practical working out it is not likely that it will take that form. It is, however, taking the form of the disfranchisement of the igno- rant, the improvident, and the criminal. There are very few real leaders in the South who do not see that the chief need of the South, in its rela- tion to the negro, is the lessening of ignorance, improvidence, and crime. There is great hope for the future in that southern white men and southern negroes are at one in recognizing this fact. The Tuskegee program is very simple and comprehensible. It pro- poses that the negro shall make friends of his near neighbors, both white and colored ; that he shall make himself indispensable to the community in which he lives ; and that he shall let the question of social recognition take care of itself. One other tenet should be added, namely, that the negro shall keep himself very clean. There is a breadth of humanity and good sense in these views, which has taken strong hold upon our people; and the progress of the past year in this respect has been very marked. It is to be hoped that the South will understand that she has the heartiest good-will of the country at large in all the efforts which she is making to improve political and industrial conditions thru the improve- ment of education. The education of the negro and of the white must proceed on parallel lines. Elementary education must be especially emphasized ; but elementary education will not prosper continuously unless higher education receive also its due emphasis. The steady advance of higher education in the South has been noted during the past year by our people with great satisfaction, and it is hoped that by close co-operation between all educational institutions, from the lowest to the highest, the difficult problems of civilization in our southern states may be worked out in such ways as shall count for the good of the whole nation. The past decade has been marked by a great movement for the Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 377 improvement of educational administration in American cities. The year with which we have to do has seen no remarkable advance in this respect. The newly organized systems have been going forward, with many a jolt and jar, to be sure; but they have undoubtedly been going forward. The new charter provisions for the Greater New York have swept away the last vestige of administrative functions in the hands of borough school boards. The system has been thoroly centralized, with the result that for the first time responsibility has been definitely located. Inasmuch as the new system still makes considerable provision for adaptation to local needs, there can be little doubt that it will be a great improvement on that which preceded it. The new schedule of salaries for teachers seems to be, on the whole, very liberal, and satisfactory to the members of the profession. The Chicago Board of Education has had an interesting year. More complete provision for the systematic study of school children has been made by this board than is to be found in any other great Ameri- can city. The first report of the investigations carried on under the authority of the board is full of interest. One of the most recent reports from Chicago is to the effect that the board has adopted, by a large majority, ■ the proposed provision for free text-books in the primary schools. The chief obstacle encountered in Chicago in the effort to introduce free text-books was the opposition of the friends of parochial schools. In many ways the problem of religious education, or of education under ecclesiastical auspices, has come to the front within the past year. Atten- tion may be called especially to the impression produced by the meeting of the Association of Catholic Colleges at Chicago, in February. Mgr. Conaty, president of the Catholic University at Washington, presided at this meeting. In the course of his remarks he called attention to the vfact that the Roman Catholics had expended in this country during the pre ceding year $25,000,000 on their institutions of education, not including the colleges and universities. One million pupils were enrolled in these schools, about 13,000 of whom were in institutions of higher education. The movement for the establishment of Roman Catholic parochial schools received its great impetus from the meeting of the third plenary council at Baltimore in 1884. Since that time the growth of Catholic parochial schools has been very remarkable. Thus far the Catholics have devoted their energies chiefly to schools of the elementary and higher grades. The Association of Catholic Colleges at its meeting this year recom- mended that from this time on special attention be devoted to the estab- lishment of Catholic high schools. A small number of such schools have already been established. It seems not unlikely that this number will be very greatly increased within the next few years. It would appear to many that the movement for the establishment of parochial schools is the one discouraging feature in the outlook for unifi- cation of our American educational forces. It should be said, however, 378 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National that the unification of education does not necessarily involve anything like a government monopoly of education. The differentiation of our educational institutions to meet a variety of American tastes and tendencies is not necessarily dangerous, nor even undesirable. The main thing is that those who are engaged in education of all kinds, in all its grades and branches, shall understand one another. With the growth of parochial schools it becomes increasingly desirable that there shall be free inter- course between the teachers of these schools and of the public schools. Whatever their differences of educational ideal, purpose, and administra- tion, teachers everywhere should present a solid front in the forward movement of civilization, as against the forces of selfishness, ignorance, materialism, and all the powers of darkness. I believe that the teaching bodies of our educational institutions of all sorts are made up of patriotic Americans ; and, as patriotic Americans, they will co-operate whole- heartedly for the promotion of the best things in American life, if only they come freely together and learn to understand one another. There are many movements of only less importance than those already referred to of which we can offer no extended notice here, for lack of time. Some of these may be referred to with the utmost brevity. Our normal schools have, during the year, been moving forward in the matter of entrance requirements. In the more favored states these schools are already in a position to enforce the requirement of high-school graduation for admission. Other states are moving steadily toward this standard. The Herbart Society has been reorganized during the past year, taking the name of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. In its earlier form this society has done much good service; but it has not been able to throw off entirely the character of a propagandist institu- tion, which its very name seemed to fasten upon it. As reorganized, the society has adopted a very promising program. It swears by no master, and seeks only to apply the scientific spirit and scientific methods to the study of educational problems. There is a large field for such an organi- zation, after all others of our educational societies have done their best; and it is hoped that it may prosper in all good works. The College Entrance Examination Board of the Middle States and Maryland is now an accomplished fact. During the past month this board has conducted its first examination. This examination has extended to the remotest sections of our own country, and even to foreign lands. The leading institutions of the middle states have agreed to accept the results of this examination, and in this they have been joined by institu- tions in other portions of the country. The Pedagogical Seminary becomes gloriously militant in its attack upon the mechanism involved in these examinations.1 It may be said, however, in defense of the new i See the Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 7, p. 450, October, 1900. Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE VEAR 379 movement, that a big machine is not necessarily more mechanical than forty little machines ; and that it is great gain if the secondary schools can be relieved of the inconsistent whimsicalities of forty examining boards, by being brought into relations with one board, including repre- sentatives of the schools, under which the conduct of entrance exami- nations has been carefully unified. So long as our eastern brethren, in the hardness of their hearts, pin their faith to entrance examinations, it is to be hoped that they may at least remove some of the more glaring defects of the examination system, thru the operation of such a board as has been organized. It will be good for the institutions concerned to work together in this matter, and some real and large educational advan- tage seems likely to come out of it all. In no other way have we more definitely taken up the " white man's burden " than in the attempt to build up American systems of education in our new possessions, and in Cuba. The migration of nearly fifteen hundred Cuban teachers to Cambridge last summer, and their participa- tion in the summer school of Harvard University, had a certain spectacu- lar value. The immediately educational results of this undertaking seem to have been small, as might have been expected ; but in a larger way its educational value was undoubtedly very significant. It called the attention of the Cubans in a striking manner to American ideals in education. And it called the attention of the American people, in an equally striking manner, to the educational problem in Cuba. Great credit is due to the authori- ties and members of Harvard University for their action in this matter. The first report of the Taft commission to the Philippine Islands shows clearly that the hopes of American civilization in those islands are chiefly centered in the new educational movement. Dr. Fred W. Atkin- son assumed the superintendency of the Philippine educational system on September i, 1900. Already important progress has been made. A large number of American teachers have been taken to the islands to engage in instruction and the supervision of schools. Our American universities and normal schools have been sending some of their best graduates to take part in this service. Forty-two have already been sent by the University of California alone. There is something very inspir- ing in a new crusade of enlightenment such as this promises to be. The Taft commission proposes that the educational administration of the islands shall, for the present, be strongly centralized, but that encourage- ment shall be given to local initiative and responsibility ; that all schools supported by public funds shall be free and non-sectarian; that especial attention shall be paid to the utilitarian side of elementary education, with a view to making every person self-dependent in the gaining of a livelihood; that instruction in agriculture and in other subjects of a voca- tional value shall be promoted ; that the English language shall be intro- duced gradually ; that the salaries of teachers shall be raised ; that new 380 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National teachers shall be brought in from the United States; and that a normal school shall be maintained at Manila. Dr. Atkinson's estimates call for the expenditure of more than $1,500,000 by the insular government for schools during the current year. It is reported that Mr. Atkinson has sent to this country for a thousand more American teachers, many of whom are to be men. Professor M. G. Brumbaugh began his work as commissioner of edu- cation for Porto Rico on August 6, 1900. Ten weeks later he presented his first report. Here the management of the schools is not so strongly centralized as in the Philippines, and progress must accordingly be slower. A normal school has been established, but its location seems to be not altogether eligible. Teachers have been gathered into institutes, but the success of these gatherings seems to have been very uneven. Provision is made for one teacher of English for each graded school. When Pro- fessor Brumbaugh's report was rendered, there were 38,000 pupils in the schools — a very substantial increase over the preceding year. But there are still 300,000 children in the island for whom no schooling has been provided. So far as the Hawaiian Islands are concerned, it may be remarked that they had long been provided with a well-organized system of schools before the group was annexed to the United States. The fine progress which the Hawaiian schools have been making in recent years is shown by the fact that the exhibit which they sent to the Paris Exposition of 1900 was honored with the grand prix, the highest form of award given by the exposition. Two suggestions occur to one as pertinent to this topic : first, it would be advantageous if those who are working in these undeveloped educational fields might come into closer touch with those educational methods which have proved so effective at Hampton and Tuskegee ; secondly, it is eminently desirable that we strengthen the bonds of con- nection between this work in..our semi-foreign territories and the United States Bureau of Education. In spite of many obstacles, the American commission to the Paris Exposition succeeded in making a very praiseworthy exhibit of Ameri- can systems of education. This exhibit secured more awards than did the educational exhibit of any other nation, with the single exception of France, the home country of the exposition. Hon. Howard J. Rogers, who was in charge of our educational exhibit, has drawn up a list of these prizes. They include 41 awards of the grand prix, 64 gold medals, 41 silver medals, 16 bronze medals, and 6 awards of honorable mention. It appears from both American and foreign accounts that an excel- lent impression was produced by this exhibit. We are assured that for- eign visitors to the exposition were especially impressed by the fact 'that Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 381 American educational systems seek to give a broad, general training to all students alike, and to postpone specialization as far as possible; and that they pay especial attention to developing the natural capacities of the children, and giving them power of individual initiative. If foreign nations shall learn from us in these particulars, it is only a reasonable return for the many good things which we have learned from them. It would seem that the nation which gets the most good from one of these world expositions is the nation which shows the greatest capacity for both giving and taking. There has been much of interest during the past year in the educa- tional progress of those culture lands whose interests lie nearest to our own. We find, too, that the movements with which we are familiar at home are closely related with movements in these countries. The inter- national character of our civilization receives repeated emphasis in these days. In England there are many signs that the expansion and integration of educational interests and institutions are proceeding, more slowly than with us, to be sure, but perhaps quite as surely. The federation of the provincial colleges of England goes steadily forward. Progress has been made during the past year in the development of the new University of London. A large part of one of the great buildings at South Kensington has now been set apart for the use of this university. Properly housed, it seems in a fair way to become a great metropolitan teaching university, without ceasing to be the institution for the conduct of examinations which it has been in the past. The new board of education has appeared in English educational affairs like the dawning of a new day. One of the first acts of this board, under the provisions of the statute which created it, has been the appoint- ment of a very influential conservative committee, in which the various important educational bodies of the country are largely represented. As it was the consideration of the problem of secondary education which was largely responsible for the formation of the board of education, so we find, quite naturally, that this problem is among the most urgent of those with which the new board is expected to deal. There is little to record as yet in the way of definite advance toward the solution of this problem. Qne important occurrence of the past year, however, must be noted. The local school boards in England have shown a disposition to extend in an upward direction the instruction offered in the schools under their control. As a result, many of the board schools have been giving instruc- tion of an advanced grade. This movement is closely analogous with that which has been going on in America for the past sixty years or more, and has given us our great system of public high schools. The question whether our local school authorities were justified in making such exten- sion of the work of the. elementary schools came up for decision in the 382 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National courts of Michigan in the famous Kalamazoo case of 1874. The decision of the supreme court of Michigan in that case, prepared by the late Judge Thomas M. Cooley, marks a turning-point in the history of American edu- cation. It declared unequivocally the right of communities to extend the education given in the public schools so far as they might choose, provided only that they were willing to tax themselves for the purpose. The cor- responding English movement has come up for determination in an English court during the past year, with a result directly opposite to that in our own Kalamazoo case. This question has not yet been decided in a court of last resort. Whatever the ultimate decision may be, there can be little doubt that, by parliamentary action, if need be, such extension of English elementary education will sooner or later be authorized and encouraged. If this result is secured, we may expect to see the upgrowth of a great system of local schools in England of higher-elementary, and even secondary, grade. When we consider the fact that the development of American high schools has come to be a dominant force in the development of American civilization, and has in particular given an unprecedented impetus to American university education, we can understand the possibilities of such a movement among a sister-people like that of England. In France, too, the dominant educational interest of the past year has had to do with secondary education. Professor Nicholas Murray Butler, in his report on educational progress presented to this Council two years ago, made note of the fact that the French Chamber of Deputies had instituted a commission of thirty-three members, under the headship of M. Ribot, to make an extensive inquiry into the whole secondary-school problem, and present a report of its findings. This report has now been presented in five large volumes ; and it is supplemented by a very impor- tant little book by the chairman, entitled La reforme de F enseignement secondaire. The recommendations of..this commission touch certain vital points in the French secondary-school situation. In general, they call for a larger amount of freedom on the part of local school authorities, within the limits of very general prescription. They propose the discontinuance of the baccalaureate at the close of the secondary-school course. On the question of the requirement of the classical languages for entrance upon all courses leading to the professions of law and medicine, the commis- sion declares itself, by a majority of only one vote, in favor of maintain- ing the present requirement. Another recommendation is that free (or, as we should say, private) schools be subjected to state inspection. These free schools are mainly ecclesiastical institutions. Since the state and the church are openly competing in France for the upper hand in sec- ondary education, the recommendation last mentioned touches a sensi- tive point. The discussion of this report, and of the recommendation Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR 383 of other official bodies upon the same questions, has filled a large place in French educational thought during the past year. Speaking in gen- eral terms, an eminent French professor remarks, in substance, in a recent letter : " The spirit of our public education may be briefly summed up by saying that it tends to become more ' educative,' to draw nearer to life, to render the human spirit free and ready to express itself in action." In Germany, again, one of the chief questions of the year has been a question relating to secondary education. It will be remembered that the so-called Frankfort plan was first introduced in 1892. This plan pro- vides, in all nine-year secondary-school courses, that the first three years shall be free of any requirement in Latin, French being substituted for Latin in this portion of the course. This plan is intended to give all forms of secondary schools a common foundation course, and so to post- pone the final selection of a boy's course in life to as late a point as pos- sible. The year 1901 is a critical year in the history of this experiment, because it is in this year that the first classes which entered upon courses of this sort reached the end of their secondary-school training. The Frankfort plan has, accordingly, been under especially active discussion during the year just past. One of the most notable documents which have appeared in the course of this discussion is the so-called Brunswick Declaration (Braunschweiger Erklarung). A convention of the friends of technical and scientific education meeting in Berlin had declared in favor of changes substantially the same as those made under the Frank- fort plan, and also of the recognition of graduates of all nine-year sec- ondary schools for admission to all of the higher courses of professional training. The German Gymnasium Association, which assembled a little later in Brunswick, met this declaration with a counter-declaration. They declared their adhesion to the present gymnasial course, with its full nine years of Latin, and demanded especially that there be no reduction of the time devoted to Greek. But, in the second place, they put them- selves on record as having no opposition to offer to the proposal that all nine-year courses be placed on an equality of rights and privileges. This declaration was then sent out for signature to friends of the Gymnasium thruout Germany, and was finally published in January of this year, with an appended list of 14,330 adherents, including almost every one of undoubted classical orthodoxy in all the land. The fact that such an overwhelming declaration in favor of the traditional course in the Gym- nasium has been put forth would lead a foreigner to guess that the vic- tory is well-nigh won for the opposing party; and this view is emphasized by the fact that, in their anxiety to maintain the status of the classical languages, the Gymnasium Association felt it necessary to disclaim all opposition to the proposal that graduates of the Oberrealschule and the Realgymnasium be granted equal rights with graduates of the Gymnasium. 384 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National The somewhat indefinite reports of student disturbances in the uni- versities of Russia which have come to us have excited widespread inter- est. The fact that students and workingmen have joined in riotous opposition to the government is significant of the union of industrial and educational forces in the Russian liberal movement. Returning to our own land, we may take a brief glance at the educa- tional literature of the past few months. It is to be noted, in the first place, that the number of educational books which appeared during the year 1900 was considerably greater than those of the preceding year.1 In 1899 there were published in this country 387 new books on education, and 32 new editions of old books on education. During the year 1900 there were issued 431 new books and 210 new editions. Education still stands fourth in the order of publications, being surpassed in number by books of fiction, works on law, and juveniles. Of the books which appeared in the first half of the year 1900, Pro- fessor Hinsdale, in his report of a year ago, gave the first place to the series of nineteen monographs on Education in the United States' edited by Professor Nicholas Murray Butler, as a contribution to the American educational exhibit at Paris. It may be added that this series of mono- graphs received an abundance of praise and prizes at the hands of visitors and juries at the exposition. Of other books which appeared during the year 1900, a few which seem to be of especial significance may be mentioned here, at the risk of omitting many of equal importance. Attention should, however, be called, first of all, to two important contributions to our educational bibli- ography. I refer to the " Bibliography of Education for the Year 1900," prepared by Mr. Wyer and Miss Lord ;3 and to the continuation of former bibliographies of child study, prepared by Mr. Wilson, of Clark Univer- sity.4 Such work as this is of the utmost value to students of education in its several aspects. It may not be amiss to add that we need in this country something analogous to the publications of the Gesellschaft fur deutsche Erziehungs- und Schulgeschichte. An American publication of this sort, however, should include some account of current foreign publi- cations, and particularly a summary of the principal official publications of other lands. This suggestion is respectfully submitted to the consid- eration of our Commissioner of Education. The year 1900 gave us three important additions to our literature of the history of American higher education, in the shape of the decennial 1 See summary in The Publishers' Weekly for January 26, 1901. 2 Nicholas Murray Butler (editor) , Education in the United States. A series of monographs prepared for the United States exhibit at the Paris Exposition of 1900. 2 vols., pp. 464, 514. Albany, N. Y. : J. B. Lyon Co., 1900. 3 James Ingersoll Wyer, Jr., and Isabel Ely Lord," Bibliography of Education for 1900," Educa- tional Review, Vol. ax, pp. 382-421, April, 1901. 4 Louis N. Wilson, " Bibliography of Child Study for the Year 1899," Pedagogical Seminary, December, iqoi. Council] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OE THE YEAR 385 volume of Clark University,1 Montgomery's history of the University of Pennsylvania,2 and Thwaites' history of the University of Wisconsin.3 The growing importance of universities in our national life makes such volumes as these greatly to be desired by all students of American history. An important new series has been well started for us by the publi- cation of Professor Smith's book on the teaching of mathematics.4 Thomas Davidson left us a choice legacy in his little book on the history of education5 — a work not crowded with mere information, but rich in interpretations. President Thwing has struck out a new and impor- tant line in his work on College Administration? Another new note has been sounded in the volume of lectures on Principles of Religious Educa- tion? a book which seems to show a new interest in the problem of religious instruction. Of the books which have already appeared during the year 1901, attention has been called to the autobiography of Mr. Booker T. Wash- ington.8 Another work, remote enough from this, but very significant in its own way, is Bennett and Bristol's The Teaching of Latin and Greek? This book is not only of value in itself, but is also important as beginning a new series. In Smith's book on the teaching of mathematics, and Bennett and Bristol's book on the teaching of the classics, we see the beginnings of a real literature of the pedagogy of secondary-school subjects. The Germans have long been in possession of such a litera- ture. We are just making our first essay in this field, but the beginnings are representative of some of the better tendencies in our American educa- tion, and promise well for the future. The latest report of our Commissioner of Education is well up to the high standard of recent publications of this sort. Some recent state and city reports seem to indicate a rising standard in this important branch of our educational literature. Valuable additions have been made during the year to some of our well-known series, especially to the Ameri- can Educational History series, published by the Bureau of Education ; •Clark University, 1889-99, decennial celebration. Pp. 566. Clark University, 1899. 2T. H. Montgomery, A History of the University of Pennsylvania from its Foundation to A. D. 1770. Pp.600. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co., 1900. 3R. G. Thwaites (editor), The University of Wisconsin; its History and its Alumni. Pp. 900. Madison : J. N. Purcell, 1900. 4 David Eugene Smith, Teaching of Elementary Mathematics (Teachers' Professional Library). Pp. 312. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1900. 5 Thomas Davidson, A History of Education. Pp.292. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900. entB JBarnarD HENRY BARNARD'S INFLUENCE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES ELIPHALET ORAM LYTE, PRINCIPAL FIRST PENNSYLVANIA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILLERSVILLE, PA. Standing on the bank of a tempestuous stream, which is rushing onward to the sea, and carrying with it soil and timber and even bould- ers, one would find it difficult to say which part of the stream carries the soil, which part the timber, and which part the boulders. Somewhat the same problem confronts one who attempts to say to what extent Henry Barnard influenced the establishment of normal schools in the United States. His educational life seemed to carry educational institutions of all kinds with it in its onward sweep. Whatever it was best to do for the advancement of education, Henry Barnard tried to do, whether it was to organize state systems of schools, to criticise existing systems, to suggest better systems, to start the wheels of educational machinery in city or state, or to record the progress of educational institutions thruout the world. His object was the furtherance of public education. The means used for this object were the means he could first seize hold of. A brief sketch of his labors in the direction of the establishment of normal schools will, however, not be out of place, tho it must necessarily be an insufficient presentation of the man himself. In 1838 Henry Barnard became the actual head of the school system of Connecticut, at the early age of twenty-seven. Horace Mann had Council IN MEMO R I AM HENRY BARNARD 391 begun his educational work in Massachusetts the year before. The con- ditions existing in the two states were, however, not the same, and Bar- nard's work must necessarily be on different lines. The common schools of Connecticut at that time were controlled by an organization known as the "School Society," and there was great indifference among the body of the people with respect to public-school education. Henry Barnard's first work was to arouse the people to a proper appreciation of the deficiencies of the public-school system and to create a genuine public sentiment in favor of public schools. In 1837, as a member of the legis- lature of Connecticut, he had led the movement that culminated in the passage of the school law of 1838, which, as has been said, was the beginning of a new era in the history of popular education in Connecti- cut. In his first speech before the legislature of Connecticut he referred to the establishment of schools for teachers in the following words : It is idle to expect good schools until we have good teachers, and the people will rest satisfied with such teachers as they have until their attention is directed to the subject, and until we can demonstrate the necessity of employing better, and show they can be made better by proper training in classes or seminaries established for this specific pur- pose. The law passed at that time provided for a state board of commis- sioners of common schools, and Henry Barnard was elected secretary of the board. The duties of the secretary as prescribed by the board were, first, to ascertain the actual condition of the schools; second, to inform the legislature of their condition, and present plans and suggestions for the better organization and administration of the school system ; third, to address educational meetings in every county in the state; fourth, to edit a journal devoted to common-school education ; and fifth, to increase the interest of the community in relation to popular education. Strange as it may seem, in 1842, only four years later, the legislature of the state reversed the policy adopted in 1838, and repealed the legislation of that time ; but the movement started could not be repealed or reversed by a legislature. The people of Connecticut became interested in the public schools, and in 1846 a convention of 250 teachers and friends of schools was conducted for four days at Hartford, followed in 1847 by the two largest school institutes that were ever held in Connecticut, and that were said by Superintendent Peirce to be "the most important events in the history of the common schools for the last ten years." The following year sixteen teachers' institutes were held, and in 1849 the joint committee on education in the legislature reported a bill to establish and support a state normal school, and made an appropriation of $2,500 a year for this purpose. This school was founded in 1850, at New Britain, and Henry Barnard was recalled from Rhode Island to take the principalship of the New Britain State Normal School and the super - intendency of the state of Connecticut. The school at New Britain 39 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National enrolled during the first year 154 students, and is still in existence, tho it was suspended from 1865 to 1869, and again in 1874 for a year. This institution was the fruitage of the seed sown by Henry Barnard during his first term of service at the head of the schools of his native state. Soon after Henry Barnard was legislated out of office by the action of the Connecticut legislature in 1842, he was invited by the governor and legislature of Rhode Island to become the first commissioner of common schools of that state, and assumed the duties of this office in 1843. Rhode Island had at this time a school law which is practically the foun- dation of the present system of public education in the state. The one lack of the system was the centralizing influence which comes from the office of state superintendent of public schools, and this defect was remedied by the legislature this year enacting a provision for a state superintendency of common schools. To this office Mr. Barnard was called, and assumed the duties of his position September 1, 1843. His first work here, as in Connecticut, was to study the school system of the state and learn its actual condition. During the first two years of his term of office he visited every town in the state, inspected a large number of schools, held a great many public meetings, and issued a number of circulars to teachers and school officials. At all the meetings held, one of the most important topics discussed was the necessity of a thoroly organized state normal school. In 1844 the legislature of Rhode Island invited Commissioner Barnard to prepare a new school statute. Mr. Barnard's plan with respect to normal schools was to have two state normal schools, one in Providence and one in the country ; and a bill was passed in 1845 authorizing the establishment of a thoroly organized state normal school in the state. No appropriation, however, was made for carrying the law into effect. The people were authorized to build a normal school and pay for it out of their private pocketbooks, and declined to comply with the suggestion. As a result of Mr. Barnard's agitation of the subject of normal schools, however, Brown University a short time afterward established a professorship of didactics. A few years later normal classes were taught in the Provi- dence High School, and in the fall of 1852 a normal school was opened in rooms rented for the purpose, with three teachers and eighty-five students. In May, 1854, upon the urgent recommendation of School Commissioner Potter, who succeeded Dr. Barnard, the general assembly passed an act establishing a state normal school, and appropriated $3,000 for its support. This school opened in May, with twenty-seven students, and was the fore- runner of the Rhode Island Normal School established at Providence, which now has one of the largest and finest normal-school buildings in the United States. As early as 1856 School Commissioner Robert Allyn said in his report to the general assembly : Council] IN MEMO RI AM HENRY BARNARD 393 The effect of the graduates of the normal school is already felt to some extent for good upon the teachers of the state. They have gone abroad into various schools, and by coming into contact with other teachers, and by making popular the methods of instruction learned in the normal school, they are gradually but surely causing the stand- ard of attainments in school-teachers to rise, as well as the standard amount of duties they shall be required to perform. If such an influence begins to be apparent within two years from its commencement, we may with certainty expect that its benefits will con- stantly increase till all parts of our state shall feel it and be made better thereby. Henry Barnard resigned from the superintendency of the Connecticut schools in 1855, and in June, 1859, he became chancellor of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin and agent of the board of normal regents of the state. At this time Wisconsin stood near the head of the common-school states in the proportional number of children of school age and in the size of her school fund. The state had been educationally aroused by the work of Hon. Lyman C. Draper. One of the most important topics under dis- cussion at this time in the state was the question of training of teachers. In 1857 the legislature had passed a law for the establishment of a new school fund from the income of an extensive region of land. This income was to be divided among such high schools, academies, and col- leges as would submit themselves to an examination and parish super- vision by a board of state normal regents. A normal department was also established in the university, and a small appropriation was made for a chair of pedagogy. Teachers' institutes had been established in a num- ber of counties in the state, and several institutions had availed themselves of the appropriation for normal instruction. Dr. Barnard's duties as agent of the normal board of regents were "to visit and exercise a super- vising control over the normal departments of all such institutions as shall apply for a participation in the normal-school fund, to conduct teachers' institutes and normal instruction in the same, and to co-operate with the superintendent of public instruction in procuring a series of public educational addresses to be delivered in the various parts of the state." During the autumn of 1851 he conducted a series of institutes in twenty or more counties, and aided in laying the foundations of one of the completest systems of state normal schools in the United States. In Wisconsin, as in Pennsylvania and other states, teachers' institutes were the forerunner of regular state normal schools. As I said at the beginning of my remarks, Henry Barnard's work in the establishment of normal schools was one of a number of objects, all leading to the one great object of elevating public education. An inde- fatigable worker, thoroly devoted to the cause of public education, with clear vision, he saw that no system of education could be successfully administered without a system of state normal schools as an integral part of the general system of education. He realized that school machinery is deadening, that the teacher is the center of the school, and that all real progress in school work must finally be made thru the teacher. With 394 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National this clear view, it was impossible for Henry Barnard not to do all that could be done for the establishment of schools for the training of teachers. It is probably within the bounds of truth to say that in his work as editor of the American Journal of Education he did as much for the diffusion of educational literature and the elevation of the profession of teaching as in any other way. His influence thru this monumental publication reached localities and states that otherwise would not have felt his influ- ence. As the result of this publication, better school buildings were demanded, better teaching was required, and closer supervision became necessary. Training schools were established in towns and cities, and the necessity of special preparation for the vocation of teaching became impressed upon schoolmen in all parts of our country. The International Review for January, 1874, says of the American Journal of Education and its editor : These volumes constitute an encyclopaedia of facts, arguments, and practical methods which no organizer or teacher can afford to be without. Besides the preparation of these works, Dr. Barnard has delivered lectures and addresses on his favorite subject numbered literally by thousands. Probably no one man in the United States has done as much to advance, direct, and consolidate the movement for popular education. In looking back to the commencement of his lifelong labors, it would seem that he must contemplate with eminent satisfaction the progress of public sentiment and the good results already attained, as well as the brightening prospects for the future. He has done a work for which his country and coming generations ought to thank him and do honor to his name. It is not within the scope of these brief remarks to speak of Henry Barnard's labors in other directions. In the preparation of this report, in addition to the wealth of material to be found in the American fournal of Education, I have made free use of the reports of, the Commissioner of Education, and particularly of the admirable sketch of the life of Henry Barnard by Rev. A. D. Mayo, published in a late report. How much the influence of the strenuous educational life of Henry Barnard and his co-laborer, Horace Mann, reached and reaches beyond the borders of their states, no.one can fully measure. There is no doubt, however, that all portions of the United States were affected by the labors of these great men. The question of the establishment of normal schools in Massachusetts began in 1835 and continued until the opening of the first school at Lexington, July 3, 1839, under the principalship of Rev. Cyrus Peirce. In 1839 Governor William H. Seward of New York recommended that "normal-school instruction be ingrafted on our public- school system," and in 1844 the first normal school was opened at Albany, with David P. Page as principal. In 1838 Superintendent Thomas H. Burrowes, of Pennsylvania, advocated the establishment of schools in that state for the education of teachers, in which should be given "a full and careful course of theoretic and practical instruction in the art of teaching." In 1855 the State Normal School at Millersville, Pa., began as a teachers' institute, and has continued without a break as Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 395 a normal school ever since. In 1857 the legislature of Pennsylvania passed a law somewhat similar to that of Rhode Island, which was passed a few years before, and which permitted the citizens of the state to put their private money into normal-school property. Unlike Rhode Island and many other states, the normal schools of Pennsylvania have been built largely by private funds, altho they are state institutions. Ohio about the same time began the agitation for state normal schools. In 1 84 1 the secretary of state urged the legislature to establish normal schools similar to those of Massachusetts. The agitation then begun has kept up intermittently ever since, and has thus far resulted in the establish- ment of a number of purely private institutions whose main purpose is the education of teachers. Elsewhere the great movement in public elementary education, which included as an essential factor the establish- ment of state normal schools, was wonderfully stimulated by the labors of Henry Barnard. A great leader like Henry Barnard is a great follower as well. Do you remember the young woman at Lucknow who heard the Scottish highlanders long before the others could hear them ? A great leader hears the unconscious cry of the multitude before the rest of us. He sees the rift in the sky at the break of dawn before the rest of us. He tells the rest of us what to listen for, what to look for; and then we begin to hear and to see. Some of us must always look backward when going forward. We say, " History repeats itself," and wait and let it repeat itself. The leader never looks backward except to encourage his followers. He peers into the future with the eye of faith. His vision is clear because his faith becomes prophetic. We come and go, and thousands like us come and go. Henry Barnard and a few like him come and stay. To these men the teachers' profession owes a greater debt than it can ever hope to repay. The least we can do is to pay a tribute to their memory by carrying to full fruition the great reforms to which they gave their lives. THE INFLUENCE OF HENRY BARNARD ON SCHOOLS IN THE WEST NEWTON C. DOUGHERTY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PEORIA, ILL. In order that a man may influence any movement, he must in some way come in contact with it. Such contact does not necessarily involve bodily presence among the men and women to be influenced. And yet the influence that one wields in the direction of human thought, and in the development of human character, depends largely upon his per- sonality. In many situations this element is by far the mightiest. In the school, in the church, in the social circle, personality outranks all other sources of power. In all these relations we may say, as a rule, that the quality of the soul, the purpose that animates the man or woman, has 396 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National a more telling effect than intellectual culture. And yet there are ways in which, by the clear and convincing statement of significant facts, by the elucidation of principles, by the setting forth of vital truths, a powerful and lasting effect may be produced upon the thinking and motives of multi- tudes of men and women aside from the influence of personal character. But we must not forget that much of what we call personal influence may dwell in the books that one writes, in the printed addresses, and even in contributions to newspapers. By the thoughtful reading of the works of such writers as Wordsworth, Kingsley, and Longfellow, one may be brought into close relations with the personal qualities of the writer. The writer's noble aspirations and exalted ideals may impress us as if we were in the personal presence. By outward personal contact Mr. Barnard wielded but little influence in the western states. He was president of the State University of Wis- consin for two or three years. But it will be no injustice to him to say that he did not in that capacity exhibit his most efficient power. His influence in the western states was mostly due to the educational litera- ture that he made accessible to the people. And it may be further added that his own writings played a comparatively secondary part in the work to which we refer. This was not because his writings were of little worth, but simply for the reason that they formed a very small part of the literature which he distributed. In order to understand the importance to the western states of Mr. Barnard's work, let us briefly examine the educational conditions existing in those states about the time when he began the publication of the Ameri- can Journal of Education. This was not the first of Mr. Barnard's publi- cations. Many reports of his had appeared from the year 1839 and later, and he had also been previously connected with educational journals. But the American Journal of Education was the chief work of his life. The first number appeared in 1855.' At that time in the states west of the Ohio river very little progress had been made in the development of uni- versal education. It may be said that in each of these states there were men and women who understood something of the educational needs of the country, and who were doing what they could to arouse upon that subject the communities in which they lived. Efforts were put forth to establish normal schools and teachers' institutes. Educational journals were started in various places for the purpose of enlightening the people and awakening their enthusiasm. But the success attained before the period to which we refer, namely, the year 1855, was not complete. Reports from the state of Ohio show that the average length of winter schools, taught by men, was 1 fa months per annum, and the average length of summer schools, taught by women, was iT8T months. The wages paid to male teachers averaged $23 per month, and to female teachers $13. In the state of Illinois a public-school law had been passed in 1825, but for thirty Council] IN ME MORI AM HENRY BARNARD 397 years it continued substantially a dead letter. In 1855 a new law went into operation, and from that date educational progress began. But it appears that as late as the year 1858 only thirty-eight counties in the state, somewhat more than one-third of the entire number, held teachers' institutes. The first public normal school began its work in 1857. This sluggishness in educational work seems surprising when we consider the efforts that had been made in the Congress of the United States and in the state legislatures. We remember that by the ordinance of 1785 the present system of townships was established in the great Northwest Territory. It provided that there should be preserved "the lot No. 16 of every township for the maintenance of public schools within the township." The next step was taken in the ordinance of 1787, in which it is declared that "religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary for the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." These provisions were reiterated in the enabling act, passed by Congress April 18, 1818, by which the people of Illinois territory were authorized to organize a state government. The same provisions were adopted by the convention which formed the first state constitution. By the latter authority funds were also provided for higher institutions of learning. Would it not seem as if provisions like these ought to have stimulated the people to enthusiastic activity in the estab- lishment and support of public schools ? But, as already stated, the effect was otherwise. In many instances the lands appropriated by Con- gress for educational purposes were frittered away — sold for paltry sums. In many cases this was because the officials in charge did not foresee the value of these lands. But there is reason to suspect that, in some cases, it was the result of dishonest collusion with the purchasers. Many reasons have been assigned for this continued failure to supply the means of education so much needed. It is reasonable to suppose that the comparative poverty of the people had some influence in this direction. The pioneer settler has many unfavorable conditions to meet. He is not surrounded with the comforts of life as men in older communities are. Hard work, and much of it, is required to supply him and his family with the necessaries of life. It is claimed that on this account the early settlers in the northwestern states gave little thought to the question of education. It required all their energies to furnish their children with food and cloth- ing. Their mental vision was narrowed, and their higher impulses were suppressed by the constant pressure of these grosser needs. But it is also urged, as an explanation of the fact which we have been considering, that a large majority of the early settlers of Illinois and some other western states had emigrated from states in which there was no adequate provision for universal education. As a historical statement, I think that this must be conceded to be true. Public schools were but poorly maintained thruout the country except in a few of the eastern states. Indeed, at the 398 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National beginning of the present century it may be said that in no part of the union were schools well supported and well patronized. The strenuous experiences thru which the country had passed in the establishment of its independence appear to have blunted the people's perception of the value of intellectual and aesthetic culture. And we have very good authority for asserting that the educational failures of the early settlers in the North- west Territory were not entirely due to their poverty. In the year 1854 the secretary of state for Arkansas, who was also the superintendent of schools, declared in his report : "The great obstacle to the organization of common schools is not so much the deficiency in the means to sustain them, as the indifference that pervades the public mind on the subject of education." In what has been stated, only a few illustrations have been given of the low conditions of schools in the western states at the time to which we refer. To make the whole case clear, to present an adequate picture of the entire scene, would require more space than we have at our disposal. In view of the conditions to which we have referred, what were the educational needs of the western states about the year 1850 ? I think we may set aside the suggestion that the greatest need was money. In these states wealth was already largely developed. The magnificent fertility of the soil was beginning to be successfully utilized. Altho artificial means of transportation were as yet limited, altho as yet railways had done very little in furnishing outlets for agricultural products, the natural avenues were open. The great waterways could be utilized, and were utilized, for furnishing eastern markets with the products of the western lands. And altho the commerce between the East and the West, and consequently between the West and all the outer world, was limited at this time, there was enough of it to warrant a much larger expenditure than was made for the cause of education. According to the testimony, may we not say that the educational needs of the time may be classed under two heads ? First, there was need of information as to what had been done elsewhere in pro- moting education. And, secondly, there was need that this information should be put in such form as to act as a powerful stimulus. The western people needed to be informed on the subject of schools, and they needed to be stirred to a resistless and successful activity. How admirably adapted was Barnard's Journal to supply both these wants ! As one glances thru the vast aggregation of thirty-one volumes, he cannot fail to be impressed with the magnitude of the work represented therein. In the language of a distinguished educational writer : "The Journal is, in fact, a library of education in itself." In the first place, it gives informa- tion on the subject in all parts of the world. The history and methods of many of the most prominent schools in Europe and America are care- fully set forth. Every volume of the Journal is made up of contributions from the ablest writers on educational topics in the United States and Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 399 elsewhere. The prevalent systems are clearly stated and illustrated. The philosophy of education is thoroly and ably discussed. There is also much in the way of practical direction to inexperienced teachers. The Journal 'is a mine of intelligence on these topics. But it is more than this. It is a source of inspiration. The period which the Journal covers was a period of intense and earnest thought, as well as of high aspiration, in regard to educational work. The questions were discussed with a serious energy. The contributors to the Journal did not write in order to exhibit their literary graces ; the topics which they were discussing were to them grave and serious matters. They believed, and rightly believed, that on the right solution of questions which they were discussing would depend the perpetuity of our free institutions, and also the welfare of the human race. The educational literature of the time was marked by a high and inspiring ethical quality ; it exhibited a profound sense of moral responsi- bility ; and one of the effects was that it appealed to that which is noblest in the human character. The contributions to Barnard's Journal not only enlightened the understanding of men, but stirred their souls as well. There was not only clearness of head, but also warmth of blood. This is a point that is not always reached by the theoretical, hair-splitting discus- sions of modern times. And what could be more perfectly adapted to' the educational wants of the western country than this? For it must be understood that the western man is endowed with emotions as well as intellect. Cold logic is not enough for him. He likes to be stirred. He likes to read of the forces which have impelled "men to heroic activities. Viewed from this standpoint, Mr. Barnard made a valuable contribu- tion to educational progress in the western states. We have spoken of the wielding of personal influence thru literature. That effect was produced, in this case, not alone by Mr. Barnard's reports and lectures, which were the product of his own mind ; it was indirectly accomplished by all the high-grade literature which he spread before the country. And the effect was intensified by his personal history. In Mr. Barnard's day the time for great financial profits in educational work had not arrived. The great mass of teachers were compelled to be content with meager salaries, and educational publications were not, as a rule, finan- cially profitable. Perhaps nothing in all the educational literature of the time so forcibly illustrates this proposition as the American Journal of Education itself. It was not a money-making enterprise ; on the contrary, it was continually published at a loss. Mr. Barnard, who had something of a fortune of his own, which might have been largely increased if he had engaged in the practice of law, for which he was thoroly prepared, carried on this publication at a sacrifice. And the statement is made, on good authority, that his entire earthly possessions were devoted to this work. Here, then, was an example of a man who engaged in a work 400 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National which he thought essential to the progress of the race, a work which was greatly needed by the nation, without hope of pecuniary reward. A life thus devoted cannot fail of inspiring men to deeds of unselfish philan- thropy. We are not assuming that Barnard's Journal was read by all the school officers and teachers in the western states, or by any very large proportion of them. But it is one of the blessed results of the utterance of truth that it passes from mind to mind. A few men in the western states knew what Mr. Barnard was saying. Their minds were enlightened, and their enthusiasm was enkindled, by what they found in the American Journal of Education. By these, the truths, thus disclosed, were dis- seminated. They were reiterated in educational meetings, in teachers' institutes, in normal and other schools. As a result, the educational reformers were strengthened by them, and in the course of time a majority of the people at large accepted them, and the result appeared in the increase in the number and quality of schools, in the further distribution of educational intelligence, in the establishment of normal schools, in the improvement of schoolhouses, and in the willing supply of funds for all the expenditures involved. HENRY BARNARD'S HOME LIFE, AND HIS WORK AND INFLUENCE UPON EDUCATION AS COMMISSIONER OF CONNECTICUT AND RHODE ISLAND CHARLES H. KEYES, SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOLS, SOUTH DISTRICT, HARTFORD, CONN. Two generations have passed away since Henry Barnard, a young lawyer of twenty-seven years, consecrated himself to the work of educa- tional reform in his native state. The apathy of the wealthy, the interests of the cultivated in numerous private denominational institutions, and the mismanagement of the "school societies," to which Connecticut had abandoned her common schools, all conspired to make the outlook for practical education, in the land of steady habits, a gloomy one indeed at the time that Henry Barnard was elected as a member of the state legis- lature. Within one year he framed and pressed to passage an act to provide for the better supervision of the common schools. He immediately sought and secured the appointment as commissioner of common schools for Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, at that time one of the ablest educators of New England. Mr. Gallaudet could not see his way to the acceptance of this commission, and Mr. Barnard himself was unanimously chosen as the first school commissioner of Connecticut, and, tho loath to accept, he was finally persuaded to undertake the work. He at once proceeded to learn by correspondence and visitation the Council] IN MEMOR1AM HENRY BARNARD 4° I conditions existing in the schools, to awaken by public addresses and personal interviews with teachers, officials, and taxpayers, in every quarter of the state, an earnest desire for better schools, and to formulate plans by which the legislature and state board of education might accomplish the desired improvement. In the creation of an enlightened sentiment concerning the needs of the languishing public schools he was eminently successful. His personal devotion to the ministry of education, and his self-surrender to the work, made his naturally eloquent appeals irresist- ible. His perception of essential agencies for the successful accomplish- ment of school reform was evidence of the clear thought of one who had already declared that the cause of true education — the complete educa- tion of every human being without regard to the accidents of birth or fortune — seemed most worthy of all his powers, and, if need be, of any sacrifice of time, money, and labor which he might be called upon to make in its behalf. The improvement of the teaching force, thru teachers' institutes ; the return to popular administration of the school ; the levy of adequate local school taxes ; the building of schoolhouses with proper attention to light, warmth, ventilation, furnishing, and decoration ; the establishment of school libraries; and the intelligent selection of improved text-books and superior apparatus, were the chief points to which he devoted his efforts. He was determined, as he declared in his great speech in advo- cacy of the school law of 1838, "that the common school should no longer be regarded as common because it is cheap, inferior, and attended only by the poor and those who are indifferent to the education of their children, but common as the sunshine and the air, because its blessings are open to all and enjoyed by all." In bringing this state of affairs to pass, he declared his purpose to enjoy the satisfaction of the laborer, letting who would enter into the harvest. Within two years of his undertaking this work, Horace Mann declared : The cold torpidity of the state soon felt the sensation of returning vitality; its half- suspended animation began to quicken with a warmer life ; much and most valuable information was diffused ; many parents began to appreciate more adequately what it was to be a parent; teachers were awakened; associations for mutual improvement were formed; system began to supersede confusion; some salutary laws were enacted; all things gave favorable augury of a prosperous career; and it may be further affirmed that the cause was so administered as to give occasion for offense to no one. All religious men had reason to rejoice that a higher tone of moral and religious feeling was making its way into schools without giving occasion of jealousy to the one-sided views of any denomination. For years the work went bravely on, but, as it progressed, Mr. Barnard found that the influence of the "school societies," stung by the publica- tion of reports setting forth the actual condition of the schools, had raised up a reactionary sentiment which was able to capture the machine of one political party and sweep the whole Barnard school code from the 402 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National statutes. Disappointed, but not embittered, by this action, which took from him the opportunity for which he had sacrificed so much, the devoted young leader immediately began the collection of materials for a history of education in the United States. In October of the following year Rhode Island passed a law for the improvement of her public schools, and Governor Fenner, urging upon Henry Barnard that "it was better to make history than to write it," per- suaded him to become the first superintendent of Rhode Island. The act constituting his office prescribed that he should "visit and examine the respective public schools in this state ; ascertain the length of time each district school is kept, and at what season of the year ; the qualifications of the respective teachers of said school ; the mode of instruction therein ; collect information of the actual condition and efficiency of our public schools and other means of popular education ; and diffuse as widely as possible among the people a knowledge of the most approved and suc- cessful method of arranging the studies and conducting the education of the young, to the end that the children of the state, who depend upon common schools for instruction, may have the best education that those schools may be made to impart; and shall make a report to,the legisla- ture, with such observations and reflections as experience may suggest, upon the condition and efficiency of our system of popular education and the most practical means of improving the same." Mr. Barnard proceeded to procure knowledge of the condition by vis- iting every school in the state, holding public meetings in every town, and securing reports from teachers and school officers. With this infor- mation in his possession, he realized that almost every evil of the Con- necticut situation was .reproduced in exaggerated form in Rhode Island ; and he proceeded to report the Connecticut campaign with such good results that in two years both opposition and apathy were practically eliminated. On December 12, 1845, Mr-- W. H. Wells, for more than fifteen years a prominent New England teacher, wrote from Andover, Mass., to the Boston Traveller as follows : Here, then, is a state which has completely reorganized its system of public schools and incorporated with it the best features of other states. During this period more than five hundred addresses have been delivered in the different towns, and nearly one-sixth of the schoolhouses have been either rebuilt or remodeled. Town, county, and state associations of teachers and friends of education have been formed, which have held more meetings in two years than the same number of similar institutions in Massachusetts held in five. The novel feature of an itinerating normal-school agency operating directly upon the several schools has here wrought out its most happy results. An educational tract has gone into every family in the state that takes an almanac ; and a library of education has been established in every town for the use of teachers and school committees ; to say noth- ing of the great variety of books and pamphlets relating to subjects of public instruction, which have been widely disseminated among all classes of citizens. The superintendent has just closed a series of teachers' institutes through which a Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 4^3 large amount of knowledge has been imparted to more than half the teachers employed in the winter schools ; and, what is still better, a zeal for improvement as individuals and as a profession has been inspired, which must accomplish still greater results. I have enjoyed the privilege of being present at two of these institutes and have formed a very high estimate as to their utility. I have attended at different times a variety of teachers' conventions and associations, but justice requires me to say that I never before received so much valuable instruction on the subject of teaching in the same space of time. At about the same time Mr. Wells said in a personal letter to Mr. Barnard : Teachers' institutes, as organized and conducted by you in Rhode Island, acting at once upon teachers, school officers, and parents, on the home and the school, is a new agency in local school work and professional improvement. The county conventions and associations which I have attended since 1830 accomplished no such results ; the proceedings do not go so deep in any direction or on any one topic at a time, or reach out so far, and they leave no such intelligent, enthusiastic interest in the community where the meetings are held. Your institutes left the places where held in a red-hot glow. Your separation of practical professional work with teachers in your day sessions, from popular addresses to parents and the public generally in the evening, is most judi- cious. Your placing teachers, as well as your speakers and helpers, in the families of the place, where the work done and to be done was sure to be talked over, is a stroke of genius. Your educational tracts scattered broadcast before and after the meetings, your provision for educational addresses in all the neighboring towns during the week preced- ing and during the session of the institute, was inspiring work of the best sort. The whole thing to be appreciated needs to be seen and felt, and no teacher who has shared the enthusiasm will ever forget a Rhode Island institute. For five years the good work went on with such fruitage that Dr. Mayo is warranted in saying that "nowhere in the history of popular education in the United States is there a more conspicuous example of making a new chapter in the history of education." In 1849 failing health compelled Dr. Barnard to retire from office. By unanimous vote of both branches of the legislature, the gratitude of the citizens of Rhode Island was expressed. Every institute held in the state during the year after he declared his intention of retiring gave utterance to the loyal and appreciative feeling of the teachers themselves. In response to a communication of the state association, transmitting a gift and memorial of his work and worth, Mr. Barnard said : If, during the past five years, anything has been done to increase the facilities for individual and professional improvement enjoyed by teachers, and to raise the social and pecuniary estimation in which their services are held and rewarded ; if any advance has been made toward the better organization and administration of a system of public schools, and the more thorough, complete, and practical education of the whole people, these results are the sum total of innumerable contributions, all of them as meritorious and many of them, I doubt not, more important than my own. Every teacher who has, with or without the help of books, institutes, and sympathizing friends, made his school better than he found it; every school officer who has aimed faithfully to understand and execute all the details in the local administration of the new system ; every person who, by his voice, pen, vote, his pecuniary aid, or his personal influence, has contributed to the earnest awakening of the legislature and the people to the importance of this much- neglected public interest, and in favor of liberal and efficient measures of educational 404 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National reform, has labored with me in a common field of usefulness, and is entitled to whatever credit may be attached to a successful beginning of the enterprise. Such is the nature of the ever-extending results of educational labor that, if a suc- cessful beginning has been made in any department of this field, no matter how small may be the measure of success, we should feel amply rewarded for our exertions, and, with love, hope, and patience in our hearts, we should hold on and hold out to the end. Whoever else may fail or falter, may every teacher in the state persevere until Rhode Island stands acknowledged before the world a model state for her wise system of popu- lar education. Then will her workshops be filled with intelligent, inventive, and contented laborers ; her cities and villages be crowned with institutions of religion, benevolence, and charity; and every home throughout her borders be made a circle of unfading smiles. The cause of true education, of the complete education of every human being, with- out regard to the accidents of birth or fortune, is worthy of the concentration of all our powers, and, if need be, of any sacrifice of time, money, and labor we may be called upon to make in its behalf. Ever since the Great Teacher condescended to dwell among men, the progress of this cause has been upward and onward, and its final triumph has been longed for and prayed for, as well as believed in, by every lover of his race. And although there is much that is dark and discouraging in the past and present condition of society, yet, when we study the nature of education, and the necessity and capabilities of improvement all around us, with the sure word of prophecy in our minds, and with the evidence of what has already been accomplished, the future rises bright and glorious before us. On its forehead is the morning star, the herald of a better day than has yet dawned on our world. In this sublime possibility and in the sure word of God, let us, in our hours of doubt and despondency, reassure our hope, strengthen our faith, and con- firm the unconquerable will. The cause of education cannot fail unless all the laws which have heretofore governed the progress of society shall cease to operate, Christianity prove to be a fable, and liberty a dream. After two years of rest, with health seemingly restored, he had the satisfaction of knowing that his early work in his native state had not been without its fruitage. In August of 185 1 he was called to be prin- cipal of the New Connecticut State Normal School and state superin- tendent of public schools. At his installation Rev. Horace Bushnell said : After encountering years of untoward hindrance here, winning golden opinions meantime from every other state in" the republic, and from ministers of education in almost every nation of the world, by his thoroughly practical understanding of all that pertains to the subject ; after raising into vigorous action the school system of another state, and setting it forward in a rich tide of progress, he returns to the scenes of his beginnings, and permits us to congratulate both him and ourselves on the prospect that his original choice and purpose are to be fulfilled. During four years he repeated his success in Rhode Island, but again a lack of health compelled him to relinquish his leadership, amid the regrets of every friend of education in the commonwealth. Well might the Connecticut School Journal say : We will never forget the generous and indomitable spirit which prompted him in the outset of his public life to plead the cause of the common school, without fee or hope of reward, before a cold and unwilling audience in the highest council of the state ; which induced him to adandon a professional career, for which he had made a most costly and diligent preparation, and in which, steadily pursued, he was sure to win both distinction Council] IN MEMO Rl 'AM HENRY BARNARD 4° 5 and wealth ; which has enabled him to turn a deaf ear to the voice of political ambition, and to close his heart to the seductions of popular applause, so easily gained by one possessed with his power of oratory in the discussion of questions of temporary interest ; which has led him to decline positions of the highest literary dignity in college and university, that he might give himself up unreservedly to the cause of the common schools. Altho the official labors of this great leader in both Connecticut and Rhode Island were completed before I was born, it was my great good fortune to know rather intimately the home life of Dr. Barnard during the last four years that he was spared to the world, and I shall always esteem the memory of his personal friendship as one of the abid- ing benedictions of my life. Dwelling during these years in the city of his nativity, in the house which welcomed his birth at the close of the first decade of the nineteenth century, and from which his mortal remains were borne a few months before the opening of the twentieth century, the thought of his later life was ever keenly sympathetic with the best spirit of the advancing age. The loss of his wife, a native of the city in which we meet this evening, and, some years later, the death of a beloved son, who had already given evidence, in a brief but brilliant career at the bar of this city, that he inherited the talents of his dis- tinguished father, saddened much the closing years of his life. But he, who had given himself so generously to two generations, was rewarded and cheered by the rare devotion of his two daughters, Emily and Josephine Barnard, who were the constant companions of the happiest old age it has ever been my lot to know. To these two young women he seemed in manner at times as much a gallant elder brother as a loved and loving father. Permitted to visit him by the hour in his parlor with other friends ; in his den, to which only a chosen few were admitted ; at his table, where he was to the last the courteous host ; in the fine old garden, whose fruits were the product of the intelligent toil which became one of his regular pastimes ; in the library, amid the rarest collection of pedagogical books in all America, I have been a charmed listener as he spoke of the work the world had done and was doing. He had little to say of his own work, but much of that of his contempo- raries, and, as I listened to him, I wondered that his song was ever one of praise. He seemed to remember only the good endeavor and the successful achievement of a vast number of his co-laborers in his numer- ous and widely separated fields of labor. I recall that, as I met him first, I went into his presence with a feeling of intense reverence, evoked by the knowledge of the great work he had done. This feeling was reinforced by his distinguished and venerable appearance, but I came away rather blaming myself for having been betrayed into the attitude of colleague and equal. As I watched him frequently thereafter, I dis- covered that this was characteristic of his intercourse with men and women, young and old. He made you forget age, rank, and station, 406 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National found a vital common interest with you, and impressed you as a friend of everyone whose heart responded to a noble impulse. His life and work shed luster on the family and state which produced him, liberalized and dignified the cause which he served, and made his name one of the very foremost in the history of popular education in our country. HENRY BARNARD AS AN EDUCATIONAL CRITIC FRANCIS W. PARKER, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The common school is by far the most important institution ever devised by man — most important, because any and all other institutions together have not as great influence upon the growth of our republic, and because the education of the masses is the one hope of the future. Very young in years, exceedingly crude in its beginnings, dependent upon traditions that are the product of other times and circumstances, opposed by the strongest conservatism, it has made its triumphant way up to the beginning of the new century. Never before in the history of the world has there been so much thought and discussion on this topic, and such rapid, real, genuine progress in education. In order to realize this, we have but to note that New York city spends twenty millions this year for its children, and Chicago eleven millions ; that books upon education are issued from the press in rapid succession ; that the demand for edu- cated, trained teachers is steadily growing. The common school is the child of the people; nourished and supported by the people, its virtues and its faults are in the people. It is the one great central product of democracy. Its history has never been written, except in part, in local sketches and statements of general facts ; but the time has fully come when every teacher in the common schools needs the reinforcement of a genuine, truthful history of ..the American school system. It is high time for us to look back to the beginnings as we never did before, to learn " in what a forge and what a heat were shaped the anchors of our hope." We should know the patriot heroes, founders, and promoters of the common-school system. They are many. Each state has its heroes; each movement its courageous supporters. Of the many heroes of edu- cation there stand out two imposing figures — Horace Mann and Henry Barnard. They both entered into the work under the same ideal. They, more clearly than others, saw that a republic is an impossibility without education, intelligence, and morality. Each gave up hopes of future greatness and threw himself, body and soul, into the work which he believed to be intrinsic in the growth of the new country. There are two distinct classes of educators : those who believe in the past, study its traditions, and try to prove that the education that has Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 40 7 been — improved in many points, but kept as a unit in principle — is suffi- cient for the future ; and those who believe that we are marching along the endless pathway of unrealized possibilities of human growth — those who, in a word, believe that all that education has yet done, with its principles and methods, its reformers and its organization, is but a crude step toward that which must be. The great incentive of the latter class is the needs of society. They believe that the inner development of the human soul in righteousness is the one purpose of education. To this class of educators belong Horace Mann and Henry Barnard. They began with an awful scantiness and meagerness of resources ; they met with sullen indifference as to common education on the part of the people ; but they had sublime faith in the cause and in the people. Mann and Barnard both realized how little there was to begin with. Both cried out for means, for books, for men, for self-knowledge of education. The work of Horace Mann was to study the situation in Massachusetts thoroly, to arouse the people to the belief which he so strongly held, and to change conditions from chaos to organization. The legacy he has left us, the great product of his genius, is his twelve annual reports, which may be read now by every teacher in the country with exceeding profit. Henry Barnard's great work was to introduce to the people of America the best that had been done in education in all parts of the world and to report progress. We know how little we received from our mother- country. The work of the schoolmasters of Germany, the land of edu- cation, had scarcely affected our education in the time of these two great educators. Horace Mann, it is true, brought back from Germany the ideas that aroused the bitter opposition of the Boston masters; but it was Henry Barnard who introduced to English readers Comenius, Ratich, Sturm, Fellenberg, Pestalozzi, Diesterweg, and Froebel. He gave the history, up to his time, of the evolution of education in the United States, and biographies of the men and women to whom we owe our beginnings. Henry Barnard sought for the best in all languages, and his genius enabled him to find what the teachers of his time needed, and what, indeed, the teachers of today need. It is acknowledged that there is no cyclopaedia, no other work upon education in the world, that offers so much for all-around study as the American Journal of Education. It is a marvel of selection and a wonder of completeness. It would be diffi- cult to name any good work ever done in education that is not included in this wonderful journal. Turn over the leaves of the Connecticut School Journal, Vol. I, published in 1838. I doubt whether there is any school publication today so rich with ideas and yet so adapted to the situation of that time. Gallaudet urges the employment of women as teachers. Fellenberg gives his ideas upon the Bible in the schools. The first place in the volume is given to the education of teachers. School laws are discussed, and improvements in organization suggested. Reports 408 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National on all educational institutions in America — common schools, academies, universities — are contained in the volume. The first volume of the Con- necticut School Journal was published one year after Horace Mann took the secretaryship of the Massachusetts board of education. Barnard con- tinued the immense task in the American School Journal. The thirty-one volumes published are replete with information concerning the schools of all the world. President Bache reports on the schools of Prussia, Hano- ver, Saxony, France, Egypt. The best the world had to offer in educa- tional literature was critically chosen. Henry Barnard's incentive was the tremendous necessity for intelligence in regard to education. His guide was the feeling in his soul of the absolute necessities for demo- cratic growth. Dr. Barnard did not select and collate by hazard or chance the best educational literature the world had to offer. He was in a broad and deep sense an all-around educator. He comprehended principles and their application to school-teaching and training. He had a ready and clear insight, a practical discrimination of right and wrong, of the false and true in education. He could trace devices to their origin and begin- nings. In crudeness he discovered the right tendencies, in over-elabora- tion the wrong motive. One of the most profitable days in my life was the day I spent with Dr. Barnard in visiting schools. The best I can say of myself is that I was hungry to know and anxious to discard the useless and to select the useful. My guide was the keenest, truest critic of school work I ever knew, and I have been fortunate in knowing many. It is easy to condemn that which is wrong, but difficult to appreciate right motive, which should be the basis of all criticism. We owe to Henry Barnard profound gratitude for a vast wealth of edu- cational literature. We should cherish as a priceless inheritance his all- controlling love for a free government, his devotion to a holy cause in its inception. As the needs of the republic were his guide and incentive, so let them be ours in the presence of the ever-increasing necessities of human growth. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDU- CATION OF THE UNITED STATES, AND HENRY BARNARD'S RELA- TION TO IT WILLIAM T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. As members of the National Council of Education, we are assembled this evening to pay our respects to the memory of Dr. Henry Barnard. By common consent, Dr. Barnard ranks as the second of the two great educational heroes which America has furnished. Other members of the Council have prepared papers on his work as a critic of education, on his Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 4°9 influence in the establishment of normal schools in the country, on his influence upon the schools in the western states, and finally on his home life and his influence upon education in Rhode Island and Con- necticut. To me has been assigned the preparation of a paper on the establishment of the office of United States Commissioner of Education and Dr. Barnard's relation to it. The discussions relating to the life of Henry Barnard must center about his great work in the preparation of the American Journal of Edu- cation, which may be said to have practically absorbed the energy of his life and to have used up his financial resources. Dr. Barnard makes, and will make, in our educational history a heroic figure thru his devo- tion to this one great purpose, namely, the preparation of a series of volumes containing all that is solid and valuable in the history of educa- tion. I think it was said by Horace Mann, in reviewing his own labors, that the greatest need existing, at the time when he left his work in Massachusetts, was the publication in a convenient form of the literature of education. Certain it is that Henry Barnard was early impressed with the need for such a publication, and took it upon himself as his life-work to prepare it and offer it to his countrymen. I think that whatever he undertook in other lines of education — and the list of items in this field is certainly an extensive one — was felt by him to be subsidiary to this one great purpose of his life, namely, to enlighten the teachers and directors of education thruout the United States by giving them access to a complete record of the history of edu- cation in all ages and countries. When Congress, in 1867, passed an act establishing a Bureau of Education, it was quite natural that the name of Henry Barnard should be mentioned to the president as the fit man to fill the position of Commissioner of Education. Dr. Barnard would naturally think of his fixed purpose to provide educational literature, and it would occur to him at once that here was an opportunity providentially thrown in his way to take up a national work which could best be pro- moted by the same labors that he had undertaken as a private individual and supported from his private fortune. I think that in forecasting the most important lines of usefulness for the newly established Bureau of Education he foresaw that the prepara- tion of volumes containing the history of educational experiments, the discussions of educational reformers, the statistics of national systems of schools, and the biographies of great teachers would furnish the best material for a long series of official reports. During the three years (from March 14, 1867, to March 15, 1870) in which he held the office, he seems to have been maturing his plans for this line of work and awaiting opportunities in the form of resolutions by Congress calling for reports on special themes connected with the promotion of schools in the nation. 41° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National His first opportunity was furnished by the call on the part of Con- gress for a special report of the Commissioner of Education on the con- dition and improvement of public schools in the District of Columbia. This work was completed and submitted to the Senate in June, 1868, and again submitted to the House two years later, namely, in June, 1870, with additions. Three thousand copies of it were printed by the gov- ernment printer in 1871. The act calling for it was passed March 29, 1867, fifteen days after his appointment as commissioner. This book of 912 pages forms the chief monument of Dr. Barnard's career as Commis- sioner of Education. It begins with an introduction by himself; this is followed by a special report of Franklin B. Hough (31 pages), and next comes the chief article in the shape of a compilation of the statistics of the schools in the states and cities of the country (pp. 44-144). There are five appendices. The first appendix gives an account of the proceedings in the establishment of a permanent seat of government in the United States. The second appendix contains a full 'discussion of the legal status of the colored population in the District of Columbia, Virginia, Mary- land, Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, and Kentucky. The third appendix contains an article on illiteracy in the United States, prepared and illustrated by Dr. Edwin Leigh. The fourth appendix contains an account of art instruction in the country. The fifth appendix contains an account of public instruction in the cities of Germany, and a reprint of the report of Fraser on American schools ; a brief statement of the course of study in Chicago, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, New Haven, Spring- field (Mass.), New Bedford, Boston, New York city, St. Louis, and Louis- ville; and a table showing the salaries of teachers in the several cities. The second opportunity of Dr. Barnard came with a call of the House of Representatives for a report on technical instruction. The first copy of the manuscript, which was not complete, was prepared in pursuance of an order of the House approved January 19, 1870 ; but it was never printed. A so-called second edition was published in Dr. Barnard's American Journal of Education. What Dr. Barnard called the second edition (on p. 9 of Vol. XXI of his American Journal of Education) is not a second printed edition, but only an edition revised from the manuscript which he had prepared in compliance with the order of the House of Representatives. He says distinctly : The resolution of the House .... to print 5,000 copies for distribution .... did not reach the Senate in time to be acted on before the close of the session. No subse- quent action having been taken by the Senate, House, or Office of Education, to give cir- culation to a document which, etc the following edition is issued for subscribers to the American Journal of Education. So far as the ordinary usage of the word " edition" is concerned, this Council] IN MEMO RI AM HENR Y BARNARD 4 1 I is, therefore, the first and only edition of the work, and it appeared in July, 1 87 1, as Vol. XXI of the entire series of Barnard's Journal, and as Vol. V of what he called the "National Series." Dr. Barnard had evi- dently intended his " National Series " to contain his reports as commis- sioner. The contents of this work on technical instruction are as follows : Aft introduction (pp. 17-32) on the progressive development of schools, and practi- cal courses of instruction in science. Part I, systems and institutions of technical instruction (pp. 33-800): (1) Austria, (2) Baden, (3) Bavaria, (4) Brunswick, (5) German free cities, (6) Hanover, (7) Hesse- Cassel, (8) Hesse-Darmstadt, (9) Mecklenburg, (10) Nassau, (11) Oldenburg, (12) Prus- sia, (13) Saxony, (14) Saxe-Altenburg, (15) Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, (16) Saxe-Meiningen, (17) Saxe-Weimar, (18) Wurtemberg, (19) France, (20) Belgium, (21) Holland, (22) Den- mark, (23) Norway, (24) Sweden, (25) Russia, (26) Switzerland, (27) Italy, (28) Spain, (29) Portugal. A prefatory note prefixed to the edition of this work in Vol. XXI, 1870, throws more light upon the plans of Dr. Barnard with regard to the reports of the National Commissioner of Education. He states that in the original plan This document [namely, report on technical instruction] would have constituted Part IV of a comprehensive survey of national education in different countries which he [Dr. Barnard] had commenced in 1854 in view of a thorough discussion of the condition and improvement of public instruction in the United States. Parts I and II of the survey of national education in different coun- tries were to treat of elementary and secondary education, as follows: Part I, in the German states, and in Belgium, Holland, Denmark, France, Norway and Sweden, Russia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain. Part II, in the American states, with a comparison of the systems and condition of public schools in the United States with those of more advanced states in Europe. Part III, in universities, colleges, and other institutions of superior instruction. Part IV, professional classes and special instruction, including schools of theology, law, medicine, teaching, agriculture, commerce, engineering, navigation, mines, tech- nology, etc. Part V, supplementary instruction, including libraries, lectures, evening schools, etc. Part VI, societies, museums, and collections for the promotion of education, science, literature, and the arts. In the prefatory note Dr. Barnard states that the information relating to systems of elementary and secondary instruction had been collected and prepared for publication in the office of the Department of Education, and that it would be communicated in a few days to the secretary of the interior, with a plan for its speedy completion and publication. As we read over this conspectus, we cannot help seeing that Dr. Barnard had begun to form a noble ideal of the work of the Bureau of Education (or "Department of Education," as it was named in the first law of Congress which organized it). 412 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National Dr. Barnard sent in his resignation as Commissioner of Education, to take effect March 15, 1870. His successor, General John Eaton, endeavored as far as possible to realize in the conduct of the office the ideas of Henry Barnard, and to incorporate in them such new features as recommended themselves from time to time. He began from the first to lay much stress upon the collection of statistics of the institutions and systems in the United States, showing their actual working results. This direction given to the report by General Eaton has been followed subse- quently with somewhat increased emphasis. But in the administration of Colonel N. H. R. Dawson, my predecessor, an attempt was made to return more nearly to the ideas of Dr. Barnard by the preparation and publication of a series of circulars of information giving a history of the founding and conduct of the colleges and universities in the several states. The publication of this series has continued to the present date, and is now (in 1901) nearly completed. At my request, General Eaton has written out for me a brief account of Dr. Barnard's connection with the Bureau of Education, which I will now read : Washington, D. C, May 29, 1901. Sir: In reply to your request for " a brief account of Dr. Henry Barnard's connec- tion with the Bureau of Education, mentioning the devices which he invented that came down to his successors," it is difficult for me to answer in full. My indebtedness to him personally was very great, but how much of this indebtedness came to me thru the bureau, and how much thru his writings and other works previously, and from personal acquaint- ance with him, it would perhaps be impossible to relate. His publications I had studied, beginning with the period in which he was connected in one way or another with Dr. Absalom Peters, Superintendent Randall, Dr. Wilder, and Professor N. A. Calkins, in publishing the American Journal of Education and the College Review, in the fifties, before the College Review was dropped from the title. At different times also I enjoyed oppor- tunities to study on the ground what I could see of his administration of state systems, both in Connecticut and in Rhode Island; and 1 knew how he had influenced educational efforts in Charleston, S. C, in New Orleans, and elsewhere in the South. Indeed, I knew that he had suggested to the secretary of the department the taking of illiteracy in the census when that item was first included. Altho I had been acquainted with the work of Horace Mann while a teacher in Massachusetts schools in different places, per- haps I knew more of that period of educational revival thru Df. Barnard in which he had been so prominent. I had gathered what I could from his trip to Europe, and of his labors as president of the university at Madison, Wis., and at St. John's College at Annapolis. To me he seemed to be the most eminent man at the time in the country in the knowledge of educational literature, and I felt great misgivings when I was called by General Grant to become his successor. While I was Commissioner of Education I had visited him as state superintendent of schools, and had drawn upon him by letter. How much I had received from him in these various ways and how much came to me thru his efforts in the bureau, I repeat, it will be difficult to state. As early as 1854 he had made a movement for the establish- ment of a central office for educational information. In response to a petition from a body of educators, especially made up of state and city superintendents of schools, prepared and presented by Hon. E. E. White, thru General Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 4 13 Garfield, Congress had passed an act, approved March 2, 1867, establishing an inde- pendent Department of Education, to be conducted after the manner of the Agricultural Department, as it was administered at that time, with a commissioner at a salary of $4,000, and a group of clerks. Dr. Henry Barnard was appointed to organize the depart- ment, and entered most earnestly upon the work. In time he encountered opposition in Congress. At the end of two years the department was reduced from its independent position to that of a bureau in the Department of the Interior. One thousand dollars was taken from his salary, and the clerical force reduced to that of two of the lowest grade with a salary of $1,200 each, making the salary of the commissioner what it has remained to July of this year, $3,000 ; from which time the amount is to be advanced to $3,500. On handing me the keys of the office the doctor informed me of his trying expe- rience in securing quarters for the office ; for it had been moved from place to place without his approval. There was belonging to it no library, excepting a small number of city and state reports. The publications in his possession, in a separate room, had come to him in his capacity as an editor, and were his private property. Later, as appropriations warranted, with the approval of the secretary of the interior, these were purchased, their value having been estimated by the librarian of Congress, A. R. Spofford, Esq., and others. He spoke somewhat specially of the difficulty of securing the passage by Congress of a resolution to print, but indicated that he had made a report May 30, 1868, to the Senate, which in July, 1868, had been ordered printed by the Senate separately to the number of 3,000 copies. The same resolution of the Senate included authority to print a like number of copies of the special report on the District of Colum- bia, prepared by him on the order of the House of Representatives. He also indicated to me the substantial preparation for printing of other material. Immediately, with the hearty approval of the president and of the secretary, Hon. J. D. Cox, previously obtained, I prepared a letter recommending its printing at once, which the secretary for- warded in due form with his official recommendation. Later, in order to facilitate the use of these letters for urgency among members of Congress, they were printed. A resolution to print this material passed the House, but'did not pass the Senate, and thus our efforts failed ; but the material prepared afterward appeared in the Journal, and the bureau, as far as possible, aided in its distribution. Later the bureau furnished Dr. Barnard copies of its reports to supply the place of one number of the Journal, thus giving his subscribers information of the condition of education in the United States. This Journal, it may be remarked, is his monumental work. Its publication absorbed his fortune and impoverished his last years. Thus he made his greatest contribution to the bureau and to other educational agencies. This failure to secure a resolution to print left the doctor and myself both in a very trying situation. If the office could not print, it must fail. Who was so well prepared as my predecessor, by long experience in educa- tional literature, to offer for print what would be valuable for the country ? This com- pelled me to study the situation, and I found that there were those among the school superintendents of the country not ready to answer questions and furnish the necessary information which the department needed ; others claimed that it would meddle with their rights. Some pointed out the difficulty arising from the fact that there was no uniformity of dates in the reports of state and city systems, and of educational institutions ; others still fell back upon the fact that there was no authority given the bureau but that of using such information as was freely accorded to it. The plan of work, as unfolded by reports, and especially by the carefully prepared circulars printed by Dr. Barnard, was most comprehensive and seemed to leave little to be desired. What could be done ? I inquired extensively among those who appreciated the importance of the office. In one of the reports of the state of Kentucky there will be found a portion of a statistical report copied from material obtained from Dr. Barnard and gathered by him. It was incomplete, and therefore it did not satisfy his judgment 414 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National to use it, but its publication thus furnished evidence of the struggle he had made to get information which would satisfy the demands of Congress. Of his devices, tables of statistics, abbreviated texts, the issue of periodical circulars, and the methods which he proposed for furnishing information to persons and officers, I had enough knowledge to lead me to value them most highly. As county and city teacher I had been trained in the tabulation of school reports ; as city superintendent of schools I had devices for the tabulation of data to enable me to see the situation of each school in each week's experience ; in order to study the relation of education to crime I had collated the statistics of jails in Ohio, and as state superin- tendent of schools I had been called upon to prepare a complete system of recording and reporting attendance and finance ; yet I could not see how his devices and methods could be essentially improved in form. What could be better? I determined in some way to find a method of securing publication. I was sure the reports of the office would have been enriched if they could have included his personal reminiscences of the progress of educational efforts, his long and varied experience, together with his alert editorial watch- fulness of this progress, as it may be termed, which made his memories extremely valuable. But I could not obtain them for publication by any offer of compensation by the office. After a few months of experience and consultation, material for a circular was sub- mitted to the secretary of the interior and its publication approved with a measure of hesitancy. Less than eight months after my appointment, material for an annual report was submitted and published, with all its imperfections, substantially within the lines and forms adopted by Dr. Barnard, and in accordance with the forms required by law. Of his relation to the shaping of the work of the office I might say perhaps more specifically of his plans and devices : (i) He gave his utmost influence to the establishing of the bureau; (2) he sought to make reports which would be truly national ; (3) he sought most carefully to devise valuable forms for statistics and abbreviated statements ; (4) he began the publication of circulars giving information in regard to miscellaneous educa- tional topics; (5) he enforced the national obligation to education ; (6) he emphasized the need of universal education; (7) he would make the bureau enforce the universal relation of education to all the details of man's improvement ; (8) he would make it understood that the laws of education in their relation to man's welfare were the same to all races ; (9) he would draw illustrations of educational processes from all nations and peoples; (10) he sought to stimulate improvement by using both the historical and comparative methods, setting over against each other different years and different insti- tutions and systems, by the publication of facts. Indeed, it will be hardly possible for a national office of education to find anything appropriate to publish which is .not included in the plans of Dr. Barnard as touching education and its relations. In preparing this statement, I may add, I have consulted with two of the clerks, of whom one was a translator employed by Dr. Barnard, and also with Hon. George S. Boutwell, a surviving member of the committee of the House of Representatives which proposed the organization of the department. However unsatisfactory this statement, I can hardly make it more definite without quoting Dr. Barnard's language more at length. Very respectfully yours, John Eaton. I have collected from the records of the Proceedings of the National Teachers' Association, of the National Superintendents' Association, and from other sources such items as relate to the conception of the National Bureau of Education, as follows: Appendix A . — A letter addressed by the secretary of the American Institute of Instruction to John D. Philbrick, Esq., January 4, 1851, informing him of his appointment as chairman of a committee to petition Congress to establish an educational department at Washington. Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 4*5 Appendix B. — (a) Extract from an address by Daniel Read, Proceedings of National Teachers' Association, at Cincinnati, 1858 (pp. 43, 44). (3) 1859. Proceedings of National Teachers' A ssociation, Washington, 1859. On motion of Rev. Dr. Mcjilton, it was resolved that a committee of three be appointed to memorialize Congress in relation to the establishment of a national agency, thru which the educational statistics of the several states and terri- tories may be collated and distributed thru the country. (c) i860. Extracts from an address by J. W. Bulkley, National Teachers' Association at Buffalo (p. 24) , recommending that Congress be asked to inaugurate a department of national public instruction. Appendix C. — (a) Proceedings of National Teachers' Association for 1863 (p. 46), showing that Professor Noble Butler, of Kentucky, read an essay in 1863 recommending the establishment of a National Bureau of Education by the federal government. (i) Proceedings for 1864 (p. 143), showing that Professor S. H. White, of Illinois, read an essay on the same subject, and offered a series of resolutions. (e) Proceedings for 1863 (p. 220). Professor James S. Hart, of Philadelphia, brought in resolutions recommending a memorial to the president and Congress for the establishment of such a bureau. (d) Previous to the action of Professor Hart's resolution, Superintendent A. J. Rickoff, of Cleveland, O., read a paper on the subject showing the important services that such a bureau as was proposed would accom- plish for education (p. 223, same Proceedings, 1865). (e) The names of the persons appointed to memorialize the president and Congress are given in the volume of Proceedings of the National Teachers' Association published in 1866, and include members from ten different states. Appendix D. — (a) A resolution adopted in 1866 to appoint a committee of five by the National Teachers' Association (Proceedings of 1865, pp. 305-7), to co-operate with the committee of the national superintendents. {b) The report on the National Bureau of Education was read by Dr. E. E. White. Resolutions introduced by E. E. White, chairman (at the meeting of the National Association of Superintendents, 1866). (c) Resolutions approving the Department of Education which had been established by the act of Congress in 1867, in pursuance of the recommendations of the committee above named, Dr. E. E. White, chairman. Appendix E. — An address by Dr. E. E. White, commissioner of common schools of Ohio, February 7, 1866, on the subject of a National Bureau of Education. Appendix F. — From Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. XXI, 1870, p. 5. Prefatory note, on report on technical schools and special instruction in different countries, printed in answer to a call January 19. 1870, from the House of Representatives. Appendix G. — Speech of James A. Garfield on a National Bureau of Education. Appendix H. — Dr. Barnard's plan of a national agency for the United States to advance education (from Vol. XXI of the Journal of Education). Appendix I. — Dr. Barnard's plan, in 1862, for a new series of the American Journal of Education , published in Vol. XXI. Appendix J. — From Dr. Barnard's preface to his American Journal of Education for 1856, explaining the history of his plan. APPENDIX A Lynn, January 4, 1851. Dear Sir : At a meeting of the officers of the American Institute the following vote was adopted : Voted, That a committee be appointed to consider the expediency of petitioning Congress with refer- ence to the establishment of an educational department at Washington, and that the following gentlemen compose this committee, to wit: Messrs. J. D. Philbrick, Boston; S. Adams, Boston; D. P. Galloup, Salem; Jacon Batchelder, Lynn; T. Cushing, Jr., Boston. The committee to report at the next meeting of the officers. Yours truly, (Signed) John Batchelder, John D. Philbrick, Esq., Chairman of the committee. Recording Secretary. APPENDIX B (a) 1858. — Extract from address by Daniel Read, Proceedings of National Teachers' Association at Cincinnati, 1858 (pp. 43, 44) : "The subject of a National Bureau of Education, to be connected with the Depart- ment of the Interior at Washington, has often been spoken of, and urged, as worthy of congressional legislation. Hitherto it has not met with that favor which its friends believe it deserves, especially from that portion of our fellow-citizens who are jealous of anything like a centralization of power, and who believe that all legislative power, upon he subject of education, belongs to the several states. While we believe that there is a 41 6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National work which might be legitimately and more effectually performed by such a bureau, and that it has quite as much claim for government support as that of agriculture, yet we believe that, for the present at least, the wisest and most effective policy is to rely upon the states and voluntary effort for the accomplishment of the noble objects proposed thereby. We believe, however, in common with some of the wisest and most considerate friends of education, that a special effort should be made to establish at our national metropolis a central and national educational agency, by the aid of which more efficiency and uniformity of character may be secured in the educational movements of our country, and a library of educational books and publications, collected from every part of our own country and the world. Such an agency would greatly aid in giving a nationality of character abroad, and furnish the means for the publication of a national journal of education, which would be the means of spreading educational intelligence to every part of the civilized world. To carry out such a grand central agency successfully would require funds and effort, which could readily be secured, if the advantages result- ing therefrom could be brought to the comprehension of the very many liberal-minded men of wealth in our country. "This is a great and noble work, and it will require great and noble efforts to accom- plish it; but do I overrate the ability and efficiency of this association when I say I believe it can accomplish it ? Are there not men of means who would be willing to con- tribute largely for so noble a purpose ? And are there not men of the required talent to carry forward the work ? Would not our profession be the gainers in the end, if we were to take the whole responsibility? If we should undertake it in real earnest, we could not fail to receive sympathy and aid. "One feature of this agency is so important as to be needed at once. I refer to a national journal of education, which, without interfering with, or in any measure super- seding, the many state educational journals, will collect and embody such educational matter of general interest as its central location and access to the best means of infor- mation will bring within its reach. Every teacher should receive, read, and pay for the educational journal of his own state, if there is one, which, with a properly conducted national journal, would put him in possession of such information as every teacher ought to possess. There is a journal already established by private enterprise, and in the hand of a gentleman who is in every way qualified to conduct it, and which, perhaps, might be made to serve our purpose, in connection with the plan of its proprietor. I refer to the American Journal of Education, under the direction of Hon. H. Barnard, of Hartford, Conn. The invaluable matter contained in this journal, and its high character, claim, not only the confidence., but the support, of every teacher and friend of education who would be well informed. To those who have carefully read it no commendation is needed, for it speaks for itself, as'it affords such information as can be obtained nowhere else." (b) 1859. — Proceedings of National Teachers' Association, Washington, 1859. Mr. Valentine offered the following resolution (p. 4) : Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed to confer with the honorable the secretary of the interior, to ascertain what additional statistics in relation to the subject of education are desirable and feasible to obtain by means of the approaching national census. The resolution, having been discussed by Messrs. Valentine, Mcjilton, of Maryland ; Smith, of Indiana ; Z. Richards and Dennis, of the District of Columbia ; and Roberts, of Pennsylvania, was adopted. The committee appointed under the above resolution was : Messrs. Read, of Wisconsin ; Mcjilton, of Maryland ; and Starke, of Missouri. 1859. — On motion of Rev. Dr. Mcjilton, it was resolved that a committee of three be appointed to memorialize Congress in relation to the establishment of a national agency, thru which the educational statistics of the several states and territories may be employed and distributed thru the country. The committee under this resolution was the same as under the preceding. Council] IN MEMORIA M HENR Y BARN A RD 4*7 (c) i860. — From address by J. W. Bulkley, National Teachers' Association at Buffalo (p. 24): "It is by creating and diffusing an intelligent public sentiment in relation to our cause, first in our own immediate locality, enlarging from day to day, till the circumference shall embrace the circuit of the states individually, and the still more glorious circle of the union. With such a public sentiment as this we may, with confi- dence of success, present our cause to Congress, and ask for the inauguration of a Department of National Public Instruction. With such a department, having the neces- sary appliances, and an intelligent and efficient head, we can hardly estimate its power and influence." APPENDIX C (a) 1863. — (Proceedings, p. 46.) "A National Bureau of Education Should be Estab- lished by the Federal Government." Assigned to Noble Butler, Kentucky, for discussion at next meeting. (6) 1864. — (Proceedings, p. 143.) Professor S. H. White read an essay entitled "A National Bureau of Education," and offered the following resolutions : Resolved, That, in the opinion of this association, the educational interests of the country would be greatly advanced by the establishment of a National Bureau of Education. Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed, whose duty it shall be to secure, if possible, the establishment of such an agency at Washington during the next session of Congress; and also to report the results of their action at the next meeting of this association, with their views upon the subject of "A National Board of Education and the Appointment of a Secretary of Public Instruction." Mr. Z. Richards moved their adoption, and, after a discussion by Messrs. Richards and Barnard, they were adopted, and Messrs. Barnard, Richards, and White were appointed the committee. (c) 1865. — (Proceedings, p. 220.) Professor J. S. Hart, from Committee on Presi- dent's Address, read a report, accompanied by the following resolution : Resolved, That a memorial be prepared to be addressed to the president of the United States and to the two houses of Congress, expressing the strong convictions of this association in regard to the necessity of having in every state a system of public schools for all classes, in order to the perpetuity and the right working of our political system; and expressing also the wish and the hope that the general government will do what- ever it can rightfully and properly toward inducing the establishment of such a system of common schools in those states where they do not exist. Resolved, That this association commend to the favorable consideration of the general government the organization of a Bureau of Education, for the purpose of collecting and publishing educational statistics, and of making suggestions for the advancement of popular education in the several states. Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed to carry the foregoing resolutions into effect, and that the president of the association be chairman of said committee. Laid on the table until after the reading of a paper on the same subject by Professor A. J. Rickoff. (d) 1865. — (Proceedings, p. 223.) The resolutions of Professor Hart, of New Jersey, were taken from the table, when Mr. Rickoff offered the following additional resolutions : Resolved, That the committee above provided for be instructed to appoint one of their number, or such other person as they may deem best, to devote his entire time, so long as to them may seem desirable, in such labor as may be necessary for carrying out the wishes of the association as expressed in the above resolutions. Resolved, That a committee of three from each state represented in the association be appointed, whose duty it shall be to circulate petitions among the people of their respective states, praying Congress to estab- lish a Department of Education, and to collect funds for the payment of their own expenses for printing and for the support of the agent of the committee on memorial. The resolutions were discussed by Professor O. N. Hartshorn, of Ohio; W. D. Henkle, of Ohio ; W. E. Crosby, of Ohio ; and Douthett, of Pennsylvania ; the amend- ment was agreed to, and the resolutions, as amended, adopted. 1865. — (Same Proceedings, p. 227.) At the time of going to press, the following members have been named [on the Committee on Educational Bureau] : Massachusetts. — Superintendent J. D. Philbrick, Boston; C. Goodwin Clark, Boston ; N.T.Allen, West Newton. Rhode Island. — William A. Mowry, Providence; David M. Hoyt, Providence; Emory Lyon, Providence. 418 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National New York. — Dr. James Cruikshank, Albany ; Superintendent J. W. Bulkley, Brooklyn ; Superintend- ent E. A. Sheldon, Oswego. Pennsylvania.— W, Henry Packer, Philadelphia; S. D. Ingram, Harrisburg ; S. B. Thompson, Edin- boro. Maryland. — Dr. L. Steiner, Frederick; Professor A. Hollingshead, Baltimore; Dr. S. A. Harrison, Easton. Ohio.— Hon. E. E. White, Columbus; W. E. Crosby, Cincinnati ; Professor W. D. Henkle, Salem. Michigan. — Hon. J. M. Gregory, Kalamazoo; Hon. O. S. Hosford, state superintendent; Professor A. S. Welch, Ypsilanti. Missouri.— Superintendent Ira Divoll, St. Louis; C. S. Pennell, St. Louis; C. F. Childs, St. Louis. Iowa. — Hon. Oran Faville, Des Moines; General B. A. Wiltz, Dubuque; Rev. S. Williams, Keokuk. Oregon. — Henry Cummins, Salem ; A. C. Gibbs and T. M. Gatch, Salem. (e) 1865. — {Proceedings, pp. 305-7. From address of A. J. Rickoff on a "National Bureau of Education.") "Under the providence of God we have blindly fought for the freedom of the slave, and our next great task must be to educate him. The whole work should be under the direction of a Commissioner of Education, a man who should be qualified to organize and direct the energies of the whole people, not alone with refer- ence to present emergency, and whose duty it should be to elaborate the best possible scheme of education for the South, which the government should see carried out. This is not a missionary society, having agents and teachers in the field. That ground is taken up by another association. But we can and we ought to advise as to the course to be taken by the government in the first stage of the affair ; and I repeat it that the very first and the most important of all recommendations to be made is that Congress, at the very next session, should establish an educational department, and authorize the presi- dent to appoint a Commissioner of Education. But it is not only to meet the present state of affairs, in the only way in which it can properly be met, that I make this proposition. There is no plan by which the national government can promote the cause of education in the North and in the South so easily as by the appointment of a National Commissioner of Education. We shall presently see that the interest to which we appeal has always been exercised by the legislative and executive departments at Washington. We propose no radical innovation, nor is the proposition new. It has been made again and again in state and national associations, and has, I believe, always received their sanction; and I shall make no argument in its favor further than the one I have already urged, except to state somewhat precisely the general duties to which a Commissioner of Education should devote his energies. But it will be seen that every specification is an argument. " He should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the public-school system of each state, as to its general and local officers and their relative duties ; the different classes of public schools ; the plans of taxation resorted to for public purposes, and the amounts raised thereby; the amount and nature of the investment of all school funds the interest of which is applied to school purposes ; and the amount derived from all other sources. He should study the school statistics of the respective states, noting particularly, wherever it is possible to obtain such information, the average length of time the common schools have been kept open ; the number of children entered ; the average number belonging and average daily attendance ; the number of children of each age attending school, and, so far as possible, the nature of the attendance as to the length of time children remain in the schools and the degree of regularity in attendance while enrolled ; and of those matters which in their nature are variable he should make report on or before January 1 of each year, and of those matters which are more permanent he should make separate report, as often as once in four years, on the January preceding the expiration of each presidential term. " He should, as far as possible, ascertain the number of chartered institutions of learning of every grade, their endowments, courses of study, number of students, charges for instruction, etc.; the number and character of all societies for the diffusion of useful knowledge, and the plans adopted for effecting their objects, and the number of publi- cations of different kinds made thereby; the number and character of societies of adults Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 4*9 formed for mutual improvement, and the number of members participating in the advantages thereof ; and these facts, and whatever other information he can gather from any and all sources whatsoever, bearing upon the educational facilities in the respective states, he should embody in his annual report. " He should be required to make himself acquainted, as well as possible, with the school systems of foreign countries ; their means of support ; their organization ; the courses of study pursued in primary, grammar, and high schools, academies, seminaries, normal schools, gymnasia, colleges, universities, etc., for the education of the young ; the means of support, organization, and plans of procedure of societies established for mutual improvement, and societies and institutions of all kinds for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, whether literary, scientific, artistic, or industrial ; also of all institutions established for deaf, mute, blind, and imbecile children and adults, as well as schools and institutions of all classes designed for the care of orphan and destitute chil- dren, or for the reformation of juvenile vagrants and offenders against law ; and of all special schools, not above named, for the improvement of their members in the various arts and professions of life. " He should make it a special object to procure, and keep on file for ready and con- venient use, all educational reports, both general and local, of all authorities engaged in the management and instruction of any and all of the institutions above named. He should establish an educational library which should contain, not only these reports, but all valuable works and periodicals treating on educational subjects, especially those published in the English, German, and French languages ; and of those which would be likely to prove most serviceable in this country he should make translations or cause the same to be made, and print them in his annual reports. He should procure, and preserve for examination by teachers and school officers, specimens of all maps, charts, diagrams, and pictured representations of all kinds whatsoever used in the processes of instruction, all kinds of primary-school apparatus, all kinds of school furniture used in this or foreign countries, and finally : " In his annual reports he should embrace all information which might seem valuable to school officers and teachers of all grades, and to officers and members of all kinds of scientific and literary institutions and associations ; and he should especially direct atten- tion to all those features of institutions at home and abroad which might seem to him best adapted for general introduction throughout the United States ; and particularly should he communicate such information as would be likely to encourage the formation of societies for enlightened improvement among all classes of our population." APPENDIX D 1866. — (a) (Proceedings at Indianapolis, National Teachers' Association, p. 10.) A resolution was adopted to appoint a committee of five, to co-operate with the committee of the National Superintendents in urging upon the Senate of the United States the pas- sage of the bill of the House of Representatives to establish the Department of Education. The committee appointed was Messrs. Z. Richards, James Cruikshank, A. C. Shortridge, J. S. Hart, and R. Coburn. (b) (Proceedings 0/ National Association 0/ Superintendents, Indianapolis, 1866, pp. 74> 75. 76.) The committee's" report on a National Bureau of Education was read by Mr. E. E. White, chairman ; and the following resolutions, offered by G. W. Hoss, were adopted : Whereas, An approved bill, looking to the establishment of a National Bureau of Education, has passed the House of Representatives in Congress : therefore Resolved, That the thanks of this National Superintendents' Association are due, and are hereby tendered, to that body for its liberal and enlightened action on behalf of general education. Resolved, That this body appoint a committee of five to properly bring the House bill to the attention of the United States Senate, and secure its early passage by that body. 420 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National The committee appointed was Messrs. E. E. White, O. Hosford, D. Stevenson, and J. W. Bulkley. (c) 1868. — (Proceedings of National Teachers' Association, pp. 36, 37.) The United States Department of Education was represented by Mr. Z. Richards, an officer in the department at Washington. After the address of Mr. Z. Richards, Mr. E. E. White, of Ohio, offered the following resolution : Resolved, That this association approves of the action of the Congress of the United States, in organizing a national Department of Education ; and the continuance and liberal support of such a department is most earnestly recommended. APPENDIX E NATIONAL BUREAU OF EDUCATION I E. E. WHITE, COMMISSIONER OF COMMON SCHOOLS OF OHIO Universal education, next to universal liberty, is a matter of deep national concern. The one distinctive, exhaustive idea of a democratic government is that it is a govern- ment by the people and for the people, i. e., by the whole people and for the whole people. A democracy is, in other words, but an organized people — they constitute the state. Its constitution and laws are but their recorded will, and all governmental power emanates from and centers in them. In such a government, in its pure form, sovereignty is a universal right — to be exercised by all for the happiness and well-being of all. It is a right that can neither be denied nor restricted except by usurpation ; and this is true whether the usurping power is one man or twenty millions of men. The right of sovereignty may be forfeited by crime or by its treasonable exercise, but it is in no sense an accident of birth or condition. When the exercise of sovereignty by the people is both universal and for the welfare of all, a democracy is the perfection of human government; but to the extent that such right is withheld from the people or is wrongfully exercised by them, just to that extent are democratic institutions imperfect and a failure. Hence the capability of the people to exercise sovereignty for the general welfare is a fundamental and vital condition of republican institutions. When such capability does not exist, the universal exercise of sovereignty is a condition of national weakness, if not of peril. I am thus led to inquire what this capability includes, and what are the essential conditions of its existence. It clearly requires the necessary intelligence to determine what will best subserve the interests of all ; and the degree of this intelligence must not only be sufficient for self- government on the part of individuals and individual communities, but the people, as a whole, must be able to weigh and decide upon questions which involve national interests. Hence the higher the civilization embodied, the wider the extent of territory embraced, and the more various the pursuits and physical conditions of the people, the higher the degree of intelligence required for the right exercise of sovereignty. But intelligence is not enough. Sovereignty is to be exercised for the happiness and well-being of all; and this involves the moral capacity to act in accordance with the dic- tates of intelligence. The second great law of civil liberty, as well as of religion, is: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." Wherever the moral sense of the people is too feeble to impel the public will to regard the general welfare, democracy becomes the livery of despotism. To general intelligence we must, therefore, add public virtue as one of the essential conditions of the right exercise of sovereignty by the people. In his centennial address at Plymouth, in 1820, Webster assigned three fundamental conditions as essential for the maintenance of republican institutions, namely, universal education, universal religious training, and the general division of landed property. The same conditions are laid down by De Tocqueville and other writers upon democratic governments. 1 A paper read before the National Association of School Superintendents, at Washington, D. C. , February 7, 1866. Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 421 If we turn to the pages of history, we shall find abundant confirmation of these views. We shall certainly search in vain for a single example where an ignorant and corrupt people have exercised sovereign power wisely and justly, or have even retained such power for any length of time. In ail the past, wherever the intellectual and moral con- dition of the people has been low, there civil liberty has been lost. Universal liberty without universal intelligence has ever been the sport of civil tempests. Stolid ignorance and moral degradation tread above the grave of civil liberty all along the shores of the Mediterranean ; but free government still abides with the intelligent and virtuous descendants of Tell, among the mountains of Switzerland — that diamond of liberty, set by a divine hand in the very center of European despotism ! Passing to the New World, I need only to point to Mexico, where civil liberty lies prostrate and helpless beneath the crossed bayonets of two European despotisms ! In a word, both reason and history compel the conclusion that republican institutions can rest upon no other basis than intelligence and virtue, and that these must pervade all heads and all hearts. But general intelligence and public virtue are not the spontaneous fruits of civil liberty, although it is favorable to their development. As a necessary condition of their existence, they must be assiduously cultivated and diffused among the people. No human agency but the common school is capable of accomplishing this great work. Aided and vitalized by religion, it is the only sure foundation of the sovereignty of the people — the strength and shield of liberty. This great fact was well understood by the founders of the American republic. They sought to found free institutions, not upon the quicksands of human instinct and passion, but upon the abiding rock of universal education and religious training. This was the grandest of all their innovations upon the moss-grown ideas of the Old World. But the idea that education must be co-extensive with sovereignty was not original with our fathers. This has been the favorite doctrine of aristocracy the world over. Wherever the heel of despotism rests upon the neck of humanity, the ignorance of the oppressed has been urged as the justification of the oppressor. Despotism clamors for a restricted education, because she maintains a restricted sovereignty. The former is made just as wide as the latter. Nor is the idea of universal sovereignty distinctly and originally American. Democ- racy had drawn her sword to give the people political power, long before the " Mayflower" cradled the new republic ; and had won the prize, too, but only to see it turn to ashes in their hands. The grand, distinctive, original idea of the American republic is the union of these two principles, by making the one the basis of the other. With matchless wis- dom our fathers joined liberty and learning in a perpetual and holy alliance, binding the latter to bless every child with instruction which the former invests with the rights and duties of citizenship. They made education and sovereignty co-extensive by making both universal. Here is the grandest conception of civil history, the hope and strength of civil liberty. And yet how few the successive steps by which our fathers passed from a conception of this idea to its practical embodiment ! Truly they must have builded better than they knew. Who can measure the results which the union of these two principles has already accomplished ? When the sources of the nation's wonderful vitality and power during the great civil conflict through which it has just passed shall be determined, then first and foremost will stand the common school. The Civil War, which was a gigantic conspiracy against democratic institutions, found a people trained to comprehension of their duties and interests, with hearts to dare and hands to strike in their defense. The flame of civil liberty now burns with increasing brightness and new splendor, because our fathers, like the wise virgins, put into the lamp of free government the exhaustless oil of universal education. I am thus brought back to the proposition with which I started, namely, that univer- sal education is in this country a matter of deep national concern. Our experiment of 422 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National republican institutions is not upon the petty scale of a single municipality or state, but it covers half a continent, and embraces peoples of widely diverse interests and conditions, but who are to remain "one and inseparable." Every condition of our perpetuity and progress as a nation adds emphasis to the remark of Montesquieu, that it is in a repub- lican government that the whole power of education is required. The one imperative necessity of this nation is that the public school be planted on every square mile of its peopled territory, and that the instruction imparted therein be carried to the highest point of efficiency. But what can the general government do to aid in securing this object? In view of the startling fact that the great body of the people that occupy nearly one-half of the national territory are largely destitute of the means of education, this inquiry has the deepest significance. Three plans have been suggested : 1. The government may establish and maintain throughout its territory a national system of education. 2. It may by congressional legislation enforce the maintenance of a public-school system upon every state. 3. It may by conditional appropriations and by a system of general inspection and encouragement through the agency of a National Bureau of Education induce each state to maintain an efficient school system. Notwithstanding the cogency of the argument which may be adduced in favor of the first plan suggested, it is, in my judgment, too wide a departure from the settled educa- tional policy of the country to be seriously entertained. Such a system would doubtless prove highly advantageous in a portion of the country, but it would be very disastrous in those states that have already carried the work of general education to a high point. Besides, all experience shows, and I regard it a law of school progress, that the nearer the responsibility of maintaining schools is brought to those directly benefited by them, the greater the vital power and efficiency of school systems. These remarks do not apply to the education of the freedmen. On the contrary, I believe it is the sacred and bounden duty of the general government to undertake, for a time, the education of the emancipated millions who through the war have received back their birthrights of liberty and manhood. Deprived of the uplifting power of education they can but become idle and dissolute, and sink, if possible, still deeper in degradation and misery. Besides, the faith of the nation is solemnly pledged for the protection of these people in all their rights as freemen. But there is no protection so secure as the power of self protection. Until the freedmen have their liberties in their own keeping they are not really free. They are. now in a condition of abject ignorance, homeless and landless, subject to the heartless exactions of capital, and are the helpless victims of class prejudice and persecution. No protection of the government that fails to bring them intelligence can save them from impending peril. No standing army can so effectually maintain the plighted faith of the government toward these people as an army of school- masters. Let bayonets protect, if need be, the schoolhouse of the freedmen, and they will soon take care of their rights and liberties. They will do more. As free, self- directing, self-supporting laborers, they will bring prosperity again to the South, and make her war-ravaged fields smile with plenty. To the second plan suggested there are manifestly serious objections. The imposi- tion of a system of public instruction upon the several states by compulsory legislation can be justified only on the ground of public necessity in a great national crisis. And I am free to admit that so great is the necessity for the establishment of public schools throughout the South that even such a measure would be imperatively demanded if no other course to attain the same end were practicable. The third plan is clearly in harmony with the settled educational policy of the country. It will neither cripple nor endanger any part of our educational system ; and Council] IN MEMO RI AM HENRY BARNARD 423 it calls for the assumption of no questionable power by the general government. What is proposed is that the government shall undertake to do efficiently what it has, in the past, always done generously through its munificent grants of land for the encouragement of education. Instead of unconditional grants of land or appropriations of money, such assistance should be proffered to the several states on condition that they reach a prescribed standard in the maintenance of free schools, and, further, that a specified portion of such grants or appropriations be applied to the support of institutions for the professional training of teachers. The fact that a state could by maintaining an efficient school system receive from the national government, say, from #100,000 to #500,000 annually would certainly prove a potent influence in securing such action. I could, if necessary, fortify this statement by referring to experiments of the kind in other countries, and also in several of the states of the union where state appropriations for school purposes are conditioned on a compliance by the local school authorities with certain stipulations. This policy has uniformly, so far as my information goes, been successful. Communities indifferent to the advantages of free schools, if not prejudiced against them, have, with this assistance to their judgment, come to a wiser conclusion respecting their value. There is no eye-salve so efficacious in removing mental blindness as self-interest, and instances of states per- mitting the bounties of the government to pass by them have, at least, not been frequent. I am confident that the adoption of the plan suggested would speedily secure a common- school system in every state now destitute of such a system, and that it would lift up the schools, as it were bodily, in those states in which they are indifferently sustained. The impetus which it would give to the professional training of teachers throughout the country would be of incalculable value as a means of elevating and vitalizing school instruction. There is one other consideration worthy of mention just here. The sparsely settled states of the far West and South need the assistance of the general government in the establishment of systems of education commensurate with their growing necessity — a fact the government has always recognized. There is not a state west of the Alleghenies that is not greatly indebted to the munificent grants of land made by Con- gress for the early establishment of its school system. Nor have common schools alone been aided. Several state universities are maintained largely from the proceeds of such grants. It is estimated that if the land grants of Congress for educational purposes had been properly managed, they would now present an aggregate educational fund of about five hundred millions of dollars. , On account of the unfortunate land-holding system of the South and the consequent sparseness of population, it would be difficult to sustain an efficient general school system there, even in times of prosperity. A proper division of landed property is as essential to universal education as it is to democratic institutions. At all events, in the pres- ent financial condition of the South the assistance of the government in establishing public schools is needed, and clearly that assistance will prove the best which is con- ditional. As a means of paying the national debt, I know of no one measure fuller of promise than the increase and diffusion of intelligence among the mass of the people. The expen- diture of five to ten millions of dollars a year for this purpose would be made good by almost immediate returns to the Post-Office and Treasury departments. The unschooled millions of the South write few letters, take few papers, and pay small taxes on incomes. There are no mines in this country so productive of wealth as the mind of the country. Educated labor is the true alchemy that can turn everything it touches into gold. There is one other agency forming an essential part of the third plan proposed, which I hasten to consider. I allude to a National Bureau of Education, corresponding in many of its features to the national Department of Agriculture. The interests of education 424 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National would unquestionably be greatly promoted by the organization of such a bureau at the present time. It would render needed assistance in the establishment of school systems where they do not now exist, and prove a potent means for improving and vitaliz- ing existing systems. I conceive it to be possible for a National Bureau of Education to be so managed as to well-nigh revolutionize school instruction in this country, and this too without its being invested with any official control of the school authorities in the several states. This it could accomplish : 1. By securing greater uniformity and accuracy in school statistics, and so translating and interpreting them that they may be more widely available and reliable as educational tests and measures. The present great diversity in the modes of collecting school statistics in the several states makes it almost impossible to use them for the purpose of comparing the results attained. 2. By bringing together the results of school systems in different communities, states, and nations, and determining their comparative value, not simply by measuring their length and breadth as with a yardstick, but by separating the pure gold of education from the dross, as in a crucible. 3. By collecting the results of all important experiments in new or special methods of instruction and management, and making them the common property of the school officers and teachers of the country. 4. By diffusing among the people much-needed information respecting the school laws of the different states ; the various modes of providing and disbursing school funds; the different classes of school officers employed and their relative duties; the qualifica- tions demanded of teachers and the agencies provided for their special training ; the best methods of classifying and grading schools ; improved plans for schoolhouses, together with modes of heating and ventilation; etc., etc. — information now obtained only by a few persons, and at great expense, but which is of the highest value to all intrusted with the management of schools. 5. By aiding communities and states in the organization of school systems in which oft-exploded errors shall be avoided, and vital agencies and well-tried improvements be included. 6. By the general diffusion of correct ideas respecting the value of education as a quickener of intellectual activities; as a moral renovator; as a multiplier of industry and a consequent producer of wealth ; and, finally, as the strength and shield of free institu- tions. It is not possible to measure the influence which the faithful performance of these duties would exert upon the cause of education in this country; and few persons who have not been intrusted with the management of school systems can fully realize how wide- spread and urgent is the demand for such assistance. Indeed, the very existence of the association I now address is of itself cogent proof of a demand for a national channel of communication between the school systems of the different states. Millions of dollars have been thrown away in fruitless experiments or stolid plodding for the want of just such information as a national bureau could make accessible to the people. We have a strong confirmation of these views in the potent influence which Horace Mann exerted upon the schools of this country — notwithstanding his official reports had necessarily a limited circulation outside of his own state. Who can measure the influence which he would have exerted at the head of a National Bureau of Education ? How great the necessity for such a vital power to flow down from the general government, at the present time, permeating and vitalizing all parts of our school system ! ' We have also a very forcible illustration of the same position in the powerful influ- ence exerted upon English elementary schools by the National Committee of Council of Education while James Ray Shuttleworth was its secretary; and also subsequently. 1 Mr. Mann may have originated few measures of educational progress, but he gave "wings, as well as vital power, to the measures and agencies of others. Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 425 But in determining the probable efficiency and value of a National Bureau of Educa- tion, there is a fundamental law, running through the entire history of educational prog- ress, which must not be overlooked. Idolatry has nexer been self-moved to cast its idols to the moles and the bats; nor has benighted paganism ever lifted itself into the light of a beneficent civilization. The impulse to such progress always comes from without and above. The civilization of the world has a fountain-head. The same law holds true in education. An ignorant community has no inward impulse to lead it to educate itself. Just where education is most needed, there it is always least appreciated and valued. The half-savage population of Ban de la Roche had for centuries hugged their barbarism when the good Oberlin went among them. Berkeley, a colonial governor of Virginia, thanked God that there were no free schools in his colony; and only twice twelve months ago the slave shamble, instead of the schoolhouse, still stood at the cross-roads of the Old Dominion. The demand for education is always awakened by external influences and agencies. Hence, Adam Smith and other writers on political economy expressly except education from the operation of the general law of supply and demand. This law has a wide application in school affairs. Communities that h,ave, indeed, some general appreciation of education rest satisfied with very indifferent schools until some influence supplies the impulse to reform and progress. No one obstacle lies so directly across the track of school advancement as the idea entertained by nearly every community that it has attained unsurpassed excellence in education ; and this self-flattery often exists where the work of reform needs to be most earnestly undertaken. A national bureau would hold up to many school systems a mirror which would reveal attainable results and desirable changes. I remark, finally, that the creation of a National Bureau of Education would be a practical recognition by the government of the value and necessity of universal education as a means of perpetuating free institutions. It would impart to the common-school cause a dignity and a character which would surely widen its influence and enhance its efficiency. It would be an argument for the education of the people which would be felt throughout the country. The highest success of the bureau will, of course, depend much upon the manner in which it is officered. Instead of being made a burrow for seedy politicians, it must be made the center of the ripest experience and the most eminent attainments to be found among the educators of the country. The work of such a bureau must be directed by a mind that comprehends the aim and scope of education — its philosophy, its history, its processes, its practical details. But we need to go farther than this. Commissions similar to the great commissions that have been sitting successively in Great Britain should be appointed by Congress to examine respectively into our systems of collegiate education, our professional or special schools, and the instruction of our public schools. Such investigations would exert a powerful influence upon our educational systems which have as yet neither crystallized nor fossilized.' Now is the opportune time to introduce changes and modifications. Let it be remembered that the next great problem of republican institutions is the uplifting of each successive generation of Americans to a true comprehension of their high duties and responsibilities. In this sublime work society, the state, and the nation must be conjoined. Around each child born into American liberty they must stand as a triple guarantee that the boon of education shall not be denied. — From Barnard's Journal of Education, Vol. XVI, 1866, pp. 177-86. APPENDIX F (From Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. XXI, 1870, p. 3.) PREFATORY NOTE The following " Report on Technical Schools, and Special Instruction Generally, in Different Countries," was printed in its present form by the subscriber in pursuance of 426 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National a call, January 19, 1870, by the House of Representatives on the Commissioner of Educa- tion for information on the subject. It was not completed so as to be communicated to Congress at the time (March 15) his connection with the office ceased; and has been brought to its present, still incomplete, condition at the special request of members of the House Committee on Education and Labor, at whose instance the call was originally made. This portion (pp. 33-786) is now published under the order of the House to print, in advance of the completion of the chapters relating to Great Britain and the United States, at the suggestion of the Commissioner of Education, to meet the calls on him for information respecting this class of institutions. As originally planned, this document would have constituted a portion (Part IV) of a comprehensive survey of national education in different countries, which the under- signed had commenced in 1854, in view of a thorough discussion of the condition and improvement of public instruction in the United States. This survey would embrace : Parts I and II. Elementary and secondary education. Vol. I. The German states. Vol. II. Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Russia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain. Vol. III. The American states — with a comparison of the system and condition of public schools in the United States with those of the more advanced states of Europe. Part III. Universities, colleges, and other institutions of superior instruction. Part IV. Professional, class, and special instruction (schools of theology, law, medicine, teaching, agriculture, commerce, engineering, navigation, mines, technology, etc.). Part V. Supplementary instruction (libraries, lectures, evening schools, etc.). Part VI. Societies, museums, and collections for the promotion of education, science, literature, and the arts. So far as the information relating to systems of elementary and secondary instruction was collected and prepared for publication in the Department Office of Education, it will be communicated in a few days to the secretary of the interior, with a plan for its speedy completion and publication. Henry Barnard. Washington, June 29, 1870. APPENDIX G EDUCATION — A NATIONAL INTEREST Speech of James A. Garfield, of Ohio, in the House of Representatives, June 8, 1866, on a Bill "lo Establish a National Bureau of Education," reported by the Select Committee1 on the Memorial of the National Association of School Superintendents. (At the conclusion of a general discussion of the bill, the previous question upon the bill and the pending amendments was demanded and seconded, and the main question ordered.) Mr. Garfield spoke as follows : I did intend to make a somewhat elaborate statement of the reasons why the select committee recommended the passage of this bill ; but I know the anxiety that many gentlemen feel to have this debate concluded, and to allow the private bills now on the calendar and set for this day to be disposed of, and to complete as soon as possible the work of this session. I will, therefore, abandon my original purpose and restrict myself to a brief statement of a few leading points in the argument, and leave the decision with the House. I hope this waiving of a full discussion of the bill will not be construed into a confession that it is inferior in importance to any measure before the House ; for I know of none that has a nobler object, or that more vitally affects the future of this nation. 'The committee consisted of Garfield, of Ohio; Patterson, of New Hampshire ; Boutwell, of Massa- chusetts; Donnelly, of Minnesota; Moulton, of Illinois; Goodyear, of New York; and Randall, of Penn- sylvania. Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 427 I first ask the House to consider the magnitude of the interests involved in this bill. The very attempt to discover the amount of pecuniary and personal interest we have in our schools shows the necessity of such a law as is here proposed. I have searched in vain for any complete or reliable statistics showing the educational condition of the whole country. The estimates I have made are gathered from various sources and can only be approximately correct. I am satisfied, however, that they are far below the truth. Even by the incomplete and imperfect educational statistics of the Census Bureau, it appears that, in i860, there were in the United States 115,224 common schools, 500,000 school officers, 150,241 teachers, and 5,477,037 scholars; thus showing that more than six millions of the people of the United States are directly engaged in the work of edu- cation. Not only has this large proportion of our population been thus engaged, but the Congress of the United States has given fifty-three million acres of public lands to four- teen states and territories of the union for the support of schools. In the old ordinance of 1785 it was provided that one section of every township, one thirty-sixth of all the public lands of the United States, should be set apart and held forever sacred to the sup- port of the schools of the country. In the ordinance of 1787 it was declared that "reli; gion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." It is estimated that at least $50,000,000 have been given in the United States by private individuals for the support of schools. We have thus an interest, even pecuni- arily considered, hardly second to any other. We have tolerably complete school statis- tics from only seventeen states of the union. Our Congressional Library contains no educational reports whatever from the remaining nineteen. In those seventeen states there are 90,835 schools, 190,000 teachers, 5,107,285 pupils, and $34,000,000 annually appropriated by the legislatures for the sup- port and maintenance of common schools. Notwithstanding the great expenditures entailed upon them during five years of war, they raised by taxation $34,000,000 annu- ally for the support of common schools. In several states of the union more than 50 per cent, of all the tax imposed for state purposes is for the support of common schools. And yet gentlemen are impatient because we wish to occupy a short time in considering this bill ! I will not trouble the House by repeating commonplaces so familiar to every gentle- man here, as that our system of government is based upon the intelligence of the people. But I wish to suggest that there never has been a time when all our educational forces should be in such perfect activity as at the present day. Ignorance — stolid ignorance — is not our most dangerous enemy. There is very little of that kind of ignorance among the white population of this country. In the Old World, among the despotic governments of Europe, the great disfran- chised class — the pariahs of political and social life — are indeed ignorant, mere inert masses, moved upon and controlled by the intelligent and cultivated aristocracy. Any unrepresented and hopelessly disfranchised class in a government will inevitably be struck with intellectual paralysis. Our late slaves afford a sad illustration. But among the represented and voting classes of this country, where all are equal before the law, and every man is a political power for good or evil, there is but little of the inertia of ignorance. The alternatives are not education or no education ; but shall the power of the citizen be directed aright toward industry, liberty, and patriotism, or, under the baneful influence of false theories and evil influences, shall it lead him continu- ally downward till it ruin both him and the government ? If he is not educated in the school of virtue and integrity, he will be educated in the school of vice and iniquity. We are, therefore, afloat on the sweeping current ; we must make head against it, or we shall go down with it to the saddest of destinies. According to the census of i860 there were 1,218,311 free white inhabitants of the 428 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National United States over twenty-one years of age who could not read nor write, and 871,418 of those were American-born citizens. One-third of a million of people are being annually thrown upon our shores from the Old World, a large per cent, of whom are uneducated, and the gloomy total has been swelled by the 4,000,000 slaves admitted to citizenship by the events of the war. Such, sir, is the immense force which we must now confront by the genius of our institutions and the light of our civilization. How shall it be done ? An American citi- zen can give but one answer. We must pour upon them all the light of our public schools. We must make them intelligent, industrious, patriotic citizens, or they will drag us and our children down to their level. Does not this question rise to the full height of national importance and demand the best efforts of statesmanship to adjust it ? Mr. Mann has well said : That legislators and rulers are responsible. In our country and in our times no man is worthy the honored name of a statesman who does not include the highest practicable education of the people in all of his plans of administration. He may have eloquence, he may have a knowledge of all history, diplomacy, jurisprudence, and by these he may claim, in other countries, the elevated rank of a statesman, but unless he speaks, plans, labors at all times and in all places for the culture and edification of the whole people, he is not, he cannot be, an American statesman. Gentlemen who have discussed the bill this morning tell us that it will result in great expense to the government. Whether an enterprise is expensive or not is altogether a relative question, to be determined by the importance of its object. Now, what have we done as a nation in the way of expenses ? In 1832 we organized a Coast Survey Bureau, and have expended millions upon it. Its officers have triangu- lated thousands of miles of our coasts, have made soundings of all our bays and harbors, and carefully mapped the shoals, breakers, and coast lines from our northern bound- ary on the Atlantic to the extreme northern boundary on the Pacific coast. They have established eight hundred tidal stations to observe the fluctuations of the tides. We have expended vast sums in order perfectly to know the topography of our coasts, lakes, and rivers, that we might make navigation more safe. Is it of no consequence that we explore the boundaries of that wonderful intellectual empire which incloses within its domain the fate of succeeding generations, and of this republic ? The children of today will be the architects of our country's destiny in 1900. We have established an Astronomical Observatory where the movements of the stars are watched, latitude and longitude calculated, and chronometers regulated for the benefit of navigation. For this observatory we pay one-third of a million per annum. Is it of no consequence that we observe the movements of those intellectual lights which shall, in the time to come, be guiding stars_ in our national firmament ? We have established a Light-House Board who are employing all the aids of science, to discover the best modes of regulating the beacons upon our shores ; they are placing buoys as way-marks to guide ships safely into our harbors. Will you not create a light- house board to set up beacons for the coming generation, not as lights to the eye, but to the mind and heart, that shall lead them safely in the perilous voyage of life, and enable them to transmit the blessings of liberty to those who shall come after them ? We have set on foot a score of expeditions to explore the mountains and valleys, the lakes and rivers, of this and other countries. We have expended money without stint to explore the Amazon and the Jordan, Chili and Japan, the gold shores of the Colorado and the copper cliffs of Lake Superior ; to gather and publish the great facts of science, and to exhibit the material resources of physical nature. Will you refuse the pitiful sum of $13,000 to collect and record the intellectual resources of this country, the elements that lie behind all material wealth and make it either a curse or a blessing ? We have paid three-quarters of a million dollars for the survey of the route for the Pacific railroad, and have published the results at a great cost in thirteen quarto volumes, with accompanying maps and charts. The money for these purposes was freely Council] IN MEM0R1AM HENRY BARNARD 429 expended, and now, when it is proposed to appropriate $1 3,000 to aid in increasing the intelligence of those who will use that great continental highway when it is com- pleted, we are reminded of our debts, and warned against increasing our expenditures. It is difficult to treat such an objection with the respect that always is due in this hall of legislation. We have established a Patent Office, where are annually accumulated thousands of models of new machinery invented by our people. Will you make no expenditure for the benefit of the intelligence that shall stand behind that machinery and be its controller ? Will you bestow all your favors upon the engine, and ignore the engineer ? I will not insult the intelligence of this House by waiting to prove that money paid for education is the most economical of all expenditure ; that it is cheaper to reduce crime than to build jails ; that schoolhouses are less expensive than rebellions. A tenth of our national debt expended in public education fifty years ago would have saved us the blood and treasure of the late war. A far less sum may save our children from a still greater calamity. We expend hundreds of thousands annually to promote the agricultural interests of the country; to introduce the best methods in husbandry. Is it not of more consequence to do something for the farmer of the future than for the farm of today? As man is more precious than soil, as the immortal spirit is nobler than the clod it animates, so is the object of this bill more important than any mere pecuniary interest. The genius of our government does not allow us to establish a compulsory system of education, as is done in some of the countries of Europe. There are states in this union, however, which have adopted a compulsory system, and perhaps that is well. It is for each state to determine. A distinguished gentleman from Rhode Island told me lately that it is now the law in that state that every child within its borders shall attend school, and that every vagrant child shall be taken in charge by the authorities and sent to school. It may be well for other states to pursue the same course ; but probably the general government can do nothing of the sort. Whether it has the right of compulsory control or not, we propose none in this bill. But we do propose to use that power, so effective in this country, of letting in light on subjects, and holding them up to the verdict of public opinion. If it could be pub- lished annually from this capitol, through every school district of the United States, that there are states in the union that have no system of common schools; and if their records could be placed beside the records of such states as Massachusetts, New York, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, and other states that have a common-school system, the mere statement of the fact would rouse their energies, and compel them for shame to educate their children. It would shame out of their delinquency all the delinquent states. Mr. Speaker, if I were called upon today to point to that in my own state of which I am most proud, I would not point to any of the flaming line's of her military record, to the heroic men and the brilliant officers she gave to the late contest ; I would not point to any of her leading men of the past or the present ; but I would point to her common schools; I would point to the honorable fact that in the great struggle of five years through which we have just passed she has expended $12,000,000 for the support of her public schools. I do not include in that amount the sums expended upon our higher institutions of learning. I would point to the fact that 52 per cent, of the taxation of Ohio for the last five years, aside from the war tax and the tax for the payment of her public debt, has been for the support of her schools. I would point to the schools of Cincinnati, Cleve- land, Toledo, and other cities of the state, if I desired a stranger to see the glory of Ohio. I would point to the thirteen thousand schoolhouses and the seven hundred thou- sand pupils in the schools of Ohio. I would point to the $3,000,000 she has paid for schools during the last year alone. This, in my judgment, is the proper gauge by which to measure the progress and glory of states. Gentlemen tell us there is no need of this bill — the states are doing well enough 43° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National now. Do they know through what a struggle every state has come up that has secured a good system of common schools ? Let me illustrate this by the example of Pennsyl- vania. Notwithstanding the early declaration of William Penn : That which makes a good constitution must keep it, namely, men of wisdom and virtue; qualities that, because they descend not with worldly inheritances, must be carefully propagated by a virtuous education of youth, for which spare no cost, for by such parsimony all that is saved is lost ; notwithstanding that wise master-builder incorporated this sentiment in his "framework of government " and made it the duty of the governor and council " to establish and sup- port public schools;" notwithstanding Benjamin Franklin, from the first hour he became a citizen of Pennsylvania, inculcated the value of useful knowledge to every human being in every walk of life, and by his personal and pecuniary effort did establish schools and a college for Philadelphia ; notwithstanding the constitution of Pennsylvania made it obligatory upon the legislature to foster the education of the citizens ; notwithstanding all this, it was not till 1833-34 that a system of common schools, supported in part by taxa- tion of property of the state, for the common benefit of all the children of the state, was established by law ; and although the law was passed by an almost unanimous vote of both branches of the legislature, so foreign was the idea of public schools to the habits of the people, so odious was the idea of taxation for this purpose, that even the poor, who were to be specially benefited, were so deluded by political demagogues as to clamor for its repeal. Many members who voted for the law lost their nomination, and others, although nominated, lost their election. Some were weak enough to pledge themselves to a repeal of the law; and in the session of 1835 there was an almost certain prospect of its repeal and the adoption in its place of an odious and limited provision for educating the children of the poor by themselves. In the darkest hour of the debate, when the hearts of the original friends of the system were failing from fear, there rose on the floor of the house one of its early champions, one who, though not a native of the state, felt the dis- grace which the repeal of this law would inflict like a knife in his bosom; one who, though no kith or kin of his would be benefited by the operations of the system, and though he should share its burdens, would only partake with every citizen in its blessings ; one who had voted for the original law, although introduced by his political opponents, and who had defended and gloried in his vote before an angry and unwilling constituency; this man, then in the beginning of his public career, threw himself into the conflict, and by his earnest and brave eloquence saved the law, and gave a noble system of common schools to Pennsylvania. I doubt if, at this hour, after thirty years crowded full of successful labors at the bar, before the people, and in halls of legislation, the venerable and distinguished member [Mr. Stevens], who now represents a portion of the same state in this House, can recall any speech of his life with half the pleasure he does that, for no measure with which his name has been connected is so fraught with blessings to hundreds of thousands of children, and to homes innumerable. I hold in my hand a copy of his brave speech, and I ask the clerk to read the passages I have marked : I am comparatively a stranger among you, born in another, in a distant state ; no parent or kindred of mine did, does, or probably ever will dwell within your borders. I have none of those strong cords to bind me to your honor and your interest ; yet, if there is any one thing on earth which I ardently desire above all others, it is to see Pennsylvania standing up in her intellectual, as she confessedly does in her physical, resources, high above all her confederate rivals. How shameful, then, would it be for these her native sons to feel less so, when the dust of their ancestors is mingled with her soil, their friends and relatives enjoy her present prosperity, and their descendants, for long ages to come, will partake of her happiness or misery, her glory or her infamy ! . . . . In giving this law to posterity, you act the part of the philanthropist, by bestowing upon the poor as well as the rich the greatest earthly boon which they are capable of receiving; you act the part of the philosopher, by pointing, if you do not lead them, up the hill of science; you act the part of the hero, if it be true, as you say, that popular vengeance follows close upon your footsteps. Here then, if you wish true popularity, is a theater on which you may acquire it Council] IN ME MORI AM HENRY BARNARD 43 1 Let all, therefore, who would sustain the character of the philosopher or philanthropist sustain this law. Those who would add thereto the glory of the hero can acquire it here; for, in the present state of feeling in Pennsylvania, I am willing to admit that but little less dangerous to the public man is the war-club and battle-ax of savage ignorance than to the lion-hearted Richard was the keen scimiter of the Saracen. He who would oppose it, either through inability to comprehend the advantages of general education or from unwill- ingness to bestow them on all his fellow-citizens, even to the lowest and the poorest, or from dread of popular vengeance, seems to want either the head of the philosopher, the heart of the philanthropist, or the nerve of the hero. He has lived long enough to see this law, which he helped to found in 1834, and more than any other man was instrumental in saving from repeal in 1835, expanded and consolidated into a noble system of public instruction. Twelve thousand schools have been built by the voluntary taxation of the people, to the amount, for school- houses alone, of nearly ten million dollars. Many millions of children have been educated in these schools. More than seven hundred thousand attended the public schools of Pennsylvania in 1864-65, and their annual cost, provided by voluntary taxation in the year 1864, was nearly three million dollars, giving employment to sixteen thousand teachers. It is glory enough for one man to have connected his name so honorably with the original establishment and effective defense of such a system. But it is said that the thirst for knowledge among the young ; the pride and ambition of parents for their children, are agencies powerful enough to establish and maintain thorough and comprehensive systems of education. This suggestion is answered by the unanimous voice of publicists and political econo- mists. They all admit that the doctrine of "demand and supply" does not apply to educational wants. Even the most extreme advocates of the principle of laissez faire as a sound maxim of political philosophy admit that governments must interfere in aid of education. We must not wait for the wants of the rising generation to be expressed in a demand for means of education. We must ourselves discover and supply their needs, before the time for supplying them has forever passed. John Stuart Mill says : But there are other things of the worth of which the demand of the market is by no means a test ; things of which the utility does not consist in ministering to inclinations, nor in serving the daily uses of life, and the want of which is least felt where the need is greatest. This is peculiarly true of those things which are chiefly useful as tending to raise the character of human beings. The uncultivated cannot be judges of cultivation. Those who most need to be made wiser and better usually desire it least, and, if they desired it, would be incapable of finding the way to it by their own lights. It will continually happen on the voluntary system that, the end not being desired, the means will not be provided at all, or that, the persons requiring improvement having an imperfect or altogether erroneous conception of what they want, the supply called forth by the demand of the market will be anything but what is really required. Now, any well-intentioned and tolerably civilized government may think, without presumption, that it does, or ought to, possess a degree of cultivation above the average of the community which it rules, and that it should, therefore, be capable of offering better education and better instruction to the people than the greater number of them would spontaneously select. Education, therefore, is one of those things which it is admissible in principle that the government should provide for the people. The case is one to which the reasons of the non-interference principle do not necessarily or universally extend. With regard to elementary education, the exception to ordinary rules may, I conceive, justifiably be car- ried still farther. There are certain primary elements and means of knowledge which it is in the highest degree desirable that all human beings bom into the community should acquire during childhood. If their parents, or those on whom they depend, have the power of obtaining for them this instruction, and fail to do it, they commit a double breach of duty: toward the children themselves, and toward the members of the com- munity generally, who are all liable to suffer seriously from the consequences of ignorance and want of edu- cation in their fellow-citizens. It is, therefore, an allowable exercise of government to impose on parents the legal obligation of giving elementary instruction to children. This, however, cannot fairly be done with- out taking measures to insure that such instruction shall always be accessible to them, either gratuitously or at a trifling expense. This is the testimony of economic science. I trust the statesmen of this Congress will not think the subject of education too humble a theme for their most serious considera- tion. It has engaged the earnest attention of the best men of ancient and modern times, especially of modern statesmen and philanthropists. 43 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National I will fortify myself in the positions I have taken by quoting the authority of a few men who are justly regarded as teachers of the human race. If I keep in their company, I cannot wander far from the truth. I cannot greatly err while I am guided by their counsel. In his eloquent essay entitled Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth, John Milton said : To make the people fittest to choose, and the chosen fittest to govern, will be to mend our corrupt and faulty education, to teach the people faith, not without virtue, temperance, modesty, sobriety, economy, jus- tice; not to admire wealth or honor; to hate turbulence and ambition; to place everyone his private welfare and happiness in the public peace, liberty, and safety. England's most venerable living statesman, Lord Brougham, enforced the same truth in these noble words : Lawgivers of England ! I charge ye, have a care ! Be well assured that the contempt lavished upon the cabals of Constantinople, when the council disputed on a text, while the enemy, the derider of all their texts, was thundering at the gate, will be a token of respect compared with the loud shout of universal scorn which all mankind in all ages will send up against you, if you stand still and suffer a far deadlier foe than the Turcoman ; suffer the parent of all evil, all falsehood, all hypocrisy, all dischariry, all self-seeking — him who covers over with pretexts of conscience the pitfalls that he digs for the souls on which he preys — to stalk about the fold and lay waste its inmates; standstill and make no head against him, upon the vain pretext to soothe your indolence, that your action is obstructed by religious cabals — upon the far more guilty speculation that by playing a party game you can turn the hatred of conflicting professors to your selfish purposes ! Let the soldier be abroad, if he will ; he can do nothing in this age. There is another personage abroad, a person less imposing — in the eye of some insignificant. The schoolmaster is abroad, and I trust to him, armed with his primer, against the soldier in full uniform array. Lord Brougham gloried in the title of schoolmaster, and contrasted his work with that of the military conqueror in these words : The conqueror stalks onward with the " pride, pomp, and circumstance of war," banners flying, shouts rending the air, guns thundering, and martial music pealing, to drown the shrieks of the wounded and the lamentations for the slain. Not thus the schoolmaster in his peaceful vocation. He meditates and prepares in secret the plans which are to bless mankind ; he slowly gathers around him those who are to further their exe- cution ; he quietly, though firmly, advances in his humble path, laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the light all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the roots the weeds of vice. His is a progress not to be compared with anything like a march ; but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph, and to laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the world, ever won. ■ The learned and brilliant Guizot, who regarded his work in the office of minister of public instruction, in the government of France, the noblest and most valuable work of his life, has left us this valuable testimony: Universal education is henceforth one of the guarantees of liberty and social stability. As every prin- ciple of our government is founded on justice and reason, to diffuse education among the people, to 'develop their understandings and enlighten their minds, is to strengthen their constitutional government and secure its stability. In his farewell address Washington wrote these words of wise counsel : Promote, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. In his inaugural message, when first taking the presidential chair, the elder Adams said : The wisdom and generosity of the legislature in making liberal appropriations in money for the benefit of schools, academies, and colleges, is an equal honor to them and to their constituents, a proof of their veneration for letters and science, and a portent of great and lasting good to North and South America and to the world. Great is truth — great is liberty — great is humanity — and they must and will prevail. Chancellor Kent used this decided language : The parent who sends his son into the world uneducated defrauds the community of a lawful citizen, and bequeaths to it a nuisance. I shall conclude this citation of opinions with the stirring words of Edward Everett : I know not to what we can better liken the strong appetence of the mind for improvement than to a hunger and thirst after knowledge and truth, nor how can we better describe the province of education than to Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 433 say it does that for the intellect which is done for the body, when it receives the care and nourishment which are necessary for its growth, health, and strength ? From this comparison, I think, I derive new views of the importance of education. It is now a solemn duty, a tender, sacred trust. What ! feed a child's body and let his soul hunger ! pamper his limbs and starve his faculties ! Plant the earth, cover a thousand hills with your droves of cattle, pursue the fish to their hiding places in the sea, and spread out your wheat fields across the plains in order to supply the wants of that body, which will soon be as cold and senseless as their poorest clod, and let the pure spiritual essence within you, with all its glorious capacities for improvement, languish and pine ! What ! build factories, turn in rivers upon the waterwheels, unchain the imprisoned spirits of steam, to weave a garment for the body, and let the soul remain unadorned and naked ! What ! send out your vessels to the farthest ocean, and make battle with the monsters of the deep, in order to obtain the means of lighting up your dwellings and workshops, and prolonging the hours of labor for the meat that perisheth, and permit that vital spark, which God has kindled, which he has intrusted to our care to be fanned into a bright and heavenly flame ; permit it, I say, to languish and go out ! It is remarkable that so many good things have been said, and so few things done, by our national statesmen in favor of education. If we inquire what has been done by the governments of other countries to support and advance public education, we are compelled to confess with shame that every government in Christendom has given a more intelligent and effective support to schools than has our own. The free cities of Germany organized the earliest school systems after the separa- tion of church and state. The present schools of Hamburg have existed more than one thousand years. The earliest school codes were framed in the duchy of Wiirtemberg in 1565, and in the electorate of Saxony in 1580. Under these codes were established sys- tems of schools, more perfect, it is claimed, than the school system of any state of the American union. Their systems embraced the gymnasium and the university, and were designed, as their laws expressed it, " to carry youth from the elements to the degree of culture demanded for offices in church and state." The educational institutions of Prussia are too well known to need a comment. It is a sufficient index of their aim and high character that a late Prussian school officer said of his official duties : I promised God that 1 would look upon every Prussian peasant child as a being who could complain of me before God if I did not provide for him the best education as a man and a. Christian which it was possible for me to provide. France did not think herself dishonored by learning from a nation which she had ately conquered; for when, in 1 83 1, she began to provide more fully for the education of her people, she sent the philosopher Cousin to Holland and Prussia, to study and report upon the schools of those states. Guizot was made minister of public instruction, and held the office from 1832 to 1837. In 1833 the report of Cousin was published, and the educational system of France was established on the Prussian model. No portion of his brilliant career reflects more honor upon Guizot than his five years' work for the schools of France. The fruits of his labors were not lost in the revolutions that followed. The present emperor is giving his best efforts to the perfection and maintenance of schools, and is endeavoring to make the profession of the teacher more honorable and desirable than it has been hitherto. Through the courtesy of the secretary of state, I have obtained the last annual report of the minister of public instruction in France, which exhibits the present state of educa- tion in that empire. At the last enumeration there were in France, in the colleges and lyceums, 65,832 pupils; in the secondary schools, 200,000; and in the primary or common schools, 4,720,234. Besides the large amount raised by local taxation, the imperial government appro- priated, during the year 1865, 2,349,051 francs for the support of primary schools. Teaching is one of the regular professions in France, and the government offers prizes, and bestows honors upon the successful instructor of children. During the year 1865, 1,154 prizes were distributed to teachers in primary schools. 434 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National An order of honor, and a medal worth 250 francs, is awarded to the best teacher in each commune. After a long and faithful service in his profession, the teacher is retired on half pay, and, if broken down in health, is pensioned for life. In 1865 there were 4,245 teachers on the pension list of France. The minister says in his report : " The states- men of France have determined to show that the country knows how to honor those who serve her even in obscurity." Since 1862, 10,243 libraries for the use of common schools have been established, and they now contain 1,117,352 volumes, more than a third of which have been furnished by the imperial government. Half a million text-books are furnished for the use of children who are too poor to buy them. It is the policy of France to afford the means of education to every child in the empire. When we compare the conduct of other governments with our own, we cannot accuse ourselves so much of illiberality as of reckless folly in the application of our liberality to the support of- schools. No government has expended so much to so little purpose. To fourteen states alone we have given, for the support of schools, 83,000 square miles of land ; or an amount of territory nearly equal to two such states as Ohio. But how has this bountiful appropriation been applied ? This chapter in our history has never been written. No member of this House or the Senate, no executive officer of the govern- ment, now knows, and no man ever did know, what disposition has been made of this immense bounty. This bill requires the Commissioner of Education to report to Con gress what lands have been given to schools, and how the proceeds have been applied. If we are not willing to follow the example of our fathers in giving, let us, at least, perpetu- ate the record of their liberality, and preserve its beneficent results. Mr. Speaker : I have thus hurriedly and imperfectly exhibited the magnitude of the interests involved in the education of American youth ; the peculiar condition of affairs which demands at this time an increase of our educational forces ; the failure of a majority of the states to establish school systems ; the long struggles through which others have passed in achieving success ; and the humiliating contrast between the action of our government and those of other nations in reference to education; but I cannot close without referring to the bearing of this measure upon the peculiar work of this Congress. When the history of the Thirty-ninth Congress is written, it will be recorded that two great purposes inspired it, and made their impress upon all its efforts, viz.: to build up free states on the ruins of slavery, and to extend to every inhabitant of the United States the rights and privileges of citizenship. Before the divine Architect birilded order out of chaos, he said : "Let there be light." Shall we commit the fatal mistake of building up free states without expelling the dark- ness in which slavery shrouded them? Shall we enlarge the boundaries of citizenship and make no provision to increase the intelligence of the citizen? I share most fully in the aspirations of this Congress, and give my most cordial support to its policy; but I believe its work will prove a disastrous failure unless it makes the schoolmaster its ally, and aids him in preparing the children of the United States to perfect the work now begun. The stork is a sacred bird in Holland, and is protected by public law, because it destroys those insects which would undermine the dikes and let the sea again overwhelm the rich fields of the Netherlands. Shall this government do nothing to foster and strengthen those educational agencies which alone can shield the coming generation from ignorance and vice, and make it the impregnable bulwark of liberty and law ? I know that this measure presents few attractions to those whose chief work is to watch the political movements which relate only to nominating conventions and elections. The mere politician will see in it nothing valuable, for the millions of children to be benefited by it can give him no votes. But I appeal to those who care more for the Council] IN MEMORIAM HENRY BARNARD 435 safety and glory of this nation than for any mere temporary advantage, to aid in giving to education the public recognition and active support of the federal government. The final action of the House on the bill was not reached till June 19, when, the question being taken by yeas and nays, it was passed by a vote of 80 yeas to 44 nays, with the following title and provisions : AN ACT TO ESTABLISH A DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be established, at the city of Washington, a Department of Education for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several states and territories, and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and manage- ment of schools and school systems, and methods of teaching, as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country. Sec 2. And be it further enacted, That there shall be appointed by the president, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, a Commissioner of Education, who shall be intrusted with the management of the department herein established, and who shall receive a salary of four thousand dollars per annum, and who shall have authority to appoint one chief clerk of his department, who shall receive a salary of two thou- sand dollars per annum, one clerk who shall receive a salary of eighteen hundred dollars per annum, and one clerk who shall receive a salary of sixteen hundred dollars per annum, which said clerks shall be subject to the appointing and removing power of the Commissioner of Education. Sec 3. A nd be it further enacted. That it shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Education to present annually to Congress a report embodying the results of his investigations and labors, together with a state- ment of such facts and recommendations as will, in his judgment, subserve the purpose for which this depart- ment is established. In the first report made by the Commissioner of Education under this act there shall be presented a statement of the several grants of land made by Congress to promote education, and the manner in which these several trusts have been managed, the amount of funds arising therefrom, and the annual proceeds of the same, as far as the same can be determined. Sec 4. And be it further enacted. That the commissioner of public buildings is hereby authorized and directed to furnish proper offices for the use of the department herein established. The bill, in the Senate, was referred to the standing committee on the judiciary, who recommended its passage without amendment; and, after a debate on February 26, 1867, on a motion to substitute Bureau for Department, was passed without division on March 1, and signed by the president March 2. On March 11 Henry Barnard was nominated by President Johnson, on March 16 was confirmed by the unanimous vote of the Senate, and on March 17 entered on the duties of Commissioner of. Education. APPENDIX H (Dr. Barnard's plan of a central agency for the United States to advance education (Vol. XXI.)) The following plan for " the increase and diffusion of knowledge," of education, and especially of popular education, and plans for its improvement through the Smith- sonian Institution, or the American Association for the Advancement of Education, was submitted to the association by Hon. Henry Barnard : The institution (or association) to appoint a secretary or agent, with a salary, and to furnish a room for an officer and depository of educational documents and apparatus, and beyond this not to be liable for any expense. Again by the secretary or agent : 1. To devote himself exclusively to the " increase and diffusion of knowledge" on the subject of educa- tion, and especially of the condition and means of improving popular education, and particularly 2. To answer all personal or written inquiries on the subject, and collect and make available for use information as to all advances made in the theory and practice of education in any one state or country. 3. To attend, so far as may be consistent with other requisitions on his time, and without charge to the funds of the institution (or association), educational conventions of a national and state character, for the purpose of collecting and disseminating information. 4. To edit a publication to be entitled the American Journal and Library of Education, on the plan set forth in the accompanying paper (A). 5. To collect : (a) Plans and models of schoolhouses and furniture. {b) Specimens of maps and other material aids of education. (c) Educational reports and documents from other states and countries. 6. To institute a system of educational exchange between literary institutions in this and other countries. 7. To make arrangements, and effect, if practicable, at least one meeting or conference of the friends of educational improvement in Washington (or elsewhere) every year. 8. To submit annually a report in which shall be given a summary of the progress of education n each state, and, as far as practicable, in every country. 436 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [National Plan of publication. — A quarterly or monthly issue under the general title of the American Journal of Education. 1. A Journal of Education, to be issued in quarterly or monthly numbers, embracing articles on systems, institutions, and methods of education, and the current intelligence of literature and education, and to make an octavo volume annually of at least six hundred pages. II. A Library of Education, to consist of a series of independent treatises on the following (among other) subjects, to be issued in parts, and to be forwarded with the Journal to subscribers ; the several parts or treatises to make an octavo volume of at least six hundred pages per year : i. A catalogue of the best publications on the organization, instruction, and discipline of schools, of every grade, and on the principles of education, in the English, French, and German languages. 2. A history of education, ancient and modern. 3. An account of elementary instruction in Europe, based on the reports of Bache, Stowe, Mann, and others. 4. National education in the United States ; or contributions to the history and improvement of common or public schools and other institutions, means, and agencies of popular education in the several states. 5. School architecture ; or the principles of construction, ventilation, warming, acoustics, seating, etc., applied to schoolrooms, lecture halls, and class-rooms, with illustrations. 6. Normal schools, and other institutions, means, and agencies for the professional training and improve- ment of teachers. 7. System of public education for large cities and villages, with an account of the schools and other means of popular education and recreation in the principal cities of Europe and in this country. 8. System of popular education for sparsely populated districts, with an account of the schools in Nor- way and the agricultural portions of other countries. 9. Schools of agriculture, and other means of advancing agricultural improvement. 10. Schools of science applied to the mechanic arts, civil engineering, etc. 11. Schools of trade, navigation, commerce, etc. 12. Female education, with an account of the best seminaries for females in this country and in Europe. 13. Institutions for orphans. 14. Schools of industry, or institutions for truant, idle, or neglected children, before they have been con- victed of crime. 15. Reform schools, or institutions for young criminals. 16. Houses of refuge, for adult criminals. 17. Secondary education, including schools of agriculture, engineering, trade, navigation, etc. 18. Colleges and universities. 19. Schools of theology, law, and medicine. 20. Military and naval schools. 91, Supplementary education, including adult schools, evening schools, courses of popular lectures, debating classes, mechanic institutes, etc. 22. Libraries, with hints for the purchase, arrangement, cataloguing, drawing, and preservation of books, especially in libraries designed for popular use. 23. Institutions for the deaf and dumb, blind, and idiots. 24. Societies for encouragement of science, the arts, and education. 25. Public museums and galleries. 26. Public gardens, and other sources of popular recreation. 27. Educational tracts, or a series of short essays on topics of immediate practical importance to teachers and school officers. 28. Educational biography, or the lives of distinguished educators and teachers. 29. Educational benefactors, or an account of the founders and benefactors of educational and scientific institutions. 30. Self-education, or hints for self-formation, with examples of the pursuit of knowledge under diffi- culties. 31. Home education, with illustrations drawn from the family training of different countries. 32. Educational nomenclature and index, or an explanation of words and terms used in describing the systems and institutions of education in different countries, with reference to the books where the subjects are discussed and treated of. The series, when complete, will constitute an Encyclopedia of Education. APPENDIX I (Dr. Barnard's plan in 1862 for a new series of the American Journal of Education (Vol. XXI.)) With the number for March, 1862, we shall commence a new series of the American Journal of Education, and, with a moderate encouragement from the thoughtful and active friends of educational improvement, we shall continue our quarterly issues, until Council] IN MEMO RI AM HENRY BARNARD 437 they have reached at least six volumes. We shall make no change in the general plan of this periodical. It will be devoted, as from the start, exclusively to the history, biog- raphy, science, art, systems, institutions, and statistics of education in different countries, with special reference to the condition and wants of our own. We shall studiously avoid the insertion of all papers foreign to these great subjects, or of a single line or word calculated to injure the feelings of any faithful laborer in any allotment of the great field of American education. We leave the work of controversy to those who have more taste for it than we have, and shall labor diligently on the following points : I. The history of pedagogy, or the successive developments of human culture, both theoretical and practical, under the varying circumstances of race, climate, religion, and government, as drawn from special treatises of teachers and educators in different languages, or as embodied in the manners, literature, and history of each people. In the development of this great theme, embracing many ages, races, and govern- ments, we propose, not in precise chronological or ethnological order, but in papers pre- pared from time to time, as our studies or those of .our co-laborers may suggest, to show, to an extent which has not yet been attempted in the English language, what has been accomplished in the family and schools, by parents, teachers, and educators, for the sys- tematic training of children and youth : 1. In the eastern nations, before the birth of Christ — in China, India, Persia, Egypt, and Palestine — by Confucius, by the Vedas and Buddha, by Zoroaster and the Ptolemies, by Moses, David, Solomon, and the Rabbi. 2. Among the Greeks, at Crete, Sparta, and Athens, under the institutions of Pythagoras, Lycurgus, and Solon ; by poets and philosophers and teachers, by Homer, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Plutarch. 3. Among the Romans, in the infancy, maturity, and old age of Rome, by the didac- tics of Cato, Seneca, Tacitus, the Plinies, Quintilian, and Lucian. 4. Among modern nations, as reached by the teachings of Christianity, in the gradual unfolding of the present received ideas of school organization, and of the prin- ciples and methods of instruction, through (a) the peculiar organization and distinctive teaching of the early Ghristians ; (b) the first popular school of the Christian Fathers, Chrysostom and Basil ; (c) the catechist schools of Clement and Origen ; (d) the semi- naries and cloister schools of Tertullian, Cyprian, Jerome, and Austin; ( cost on average daily attendance, $34.10. Los Angeles, Cal. — James A. Foshay, superintendent : Total enrollment, 1,357 ; cost per pupil on total enrollment, $35.85 ; cost on average daily attendance, $38.20. Louisville, Ky. — E. H. Mark, superintendent : Total enrollment : Boys' High, 378 ; Manual Training, 244 ; Girls' High, 751 ; Colored High, 295. Total cost on enrollment : Boys' High, $60.92; Manual Training, $108.84; Girls' High, $42.19; Colored High, $31.87. Total cost on average daily attendance: Boys' High, $69.14 ; Manual Train- ing, $130.12 ; Girls' High, $49.27 ; Colored High, $40. Milwaukee, Wis. — H. O. Siefert, superintendent : Total enrollment, 1,810; cost per pupil on total enrollment, $43 ; cost on average daily attendance, $53.91. New York. — Total enrollment, 1,461 ; cost on enrollment, $58.55; on average daily attendance, $77.61. New Bedford, Mass. — Total enrollment, 524 ; total cost on enrollment per pupil, $49.32 ; cost on average daily attendance per pupil, $76.44. New Orleans, La. — Warren Easton, superintendent : Total enrollment, 944 ; total cost per pupil on enrollment, $49.04 ; total cost on average daily attendance, $50.73. Omaha, Neb. — C. G. Pearse, superintendent: Total enrollment, 1,518; total cost per pupil on enrollment, $36.89 ; cost on average daily attendance, $46.98. Providence, R. I. — H. S. Tarbell, superintendent : Total enrollment, 1,857 ; total cost on enrollment, $70.14 ; cost per pupil on average daily attendance, $86.39. Rochester, N. Y. — Milton Noyes, superintendent: Total enrollment, 1,019; total cost on enrollment per pupil, $41.21 ; total cost on average daily attendance, $44.92. St. Louis, Mo. — F. Louis Soldan, superintendent : Total enrollment : white, 1,993 ; colored, 250. Cost of enrollment : white, $52.42 ; colored, $52.54. Total cost on aver- age daily attendance : white, $62.28 ; colored, $71.01. San Francisco, Cal. — R. H. Webster, superintendent: Total enrollment, 1,625; total cost per pupil on enrollment, $89.35 5 cost on average daily attendance, $97. St. Paul, Minn. — Irwen Leviston, superintendent: Total enrollment, 1,741; cost on enrollment, $35.36 ; cost on average daily attendance, $42.23. Springfield, Mass. — Thomas N. Balliet, superintendent : Total enrollment, 657 ; cost on enrollment is not given ; total cost on average daily attendance, $65.70. Toledo, O. — W. W. Chalmers, superintendent : Total enrollment, 1,261; total cost on enrollment, $30.98 ; total cost on average daily attendance, $34.42. Kansas City, Mo. — (1899 and 1900): Total enrollment, 3,464; cost per pupil on enrollment, $39.06 ; cost on average daily attendance, $49.08. Cost per pupil in the Cen- tral High School on enrollment, $34.22 ; cost on average daily attendance, $41.70. Cost per pupil in the Manual Training High School on enrollment, $45.11 ; cost on average daily attendance, $58.46. RECOMMENDATIONS That a committee be appointed to collect, tabulate, and report infor- mation on the persistence of attendance during the last three years of ward-school work and on all kinds of high-school work, including manual-training high school, with the view of determining : 1. What effect has manual-training work upon legitimate high-school work as to scholarship and proficiency in the several departments of Council] HIGH-SCHOOL STATISTICAL INFORMATION 499 study ; and if there be a tendency to emphasize unduly the manual-train- ing work, is the regular academic work weakened ? 2. Whether the desire to work with tools seizes most strongly upon the pupil during the ward-school period or in the high school. 3. Whether the trend now in the manual-training high schools is toward special trades rather than general culture. 4. What should be the sphere of manual-training courses of study in regard to the ancient and modern languages ? 5. Whether the tendency to multiply courses of study in high schools has not been at the expense of thoro preparation in the most essential branches. 6. What causes so much pilfering among high-school pupils, and how may it be corrected ? DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY SECRETARY'S MINUTES Note. — The Departments of Kindergarten Education and Child Study held joint sessions. The min- utes and proceedings are accordingly brought together in the volume. Wednesday, July io, 1901 The first of the joint sessions of the Departments of Kindergarten Education and Child Study was held under the auspices of the Child Study Department, and was called to order at 3 o'clock p. M. in the Woodward Avenue Baptist Church. The president, Dr. Thomas P. Bailey, of Chicago, and vice-president, Miss Marion Brown, of New Orleans, were absent. President G. Stanley Hall of Clark University was called upon to preside. The following nominating committee was appointed to report nominations for officers for 1902 : Theodore B. Noss, principal of Normal School at California, Pa. Miss Bettie E. Dutton, Cleveland, O. Miss Clara W. Mingins, supervisor of kindergartens, Detroit, Mich. The chairman announced a reception to be given by Miss Grace Fletcher to members of the Kindergarten and Child Study Departments at No. 814 Jefferson avenue. After a piano solo by Mrs. Ethel Roe Lindgren, of Chicago, 111., President Hall wel- comed the large audience in behalf of the two departments. He emphasized the appro- priateness" of joint sessions for these departments, and announced the general topic for both sessions of the two departments as " The Rhythm of Work and Play." " Work and Play for the Kindergarten Child " was the subject of the first paper, by Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, of the Chicago Froebel Institute. Music — violin solo, by Miss Farrell. " Work and Play for the Child in the Primary and Grammar Grades " was presented by Miss Charlotte M. Powe, supervisor of primary grades, Columbia, S. C. President Hall opened the discussion of the two papers. Following the discussion, the nominating committee presented the following nomina- tions for officers for the ensuing year, viz.: For President — Superintendent H. E. Kratz, Sioux City, la. For Vice-President — Miss Jennie Warren Prentiss, Cleveland, O. For Secretary — Miss Kate Hopper, Detroit, Mich. The report of the nominating committee was accepted without dissent and the nomi- nees declared elected as officers for the ensuing year. Manfred J. Holmes, Secretary. 500 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES Thursday, July ii, 1901 The second joint session of the Kindergarten and Child Study Departments of the National Educational Association was held Thursday, July 11, 190 1, at 3 o'clock p. m. in the Woodward Avenue Baptist Church. The meeting was called to order by the president, Miss Evelyn Holmes, of Charles- ton, S. C. Miss Grace Brown, of Detroit, gave a vocal solo, entitled " A Barque at Miclinglet," Lambert, which was followed by the president's address, by Miss Evelyn Holmes, Charles- ton, S. C. After another solo by Miss Brown, Miss C. Geraldine O'Grady read a paper entitled "Necessary Elements of Work and Play." Mrs. Ethel Roe Lindgren read a paper on " Rhythm in the Kindergarten," which she illustrated on the piano. The discussion was opened by Superintendent Charles H. Keyes, of Hartford, Conn., who was followed by Miss Mary Adair, of Philadelphia, Pa. The nominating committee, consisting of Mrs. Putnam, of Chicago ; Miss Adair, of Philadelphia ; and Miss Julia E. Youngs, of Detroit, presented its report, as follows : For President — Miss C. Geraldine O'Grady, of New York city. For Vice-President — Miss C. W. Mingins, of Detroit, Mich. For Secretary — Miss Mary May, of Salt Lake City, Utah. The report was accepted and adopted, and the nominees were declared elected as officers of the department for the ensuing year. The Committee on Resolutions reported the following : Resolved, That the kindergartners attending the convention express their gratitude to the home commit- tee, which so carefully provided for their comfort and pleasure ; to the board of trustees of the Baptist Church, for the beautiful auditorium and airy, restful parlors ; to the press of the city, for its reports of the meeting ; to the ladies who furnished the delightful music ; to Mr. Breitmeyr, for his generous provision of flowers ; to Misses Grace Fletcher, Irene Farquhar, Clara W. Mingins, and the other hostesses, for the charming recep- tion and other hospitalities. (Signed) Florence Lawson, Chairman. Ethel Rob Lindgren. C. Geraldine O'Grady. After the resolutions were unanimously adopted, the meeting adjourned. Clara W. Mingins, Secretary. On Friday afternoon, July 12, a parents' conference was held in the Woodward Ave- nue Baptist Church under the auspices of the Kindergarten Department, Miss Evelyn Holmes, president of the Kindergarten Department, presiding. A large number were present, including many noted speakers, and the session was both interesting and helpful. 501 5°2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS WORK AND PLAY IN THE KINDERGARTEN MRS. ALICE H. PUTNAM, SUPERINTENDENT CHICAGO FROEBEL ASSOCIA- TION, CHICAGO, ILL. It has been said that "that which is the truest sign of a thing is also its chief ornament and blessedness." So we may rightly open up the topic for this afternoon with a few words on the general activity of little children, for surely that is one of the fascinating phases of childhood, and it is one of the essentials for the well-being of the child himself. The interests of a child are continually changing, and consequently the forms in which these interests manifest themselves in play or work are contingent upon each other, and it is not so much one deed that enables us to determine the form, as what the child continues to do that gives the action its essential characteristic. There is a. rhythm, a recur- rence of certain stimuli, in the secret domain of a child's life, which will result in the repetition of its effects with more or less regularity. These recurrences follow each other very rapidly, and the alternations from work to play, and play to work, are often so quick that one needs to watch closely to determine which is the dominating impulse. A few weeks ago I had the care of a three-year-old boy who was playing horse with a rock- ing chair. It was not easy for him to adjust the trunk strap which he was using for traces, for it was too long and heavy. All at once the child dropped the " make believe" and said : "Wait a minute, I'll get a ham- mer and a sharp nail and make some other holes." This he did, and, after a few moments of earnest, conscious effort at leather work, he at once went back to the play and said- : "Now, Miss Ginger [the horse's name], you're hitched up; now let's see you go" — taking up the play just exactly where he had left off. This interruption of work by play, or play by work, is very noticeable in the kindergarten, and with little children everywhere. It often seems that the child's activity is like a crystal with many facets, which reflect the light differently according to one's point of view. Now it is a purely individual thing, very transitory ; then again, when one comes to take into account the stages of growth ; when we get, as it were, a perspective of what the child has done, as well as what he is now doing, we can feel that there is more or less of a rhythmical "beat" in it all. Any scheme of education which recognizes the life of children must in some way be able to meet the law of that life. Psychology is teaching Department] WORK AND PLAY IN THE KINDERGARTEN 503 us that there is a physical basis for this ebb and flow of interests. There are certain physical wants first that must be met. These in the begin- ning are iron necessities, and are not to be overlooked. I do not mean only the desire and need for food, shelter, clothing, but also the equally important protection and nourishment and scope for the child's feeling and thought. There must be food for the sense-perceptions that can be easily assimilated ; shelter and protection for right instincts and impulses, that out of them can come a self-determining rational power. These must be garments woven out of the truths of nature and life and spirit ; and yet in the beginning the child has to clothe himself with the appearances of things. The parent and teacher must consider all conditions for activity. We need a warning just here. The child plays his part in many and varying "tempos." There are often discords, when the parent or teacher fails to recognize the child's part, or, if he does estimate its worth, it is too much from an adult standpoint. On the other hand, a little child is constantly coming upon what he might call, were he able to name them, contradic- tions or oppositions. How shall he interpret them ? For, whether they are understood or not, he must act. And the difficult thing for us is the fact that the action itself cannot always be relied on as a clue to the inner motive, and we write him down as dull or lazy because he has not responded to what we suppose is the motive force. Hence the necessity for great scope in planning for the work and play of our children. While one would not want to call a child's attention to the rocks over which he must climb, yet difficulties are there, and children know it. I think it was this that led Froebel to try to help the child solve these riddles with a few things which always behave the same way, for if in concrete ways the child could master some of his problems, when the more abstract propositions of life loomed up, he would be more ready to feel that these, too, could be satisfactorily met. I find it hard to separate, to my own satisfaction, the social and indi- vidual results of these two factors on the life of the children. There are so many threads binding man to man that it is not easy to see the warp and woof of the fabric, especially in this very early stage of growth. Just as a healthy body is built up out of the harmonious work of all the organs, so I think there comes into the kindergarten and the home, with every bit of good individual work just as much as with play, a transla- tion of it into an esprit de corps which touches all in the little com- munity. So also the benefits of the social game, the play of the kinder- garten, affect the individual. Without this action and reaction on the one and the many, the spirit of the kindergarten is lost. I confess that one of the charms of kindergarten and nursery life to me is that here one does not have to stop and analyze and discriminate so closely as to motive and result and method as with older children. After all, the 504 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten first years of a child's life are like a picture or piece of music that we may look at or listen to first, as a whole, without a feeling of the necessity for having a critical analysis of all that the artist meant or felt when he painted or wrote. Tho the teacher and parent may see the end from the beginning, yet the right end can be reached in no other way than by the right use of very broad generalizations concerning work and play. • It seems to me that the unifying of the two is one of the very best things that Froebel did; and it is almost a pity to try to separate them, for one is as the heart, the other the brain, and both must grow and be worked out together. In regard to the self-compelling "must," or "have to," as being in evidence in play, as well as in work, it seems to be true that children feel the need of it within certain limits. The game has its laws, and the children individually and collectively yield to them, but no farther than, to their minds, the situation requires ; and woe betide the play- mate who undertakes to construe the law too arbitrarily or in too lax a fashion from that prescribed by custom and tradition. Without cer- tain restrictions the form and spirit of the play would be lost. An inter- esting experience which illustrates this came to me some time ago. A group of boys were playing with one of the large toy patrol wagons, and one of them suggested that they play they were a "fire company." They made a "run" or two with the wagon as it was, but very soon — almost at once — they felt that the "machine" was not telling the story they wanted it to tell. It had to be wholly reconstructed ; a boiler was added ; a part of an old gas stove served for the furnace ; the whole thing was repainted ; officers were chosen and uniforms made. The whole scheme originated in what I think Dr. Bailey would call the adapt- ive "must." It was work; for these definitely purposed results were con- sciously attained. The boys went day after day to the engine house of the nearest fire company, to study its details of construction. It was play, in the sense that they had freedom in the carrying out of their designs, and in that it was all a "make believe," and they knew it. In a similar way the kindergarten child knows that the ball is not a bird, nor the doll a baby; but in so far as it serves an ultimate form for their ideas of the bird or baby, it is such for the time being. When the "must" comes from within, one finds it easier to bow before it, and if, with an obedience, one feels a growth — if one can see satisfactory results — any amount of courage and hope is conserved. I think children feel this as much as we do. In the kindergarten there are two conditions to be met. The material for work and play should not only be such that the child can express his own images, but if the medium is worjh anything, either from an artistic or a scientific standpoint, it, too, is subject to law ; and the sooner a child obeys the suggestions of his material, the Department] WORK AND PLAY IN THE KINDERGARTEN 5°5 sooner he will know the law back of it; and this is a means to a larger use and greater freedom. When one sees how readily a child con- forms to what he himself feels to be reasonable, it seems inconsistent and inartistic for us to fail to find, as Froebel says, "ways and means thereto." If work-products do make for a greater sense of individual force — and probably they do — it seems to me that a child should have the right to accumulate for a time those things which stand to him as an embodiment of that to which he can refer, as one would to a working capital ; it is a good thing to have his experiences in such form that he can get at them. To illustrate what I mean, I would refer to a custom of the past in some kindergartens of putting the children's work — sewing, weaving, etc., etc. — into scrap-books, preserving in its placing a certain logical and suc- cessive arrangement. This was discarded by many; first, because it was feared that the child placed undue value on the result, rather than on the effort, and that we were forcing him to see logical arrangements ; secondly, because the character of the work itself changed, and became bulkier, and it could not be so placed ; and, thirdly, because it was thought that a certain spirit of unselfishness could be fostered, if the child knew from the outset that the work was not for self. I am beginning to wonder if the plan has not something to recom- mend it. The first objection surely was not quite just. We all need rewards, more or less, to hold us to our true work. To the child these must be, in the beginning, more or less external — that is, the work itself must, in his eyes, be a thing of value or beauty. These rhythms in arrangement (if I may use the word in that way) recall the effort he made in producing them, more or less vividly. The second objection has little weight, for in the construction work there could be a plan of arrangement that would teach lessons of order and development just as well, and perhaps go more directly to primitive industrial experiences. Nor do I think the third criticism valid ; for, in trying to hasten the development of an altruistic spirit, we are apt to weaken its truth and vital strength — it is strained, as the premature use of nerve or muscle can be strained. The child may or may not be interested in reviewing the order of his work. I am not at all sure that the logic of it always has a claim on him ; but I am not willing that you should say that he does not feel something of it. If we believe in rhythm, there is no reason for shutting it off anywhere it might naturally appear. I know, from the interest children take in reviewing what they have done, that, in spite of the fact that their work-products are diffusive and often quite super- ficial, there are germs of those qualities which are also intensive and permanent, and which need to be nourished. Many of the criticisms of the kindergarten have had a reasonable foundation in the isolations which have come into it thru too much 506 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten analysis and too much classification in its means of growth. Its directed work has been separated from its free work and play; its freedom from its obedience ; the laws of impression have been considered without a well-defined and full realization of the need for fuller expression. The kindergartner and the critic have both wearied themselves in trying to reconcile isolations, when, if there had been a fuller grasp of the whole idea, less exploiting of fragmentary matters, fewer claims as to what the kindergarten might, could, would, or should do — simply seeing to it that the conditions for the work and play of these children were the best that we could make — it would not have taken so long for it to become an integral part and parcel of the accepted plan for elementary educa- tion. Froebel says that " even the eternal ideal is following, passive in its requirements concerning the form of being." Kindergartners have not behaved as if they believed that, and the sooner they school them- selves to take a more scientific attitude, suspending judgment until the larger educational truths are verified, the better for us all. On the other hand, where these have been demonstrated, we have a right to act, we must act, in obedience to them ; yet methods in dealing with little children — indeed, it is true of all applied methods — so easily become "prescriptive" and "categorical" and "interfering" ! When we would avoid this, it is so easy to fancy that we have given the child freedom, when in reality he has nothing but license ! Unquestionably the sense of real freedom, which a kindergarten child feels, does make for individuality, but unless this is balanced by what I understand by Dr. Bailey's adaptive "must" in both play and work, the child's social consciousness cannot increase, and consequently he will be only half developed. In play, a child leaves behind him his own personality; even the thing he plays with must obey the same rule, and be something other than it is. Papa's cane is the galloping horse. Broken bits of crockery are like mamma's dishes; the-doll becomes the baby. The child takes into himself the images of the personality for which he stands, and becomes the storekeeper, the engineer, the parent. Play becomes social when the outsiders, whether children or adults, enter fully into these situations, when the originator's enthusiasms and illusions become theirs. Work may be more intensive and concentrative for an individual, but, after all, what is its value unless its results are shared ? By this, it may become as social in its character as play, and unless this does happen, its products, whether of mind or hand, will bring about a restless selfish- ness which prevents a broader outlook even into work itself. The child fancies that he acts purely from his own initiative, when the truth is that the environment and the situation have made just this course of action, and no other, a necessity. The activity changes its form, and is carried on on quite other lines than that in which it began ; Department] WORK AND PLAY IN PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES 5° 7 but he is led by these very conditions to do the best that he can under the limitations imposed by circumstance and material. Froebel's views with regard to these^ changing states, or states of the child, are very inclusive, and are applicable from the nursery and the kindergarten to the university. Briefly stated they are these : i. That the means for attaining the end for which man is created are inherent in the constitution of man as God made him — that is why there is work and play. 2. That he is related to a spiritual as well as to a natural world, and that these are worlds of cause and effect. 3. That there is an inflowing divine life into human life, and only thru this does man live. 4. That thru impression and expression the human being comes to an awareness of these truths. It seems to me that the whole of the scheme of education could be summed up in these principles. The right balance of work and play demonstrates them. The stage of growth and character of the child will determine whether he needs most the limitations of the idea of work, or more of the freedom that comes in play. We must not lose sight of the fact that the child is to be considered as a prime factor in his own educa- tion ; and each truth or experience, as it comes to him, must bear within itself that which appeals to his dual nature — his mind and his heart, his understanding and his will. No method which divorces this unity will ever succeed. If we have committed this fatal error, atonement can be made only by a thoro study of the child's affections, of his will, of his desires as well as of his rationality. This is the great problem now before our psychologists. When we shall have solved this, then we shall know the relation of work and play to life. WORK AND PLAY IN THE PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES MISS CHARLOTTE M. POWE, SUPERVISOR OF PRIMARY GRADES, COLUMBIA, S, C. I watched a young mocking bird on its first descent from the nest. It repeatedly stretched its wings and fanned the air, then hopped briskly for some yards. This it continued for some time, until, wearied with the exertion, it sought the low branches of a shrub, where it sat resting and being fed by the mother bird. A dog, after a long hunt, spends the rest of the day in sleeping off his fatigue. After reading steadily for some time, the boy throws down his book and has a romp with his brother or a run with his dog. The young business-man leaves his office after a hard day's work, and seeks recreation in a social evening with friends. Thru all 508 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten nature runs the rhythmic arsis and thesis of rest and recuperation, work and play, each setting off the other, each necessary to the other. Even the plants leave, blossom, and make fruit, then lie dormant until the season for fruit-making recurs. This rhythmic balance is natural to physi- cal and mental life, and if the play in either is thwarted or unduly emphasized, the harmony will be destroyed and the result will be physical or mental weakness, perhaps deformity. The child trainer, then, must yield to this natural law and take it into account in the development of her pupils ; by a careful study of each child to determine (i) the kinds of work and play necessary to his growth ; (2) the amount of work and play to which he has been accustomed ; (3) when and where to make him work, make him play, allow work, and allow play. Each individual must be treated according to his needs. The farmer's lad of nine, whose life has been one of labor, and whose almost only companions are hard-worked parents; who makes mature comments on the animals in sEsop's Fables, but in whose mind Mother Goose awakes no glimmer of response, needs much tactful coercion in the matter of play. Quite different the treatment of the street urchin in the same class, who has played games of all kinds and whose mind revolts from the drudgery of learning to read. These, however, are extremes. The average very young child makes no conscious effort for growth. Most of his physi- cal and mental expansion is thru the medium of spontaneous play. In the kindergarten this natural spontaneous play spirit is made use of in the training of the child. On entering the primary school he must learn to work with a conscious effort after thought-getting. Frequent periods of recuperation are necessary, and it is often possible to introduce the play element into his work, as the work element was brought into his play while in the kindergarten. Above the primary grades, where the work requires more application and time, the play is represented by such employ- ment as gives aesthetic pleasure, as well as by the recess period of physical relaxation. As a child advances in years he becomes taller, and by reason of con- stant employment attains to quite a " lump of muscle." He stores up for himself knowledge which he can call his own, which he can use as he pleases. There are words, dates, facts — his to keep. All this is the result of his work ; but not the only result. The very use of the muscles makes them more powerful and capable of doing harder things after each effort. Every effort, also, of the mind makes it more powerful and capable of more difficult performances. This power is one of the chief results of work. No one, however hard he may work, can develop muscle or faculty power for another. Each must do his own work. Work, then, makes for the cultivation of the individual life. Play is the balance. In it we want companions. We learn to know others, to see their weaknesses, appreci- ate their suffering, admire their strength, and emulate their example. We Department] WORK AND PLAY IN PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES 5°9 enjoy intercourse with them, and in turn strive to make ourselves agree- able to them. The individual is merged into the social being, and we have gained in sympathy and social adaptiveness. Some work is a necessity. The physical man needs sustenance, and food must be obtained or the body will die. The intellect, as well, weakens if it does not have its proper food and exercise. He who lives must work ; he who grows physically and intellectually must work. In the same way there is a strenuous " must " phase of play. After work recuper- ation is a necessity, or body and mind are soon incapable of further work. So this phase of play — eating, resting, sleeping — is just as essential as food-getting, and a neglect of either would result in deterioration, and ultimately in the extinction of the individual and so of the race. But all of life is not made up of the strenuous " must." When the problem of the means of existence has been solved, the mind and body have acquired a habit of work and play so that the exercise of each is a pleasure — l gratifying, purifying, and enlarging of individual tastes and inclinations. One's work, for instance, may be along the lines of scientific research, and play the gratification of the aesthetic nature. In this state, instead of working and playing to preserve life from extinction, the indi- vidual lives for the satisfying pleasure given by his work and play. He stands out among his fellows as unique. He works to make the work of others as easy as may be, and in his play he becomes able to express for himself and others what lack of skill and of cultivation makes it impossible for those others to express. The necessary work and play, then, tend to the preservation of life, and the expressive work and play make for individuality and talent. The very young child is little more than an animal, and his actions are merely instinctive. Little by little his mind awakens with the growth of his body, and he gradually learns to know, recognize, and judge of his environments. Most of his knowledge, as before stated, is gained thru the play instinct, and thru this medium he can best be trained. Instinct has already taught him the necessity of nourishment, and in his games he gains the necessary exercise. He is at first a law unto himself, self-centered.; not recognizing the rights of others. Thru games his social nature must be developed. The organized game of the kindergarten teaches him to recognize the rights of others, sympathy with them and for the dumb animals, and the necessity of law and order. When he has learned these things, his games are a pure delight. He plays because he can do it well, because he loves it and his companions, and the first required play has become the more aesthetic expressive play. Now is the time to develop his individ- ual mind — to teach him to work. Along with and thru this spontaneous play he may be taught to reason and to make research for himself; to discern and admire in others high characteristics, and wish to emulate 510 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten them. At this stage the thoughtful teacher will at first divide her atten- tion equally between the play and work, and hereafter gradually empha- size the work until the child's developed mind recognizes that he must work or he will sink into the desuetude abhorrent to awakened thought. The strenuous work, the expressive work, and the strenuous and the expressive play continue as elements in man's life until the day of his death, but the logical order of their emphasis in the development of the child seems to be inthis wise: essential play, expressive play, expressive work, essential work. It is not only necessary for the child trainer to recognize the existence of these elements and the order in which they must receive the predomi- nance of attention, but he must also recognize that they are ever present, and the neglect of one may retard the proper growth of mind and body. For instance, at the time when a habit of work is being formed, it is indispensable that exercise, nourishment, and rest should be taken at regular times o*f necessary lengths. If this is neglected, the body becomes sickly and the mind is worn out from overwork. Conversely, if during the age when the observance of exercise, rest, games, etc., is most necessary, some individual mental work is not required, the result will be a sickly mind and an overdeveloped animalism. So it is seen that a proper distribution of work and play is indispensable to the best hygienic devel- opment of mind and body. Such are the problems with which every teacher is met. Some chil- dren have had a certain kind of training, others another. Each one calls for a different sort of management, and must be assigned a course of study which will strengthen his weaknesses and tend to his natural growth. Here is a child, spontaneous, simple, sincere, it may be, but whose animal spirits are as yet ungoverned ; he needs much help in solving problems which require consecutive reasoning, and he lacks the ability to use what knowledge he has. Such a child has evidently learned much of the "law of the jungle" in his play — has had his social side well developed. He needs predominantly to form habits, to be taught to work. He wants the reasoning power which a knowledge of number gives ; the proper use of words in language ; the study in stories of incidents and lives as a unit, showing cause and effect ; a study of nature and the results of breaking her laws. The work given this child must be the primary studies in number, reading, language ; relations of things in size, direction, and distance ; deeds of great men ; many maxims and memory gems. Much of the work of this department, especially of the first year, is expressive work nearly akin to play; and the little conscious work demands recrea- tion in singing, physical culture, class recitations, as well as the care-free play period. There are other children evincing the same traits in varying degrees of strength. These belong to the same department. Their knowledge and faculty power, in relation to the amount of recuperation Department! WORK AND PLAY IN PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR GRADES 5 1- 1 needed, must determine the extent to which these primary studies may be taught — in other words, determine the grade. These years of primary work are essentially habit-forming years. Another boy presents himself who has attained to good habits of study and other things to be learned in what we have termed the primary grades. But he can reason only in the simple relations of numbers ; a study of arithmetic will help this. He needs to .know the problems of life and character, so we give him a knowledge of typical people in history and literature. He wants a working knowledge of his own language — grammar. He must study more closely cause and effect — the influence of the environments and racial peculiarities of men — which a knowledge of geography will supply. This is the age in which habit becomes con- scious duty, and work begins to take on the aspect of the necessary. The play feature is by no means excluded in this gradation. The artistic in music, literature, drawing, etc., is becoming a delight to the student. In organized games — baseball, basket-ball, class drills, etc. — he finds vent for his natural animal spirits and learns how to organize, to, lead, to live in both unison and friendly competition with his fellows. The grading, therefore, of a pupil will depend on the work which he has done and is able to do in relation to the amount of play necessary. In the first year of the primary school, work should hold sway about equally with play. During each succeeding year, work should become a more conscious effort, with a gradually growing distinctness of separation from the play, until in the grammar grades the strenuous work finds its true and dominant place. Upon the work and play instincts depend not only the course of study and gradation of the pupil, but the success or otherwise of the methods of a teacher. In the primary grades, for instance, language and reading may be taught in social conversational style. This is one reason why I prefer the sentence and word methods in teaching reading to the old alphabetic method, which necessitates too much of the unimaginative "must work," inadvisable, in my opinion, at this stage. In number lessons the objective method puts objects, by which the children are to learn rela- tions of numbers, into their hands almost as if they were toys, and the prac- tical application of the use of numbers is made in examples which cultivate the imagination as well as the reasoning powers. The work and play aspect gives also an argument for the predominance of concrete number work during the first two years of primary work. In the grammar grades the mind recognizes work as work, and the teacher of modern methods leads her pupils to make their own rules in arithmetic. In history they must not only memorize facts, but be made to see the relation of an event to preceding ones, to read the signs of pres- ent times, and to prophesy of the future. In literature they are led by the teacher to make character analysis and criticism, and (in this is 512 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten the expressive play evinced) to take pleasure in finding ethical beauty and following moral purpose. An original teacher is one who appreciates the proper relations of work and play, and is quick in adapting herself to them. Many are her devices, all born of this appreciation. Here is such a teacher of primary work. Her class has just completed a short, brisk lesson in numbers and is mentally tired. In another moment nature will assert itself in a wriggle, mayhap in a fisticuff. Before this can happen she makes use of the instinct of recuperation and calls for a song or some physical exercise. The next lesson is one in phonics. She writes a letter on the board — say f — and catches the attention of the class by likening the sound it represents to that of an engine letting off steam. In delight they make the sound and are easily taught the position of the vocal organs. After a recess period her children come into the room with excited animal spirits running high. They are soon quieted by the telling of a story which must be reproduced. So every instinct is directed into proper channels, every irregularity anticipated and provided against, and the result is a well-disciplined class. The same principle holds true in the management of the older children. Play and work indulged in along the lines of law and order, each in its proper place, time, and dura- tion, result in good discipline. Again, in many cases, if a child inclined to be unruly finds his teacher can play well, he is often willing to submit to his authority in the matter of work. There came once into one of my classes a girl who was restless, meddlesome, inclined to think me a natural enemy. I invited her to a spin on our wheels, we exchanged duplicate foreign stamps, and played tennis together. Gradually she felt my interest in her and respected it. I now think of her as one of the best pupils I ever had. A high-toned young Harvard graduate accepted a position as teacher in a school in which I taught. He was well made, but small, and some of the larger boys who had won the epithet of "bad fellows" were inclined to regard him with contempt. Soon he had organized his class into a baseball club and was training them to play according to the methods of the Harvard diamonds. Before the end of the year the "tone" of his class was unimpeachable and his pupils as good workers (.and players too) as any in the school. Thus I contend that the proper relation of " work and play " in deter- mining couise of study, gradation, method, device, and discipline is an all-important question ; a question the correct solution of which will make for the highest development of manhood in our pupils. Department] WORK AND PLAY IN YOUTH 513 WORK AND PL A Y IN YOUTH M. V. O'SHEA, PROFESSOR OF SCIENCE AND ART OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN Crabbed age and youth cannot live together ; Youth is full of pleasance, age is full of care ; Youth like summer morn, age like winter weather ; Youth like summer brave, age like winter bare. Youth is full of sport, age's breath is short ; Youth is nimble, age is lame ; Youth is hot and bold, age is weak and cold ; Youth is wild, and age is tame. — Coleridge. I'll serve his youth, for youth must have his course ; For being restrained it makes him ten times worse, His pride, his riot, all that may be named By times recalled, and his madness tamed. — Shakespeare. People have always felt that some of the manifestations of young blood were hostile to the best life in society. "The imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth," say the Scriptures. Job defends himself against his accusers, protesting that they make him possess the iniquities of his youth, which he has long outgrown ; while David offers a prayer to his Creator, imploring him not to remember the sins of his youth, nor his transgressions. And men have sought by one means or another to repress these excesses and madnesses of adolescence. They have said that hot passion must be bridled, that the exuberant egoism of the boy just coming to feel the independence and power of manhood must be checked down on all sides ; the wild colt must early be broken to the harness of life. These persons have counseled a strenuous life for the adolescent; it is good for one to bear the yoke in his youth, they say; for there is virtue in honest combat with the difficulties of the world, since mental and moral muscle can be nurtured only by conflict. But from another side we receive advice of a different sort. We are told that the impulses of youth must be indulged and not suppressed ; that they are essential to a full, round character ; that each urgent instinct, if per- mitted to run its course, will contribute to the completed structure of the human soul. If we should follow these last voices, we would serve instead of compel youth ; we would allow girls and boys to speed out along the lines of least resistance ; we would expect them to expend their energies largely in play, in a certain sense. Shakespeare would be patient with the pride and riot of the adoles- cent, but the great poet nevertheless realizes that ultimately the madness of youth must be tamed. The intemperance, the egoism, the bravado of young blood must be brought into correspondence with the requirements $14 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten of community life as it exists here and now. Activity must be drawn off from profitless, and sometimes even harmful, enterprises and turned into productive channels. Undue self-exaltation, the vanities of looks and possessions, the pride of purse or of intellect, must be tempered by con- sideration for the feelings and claims of others, and an appreciation of their worth. Passion must be bridled and subdued that it may not lead its possessor athwart the laws of health or morality. And in many another way the deep-seated, instinctive activities of adolescence must be inhibited, or, at least, modeled into conformity to the requirements of adaptation to a complex altruistic, ethical, and social order. And how may this inhibition be best brought about ? How can pride and madness be tamed ? By direct repression ? Or is it a matter of guiding the forces of life, depending upon it that, if we employ them all at certain points of our own choosing, there will be nothing left to operate at other points against our wishes? Now, we must inquire of the neurologist what he has to say regarding the modus operandi of inhibiting activities; and when we do, receive the answer that an action may be checked in its progress by putting against it one of an opposite character, and of its strength ; or it may be inhibited by using in other ways the energies which would be required to produce and sustain the action. The neurologist would lay chief emphasis upon this last mode of inhibition, especially in the immature brain, where organization is still imperfect, where the checking system is still inoperative for a great variety of actions. Now, the great racial traits bequeathed to the child as instincts constitute the routes which the adolescent may pursue with greatest facility and pleasure ; as a result of unnumbered ages of traffic these old ancestral thorofares have been made easy and comfortable to the modern traveler, and so he is but too apt to choose them beyond all other courses for his journeying. But this sounds pessimistic. If the fate of every young voyager has been determined by the practices of his ancestors, what can we do about it ? The adolescent will live out his instincts, and we cannot stop him, do what we may. Yet hold a bit : there is a way of throttling instinctive actions that alienate the adolescent from the world about him. We can bring to bear upon him, with tremendous force, stimulations which meet with responses that absorb the whole of his life ; stimulations emanating from impressive, commanding personalities with whom he comes in con- tact; stimulations from biography, from history, from literature, from science, from his games and plays, and all the rest that is good and elevating. These reactions will drain off the forces of the organism, will monopolize the thought, and leave nothing for the support of conduct antithetic to the environment which is acting upon the individual. This doctrine of inhibition is seen in its outward effects in all the phenomena of daily life. One who observes the activities of the young Department] WORK AND PLAY IN YOUTH 515 sees how behavior is determined absolutely in view of this principle of the expression of energy at one point and its withdrawal from other points. How quickly a child's conflicts with his companions, or his assault upon household finery, or anything of the sort, is abandoned when there is made to play upon him some strong stimulus which incites activities of a different character, as when a game is organized for him, or he is given tools to work with, or 'he is invited to go to the circus, or he is furnished with an attractive book to read! The world beats in upon the child, and that which makes the strongest impression, depending upon its significance for him as determined by the qualities of objects themselves, and by his whole previous experience with them, or some- thing like them — the strongest impressions win the child's recognition and determine his conduct. Again, the principle under consideration is seen in the case of sick- ness, where the organism is depleted of its energies and few activities of any sort occur. Even profound and instinctive actions, which in fair weather urge their possessor on to action, now have no force. There is no energy to set a-going and to support such action. But as the sick one returns to health, as the ravages of disease are repaired and there is some- thing over and above what is necessary for the support of vital function, then the old accustomed reactions begin to reappear, and in time return with all their original force, provided that in the interim some new interests have not gained a foothold. And this brings us more particularly to the problems of play and work in adolescence. When a boy's energies find an outlet thru those channels worn deep from the ceaseless treading of the race ; when he does the thing that humanity before him has done for a practically limit- less reach of time, whether this produces immediately valuable results or not, then he plays. These old racial activities constitute the lines of least resistance for the individual ; there is no opposition, no impedi- ment, no opening up of new highways. But in work there are barriers to be broken down, new pathways to be blazed forth, unpracticed activities to be learned. The boy responds subconsciously to the old enticements, and there is of necessity a struggle in doing the new thing when the old seems so much easier. Thus play affords for the adolescent, or for anyone else, the highest degree of pleasure, since the whole being becomes engaged in it without reserve and without compulsion. There is no division of personality in such a situation, no tension between motives, no long weighing of considerations ; the whole life is given up in harmonious unity to the doing of the thing which is felt as play. But in work enterprises foreign to the one in hand make a con- stant appeal for the attention and devotion of the worker ; the boy pores over his geometry, and a small voice within him whispers of football, of skating, of the ball-room, of the billiard table ; and it gains an audience 5 1 6 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TION [Kindergarten it secures some response — enough, at any rate, to set up a struggle in the soul, which gives a consciousness of effort for the student in holding himself to his task. Now, if one purpose in the treatment of youth be the direction of the superabundant forces of young life into channels of social and moral action, of usefulness and frankness and diligence and courteous demeanor and courageous action — if this be our leading purpose, can we attain it best by engaging the adolescent mainly in play or mainly in work ? Shall we seek to beget conduct of the right sort by soliciting from our pupil reactions that enlist his whole being, and that to him have all the joys of play; or shall we, for the sake of cultivating a vigorous, stalwart character, one that will regard with equal stoicism both drudgery and happiness in the affairs of daily life, deliberately bring the boy and girl face to face with situations which must be dealt with in a stern and seri- ous and painful manner, and which are not of themselves in accord with the child's interests and spontaneity ? Perhaps we may receive help in our difficulty if we take counsel of the great masters who have been stu- dents of child nature, and who have reflected long and earnestly upon the best manner of teaching the young idea how to shoot. If we ques- tion Aristotle, Quintilian, Montaigne, Rousseau, Locke, Spencer, and all the rest, we shall receive but one sort of answer, namely, that the best suc- cess is attained when thru the child's play we guide and direct him until he has arrived at the estate of manhood. Play, says the modern scientist, organizes and solidifies personality in the most efficient way, since it commands all the powers and faculties of the mind in its prosecution. What the child can play at will attract him, and so will exert a profounder influence upon him than if it was forbidding to him. " Little profit grows where no interest is ta'en," says Shakespeare, and both psychology and experience indorse the proposition. But what of work ? Shall the adolescent do nothing but that which engages him in a pleasurable way ? Shall he not be made to struggle with difficulties, to put aside the blandishments that lure him from the tasks that must be performed if he is to realize the most in his life ? The solution of the problem will seem the easier when we consider that much that is of profit to one in the present age of the world is of recent origin in the race, and it has not yet become established so deeply that it is inherited by the young as instinct, thus constituting an easy way for energy to express itself. Much of what a youth must learn if he is to become adapted to the world about him, the world of men and things alike, is new and difficult. Life is certainly more complex today than it was when the race was at the starting-point. The crude, instinctive actions which served well enough when things were simple, are now wholly inadequate to successful living, and in some instances are hostile to the best success in life. The race is ever growing more altruistic, and Department] WORK AND PLA Y IN YOUTH 5 « 7 the scope of individual action must grow more restricted, in a certain sense — in the sense that purely selfish deeds which characterize the early years of life must be more and more inhibited; the boy must observe the golden rule today more fully than his ancestors did. The sphere of knowledge is widening every day, and the adaptations to the world which this gives is growing more complex and intricate, but at the same time more perfect and desirable. And these higher phases of life must be mastered by effort ; youth must work, if maturity is to be happiest and most successful. Play gives mastery of only the simplest processes of living; the fundamental requisites are certainly gained in this way, but everything finer and more subtle and complicated comes only by diligent application, and that not voluntary or spontaneous, at the start at any rate. Growth in the higher reaches is secured only by struggle ; the tendency is to stop on a lower plane of development, where the fundamental instinctive activ- ities suffice to keep body and soul together, and there must be constant pressure brought to bear upon the learner of life's ways to get him to ascend to the point which the race has reached in social, intellectual, ethical, and even physical living. The boy will not, undirected, unaided, and unforced, equip himself for the duties and privileges of life in civil- ized society by making his own the insight and power and skill and con- trol which history and literature and science and mathematics give ; other and simpler things will appeal to him too immediately and seductively. And what, then, is the doctrine? Youth climbs the mountain of life most naturally and in a sense most effectively by play, but the topmost point can be reached only by work. What is the golden mean ? There is seen to be a harmonizing principle, when it is recognized that work becomes most effective when one has an end in view to attain by his efforts. If there is nothing but a blank wall ahead of him, his life will be miserable indeed. Work must always have a clear goal toward which it tends, and this must be worth reaching. Mere drudgery for the sake of discipline alone disintegrates personality, kills initiation and sponta- neity; the activities it produces are always the results of force imposed from without. Drudgery which is not tributary to some useful end does not stir the inner life to noble deeds, it does not result in that organization of the being where all works together in harmony. And youth is the time of all others when things that receive any consideration must have a life-relation ; they must help to solve some of the problems that confront a mind opening up rapidly to the meaning and responsibilities of exist- ence— problems of a social, an ethical, an intellectual, and a physical character. Anything which promises to be a guide to youth thru the unknown country which it is to enter will be mastered, no matter what effort is required to attain it. And herein lies the possibility of making work effective, of leading the adolescent boy and girl to apply 518 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten themselves to tasks that are hard and in themselves uninteresting and unattractive ; but they lead somewhere, that's what makes them tolerable. If the literature and history of the high school are made to illumine the dark places of the pupil's everyday life ; if the geometry gives his mind poise and stability in the midst of phenomena which would otherwise be distracting and unsettling; if the physics be made to interpret the real world of forces acting in the pupil's environment; if grammar be made wholly tributary to the right use of language in the everyday needs of the student ; in short, if the school leads the student to see the significance of the work that must be done, that must be done for successful living, then it loses its aspect of drudgery, and the pupil will put forth his strength upon it, as he does so freely expend himself upon his baseball, upon his billiards, upon his novels, and upon other things which touch his life. One need have no fears in saying that a youth cannot be led into participation in the highest life of the race without tremendous effort on his part; modern life is altogether too complex, too involved, to be mastered in a free and easy way. The youth who will not strain himself, who will not gird up his loins to do battle with ignorance, will forever forfeit the happiness which comes from a broad, deep knowledge of the world, and a consciousness of a mastery over it. But the end of effort must always be the comprehension and conquest of one's self and the world to which he is related, and the youth must be made to see his prog- ress toward this end in his work, when all the powers of his being will become co-ordinated in the effort to attain it. DISCUSSION President G. Stanley Hall, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. — The papers just read are both open to discussion, but before throwing the whole topic open either for question or debate, I should like to- take the liberty of saying a few words with regard to play and work and one or two of the problems that are involved. These papers are so admirable, and have covered the chief practical points so well, that on points on which they specialize there is very little that needs to be said. But there are other aspects of this very vast subject, as everyone knows, and best of all the readers of the papers, that may perhaps be worth some moments of attention. It is to these things that I should like to invite your attention briefly. In the first place, as you know, within the last few years there has been a vast amount of discussion as to what play really is and means, and just at present most of us in the psychological field are rather dominated by the theory of a German writer named Grosse, who has written two books — one on play and work of animals, and one on play and work of men — which are based upon the theory that all kinds of play are anticipatory industries of later years. That was a very important contribution, and there is a great deal that sustains it ; but I think the view is very generally gaining ground that it is inadequate, and is not sufficient as a basis for educational work. Play is much more than this. A great deal of play might be defined as just exactly what this is not. It is doing things that never will be of any kind of practical use in the world. Play for the body is Department] WORK AND PLAY IN YOUTH 519 something like the imagination for the mind. No one would attempt to say that fancy, in all its multifarious forms, is getting ready to think severely. So I think it is but a partial view that play is simply fore-activities that later will become work. Play is really universalizing — Froebel understood that. The child does everything by play, and the real object of a good deal of play is not anticipatory of work. We have a long list of plays which we cannot explain in any other wise than as the necessary activity of rudimentary organs of the mind and body. What are the rudimentary organs, so called ? They are organs both of mind and body, that pass away or disappear, that are absorbed before maturity is attained ; hence, of course, the activity of these cannot be anticipatory of work. But it is very important to exercise these rudimentary organs and functions. Children have to live over, in a great many respects, the activities of the race, as everyone .knows. They have to be in petto savages and fetich-worshipers, and that sort of thing, and it is necessary that these rudimentary organs, which are going to vanish out of sight, some of which are to be subordinated by the development of higher organs, shall be exercised. It is. a very curious thing that the vermiform appendix and certain muscles of the body — for instance, certain points about the hips — have to be exercised at certain periods that they may vanish ; and if they are not exercised at such periods, they do not vanish when the proper time comes, but they remain as pensioners, as they may be termed, on the body. In the case of rudimentary organs, use means disappearance. It tends to make them vanish, and it is therefore very necessary, as a part of nature's economy in cleaning house, so to speak — in getting rid of superfluities. This is just as true of the mind as it is of the body. If there were time, I think I could convince the most reluctant that children need to lie, and that they need to practice certain things which, if adults did them, would be criminal. If they are not allowed to do these things when they are babies or children, when these activities are not criminal, then they do not reduce these rudimentary organs, and they grow, and the criminality or vice, or whatever it may be, is liable to break out in later years. Hence the functions of some things which we rather too strict pedagogs call vice and crime are, some of them, most beneficial, and we need to give childhood large latitude in both what it does and thinks and feels, in order that we shall clear the soul of the de"bris of the past stage of evolution and make a platform for the development of humanity ; that we may lay the basis strong and deep. If the child does not have a chance to give vent to these faculties at the time when they are plastic and can be vanquished, then they are liable to grow with the child's growth, and we find abnormalities creeping out in a few years. This is a function of play which Mr. Grosse and his school have not recognized, but it is so well established that it has become almost a commonplace with those who have given the subject attention. This does not mean, to anyone who happens to be hot for controversy, that we shall put the children thru a course of vice, thru a course of barbarism, or thru a course of immorality, in order to cleanse and purgate their souls ; but it is simply the development of the good Aristotelian doctrine that, if a man goes to a theater and sees a man choking another, he goes home from the theater less likely to choke a man himself ; that, if he saw vice on the stage, it unloaded the tendency to vice in himself. That theory has not quite developed itself, and it is an extreme theory of aesthetic or dramatic art; but without doubt there is some truth in it. When the judgments can be pre-formed by stories in childhood, they seem in later years as something they have imagined or dreamed ; so, when we control the fancy of the child, we are laying down paths over which conduct is to run its main traffic in later years. That is the doctrine and the theory of play. There should be a great deal of latitude and liberty, and a good deal of diminution of our severity, in judging the conduct of children. We forget that their souls and bodies come into the world freighted with the promise of all that is best, and also freighted with 520 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten a great deal of what is worst, in the world ; that their bodies and minds send their roots deep down into the animal kingdom, and that we have not a single organ of our body or a single cell that we have not inherited from an animal ancestry; and that is, to some extent, true at least of some of the basal qualities of the soul's instincts and feelings. Hence one of the functions of play is to vent all these bad activities and to do in play form what constituted the lives of savages, and, if you want to be evolutionists, the lives of animals. It is necessary to exercise these things, so that the organs which they repre- sent may be reduced, because these lower activities call into action higher powers that reduce them. That is the way it works. So that sometimes it is a good thing for a child to rouse its conscience thru some such exercise, and later they are much less likely to do that same thing again. Of course, we must not apply our adult standards of morality to little children. Let them be wild. Let them play, with their lies of fancy and imagination. The soul is larger than a fact ; the soul needs to be the instigator of all faculties and the seat of all dreams. Childhood will have its rights in spite of us pedagogs ; and it is a good thing. It is necessary, in order to relieve that hunger for something that is larger. If you don't give them the gracious lies of poetry, with perhaps'a'great deal of imagination in it, they will make them. That is the play of the mind. Another of the recent lines of investigation, which I think has been very fruitful, has been directed toward the laws of fatigue, as you all know. We have had everywhere studies of fatigue. How long is the normal period of study for this child ? For what age ? How does it affect blood pressure ? How does it affect sleep ? How does it affect reaction ? And so on. If you set children at work when they are fatigued, you are cultivating, not scholar- ship, but nervousness, and that is an awful thing. The American nerves are in danger. The American child is the most nervous child in the world. According to the child studies that have been made, it has more automatism than any other child. It is more easily upset; its mind is quick, alert, and it matures younger than most children. The American child is liable to get on its nerves ; cannot stop play ; cannot go to sleep readily; jumps and twitches when it does go to sleep. That is a product of fatigue. If we could only find a way of getting children for work when their minds are in their best condition, we should get results much superior to what we do get. The mind which is really fresh can do several fold more work than the mind which is fatigued. That is why refreshment is good when given in the kindergarten, as it is in some. The practice which prevails in some of the kindergartens of allowing naps in the middle of the day is good. It is one way of systematically restoring and saving the child from one of the great enemies of the human race — -fatigue. The trouble with work in the schools is that it brings on fatigue, which tends not only to neurasthenia, but to degeneration and arrest, and that is something that the little girl is very much more prone to than the little boy. It is a very impressive and signifi- cant fact that the female organism has the power to draw upon its reserves much more readily than the male organism. That is true of the body and of the mind. It is very much easier for a woman to overdo and not know it ; very much easier to draw upon those reserves which are meant by nature to go to posterity, or to future life, or to longevity — to draw upon them and not know it ; and when the crises come incidental to motherhood, change of life, and old age, then these troubles come back. That is a thing we need to bear in mind : the trouble with work is that it means worry. Work is all right. You can do a great amount of work, just so long as you keep well nourished and sleep, and keep from anxiety; but the anxious child, the hard-worked child, the child that has to do too much, is in danger. We see it in athletics. There is, indeed, a great danger that boys who train in college will draw upon their vital organism, so that, if there is any trouble of the heart or lungs, the athlete is the one who breaks down. The easy-living one does not. Department] WORK AND PLAY IN YOUTH 521 I did not mean to take the time of the convention to talk at length about these vast themes ; my intention was simply to introduce the speakers and to invite discussion upon all the papers. A Member.—1 What about habit in the instance to which you referred of the child that lied ? Dr. Hall. — The age of habit really has not dawned yet. It is to come later. The period of habituation is really from about eight or nine to twelve ; those four years are specially sacred to the formation of habits and automatism. Mrs. Putnam. — Would you curtail that lying — I don't like to call it that exactly — but that extravagance ? Dr. Hall. — I think curtailment should come very early in life, and should be gradually introduced as the mind expands. A Member. — Would you make a distinction between the lie of the imagination and the lie to escape punishment for wrong-doing ? Dr. Hall. — Yes, indeed. I am very glad you asked that question. Of course, the lies of the imagination are, as Plato called them, " gracious lies ; " the lies that make poetry, which are lies only to gradgrinds, that want facts, only facts. But the meanest and most censurable lies are lies which are told to escape the natural consequences of acts. Those are a totally different thing, and it is unfortunate they have the same name. I think psychologists make several classes of lies — the natural lie, the lie of the imagina- tion, the generous lie, etc. Mrs. Putnam. — Why can't you give them another name ? Dr. Hall. — I think we can. It is a question of the dictionary, perhaps of inventing a Greek word, but people don't like new words as a rule. A Member. — You say that by using these organs which eventually disappear, or are intended to disappear, higher organs will develop. Now, suppose that activity promotes the growth of these lower organs, and the higher organs do not develop, will not those organs retain their life ? Dr. Hall. — No. A Member. — The only organ you mentioned is the vermiform appendix. I pre- sume that that does remain. Now, would it not remain in the case of activity, if some- thing higher in the organism did not develop to serve the purpose for which that was originally intended, in the lower life ? Dr. Hall. — No, it would not. I am reluctant to use my old illustration, because I have used it so often, of the tadpole's tail. We know that the tadpole is going to become a frog. It is born in the water and it is going to live on land very largely. Suppose we say: " We won't have this low species of mere fish life." Suppose some pedagog of polly- wogs should come in and say: " We will shorten this line, we will cut off the tail ; or else we won't let them use the tail, so that it won't grow. Therefore we will straighten the way for the growth of the pollywog." But if the tail did not grow, if it was not exercised, the result would be that the legs would not grow, and the animal would have no means of locomotion at all. Some people think that a tadpole's tail falls off. There never was a tail that fell off. It is absorbed. It has to be developed in order that you may have the legs later. Again, take the gill slits. All of us have gill slits some months before birth. Some have gill slits at birth ; in many cases of deformity they are seen. They are indubitable signs of the aquatic origin of life. As the embryo develops, this particular gill slit is twisted around and makes two of the muscles of the eye. One of them is transformed slowly, develops, and becomes the principal part of the fauces, makes the vocal cords, and makes a part of the larynx, which is used in swallowing. Another is twisted around and makes the Eustachian tubes. Another one does not disappear, and makes the thyroid glands, whose use we do not know. Suppose you could eliminate the gill slits. You would eliminate those higher organs which grow out of them. That is 522 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten what I mean by the transformation which is stimulated by use. Use makes these higher organs develop out of the lower. A Member. — I want to ask another question. You say, where exercise has not been given to those lower organs, that there is necessarily stunted growth in the higher organs developed from those lower organs. You were speaking of the mind, weren't you, and not of the physical nature ? Dr. Hall.— Both. The Member. — You declare it as a principle that where there has been a stunted growth of the lower organism there must be a corresponding deformity or stunted growth of the higher organs on which these are based. Dr. Hall. — That is it exactly. What would happen if the higher organ was developed excessively and the lower stunted, if such a thing could be ? You would have, in that case, the precocious Christian that John Stuart Mill describes. He says it is a bad thing for children to get converted too early; that is, at seven or eight years of age. And he goes on to say, in the well-known, oft-quoted phrase, which you have no doubt heard, that children who are pious early are very much like early risers — very good in the forenoon of life, and very stupid and dull in the afternoon. There is a certain season when nature seems to have decreed that religion should begin its great and sacred work of transformation, which is the most important thing in the world. It seems to belong in a certain period of growth. It cannot come too early; it cannot come too late. There is a nascent period where it belongs, and the conversion curves rise up at sixteen or seven- teen, and then fall much lower. All the confirmation ceremonies in all the churches in all denominations thruout the world — Greek, Catholic, Jew — are just then. That is the special period. If it is earlier, the danger is it will be a kind of vaccination. You will have the " chicken-pox " form of religion, and not the true thing. A Member. — I believe there are current theories with regard to the laws of biology, that the use of an organ develops it. Now, how can you reconcile that idea with the notion that the use of the pollywog's tail eliminates it ? Don't we have to say that the pollywog's tail disappears because the energy goes to the working of some other parts of the organism, and does not disappear because it is exercised, but that there is develop- ment because it comes into action, and that the working of the tail has nothing to do with the disappearance of the tail ? Dr. Hall. — I thought I stated — I stated it as clearly as I could — that this is absolutely an exception to the general law, the Lamarckian law of use and disuse. You are quite correct, as you know, in stating the general theory of Lamarck, which every biologist holds, that, in general, use strengthens and disuse weakens. But in the use of the rudimentary organs, after theyhave reached their acme of development, this law is reversed. To ask why is to ask why the sun does not rise in the west. It is just as uni- versal a law as the Lamarckian law. When the rudimentary has reached its maximum, the more you use it, the faster it degenerates. Take the case of some physical diseases, as consumption : at a certain stage the general use of the lungs hastens the decomposition of tissue. We see it, too, in many forms of degeneration and disease. Excessive use when the organ is on the way down accelerates the process of deterioration ; that is one of the great laws of the world. Mrs. Putnam. — To return to our theme, I think the children's work in the kinder- garten comes from the things that they see about them. They see their mothers making bread and they want to make bread. Do you call that work or play ? Dr. Hall. — I call that play. Mrs. Putnam. — I tried to make plain in my paper that there was not a distinction at the kindergarten age between work and play. They merge one into the other in such a way that I do not care to try to separate them ; I do not know that I could if I wanted to. A Member. — I speak as a mother. I should like our boys and girls to be factors in Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT 523 the home, part of the home. Ought not they to be made to feel that they are factors in the home and have their little tasks to do ? If it is play, all the better ; but if it is work, will it not make them better boys and girls ? Just as father and mother work to make the home beautiful, ought not children to feel that they have something to do with that ? If we can make it play, all right. But if we cannot, isn't it the mother's duty and the father's duty to see that those tasks are done, to make the boys better men and the girls better women ? Dr. Hall. — That is it exactly. Just in proportion as the mother and father have ingenuity enough to make the children think their work is play, they are pedagogical, and they are doing the best possible work. But just as soon as they lack the wit and lack the pedagogical instinct to make the children think it is play, and they are reluc- tantly forced to do it, that is a different thing. With regard to the kindergarten, my point was this : it seems to me there is a little too much tendency to make the children overwork in doing a certain set of things, making products out of paper, something of that sort, when you have the whole world of play, which is infinitely larger than the Froebel's gifts, to draw from. I think we get more activity, more discipline, train the imagination better, help the soul, than if we try to transmute play into work. Mrs. Putnam. — Two weeks ago a mother of a boy came to me. She was a stranger, and she said : " I came to you to see if you could give me any help in regard to my boy. He is an absolute kleptomaniac ; he has been stealing from the time he was three years old, and now he is beginning to do it consciously, and is beginning to cover his tracks. I felt it was something he would grow out of ; I felt it was something I could indirectly meet ; and I let him alone. Now he has got the habit. Now, what are you going to do ?" I could not give her any help ; but, if your rule holds good, he should go on stealing. Dr. Hall. — I think all these individual cases should be met precisely as a physi- cian should meet a case of physical disease. Mrs. Putnam. — I told her to write to you and find out. Dr. Hall. — I get hundreds of letters from anxious mothers about cases of that kind. What shall I do ? I say : I can't tell anything about it unless I can see your child. You would not think of writing to a doctor at a distance, probably, asking : "What medi- cine shall I give for this, that, and the other symptoms ? " I know of a family in Boston that had a son who was a kleptomaniac. They thought the best thing to do was to let him steal and get punished for it, a week or some days, in prison. He did ; and it proved to be a good thing for him. It might not be a good thing for another boy. You must use your best judgment, and not have a rule that you cannot bend to suit the individual. PRESIDEN1 'S ADDRESS, KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT MISS EVELYN HOLMES, DIRECTOR OF SOUTH CAROLINA KINDERGARTEN TRAINING SCHOOL, CHARLESTON, S. C. Since the early seventies the kindergarten has held a prominent place among the departments of the National Educational Association. Its •influence cannot be estimated. From the pioneer days, when every inch of ground had to be fought over and won by dint of much speaking as well as doing; when its enemies were of its own household, namely, the educators of that day, who, succumbing one by one, as the force of the truth of Froebel's educational principles became clear to them, have happily become its exponents ; from that far-away day to the present 524 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten time, the National Educational Association has stood as the strongest advocate for the kindergarten in this country. Now that the first victory is won, and the kindergarten is accepted as a force in the early stages of education, it becomes the privilege and duty of kindergartners to see that the campaign is carried farther, even into all grade, college, and university work. Here at Detroit is the time for a clear understanding, a fuller sympathy, and a more definite purposing con- cerning the work which this department has before it in the coming years. The uniting for this convention of the Departments of Child Study and Kindergarten was proposed by the presidents of these departments, seconded by the President and officers of the association and many prominent kindergartners, with the hope that it will prove a step toward a stronger bond of unity with all allied departments. All kindergartners believe that the Froebelian principles of education are destined to permeate and influence greatly all branches and phases of education. This end, therefore, should always be in view and call for support and effort. We are all members of a large national family, and, as members, presumably interested in each other's progress. A year ago this great body met at Charleston, and thus showed its strong interest and desire to help in the progress of education in the South. We, who are struggling to uphold and advance the kindergarten cause in the South, so that it shall stand in its right relation to all education and shall be an energy itself in the forwarding and formative process, have cause to be grateful to the National Educational Association con- vention of 1900. Especially are thanks due to Madame Kraus-Boelt£, the honored president, and to the other friends who came from long dis- tances with helpful words and kindly suggestions. To these, and to all our friends gathered on this occasion, are addressed these words concern- ing the progress of the kindergarten movement in South Carolina. On that occasion Professor P. P. Claxton, of Greensboro, gave an address on " The Needs of the Kindergarten in the South." He first referred to the need of the kindergarten in the South, that the parents might better understand the education of their children in all phases, and become awakened to a sense of their own duty in this respect. He next referred to the need of the kindergarten in the South, that parents, teachers, and school officers should better understand the connection between the school and the home life. He also spoke of the need of the kindergarten for "the millions of children of the dusky race whose home is among us," arguing that the kindergarten is the best type of school to bring about the transforming influences so much needed. And lastly he spoke thus : But we need the kindergarten most especially for another reason. The southern states are rapidly becoming the home of the factory. Already the cotton factory is a Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS, KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT 525 familiar sight in the Carolinas and Georgia. The country people are moving into the factory towns from their country homes, with their large families of children. Is it need- ful that I should depict for you this factory town and its life — the large brick factory building with its long rows of humming spindles and rattling looms, at which men, women, and children work twelve hours a day ? I have seen boys and girls under ten working thru the night, from six to six, drinking their cup of black coffee at midnight to keep them awake till dawn ; the groups and rows of houses without beauty of archi- tecture and with no relief of lawn, garden, or fruit trees ; no public library ; an ungraded public school, taught from three to eight months by an incompetent teacher, in a house unfit for such use, and only one-fourth of the children of school age in attendance. I welcome the cotton mill with every other form of industry that shall bring wealth and its power and possibilities to our people, but the blood of the children must not be woven into the web, dyeing it a crimson hue ; nor must their cry continue to go up to the Father in whose sight the soul of one of these little ones is of more value than all the trade of the Philippines. Let me give you an idea of how these needs are being met. Private kindergartens are springing up in many towns, and there is a consequent increase of interest among parents. A few public schools in small towns have aided the kindergarten. The principals of these schools are very progressive men, but the lack of public money hampers the work. Our State Normal School at Rock Hill has a fine kindergarten department. The standard there is high, and Miss Macfeat, the head of the depart- ment, is one of the foremost kindergartners of the South. This is des- tined in time to influence public work, and to bring about the adoption of the kindergarten in the larger cities. Also, for a number of years, the South Carolina Kindergarten Association, of Charleston, has carried on a large free kindergarten. This more nearly approaches the public- school kindergarten, so far as the class of children in attendance is con- cerned. A number of the colored citizens of Charleston have organized a free kindergarten association, and are supporting a kindergarten with a little help from the city. This is a step in the right direction, and tho the only movement of its kind known to me, the growth of interest is very encouraging. The greatest stride has been made in the line of the greatest need, and, thru the combined efforts of kindergarten associations and pro- gressive and humane mill presidents and directors, kindergartens are starting up in the mill towns. The first mill kindergarten in South Caro- lina was organized a number of years ago in the vicinity of a cotton factory in Charleston, and was supported by the alumnae of the Kelly School, of that city. The factory has been discontinued, but the kinder- garten still lives and flourishes. Two years ago the Kindergarten Associ- ation of Columbia established a summer kindergarten in connection with the Richland mills. In the fall of 1900 the mill towns of Pelzer and Greers entered upon an educational and economic experiment by adding the kindergarten to the mill grade schools, the mills bearing the whole 526 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten expense. These kindergartens have been watched with much interest and satisfaction, the work proving such a success that it will be continued this coming year under more advantageous conditions. During the winter Rock Hill continued the good work. It was begun in an afternoon kindergarten supported by the King's Daughters at the Arcade mills. This effort has resulted in the organization, in June, 1901, of the Rock Hill Kindergarten Association, which in point of enthusiasm and numbers has probably made a beginning unequaled in the state. The aim of the association is to establish kindergartens for the mill children of Rock Hill. The mill officers are members of the association and have promised to aid generously in the work. The first kindergarten has already been opened and will continue thruout the year, the plan being to give a ten-months' session, the long vacation being in Decem- ber and January. This division of time is an experiment to be watched with interest, and may prove acceptable in other places than the South. Columbia, having been impressed with the good results of the sum- mer kindergarten in the Richland mills, now comes to the front, its three mills, Richland, Olympia, and Granby, opening and assuming entire support of its kindergartens and placing them under the Kindergarten Association for superintendence and control, thus unifying and spreading the kindergarten interest thruout that city. Thus within the year six mill kindergartens have been established. We know that other mill presidents are planning to follow in this line as soon as possible. Herein lies the hope of the kindergarten movement in South Carolina, and probably the same is true of North Carolina and Georgia as well. Perhaps* mill children are the same everywhere, but from my slight knowledge of the case I think that quite a different element enters into this work than is apparent in some of our northern cities where the popu- lation is mostly foreign. This has been referred to before in speaking of the immigration of mill people from country homes, and anyone familiar with the condition of the country in North and South Carolina can imagine the barrenness of the lives which have never been able to rise above the necessity of work for daily sustenance. A few word-pictures, taken from the reports of the kindergartners of Pelzer and Greers, may show what I mean, and will prove that the kinder- garten is to bring to these people the balance or rhythm in work and play: No one who has not seen it can know the change that comes over a child's face in a few short weeks of kindergarten life. Those little old men and women lose the careworn expression. They drink in through song and story and talks impressions and ideals that find expression in their home free play, which in some cases sadly needs this puri- fying influence. From timid little people not knowing whether to laugh or cry, sitting down in their chairs whenever told, or building with blocks, listening to the songs and stories with Department] NECESSARY ELEMENTS IN WORK AND PLAY 527 little interest, in a mechanical manner, to the now noisy, happy, and contented kinder- garten family, is a transition frequently seen. The children show a marked improvement in their work and play, being more child- like, not the matter-of-fact little men and women I first met, without imagination or inventive power, laughing at the finger plays, also at my joining them in their games, and self-conscious of every movement they made. Such happy little ones ! Every morning, while waiting for the bell to ring, you can see nearly every child in the school — for the older ones play the games learned in kindergarten with the babies — skipping or dancing Looby Loo or singing "Little bird, you are welcome," and then running to meet their teachers as they appear in sight. I can say that the work is very encouraging, because the kindergarten and the mothers, and also some of the fathers, co-operate in a common interest, visiting the kinder- garten to see just what the children are doing and expressing regret that they can't stay longer ; taking an interest in the meetings. Some of the fathers stay at home and care for the babies while the mothers attend their kindergarten meeting. This sketch of South Carolina's growth, when compared with the rapid strides which have been made in some of our northern cities, seems almost unimportant, but it is the beginning, and as such has a right to a place in our interest and memory. As time and effort bring success to our work, we can then turn with certainty for appreciative encourage- ment and help, if need be, to the more favored sections of our country, remembering that we are one family, with one aim, namely, to give to each child its divine right to freedom and self-expression. NECESSARY ELEMENTS IN WORK AND PLAY, AND SOME PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES MISS C. GERALDINE o'GRADY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, NEW YORK As our subject today is rhythm, I shall only attempt to discuss other necessary elements in work and play, such as activity, co-operation, and progression, where they relate to it. I shall speak briefly of how it underlies or governs activity, and then try to suggest a few practical possibilities. Activity is, of course, the condition of all work and play; but activity, either of live or inanimate things, cannot be maintained under the same form without cessation. It must either be recurrent, intermittent, or must come to an end. If we want proofs of this recurrence and alternation of activity in all things, we have only to look at nature, to see in the sea- sons, in light and darkness, in tides and trade winds, and in many other natural manifestations of force, such changes as may be called rhythmic. Following, and sometimes growing out of, these come the changes in growth and decay, in birth and death, thruout plant and animal life, as heat stimulates them, and its excess or lack checks or wastes their forces again ; and at last we come to observe regular change and orderly arrangement or balance, even in the forms of plants and living 528 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten creatures, and in the movements depending on form. From the expan- sion and contraction of protozoa up to the flying of birds, and the walking, running, or dancing of men, this is so common that we rarely think of it, except when some deformity, some lack of completeness in the form, breaks the rhythm and makes irregular movements instead. Turning to the arts and productions of men : the cradle, the swing, the rocker, the bicycle, the sewing machine — everything, indeed, that has treadles ; the steam engine, the printing press, the saw, the loom, even the rubbing of clothes on the washboard, have rhythmic movement and sound, and bear testimony to its necessity and naturalness, both in force and form. The form of our music and musical instruments, the sound and measure rhythms, and, still further, the contrast and comparison of ideas and the recurrent alternation of certain ideas in our poetry and literature, make us wonder whether the intellect, too, is not built upon a law of rhythm. And it would puzzle us to say exactly how much of this is natural and how much artificial ; how much of it is because we like and choose it, and how much because it fits our natural ways of acting and physical make-up ; how much because the balance of applied force and material acted upon can come out in no other way. Two interesting questions which were suggested as a basis for today's discussion are these : " Is there a necessary ' must, have to ' element in both work and play, and also a spontaneous or 'may, want to' element?" "Should the 'may, want to' element predominate in the first years of childhood ?" Surely, the principle or law of rhythm in both form and force, if we took no other, proves that there is a " must, have to " or necessary ele- ment in both work and play, even if but the physical one. Any arm or leg movement, or even finger or tongue movement, must depend for its swiftness and strength partly upon the length and proportion of parts in the body, governing movement, as with a pendulum, and also upon the force and good condition of the vital organs, e. g., the regularity of move- ment of the heart and lungs, and must be subject with them to the alter- nation of activity, without which no movement can continue. Again, the rhythm or regular alternation of breaking-down and building-up pro- cesses in the body, while variable, does result from the fact that activity of any kind maintained for a certain time requires a certain amount of rest and sleep ; that a certain quantity of waste of tissue and nerve mate- rial necessitates a certain amount of nutrition for its repair, even tho we are not yet sure of the exact measure of either. The same story is told in another way when we consider education ; for the one difficulty to which we are always trying to find the clue is the need of harmony between spontaneity and control, between personal rights and wishes and the good of the greatest number ; or, in other words, the individual and the social whole. We have to find out how to balance taking in and giving out, doing what you choose or what you Department] NECESSARY ELEMENTS IN WORK AND PLAY 529 do because of the pressure of others ; in physiology and psychology we see it as the balance that is struck between heredity and environment, between what you as a human being possess, irrespective of your sur- roundings, and what you get from them — what you absorb and are nourished upon, whether physical or psychical. Each child possesses from species, from race, from sex, from ancestral inheritance, such and so much endowment of body and limbs, sight and hearing, and other senses ; such and so much activity and quickness or delicacy of brain, limited and influenced in such and such directions, by certain other phases of natural endowment or lack of it, and in such other ways and degrees by the food, experiences, general stimuli, and nutrition from environment, whether good or bad. The complex result is apparent in all his work and play. All this rhythm or balance of forces is to a great extent natural and inevitable ; but the most important balance is that between work and play. Just here our power of selection for the children affects the mat- ter. I will try to make the distinction between work and play, that is, true work and play, for we have grown to have a false ideal of work as mere drudgery. I believe that play begins with activity for the sake of pure joy in it, as a kitten plays, or a little child moves its limbs and shouts for the mere joy in moving and shouting. Gradually some pur- pose, and the use of intelligence to guide it, creep in, but always joy in the activity remains the most prominent element ; the child continues it for the sake of that. In other words, play is its own end. The ideal of work seems to me just the opposite of this ; it is the realization of a pur- pose, an end outside of the activity; it may be, and often is, accompanied by joy in the activity, even among adults. Such work, we say, is con- genial. I believe children's work ought always to be accompanied by this joy in the activity; as in the case of a tiny child, who, beginning par- quetry pasting for the first time, said to me : " Oh, don't you wish Ralph was here to have this lovely fun?" But the purpose is the end, not the activity. This is true work. It not only gives room for creativeness, but stimulates it, for if the accomplishment of a purpose is joined with joy in the activity, it is not burdensome ; we put our whole selves into it, and try every means to do it better and better. This is what Ruskin meant when he said that no good work was ever done unless the person would choose to do it, even apart from the living he earned by it. The earning is a consideration, but holds the second place. This is what I think Dr. Dewey means by saying that true interest lies in self-realization thru the accomplishment of a purpose, and the end being bound up with self- realization, any amount of effort, struggle, or difficulty will be acceptable for its achievement. This is what Froebel means when he speaks of dis- ciplining the hands and fingers by means of an activity wherein are blended body and soul, feeling and thought ; where there is purpose, but 53° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten also emotion — joy in activity. Now, I admit that it is often difficult to distinguish this sort of work from play, especially such play as shows some purpose, with the activity as an end, too. But work and play dif- fer, as we see when we remember for how short a time a child can hold to a definite purpose in work, and for how long a time he can play. Here, I think, we have the true clue to the rhythm of educational work and play — the alternation of activity with a purpose, and activity for the pure delight in it. The basis for its alternation is very simple. It is the length of time a child can healthily and happily hold to and carry out a purpose; of course, this varies with his age, his growth in intelligence and concentration, and his range of power and choice among possible ends and activities. With the infant it is perhaps the alternation of a minute of effort with hours of unconscious joyous movement, tho I have known of a child of two and a half years working for half an hour in the attempt to tie up a pinafore into a parcel with a piece of paper and a string. I believe the change in rhythm is simply the shortening of the periods of impulsive activity and lengthening the periods of purposive effort. Some students of children and their ways protest against any work at all in childhood, and I am sure their notion proceeds from the false ideal of work as mere drudgery of which I have spoken ; for how could anyone urge that a child should make no effort and have no purpose in his efforts of which he was conscious ? It is true that such a view has been attributed to the kindergartner by Mr. Fitch in his lectures on teach- ing. But this is quite opposed to Froebel's urgency that we should never tell a child the whole of the answer to a question, as it will be of more value to him to find out one-fourth of it by his own effort than to know the whole from someone else. It has been foolishly claimed for the kinder- garten occupations that they produced the virtues of patience, persever- ance, industry, etc. The truth is merely that they furnish an opportunity for the practice of these, which is very valuable if rightly used. Any handwork would do this, but all handwork is not so well planned to provide for progressive effort, new occasions opening out of old ones, with results in pleasure as well. We cannot claim a real educational value for anything which does not train in intelligent and persistent effort, and which, if continued day by day, may not be applied to greater and greater things. That children can understand the value of this was shown by a group whom I heard say to their teacher, who expressed a doubt of her power to draw a picture they wanted : " But if you try very hard and think very well, you surely can, Miss H ." She had been in the habit of saying these words to them, and they made the new applica- tion. The practical consequences for all kindergartners of understanding the value of rhythm in activity should be simply the providing things to Department] NECESSARY ELEMENTS IN WORK AND PLAY 531 be done, so short and simple, and each new step so founded on previous ones, that the period of effort is but a few minutes at a time, followed by an equal or longer time of pure play with the material — for instance, with the plaything made during the minutes of effort. We might call co-operation another necessary elements in both work and play. This co-operation must be frequent, and, to be helpful, must be what we may call rhythmic or alternative, both sharing in fair propor- tion. The impression and expression processes, too, in education must be rhythmic to some extent, or proportioned in their alternation. How much more practical is the alternative recitation than that where the class only talks or the teacher alone lectures ! The kindergarten morning talk is perhaps the best example of co-operation of this kind. Now, in all this we must recognize the real need of a certain amount of suggestion and direction from ourselves to the children, partly as a counter-force to harmful influences from other environments; but we must keep in view the danger of overdoing this. In other words, we must preserve rhythm and balance. Every time we bring the social pressure to bear we act as the mouthpiece of accumulated social knowledge and wisdom, so far as we possess it ; and it is right we should. But in so doing we are using the " must, have to" element, no matter how much we think we are working on the lines of natural environment. Our tendency to repeat and to require repetition of the child is strong. We stereotype ideas, and then the child's effort is no longer in the direction of express- ing natural feeling, but of exactness, and stereotyped activity is the mere degradation of work. Just here comes in, I think, the need for recog- nizing the " may, want to " element. This in every child should be present in some measure in whatever he does, either in work or play. The love of experiment, resistance to the pressure of material and cir- cumstances, the inward stimulus, the eagerness of curiosity unsatisfied, the sense of power over our own bodies or over material which makes us greedy for more exercise of it, may be seen in quite little children. The love of completing things which makes us struggle to carry out an idea and to finish what we begin, even against weariness or hunger ; the sym- pathy or pleasure in sharing what others are doing — all these are, I think, the "may, want to" elements of the rhythmic movement. If, however, you notice their psychic character, you will find that, while not so appar- ently fundamental or primal, these " may, want to " elements are what have made for progress in the whole life of humanity ; and if we lose sight of progress, what becomes of education ? In biologic development has not spontaneous variation been one of the great means of progress ? Shall we not allow the necessity of a parallel element in education, whether in work or play ? If we believe in co-operation as an underlying need of all work, we shall not need to emphasize it each minute. The teacher does not find it 532 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten necessary to recite alternate phrases of the multiplication table with the child, nor to read the alternate words of his reading lesson. If rhythm is truly an underlying law in all things, we are not the only persons to whom it can ever be apparent, nor need we feel, as some kindergartners seem to, that every moment must be spent in carrying out rhythmic exer- cises which the children would not discover for themselves if we did not teach them. I want to plead for a sane, reasonable attitude toward the practical use of rhythms, as well as other new ideas. I spent a morning recently in a kindergarten where one hour was occupied in rhythms of some kind, first in movements made to music and then in work jingles. Nearly all the movements were too complex to have been developed by the children, and most of them were step- dances requiring small and complex detail, and with changes requiring keen observation and perception. During the hour not one was suggested or originated by the children. Our modern tendency to take up a new idea with such enthusiasm as to forget for the time that any others exist was well satirized in a recent article in Lippincott 's Magazine, called " The .American Fondness for New Movements." I think our young kindergartners need more to be told "how not to do it" than urged to take up new ways of doing anything; and I urge, therefore, that we spend more time in studying what already exists of rhythm in work and play than in devising new forms of it. RHYTHM IN THE KINDERGARTEN ETHEL ROE LINDGREN, DIRECTOR IN CHICAGO KINDERGARTEN INSTITUTE, CHICAGO, ILL. May I ask you to bear with me if I speak to you primarily as a musi- cian rather than as a kindergartner — that is, as one who, after a varied musical experience of twenty-five years, has come to share the viewpoint and become heartily committed to the principles of the new educa- tion ? 1 am in sympathy with an eminent music educator (not music teacher) who recently said to a class of teachers : " I am not interested in music — I may say not nearly as much so as I was many years ago ; but I am inter- ested in education, and in music as one means of education." Such a frank statement reminds us that there are an old and a new attitude toward the entire subject of music, toward its place, its meaning, and its power in life. How often we hear, after a possibly sincere attempt to interpret a musical masterpiece, such remarks : " Oh, how can you remember all that without your notes ! " How little we hear about music, and how much Department] RHYTHM IN THE KINDERGARTEN 533 about notes, about piano technics and feats of memory ! This is mad- dening to one who feels, understands, and would voice the noble content and the high message of a work of art. We have all had the painful pleasure of seeing children give finger exhibitions on the piano, to their own great satisfaction and to the envy of others, deceiving and being deceived into thinking that they were expressing music. Being able to play the piano does not necessarily prove one's capacity to grasp a musical idea, any more than being able to say that " two times two make four" and "three times three make nine" proves one a mathematician, or the drawing of geometric figures shows one's understanding of the science of geometry. We turn gladly to the new attitude which asserts that we may and should prove our great principles of development thru this art of arts also, thus letting it serve in its high way the good purposes of education. Disraeli voices this idea well when he says : i: The greatest advantage that a writer can derive from music is that it teaches most exquisitely the art of development." The new era in music education is characterized by statements of a somewhat startling sound : " The human being is by nature musical ; " " Every child is entitled to free musical expression ; " " Every teacher, certainly every kindergartner, ought to be musical." And there are those who are proving these claims as rational and true by working with so-called hopeless cases among the children of the kindergarten, as well as those of an older growth in the training classes. Three interesting examples of such work with young children are reported from recent work both in the East and in the West. One seven-year-old girl was brought to the class as an example of absolute lack of music ; after five or six lessons, which were interrupted by the close of the class term, she sang a simple melody twice in a sweet voice. An eleven-year-old girl who talked in almost continuous monotone, varying only from A to B, after ten lessons of from fifteen to twenty minutes each, sang simple melodies on A and B above middle C- Again, a seven-year-old child, in six short terms of fifteen- to twenty-minute lessons, two or three times a week, sang a long melody, wrote it out, and played it, or, as I should prefer to say, sang it on the piano : Ss -4-P— « 2£ #— # This was early in the history of this line of music development, other- wise the same results could have been reached in a much shorter time. 534 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten Several instances taken from my own experience in the kindergarten training school may be of interest at this point. One young woman of about twenty-five years came to the music class only because it was obliga- tory, being firmly rooted in the conviction of utter helplessness and hopelessness in the direction of music. She had no ear, no voice ; in short, music was to her a sealed book. And, indeed, it seemed so. If one sang A, she would give back F ; if you gave middle C, she went into the depths ! But there was inexorable conviction on the part of the teacher and stubborn courage on the part of the student. Result : this kindergartner now sings the simple kindergarten melodies with her children, and I believe even plays a primitive form of accompaniment. A touching story came to light at the close of the first session of the music class of the year, the students having been greeted as follows : "You know, girls, that I expect you all to sing. It is quite natural to sing, and none of you can be deprived of this divinely given right." An earnest young woman came afterward with tears in her eyes and told of her longing to sing from earliest childhood ; how she had been called unmusical, had been laughed at, and had become quite disheartened. She had many a time gone deep into the neighboring woods and 'sat down, with only the birds for her hearers, to voice her child heart in song. Who knows but that it rang out sweet and pure, being freed for the time from a verdict as cruel as it was ignorant? This child needed only tactful sympathy and loving help to blossom into freedom in song. Another student, now a successful kindergartner in New York, sought after for her musical intelligence among other good qualities, seemed utterly wooden and unrhythmic in her piano work, and had long despaired of better things. With persistent, patient work on the part of her teacher and an earnest taking hold on her own part, this was overcome. After a term of private work, creative endeavors bore testimony to increasing rhythmic sense. Mazzini asserts that "action is the embodiment of idea." When Michael Angelo was asked the secret of his power to express so clearly and marvelously his ideas in marble, he replied that he thought and kept thinking on a thing- until his hand kept time to his thought, or, as he no doubt meant, to the rhythm of his thought. It certainly appears sane and logical to follow this progress from idea to its expression, from music conception to music expression or technique, as faithfully in this educational channel as in the other relative lines. It is scarcely necessary for me to tell this audience that the work from which I have drawn the above illustrations is based upon that principle which governs modern education — the unfoldment of idea from within outward. You have also recalled the lines parallel to this by which the other art forms of expression are being developed, such as drawing, modeling, story-making, etc. Department] RHYI HM IN THE KINDERGARTEN 535 It is in the training class that the student must be inspired and quick- ened to the larger view of the meaning of music, its relation to the sister- arts, to education, and to life. One of the means to this end has been the search for quotations on the part of the class members which should ade- quately express their own thought about or feeling for music; the finding of some passage defining music or its functions ; or some lines expressive or prophetic of the largeness of its message to mankind. These are dis- cussed in the class together with the teachers, and preferences frankly indicated. The following are some of the memorable statements collected in this way : He who explains music explains the universe. — Schopenhauer. All one's life is music, if one touches the notes rightly and in tune. — Ruskin. All deep things are song. See deep enough and you see musically. The heart of nature being everywhere music, if you can only reach it. — Carlyle. Beethoven ! How much is in that word ! In the deep tone of the syllables there seems to sound a presentiment of immortality. I will sing with the spirit and I will sing with the understanding also. — St. Paul. Some of the books to which the students are especially referred might form the nucleus of a bibliography on the subject of the higher criticism of music, or the larger concept of music as an art : Music and Poetry, by Sidney Lanier, notably the first chapter entitled " From Bacon to Beethoven." Angel's Wings, by Edward Carpenter ; opening essay on " Art and Democracy." Religion in Recent Art, by Dr. P. T. Forsythe. Parsifal, or the Finding of Christ through Art, by Albert Parsons. Music and Morals, by Haweis. And last, tho not least, Browning's Saul, Era Lippo-Lippi, Abt Vogler, and others. During the year just closed our students were asked to write out what they knew of or about Beethoven or his music. The answers were rather appalling as to meagerness, and the mythical, or at least questionable, tale about the composition of the "Moonlight Sonata" seemed the sum and substance of the average student's knowledge of the great master. We felt distinctly, as often before, that there must be a background of culture in the literature of music, and at once arranged to give fifteen minutes once a week to the study of Beethoven, and an introduction, as it were, to his great masterpieces. We had the temerity to take up the symphonies themselves. From these the students heard, sang, and expressed the rhythms of the themes of chief importance. Symphonic form, the relation of the music ideas in certain movements, the different movements and their relation to the whole symphony and orchestration, were all touched upon. This was done thru discussion and illustration on the piano. We were specially favored by and deeply grateful to Mr. Theodore Thomas for the cycle of Beethoven music which he presented with his orchestra during the season, which gave the students the oppor- tunity of enlarging their Beethoven experience. On these occasions they 536 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten expressed themselves understandingly, and showed an appreciation of the deep significance of pure music. This larger concept of music was directly helpful in the simplest and most practical lines of their music development. It helped them to break loose from the more limited sense of rhythm as confined in a time limit or bounded by bars. We speak of the rhythm of the spheres, or of rhythm in a picture, or even in a flower. In this large and true sense rhythm defines itself as the proportionate unfoldment of idea. The simplest approach to the' study of rhythm would appear to be thru verse rhythm. A child is easily led to express its interest in dolly, puss, or bird, in some simple form of poetic rhythmic feeling, having already in the verse the sine qua non of music — rhythm. With your permission I will give a few illustrations from very recent observations: A child of six years who had not sung — that is, con- sciously attempted to sing ; for I hope it is rare to find the child who does not sing in child fashion in its unconscious playtime — to repeat, not only she had not sung, but also said that she did not want to sing, but was at once interested in making a story about dolly. Thru an intimate and sympathetic talk between teacher and child, this line took form: "Dolly dear can shut her eyes." The child was then asked to bring a melody to fit these words. The next day she brought the following : This was sung in sweet voice, true intonation, and in perfect rhythmic form. A little seven-year-old girl in the same class, having much less rhythmic feeling, after a week of lessons, was given this melody : [-H 1 9~ .." 1 1 => L? 4 r*— 0 & 9 Z J ih 1 * -■ # < 25 for twenty-five pupils. Ours is about a middle-grade high school, and we are placed under many restrictions. Our work must be shaped accordingly. I am in favor of working many problems. I believe in making the subject hard. Do not attempt to dodge all the hard points, but solve the difficulties and derive the benefit. Tell the boys and girls to keep their eyes open and be ready to apply what they have learned. Professor H. N. Chute, Ann Arbor, Mich. — The question that troubles me is where to get the wherewithal to teach physics. I mean good and efficient instruments. Our foreign friends make them, but Uncle Sam says we cannot have them unless we pay the large tribute. Our lawyers seem to be unable to interpret the law. They do not understand English. They fail to be able to recognize a scientific instrument. We should look up the law, and then translate ourselves into chronic kickers. It is time for the scholar to get into politics. Professor Adams. — It seems that some protest should be made by the National Educational Association, and I, therefore, move that we enter a protest, and present Department] HOUND TABLE CONFERENCES 595 it to the secretary of the treasury of the United States, and that our chairman appoint a committee to draw up said protest and present it to the proper authorities. The motion carried. Chair appointed Professors Adams, Augur, and Wood ; the com- mittee to report at the meeting July 12. It was suggested by Professor Osborne that each member of the Physics Conference present to his congressman a copy of the report of the committee, together with his own letter. The suggestion was favored by those present. CHEMISTRY CONFERENCE LEADER — C. E. LINEBARGER, TEACHER OF CHEMISTRY, LAKE VIEW HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. [REPORTED BY F. C IRWIN, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH.] At 4 : 30, July II, Mr. Linebarger called the meeting to order in Room 9, the chemis- try lecture-room. Despite the lateness of the hour, the place was soon comfortably filled with teachers representing nearly every state from Rhode Island to Kansas. Each mem- ber of the conference was supplied with a copy of the following list of topics proposed for discussion : I. Quantitative experiments : (a) Object; (6) nature ; (c) degree of accuracy to be required ; (d) number. II. The historical method: (a) What is it? (i) object; (c) how much should be given? (d) benefits. III. Research work : (a) Feasibility; (3) what problems demand but slight equipment? (c) influence on teachers' work, or students'. IV. The ionization theory : (a) Should it be introduced? (6) if so, when and where? V. The chemical library: (a) Object; (i) how can it be best used? (c) benefits to be derived from it. By vote it was decided to consider, first, quantitative experiments. The discussion was opened by Mr. Linebarger. He said in part : A quantitative experiment may be defined as one in which a measurement is made. In chemistry the measurements are commonly of mass and volume. A quantitative experiment determines some physical constant, or verifies some fact or law. It teaches the student that chance does not enter into scientific considerations. It is unnecessary to insist upon great accuracy, for accu- racy is but a relative term. The seeking out and accounting for sources of error should be strongly insisted upon, and the result obtained should always be within the experi- mental errors allowable. Too many quantitative experiments should not be given, and the manipulation involved should not be beyond the ability of the average student. A. sufficient number can be easily performed with very simple apparatus. The training derived from quantitative experiments is most valuable. The discussion at this point turned upon the number of quantitative experiments which may be introduced to advantage in a year's course. The members of the confer- ence were asked to inspect and criticise a series of quantitative experiments used in the Central High School of Detroit. Volumetric measurements in these experiments are made with the burette. The following are the experiments in part : 1. Determine the weight of 1 cc. of water by weighing several different volumes of water. 2. Ordinary solutions (weight and volume). 3. Oxygen in the air (pyrogallic acid method). 4. Percentage of oxygen in potassium chlorate. 5. Preparation of standard solutions, and determination of weight relations between alkalies and acids. Law of definite proportions. 6. Analyses of hydrochloric acid by electrolysis and by decomposition of the gas with sodium amalgam. 7. Determination of weight of acid required to dissolve a given weight of metal. 8. Determination of combining weights for magnesium and iron : (a) by measuring hydrogen evolved ; {b) for magnesium, by ignition. 9. Oxides of nitrogen and reactions with oxygen. Volumetric proportions. 10. Analysis of ammonia gas by chlorine. 11. Water of crystallization. 12. Density of chloroform vapor by a modification of the Victor Meyer method. 5Q6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary With the methods used in the above list of experiments it has been the experience in Detroit that at least consistent results may be required from a class of pupils. As twenty or twenty-five students work the experiment simultaneously, this consistency of results is believed to be important, and always awakens a lively interest in the pupils. Tabulated records on file for the past year show that results need not vary from each other by more than i per cent., and generally may be kept within a fraction of I per cent, of the theoretical result. Question : Is it the opinion of any of the teachers present that the above amount of purely quantitative work is too great for a year's course ? DISCUSSION Mr. A. C. Norris, of Minnesota. — In analyzing simple minerals, the student should be required to prepare the chemicals used in analysis. A quantitative synthesis should be made, using the chemical equation as a basis. Mr. Newman, Cincinnati. — The number of quantitative experiments is not impor- tant. In general, I should say, the fewer the better. It is, however, a question of train- ing for the student. The experiment which "comes out" easily according to theory should not be selected for this reason alone. It should form a vital part and occupy a logical place in the year's work as a whole. We should by all means choose the experi- ment that we can adapt to a general discussion of principle and to the scientific training of the student. I think the mathematical aspect, the aspect of practical mathematics, is of the greatest value in training a logical habit of thought. Pupils know mathematics, but do not know how to apply its principles to science. This phase suggests an important opening for general discipline. Mr. Linebarger. — I have noticed the failure of the students' mathematics in deal- ing with chemical problems. This question of the correlation, or the lack of it, between mathematics and science brought out a general expression from the teachers. Difficulties along this line are now regularly anticipated and provided for by science teachers. Mr. Heacock, Topeka, Kan. — My pupils are frightened by a proportion or a frac- tion in chemistry. I do not think that the fault is with the teachers of mathematics, because the pupils do know their algebra, and geometry. I do not know where the trouble lies. Mr. Newman.— It cannot be a case of having forgotten their mathematics, because pupils in my classes have been studying advanced algebra and geometry at the same time with their science. Mr. Courtis, Detroit Home and Day School. — I find the following remedy effect- ive : I give my classes a lesson on the mathematical question involved. Mr. Whitney, Saginaw, Mich. — Does this question of mathematical difficulty apply only in connection with quantitative experiments ? Answer : It seems to be the general experience that the same difficulty arises in the discussion and application of most chemical laws. Mr. Pete, University of Michigan. — The difficulty does not arise from the student's lack of knowledge of his mathematics. I require my students to make up standard solu- tions of alkalis; then, by titration with known acids, to determine whether the alkali solution is exact. These same people are students in calculus and geometry, but the question above mentioned always causes difficulty. Mr. Adams, Providence, R. I. — I should like to offer as a suggestion an expedient that has proved useful to me. My students substitute x or y for the unknown quantity. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 597 This brings them to familiar mathematical expressions. Now, further, it appears to me that in science, teachers have one of the rarest opportunities in the whole field of educa- tion. It is to bring into correlation the two subjects, science and mathematics. Mr. Parsons. — I would go back to mathematical texts and ask for better problems there, i. e., examples in science. Mr. Linebarger. — The trouble with the expedient is that we should be obliged to get a new set of teachers in mathematics. An example comes to mind from my own experience with calculus. In order to understand the calculus, I had to study physical problems involving the methods of the calculus. I finally got out a text-book composed largely of physical problems ; but, as the book has had a very limited use, I judge that this expedient is not successful. TOPIC II. THE IONIZATION THEORY Mr. Linebarger said in substance : I am an ardent advocate of the ionization theory in the presentation of certain parts of elementary chemistry, and have employed it with success for several years. With a few simple experiments and demonstrations the electrical part of the theory may be made clear to those who have not studied elec- tricity, so that a knowledge of physics is not a necessary prerequisite. I lay but little stress upon the electrical part, but apply its chemical aspect to a variety of cases. Stu- dents readily learn to think in terms of the theory, and things that seemed obscure when presented in the old way now appear quite plain. Anyone who will systematically and thoroly use this theory in his teaching will find it of so great value that he will not willingly relinquish it. Mr. Pete. — I am pleased with the results of teaching the ionization theory. We use Torrey's Chemistry as a guide. He explains dissociation, the electrolysis of water, etc., clearly and simply. Mr. Linebarger. — Torrey is a good book for teachers. It is not a book for ele- mentary students. Mr. Newman. — Would the order of precedence of physics and chemistry influence the explanation of electrolysis of water ? Mr. Linebarger. — Lack of physics does not affect the power of the student to understand the explanation of the electrolysis of water. Mr. C. F. Adams, Detroit. — Do I understand you that in general you do not care especially to have physics precede chemistry ? Mr. Linebarger. — My own chief reason for wishing physics to precede chemistry is that we are then enabled to get the students when they are a year older and farther along in scientific thinking. Of course, with pupils unprepared in physics considerable time must be spent in studying certain purely physical laws. Mr. Parsons. — It is as easy to teach physics to chemistry classes as it is to teach chemistry to physics classes. Several teachers could not agree with this latter position. TOPIC III. THE CHEMICAL LIBRARY Mr. Whitney, Saginaw, Mich. — What method of using the chemical library will bring the best results ? Mr. Linebarger. — Put the books in the student's way. Do not have them in a little room by themselves. The books will not be consulted freely in that case. Have the books where the student must stumble over them in order to get out of the room. I have some French and German texts. It pleases the pupil to find that he can apply his knowl- edge of language in reading a foreign text. Mr. Pete. — My experience shows that references to laboratory manuals in the latter part of the year are useful. 598 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary After obtaining the roll of members present, the conference adjourned at 6 P. M. The conference was one of exceptional interest to all present. Judging from the friendly criticism and comparison of methods used in widely separated localities, the dis- cussions could not fail to prove of real help and suggestion. The central idea suggested by the conference as a whole may be stated in a word : The most important object in teaching chemistry should be to develop in the student a logical scientific habit of thought. By this standard every topic and experiment in elementary chemistry should be judged. The topics and experiments which meet this standard and make chemistry an essential integral part of the student's education will be adopted by progressive teachers. In discussing the mathematical difficulties in chemistry, Mr. Adams sounded the right note : In science, teachers have one of the rarest opportunities in the whole field of educa- tion. It is to bring into correlation the two subjects, science and mathematics. GEOMETRY CONFERENCE LEADER — ALAN SANDERS, TEACHER OF GEOMETRY, HUGHES HIGH SCHOOL, CINCINNATI, O. [synopsis of opening remarks by the leader] Geometry was a science in form as perfect as it is today long before the Christian era. As Minerva sprang fully armed from the brain of Olympian Jove, so Euclidian geometry comes to us fully developed from the schools of ancient Egypt and Greece. In the schools of our English-speaking cousins across the water the definitions, axioms, and sequence of the propositions of Euclid are strictly adhered to. We Ameri- cans who believe in progress, while still teaching Euclidian geometry in substance, have made many changes in the sequence of propositions, in definitions, and even in the axioms. The question whether these changes are always improvements on the text of Euclid seems pertinent. One of these changes is the use of the term " angle." This term is variously defined as "the difference in direction of two lines that meet," "the amount of divergence between two intersecting lines," " the opening between two lines drawn from the same point," etc. Is it consistent with any one of the above definitions to speak of " an angle intercepting an arc " ? The next point is the definition of " tangent circles." A definition that has come into very common use is: "Two circles are tangent to each other if both are tangent to a straight line at the same point." ..Now, I submit that two circles are tangent to each other when, as the language indicates, they touch each other, and that the statement, " Two circles are tangent to each other if both are tangent to a straight line at the same point," is the statement of a proposition, and should be proved. A third point is looseness in expression of the statements of propositions. This may be illustrated by the statement : " At a given point in a straight line a perpendicular to the line can be drawn, and but one." Now, I know of no way to prove that a perpen- dicular can be drawn to a line other than to give the construction for its erection. I think it would be fairer to place all constructions not proved under the list of postulates. This leads up to my fourth point: Are these "assumed constructions" or "stealthy assumptions," as one author is pleased to denominate them, conducive to strict, rigorous reasoning ? Should we allow a pupil to give the construction of a problem at the end of Book II or III, unless he traces back every authority used in that problem, and shows that it in turn does not depend upon a proposition that has assumed the very construction that he is proving ? Have you ever done this yourself ? Try it. The introduction of the modern theory of limits is certainly an improvement on the Euclidian method ; but the theory of limits must be handled with care. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 599 In this connection I would ask your consideration of the following question : Is it correct to attempt to prove the proposition, " Triangular pyramids having equal altitudes and equivalent bases are equal in volume," without first proving the proposition : " The volume of a triangular pyramid is the limit of the sum of the volumes of a series of inscribed or circumscribed prisms of equal altitude, if the number of prisms is indefinitely increased ? " The questions I have proposed for discussion seem to me to be very one-sided, but, as my views on these subjects are opposed to the majority of the texts on geometry pub- lished in this country, I am convinced that you will have much to say on the other side. It is not the purpose of the chair to confine the discussion to these questions, but any teacher present is invited to present for discussion any question relating to the subject of geometry or its teaching. DISCUSSION In the discussion that followed the opening remarks of the leader the points sug- gested were discussed, and, in addition, the methods, aims, and ideals of the teacher of geometry and the advantages of the heuristic method of instruction, tho the time was altogether inadequate to the purpose. Professor Evans, of Boston, called attention to the fact that the vital propositions in geometry, those that are really essential to a complete system, are comparatively few, and that a carefully selected collection of such propositions would be of great value to teachers and students of geometry, as furnishing a common basis of reference and a syllabus that may be used in examinations for admission to college. It was agreed that a committee should be appointed to draft such a syllabus. This committee was composed of the following members : Professor George W. Evans, of Boston ; Professor L. D. Remington, of Fenton, Mich. ; Mrs. Milner, of Detroit ; Pro- fessor Alan Sanders, of Cincinnati ; Miss Ackerman, of Bay City, Mich. ; Professor Harlan, of Dayton, O. ; Professor William H. Lynch, of Mountain Grove, Mo. ; and Mrs. F. Temple, of Chicago. These were empowered to call upon any others to assist them in this important work. The result is to be presented to the Geometry Conference at the next meeting of the National Educational Association. HISTORY CONFERENCE LEADER — J. J. SHEPPARD, TEACHER OF HISTORY, DEWITT CLINTON HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY General topic : " The Nature and Aim of History Work in the Secondary School." Introducing the discussion, Mr. Sheppard referred briefly to the former indeterminate, low status of history and history teaching in secondary schools, as compared with the present assured position of the subject in the curriculum and the dignified status of the teacher of history. There is much to be desired in the way of improvement, but progress has been made and is making, so that the future development of strong work in history is assured. E. W. Castle, professor of history in Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city, presented a paper on " History as a Study of Life," of which the following is an abstract : Until the middle of the nineteenth century the subject-matter of history consisted of court intrigue, personal adventures, wars, revolutions, and political incidents. With the development of historical study and investigation during the last half-century, art has 600 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary given place to truth, imagination to fact, vividness of narration to accuracy of statement. Amount and minutiae of detail alone cannot reasonably be expected to give a realization of life. The history which pretends to portray life must not alone give the details of life, but must give them in such form as to be easily, accurately, and readily recognized in the imagination of the reader. It is to be feared that the study of documents, from which alone a genuine and unwavering zeal for historic truth can be derived, has drawn some away from the realities with which history has to deal. The study of human life has given place to the study of the form in which human life has been portrayed. "Docu- ments are the traces which have been left by the thoughts and actions of men of former times." Texts, notes, reference work, map-drawing, themes, outlines, notebooks, etc., have each in turn in various schools constituted the study of human life. It is peculiarly hard to subordinate methods and devices to their proper place and rank when teachers are judged by results, and that, too, visible and tangible results chiefly. The lack of imagina- tion, and a misconception of its nature and function, also contribute largely to giving false emphasis and bad proportion. In daily life, as also in scientific pursuits, the part played by the imagination is universally underestimated, possibly because the creative power of the imagination and its relation to things already perceived are not understood. Wherever truth is dependent upon the relation of things to each other, there the imagina- tion is absolutely indispensable ; hence in history its necessity. Even in the minds of those who regard the study of history as a science the imagination is a necessary and indispensable piece of mental furniture ; it alone gives the reality. But how, pray, may we reasonably expect pupils to apprehend the reality when the teacher himself does not perceive it ? The failure on the part of both teacher and pupil to realize just exactly what humanity is and means takes away the sense of life from history teaching, perhaps more than any other thing. History has to deal with human beings as they are, not as they might or should be. "A condition, not a theory," confronts one on every page. When we discuss the possi- bilities of Rome's still being mistress of the world, had she adopted a different system of colonial administration and a different treatment of the Roman populace, we are in the realm of speculation pure and simple. The historical query is : " Why did she follow the course which she did ; what was the course ; how did it result ? " not : " What might have happened had she done otherwise ? " Rome was composed of human beings acting as human beings act. Rome was what she was because they were what they were. Human beings are subject to all of the virtues and vices known. This mixture of good and evil crops out constantly. Human beings are further characterized by the power of consecu- tive, continuous, and self-directed thought. The striking thing about historical thought is that it has been rational and logical according to the ideas of the time. Motive is the mainspring of action. Behind historic deeds lie ideas and motives, conscious and uncon- scious. The vital thing is to discover which are the efficient motives and how they pro- duced action. "And they lived " are the words of the text of the teacher of history. They should ring in his ears continually. DISCUSSION William Schuyler, assistant principal of the St. Louis High School. — What is your method of making history live in your class-room work ? Professor Castle. — A sense of the reality of the historical events themselves, an understanding of human life as such, as found all about us today, together with illustra- tions from everyday life, are about the best resources of the skillful teacher. Well-timed anecdotes (not anecdotage) often serve to drive home a truth. Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 60 1 Eugene W. Lyttle, inspector of the University of the State of New York, depart- ment of history, asked what subject-matter is best suited to children from eight to twelve years of age. Professor Castle replied in substance that the practice in the Horace Mann School (of the Teachers College) is to present in the fourth grade biographical subjects from American colonial history, beginning with Virginia, going then to Massachusetts, and ending with New York. In the fifth grade, biographies from Greek and Roman history are presented. In the sixth grade a transition is made from biographical study, thru mediaeval history, to political history proper. The mediseval period seems to lend itself to this process of transition, and the general plan has worked well thus far. United States history is given last of all, in the seventh and eighth grades, with some discussion of economics. The work has assigned to it three periods a week, each year, in five grades, fourth to eighth inclusive. Mr. Schuyler spoke of the necessity of omnivorous reading and constant thinking on the part of the teacher, and of the need of bringing out constantly the relations of cause and effect in historical events. Miss Florence Pomeroy, teacher of history in the Ann Arbor (Mich.) High School, spoke of the value of the historical novel in causing interest in the subject. Mr. Lyttle thought the historical novelist might be a truer historian than the pro- fessed writer of history. Mr. Schuyler took much the same view, holding that the teacher may easily correct wrong impressions given by the novelist. Miss Guthrie, of St. Louis, teacher of the blind, spoke of the information and delight afforded the blind pupils thru Irving's books. Historical novels could be used very freely to great advantage. Mr. Burnham, of Pennsylvania, urged that the selection of material is all-impor- tant. Any and every bit of material, whether found in novels, poems, selections from standard historians, or in any other place, should be used. A text-book made of selec- tions from Parkman, and other equally interesting and standard authors, is very desirable. C. L. McCartha, professor of languages, State Normal College, Troy, Ala., urged the desirability of correlating history with geography and with other subjects. Historical novels frequently have interested students and led them to serious study and research. Miss Baylor, of Wabash, Ind., said that excellent results had been reached by a sociological and economic study of Greek life as a preparation for the study of Greek history. H. L. Wilson, principal of the Sioux Falls (S. D.) High School, pointed out the danger of attempting to illustrate past life by the life about us at the present day. It is dangerous to illustrate the Punic wars by references to the Spanish-American war of 1898. W. H. Nichols, professor of history, University of Colorado, suggested the inad- visability of relying much upon historical novels. The nature of the study of history in the secondary school might possibly be determined by making it an interpretative study of significant facts. The nature of the learning mind itself will determine what facts are significant during the adolescent (secondary) stage of school instruction. Mr. Sheppard, in closing the discussion, pointed out the limitations of the use of the historical novel. The novelist, of necessity, seizes upon the most dramatic incidents. These may or may not have historical significance. In any event, their very interest in and of themselves is sufficient to attract attention to them. They do not require further emphasis or elaboration. The historical novelist cannot at best present more than a picture of general conditions, and this is apt to be so interwoven with his story as to be of very small value to the student relative to the time required for reading the novel. 6o2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary PHYSIOGRAPHY CONFERENCE LEADER — W. H. SNYDER, TEACHER OF SCIENCE, WORCESTER ACADEMY, WORCESTER, MASS. [synopsis of opening remarks by the leader] We Americans of all nations should be students of geography. Our isolation, extent of territory, commercial and expansive spirit, make it expedient that we should acquaint ourselves, in all ways possible, with the rest of the world. Altho the American is by nature a traveler, yet our home geography extends over such vast distances, and the oceans so effectually shut off our shoulder-to-shoulder intercourse with other nations, that it is only thru study that the most of us will ever be brought to appreciate the condi- tions of other peoples. These conditions must be appreciated, if we are ever wisely to take the position for which we as a nation seem foreordained. This appreciation will, however, never be attained by a purposeless or aimless study. Then, too, if ever geography is to attain a commanding position in our educational system, it must show its value as a disciplinary as well as an informational subject. The simple acquiring of information does not train citizens. The why and the because must play as important a part as the behold and the remember. Probably most of us can remember when physics and chemistry were taught entirely from books, and consisted simply of a mass of information which was accepted on authority. During the past few years this kind of presentation has been superseded by a rational method, and I believe we are destined to see in the near future the same rational method applied to geography. To attain its highest efficiency, geography must become, to a considerable extent, a labo- ratory subject in which actual work is done, and the principal use of the text-book is as a guide and fount of reference, and not as something to be learned and recited. The government during recent years has gone to great expense in making contour maps of different parts of the country. How many of our educated people even are able intelligently to use these ? What does great circle sailing mean to the average student of geography ? We use maps and charts and models and globes in a very glib way, and never take the trouble to show how these are made and what they really express. The aim in geography should be to impart a scientific knowledge of the surface of the earth. This scientific knowledge, however, is not general information. It is the experimental knowledge which enables us to understand fully the expressed results of others, to appre- ciate the geographical details of a photograph, to understand exactly what sort of topogra- phy is represented by a contour map, to form a mental picture of a region when properly described, and by means of photographs, maps, and description to appreciate and to explain the phenomena discovered. It is necessary, therefore, to have a material equipment for the teaching of geography. There must be an actuality about the subject, not a mere hearsay. Chicago, by its school museum which it has prepared to move from school to school, is the first city to supply one of these needs. The larger part of the apparatus of this subject has not yet been invented, and it devolves upon those who are today teaching the science to construct and bring together the tools. The first decade of the twentieth century will see this done. The fields are white for the harvest, but the laborers are few. PHYSIOLOGY CONFERENCE In the absence of the leader, Mr. James E. Peabody, teacher of physiology, Peter Cooper High School, New York, President W. J. S. Bryan conducted the conference. His remarks were as follows ; Department] ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 603 We regret exceedingly that the gentleman appointed to lead this conference has been prevented by sickness from attending. We regret this the more because he would have spoken of that which he himself has learned by actual experience. It is sometimes asserted that physiology should not be taught in secondary schools, because it cannot be taught in such schools in a scientific way or by the laboratory method. The age of the pupils and the feelings or prejudices of pupils and parents prevent its presentation after the manner employed in medical colleges. Dissection of animals is repugnant to most pupils of high-school age, and it is not to be supposed that it would be at all suitable or possible to study physiology by the dissection of the cadaver. The disgust aroused by the sight and touch of the muscles and organs of dissected animals is largely sentimental and may be overcome by the awakening of a truly scientific spirit of investigation. The similarity of the structure and organs of other animals to those of the human species makes it possible easily to secure from the market-house the specimens necessary for a laboratory treatment of the subject. The human skeleton, from frequent presentation, has largely lost its offensiveness, and the study of the bones can be pursued with but little opposition in the mental attitude. The lens, the stereopticon, the microscope, the micro- tome, the slide, may be made to serve the same useful purpose as in botany. The sub- ject, tho at first to some not pleasing, with proper treatment may be relieved of its repulsiveness, and from the very fact of its nearness to the pupil may become interesting and attractive. Physiology has long been accorded a place in the curriculum of the high school. Its importance has been recognized, but those who have taught it have not as yet devised the means for its study by the methods now regarded as essential to proper scientific teach- ing. That the same thing can be done for physiology as has been done for botany and physics and chemistry is not to be questioned. It is for those who are present to outline for the help of each other the methods they have found serviceable and to describe the devices they have invented and contrived for the scientific study of physiology by the laboratory method. In this science, as in others, it must be borne in mind that in the high school the elements of the several sciences are to be taught in a truly scientific way. It is not for the high school to teach physiology as it is taught in the medical college. If teachers of physiology would secure for their study the recognition its importance deserves, they must teach it in such a way as to com- mand respect. DISCUSSION Dr. Louis Murbach, Central High School, Detroit, Mich., expressed the opinion that, while it is more difficult to teach human physiology in high schools by the labora- tory method, the combination of physiology, hygiene, and sanitation can readily be treated in this way, because it is more amenable to experimentation, and material for laboratory work can easily be obtained. He considered this combination of subjects desirable for high-school work under the name of physiology. He laid stress upon the division of time between laboratory and recitation or demonstration work, claiming that at least half the subject should be taught by the laboratory method. The laboratory work should be done in connection with the text and preceding each subject. Thus, the study of the vascular system and the functions of the blood may be preceded by observing first the vessels in a living earthworm, then the blood-flow in a frog's foot, and so on. When physiology is properly taught, it should be recognized by higher institutions as an equiva- lent of a zoology course covering the same time. The youth of the pupils who study physiology increases the difficulty of properly presenting it. Mrs. L. Bassett, of Detroit, spoke of the difficulty of teaching physiology to pupils of the ninth grade on account of their immaturity and the consequent trouble they have in grasping the subject or in understanding the text. 604 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Secondary Miss E. Pettie, speaking from her own experience, favored the use of the labora- tory method in teaching physiology. T. O. Mast, Holland, Mich., gave his experience in the introduction of a laboratory course in physiology. He found Peabody's Laboratory Exercises an admirable book for the purpose. The course was entirely successful, and need not cost more than twenty- five cents for each pupil. He emphasized the fact that the text-book should not be neglected, but should be used fully half the time, after the observation and experimental work. Dr. F. Barrows, Central High School, Buffalo, N. Y., was asked to give his opin- ion as to the proper sequence of zoology and physiology. He thought that, from the standpoint of zoology, physiology should come first, tho much physiology can be taught in a course of zoology. S. B. McCracken, Buffalo University, suggested that the pupils might study physi- ology thru the medium of their own bodies. The pupils might learn much by a careful examination of themselves and each other. The boys could furnish models for the class, or boys might examine boys and girls examine girls. Miss Grace Ellis, Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich., described a spirom- eter of simple construction, consisting of an inverted bell jar filled with water and bal- anced in a glass vessel of water by means of weights and pulleys, and having a tube entering from below, thru which, by means of a rubber hose, the air from the lungs might be forced into the jar. On the side of the outer vessel there is pasted a scale to show the amount of air forced into the inverted jar. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July io, 1901 The Department of Higher Education met in Room No. 314, Central High School, at 3 P. M., the president, Charles F. Thwing, president of Western Reserve University, of Cleveland, O., in the chair. Music — vocal solo, "In Maytime" — Miss Clara Vollbreche. The first paper — subject, " The Function of the State University" — was presented by President R. H. Jesse of the University of the State of Missouri. The paper was discussed by J. H. Canfield, librarian, Columbia University ; Presi- dent William F. King, Cornell College, Iowa ; President William L. Prather, University of Texas ; President Miller, Ruskin College, Missouri. By vote of the department, Dr. J. E. Gilbert, of Washington, D. C, was given an opportunity to present the interests of the Society of Religious Education. He extended an invitation to the members of the department to attend the meeting of said society Thursday afternoon. Professor John William Perrin, of Western Reserve University, presented a paper on " The Rise of National Education in the Sixteenth Century." Professor Elmer E. Brown, University of California, and Professor F. C. French, of Vassar College, spoke in discussion. The following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the president : William F. King, Cornell College, Iowa. F. C. French, Vassar College, New York. Samuel G. Derby, Ohio State University, Ohio. The department adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July 12 The department met in the Central High School at 3 p. m., and was called to order by President Thwing. Music — vocal solo, "Angus Macdonald," Roeckel — by Miss Minturn. William E. Chancellor, superintendent of schools, Bloomfield, N. J., read a paper on " Education for Social Control." Questions were asked, and remarks on the paper made, by Charles C. Ramsay, prin- cipal of high school, Fall River, Mass.; Miss Pomeroy, Ann Arbor, Mich.; J. L. Good- knight, of James Milliken University, Illinois ; and Walter H. Nichols, of the University of Colorado. "The Moral Element in Education" was the subject of a paper read by W. H. P. Faunce, president of Brown University, Providence, R. I. The Committee on Nominations reported as follows : For President — W. H. P. Faunce, Brown University, Providence, R. I. For Vice-President — C. W. Dabney, University of Tennessee, Nashville, Tenn. For Secretary — John William Perrin, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, O. The report was unanimously adopted and the officers declared elected. The meeting then adjourned. Wm h< Black, Secretary. 605 606 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE FUNCTION OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY RICHARD HENRY JESSE, PRESIDENT UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. Wherever in this paper the word "university" occurs, it means state university; wherever the word "college" is used, it means a private or denominational institution. Let me describe the function of the state university as it appears to me. I. It should be within : 1. Non-partisan, but patriotic to the state and to the nation. 2. Non-sectarian, but religious. 3. Free as to tuition in all departments, academic and professional. 4. Every inch a university. 1. While the obligation named first binds every institution of learning in our country, it binds the state universities in a peculiar degree. Their foundations are federal land grants. The funds for their maintenance come from their respective commonwealths. In the highest and broadest sense they should be nurseries of patriotism, but they should shun par- tisan politics as they shun death. 2. Non-sectarian, but religious. The state universities have not yet realized their opportunity for developing in students a life that is religious and yet not sectarian. Freedom from denoininationalism is apt to be construed as license to subordinate unduly religion in education. No good reason appears why the universities should not each maintain one professor, at least, to lecture upon sacred literature, natural religion, and practical morals, and to serve as chaplain of the students. • Tf, unfortunately, the law or constitution forbids such teaching at public expense, an appeal should be made for an endowment by private benefactions. What a blessing for a long time has Dr. Peabody been to Harvard ! Such a man ought to be at every seat of higher learning. Moreover, why should not a large state university maintain a depart- ment of theology, without which it is not complete and which does not belong necessarily to any denomination. In Germany, in spite of an established church, theology is non-sectarian. Men of all creeds go there for training. Why should not our American state universities show that ethics, religion, and even theology of the highest and best type may be divorced entirely from denominationalism r* 3. Free as to tuition in all departments, academic and professional. This proposition ought to be established by the mere statement that Department] FUNCTION OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY 607 in every commonwealth the university is the head of public instruction, which is free up to the higher learning and ought to be free there also. The reasoning that people have indulged in as to free tuition is very curious. In early times the doctrine was preached that schools should be maintained at public expense, but should be limited to the elements of learning — reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and United States history. A little learning the public might give the individual, but no more. After strenuous opposition, this doctrine was established in New England, in the middle states, in the West, and finally in the South. Then came the second step forward, in which in many places high schools were smuggled in. In Kansas City, for example, the first high school, now one of the best in America, was for years maintained rather surreptitiously. Later the people thruout the union came to the belief that a chance at secondary education also, without charge for tuition, was due from the commonwealth to every soul on its soil ; but it was still argued generally that college or university training should be paid for by the individual. Not long ago some western states reached the third stage of progressive belief, that free instruction should be given thru the college of liberal arts, but that professional training should be paid for. In the process of evolution, however, the fourth era is near at hand, in which it will be recognized, I think, that the discrimination between academic and professional instruction is wholly specious. If it be granted that the state owes to every soul on its soil a chance at free instruction thru the college of liberal arts, by what legerdemain of logic can it be denied in medicine or engineering ? In these so-called professional courses, perhaps half the studies are academic and the other half are applications of the academic. Is it reasonable for the state to teach a man freely physics, chemistry, mechanics, drawing, and mathe- matics, but refuse to teach him freely their applications to engineering ? Should one learn at public expense such academic subjects as physics, chemistry, neurology, embryology, anatomy, histology, physiology, physiological chemistry, and bacteriology, but learn at personal expense their applications to medicine ? All such reasoning is, to my mind, arti- ficial. It is said that law, medicine, and engineering are gainful pursuits, and, therefore, the beneficiaries should pay for training in them. The argument is not worth refuting, but, if it were, it might be pointed out that bachelor of arts is a gainful degree. Moreover, academic graduates are not more useful to the people than are lawyers, physicians, pharmacists, dentists, engineers, etc., of superior quality. As soon as you admit that the commonwealth must furnish its people free instruction in any degree, you are compelled to admit that it must furnish free instruction in every degree and in every useful form. But the same argument, it is said, might be advanced for free clothing or board or books. To my mind this does not follow at all, but if any man will demonstrate that they 608 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher should be furnished in any stage of education, it would be easy to prove that they should be furnished in every stage thereof and in every useful form. It is questionable whether, in view of the superb training at Harvard, Massachusetts is bound to found a free university, but, in my opinion, she is bound to give her citizens that desire it, and are prepared to receive it, free instruction in some accessible university of high rank. Whether free tuition should be extended by one state to citizens of another is a question that I will not now discuss. Those who, like the writer, exalt the nation above the state will favor it. In closing this division of my subject, let me say with emphasis that free tuition in any department without high standards of admission and of graduation is akin to crime. 4. Every inch a university. There is danger that, thru eagerness to take in new territory, to swell enrollments, and to provide instruction for special classes, some of our universities may forget that to deserve richly their titles is the highest obligation they owe to the people. Policies of expansion and adaptation are sometimes commendable, and occasionally are forced upon us by circumstances, but they take money and subtract from the energy due to higher teaching. Never should they be allowed for a moment to obscure the main purpose, which is to be, from circumference to center, a great university. Particularly objectionable is the tendency, too often exhibited, to swell enrollments by adding professional schools in the nearest metropolis. These morganatic unions rarely bear good fruit. A university is much more than a college, or an aggregation of them. Its great work is graduate and professional studies, based upon an academic degree. To attain this end is far harder when the work is not concen- trated on one campus. II. The university without should care for the state, and should serve as a buttress to a national university. It has been preached strenuously that the state should care for its university, but scarcely has the idea been broached that the university should care for the state. It is possible to do this in a variety of ways, in material, in social, in political, and in spiritual things. The possi- bilities in spiritual things have been discussed in the second paragraph of this paper. What can a great seat of learning do for the public good in other directions ? 1. Thru the college of agriculture, or in conjunction with it and other public agencies, it should look after the material welfare of the people. The loftiest learning should not scorn to help men in their material interests. If in its laboratories a dietary can be discovered whereby the fattening of swine is made cheaper to swineherds, the university should Department] FUNCTION OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY 609 promulgate that dietary. The Babcock milk test, discovered at the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, has been a blessing to dairymen in all the world ; and almost as beneficial to another class of husbandmen has been the discovery in the University of Missouri of a method of inoculating cattle against Texas fever, whereby the mortality in blooded animals carried south has been reduced from 90 to less than 8 per cent. Our colleges of agriculture have devised better dietaries for domestic animals than the wit of medicine has yet invented for growing children. Expeditions have been sent out by our universities to measure accurately remote water power, and to survey routes for transmitting it electrically to railway stations ; to measure beds of coal and test their thermodynamic values ; to measure beds of cement and quarries of stone, and try their quality; to collect flora, fauna, rocks, and minerals ; and for other useful purposes. The results, carefully tabulated, have been widely distributed. Diseases of animals and plants have been held firmly in check. What has been done shows what may be done for things material by the scientific skill of universities. But what has been accomplished has been mainly along the paths prescribed by the United States in the Hatch Act, establishing agricultural experiment stations. Except under federal leadership, our universities have not done very much, I fear, for the material welfare of the people, when one considers the immense possibilities. 2. In collaboration with state boards, bureaus, and commissions, the university should look after social and economic conditions. How many states can point with pride to their penal institutions — their jails, penitentiaries, reformatories, almshouses, tenement houses, and asylums? Yet the university of each commonwealth perhaps maintains a chair of sociology. On the campus are students from every county- In their summer vacations they could visit every reformatory and elee- mosynary institution, reporting accurately its condition. A judicious pub- lication of the results, with a statement of fundamental principles, would lead often to radical reforms in the treatment of the criminal and defective classes. No state is without municipal problems, and few can boast of a rational system of taxation. Why should not the department of econom- ics take up these subjects ? If the professors understand what scientific taxation is, why can they not apply it wisely to prevailing conditions ? The wisest teaching of political economy in municipal problems should be spread broadcast. The federal government maintains in every com- monwealth an experiment station to find out what is wise in agriculture, and to disseminate among the people the knowledge gathered. The departments of sociology and political economy ought to be experiment stations after their kind in the full meaning of the federal government, and the university should not begrudge the cost of publishing and 610 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher distributing among the people whatever information may be necessary to enable them to adjust wisely their systems of taxation, to solve municipal problems, and to improve the condition of their penal institutions, reformatories, asylums, almshouses, tenement houses, etc. It is the function of a university to investigate, to teach, and to publish. A painstaking study of the state laws, in the light of the broadest learning and in comparison with other codes', if embodied in timely publications and spread broadcast, would not be without good results anywhere. The achievements of David Dudley Field in this direction are well known. The early history and archaeology of every state is an inviting field for investigation, while the editing of early local writers of the better sort might well employ some of the literary skill of the faculty. A spicelegium in some cases it might be, but in every case it would be valuable. The departments of chemistry, sanitary engineering, and medicine find a wide field of usefulness in things pertaining to public health : pure foods and drugs, pure water, good sewers, the ventilation of build- ings, and so on. In this broad direction it is possible, by scientific work and by helpful publications, to diminish sensibly the rate of sickness and of death. 3. In co-operation with boards of education and the state superin- tendent, the university should build up the schools below it. The writer has talked on this subject so often that he feels inclined now to dismiss it hastily. Elementary schools cannot be brought to efficiency, unless there be high schools to lead them, and high schools cannot become ideal without the help of a university. The whole system of public education, from the kindergarten to the graduate department, and thru it, should be strongly knit together. This principle is accepted universally, the chief discussion being about instrumentalities. My own experience causes me to place high value upon examiners of schools appointed by the university. - The examiner should be an instructor or assistant professor of pedagogy, and should lecture sometimes on the campus. In large states it might prove convenient to have an examiner for town high schools, another for rural schools, and a third for elemen- tary schools. The examiners should all be extension teachers of practical pedagogy. Their function is not so much to examine as to build up. If the university will pay for the cost of this service, the money will come back twofold. As an example of what may be done by an institution for the schools below it, let me point to the University of the State of New York. Few universities could engage in all its manifold work, but according to our means we should adopt its best methods. Traveling libraries, galleries, and extension lectures, as well as examiners of schools, are educationally. important means of grace. Moreover, the university is not without obligation to the private and Department] FUNCTION OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY 6n denominational colleges which, chartered by the state and protected by its laws, teach a large percentage of the educable youth. It is a blunder of the first magnitude to assume toward these colleges an attitude of hostility. One of the best things that we have tried in Missouri is the col- lege union, consisting of the university and of every other respectable institution of higher learning. At the meetings, held at each institution in succession, we discuss common problems, talk of common troubles, and help one another to the common end — the uplifting of the people. In spite of provoking opposition occasionally from the churches, any uni- versity should be held largely responsible if bad feeling continues between the denominational colleges and itself. Stepping grandly over small animosities, it should remember that, while officially it is the head of public instruction alone, in a broader sense it should be the loving, help- ful head of all sound education in the commonwealth. The state university should serve as a buttress to a national university. Education will not be complete in these United States until we have at Washington a national university with state institutions as its buttresses. Some day our education will conform to our system of government. I for one would not be willing to see institutions of any class enjoying privileges in the national university that are denied to other institutions of equal or superior grade, but close affiliation between the state and nation seems inevitable in education also. Let me answer some possible objections to the positions taken in this paper as to the outward obligations. Should the university invade the provinces of the boards, bureaus, and commissions — the Geological Survey, the Natural History Survey, the health officers, the tax commission, the superintendent of public instruc- tion, and the college of agriculture and the school of mines, if, unfortu- nately, these stand on separate foundations ? If the interests of the state are adequately served by others, the university might let well enough alone. Under no condition should it officiously invade the territory of any officer or organization appointed by the state. But 99 per cent, of the difficulty will disappear if only the university will do the work admirably and let others take the credit. If the purpose be to promote public welfare, why should one care who gets the praise ? In every instance, hitherto, in the writer's experience, the scientific, philanthropic, and statistical depart- ments of the state and the nation have been eager for co-operation, wher- ever the university has demonstrated ability to do work superbly, and in most cases they have supplied the money. Besides, it is one thing to appoint commissions and quite another to induce them to fulfill strenu- ously the purposes for which they were appointed. Many a yawning gap of deficiency in public officials may be quietly bridged by the patriotism and skill of the university, which should be the eye of the people, search- ing in every direction for opportunities to serve their welfare. 612 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher Will not the discussion of social and civil questions embroil the uni- versity in partisan politics? The most important problems of sociology and politics are not often embodied in state platforms, which usually consist of the national structure with a few more planks lauding one party and vilifying the other. Do you ask where the money for all this is to come from ? False to the core is the idea that the resources of a university are solely for instruction on its campus. The administration has no right to wait always on needed investigations for special appropriations from the legislature. It should rather assume that in part the income must be consecrated, as need arises, to promoting the public good wherever it can be reached by scientific skill. Ultimately no use of money will pay better, even as an investment of capital. At last, we are not required to do more than our resources permit. It is the spirit that maketh alive. The important thing is for the university to construe its functions liber- ally and to choose intelligently what can be done now and what should be postponed. Time as well as money is necessary for perfect perform- ance of its whole function. In conclusion, let me say that the state university, founded by the federal government and supported by a mill tax upon the property of a great commonwealth, with broad outlook and intense devotion to the welfare of the people, can be made the best institution yet devised by the wit of man for the promotion of human progress. University mottoes are sometimes inspiring, but the one that appeals to the writer most is from Cicero's De Legibus — " Salus populi suprema /ex." The welfare {salus), construed broadly, is coextensive with public interests, which, beginning in the soil of earth and rising thru human society, mount upward finally to the kingdom of heaven. DISCUSSION Dr. J. H. Canfield, Columbia University. — The spirit and tone of university life have changed from the cloister to the world. The day of the recluse is past. Education has come down, and is in its shirtwaist instead of in cap and gown. It is now tangible and open. More are being educated. I was glad to hear that the university should be helpful to all interests. Higher training does not lift one above his fellows, but qualifies him to be of greater use to them. " He that would be greatest among you must be the servant of all." I was glad to hear of the attitude of the state university to other schools and colleges. Some may not be ready to be taken under the wing of the university, but the day of conflict is past. President William F. King, Cornell College, commended the paper of Dr. Jesse, and affirmed that we all, of every type of school, are working harmoniously and to a common end. Let us hope that we shall always work thus. President William L. Prather of the University of Texas said that the univer- sity should study the tax laws. He referred to what was done in his own state, where the Department] RISE OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 613 legislators thought that the professors were mere theorists. The university should be the helpful guardian of the state. This idea is a western idea which could not have been born in the East. It took long training to bring about the conditions favoring this, but the day of prejudices against the educational forces of the country is passing. The state university is the child of the people in the West, and is destined to dominate all other educational forces. He referred to the history of education in Texas in illustration of his views. The state university must respond to the interests of the state, while culti- vating friendly relations with all private and denominational colleges. It should guard the people, by its economic instruction, against the wrongs of the railroads. President George McA. Miller of Ruskin College, Trenton, Mo., said that the university seemed to stand for the interests of the people in general, but not for any interest in particular, and raised the question whether anything could be done to link the university to the real interests of the people. President Jesse said he thought they were now so related, tho imperfectly. When we reach our ideals it will be time for us to be shot. THE RISE OF NATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY JOHN WILLIAM PERRIN, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, O. Both national and obligatory education, as understood in modern times, had their origin in the Reformation. When man was made respon- sible for the religious "faith that is within him," it became necessary for him to read and interpret the Bible for himself. Thus the education of the people, among all branches of the Protestant faith, became a religious duty to be as carefully and conscientiously performed as any other duty contained in the religious creed they had accepted. This explains the great attention that Luther and Calvin gave to the establishment of schools for the people. During the remainder of Luther's life, after his revolt from Rome, he constantly advocated universal education and urged the establishment of schools for the masses. While he believed that the church is the mother of the school, he urged the establishment of schools by municipalities. In 1524, in an address on this subject to the mayors and aldermen of Germany, he says: Dear rulers, if we must spend so much yearly upon artillery, roads, bridges, dikes, and innumerable other things of the same kind, in order that a city may have temporal peace and tranquillity, why should we not spend as much on the poor, needy youth, that we may support an able man or two for schoolmaster?1 He not only urged the establishment of schools by every city and village for the mental and moral training of the youth, but he urged such a course as a duty the municipality owed to itself. He believed that the safety, strength, and perpetuity of municipalities depended more on the schools they established than on their armies and fortifications. In the 1 Dr. Karl Zimmermann, Dr. Martin Luther's reformatorische Sckriften. Darmstadt, 1847. Zweiter Band, p. 517. 614 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher address from which I have just quoted he emphasizes this belief in no uncertain language : Therefore it is becoming [he says] for the council and the magistrates to have the greatest care and diligence for the youth. For since the good, the honor, the life, and the activity of a great city are committed to their faithful hands, they do not act justly before God and the world when they do not seek the prosperity and improvement of the city with all their power, night and day. Now, a city's prosperity lies not alone in accu- mulating great treasures, producing strong walls, beautiful houses, and munitions of war; indeed, where there is much of this, and reckless fools come into power, it is so much the worse, and of greater detriment to the city. But this is the best and richest increase, prosperity, and strength of the city, that it has many polished, learned, judicious, honor- able, and well-bred citizens, who, when they have been able to accumulate treasures and great wealth, may keep and use them rightly.1 And in a letter to John the Constant, who had succeeded his brother Frederick the Wise as elector, in 1525, he says: Where there is a city which has the ability, your electoral grace has the power to compel [the people] to support schools, pulpits, and parishes. If they will not do it for their salvation, then consider that your electoral grace, as highest guardian of the youth and of all others needing supervision, shall compel them to do so, just as they are compelled to give and render services toward bridges, paths, and roads, or other matters pertaining to the public interest.2 But his plans for universal education did not end with the establish- ment and support of schools by municipalities. In his sermon on the "Duty of Sending Children to School" he insists that it is both the right and the duty of the state to enact laws compelling parents to send their children to school. He says : I maintain that the civil authorities are under obligations to compel the people to send their children to school If the government can compel such citizens as are fit for military service to bear spear and rifle, to mount ramparts, and perform other martial duties in time of war, how much more has it a right to compel the people to send their children to school, because in this case- we are warring with the devil, whose object it is secretly to exhaust our cities and principalities of their strong men. Besides the establishment of schools, he urged the formation of libra- ries. He says : Finally, it is well for all those who have so much love and desire that schools and studies be established and sustained in Germany, to keep in mind that we spare no trouble nor expense to furnish good libraries, especially in great cities, where such are possible. For if the gospel and all the acts are to remain, they must indeed be inclosed and bound up in books and writings. These libraries were not to include the writings of the schoolmen and church fathers merely, but also the works of every great writer, whether pagan or Christian. There is scarcely any phase of education that was left untouched by Luther. As one has well said : 1 Op. cit., p. 521. 2Zimmermann, Schrribcn an den Kurfiirsten Johannes, 22sten November 132b. Dritter Band, p. 193- Department] RISE OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 615 If we survey the pedagogy of Luther in all its extent, and imagine it fully realized in practice, what a splendid picture the schools and education of the sixteenth century would present ! We should have courses of study, text-books, teachers, methods, prin- ciples, that could serve as models for our age. But Luther was too little understood by his own age, and his plans were but imperfectly realized. Still his labors brought forth much good fruit from their beginning. In 1524 Duke John of Gotha granted a petition of the council, the parish, the dean, and the court, declaring for the Reformation. This was on Tuesday of Whitsuntide, and in August of the same year Frederick Myconius, Luther's intimate friend, was made evangelical minister and superintendent of the duchy. In this year appeared Luther's address to the mayors and aldermen of Germany. Myconius considered it one of his principal duties to care for the schools. He fused those already in Gotha into one, and established the new school thus formed in the con- vent of the Augustinians.1 This was no easy task. Myconius himself says: "Schools and studies were utterly despised by the mob, and it would be much easier to find ten ready to storm and destroy a school than one or two willing to help in building one.* In speaking further of the magnitude of his labors, he says : Nobody would believe what an immense amount of labor is required to build a new house with warped and rotten wood. Oh, how long have we been compelled to work against the stream and to fetch everything from out of the fire ! Now, God help us, that it may be preserved to our posterity ? When he had completed the organization of the town schools, he placed a rector, M. Monerus, at their head. Then he turned his attention to the establishment of elementary schools. This, too, was due to Luther's influence. In 1527 Luther had written a letter to the ministers, asking "that they should read the catechism to the children and servants every Sunday afternoon at church, and hear them recite." It was comparatively easy for the ministers of the towns to satisfy these demands. But in the country, where they had in charge numerous chapels scattered over a wide territory, they were able to give but little attention to the young. To overcome this difficulty and to comply with Luther's wishes, a substitute for the minister was found in his clerk or sacristan. In this appointment of the minister's clerk to take charge of the education of the youth we have the beginning of the common schools in Gotha. In Thuringia, also, Luther's labors brought speedy and desired results. Here the propagandist of universal education was Philip Melancthon, as in Gotha it had been Myconius. Like Myconius, Melancthon was an inti- mate friend of the great reformer. He was a man of great learning and 1 Dr. Henry Barnard, in speaking of this school, calls Myconius " the founder of the gymnasium." See Henry Barnard, LL.D., Systems, Institutions, and Statistics of Public Instruction in Different Countries. New York, 1872. Part I, " Europe — German States," p. 575. ■zlbid. 3/bid. Quoted there from Myconius, History of the Reformation, p. 54. 616 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher ot much mental acuteness. In 1527, thru the influence of Luther, John the Constant appointed him to visit and examine the schools of Thuringia. He traversed the whole of this territory with Myconius and Justin Jonas. The results of his investigations were embodied in his Book of Visitation, which was published in the following year by the order of the elector. These labors of Melancthon had much significance in the further development of the educational ideas of the Reformation. Out of them grew the " Saxony school plan," which afterward became the educational system of most of the Protestant states of Germany. It demanded of the pastors that they should admonish the people of their charge on the necessity of sending their children to school, that they might be trained "to teach sound doctrine in the church and to serve the state in a wise and able manner." There can be no doubt that this plan of Melancthon was based on one prepared by Luther four years earlier. In 1524 Luther wrote to Spalatin, saying : I send you my sketch of the school as it should be, that you may lay it before the elector; and tho I do not expect that much heed will be given to it, yet I must venture, and leave the issue with God. Melancthon himself says in a letter to Camerarius on the subject of his Book of Visitation : "You will see that I have written nothing more than what Luther has prompted." The influence of Melancthon's labors did not end with the organiza- tion of schools under the Saxony plan. The Book of Visitation was the means of the establishment of an " Evangelical church system," in which matters of ecclesiastical doctrine and government asserted its own authority independently of the papacy. One of the most important laws of this century was that given by Duke Christoper of Wurtemberg in 1599. In that year he gave the first permanent regulations for the education of the common people. Uni- versal education was not only provided for, but insisted upon. Pastors were required to admonish the parents of their congregations twice each year upon the duty and the necessity of sending their children to school. Besides this, the schoolmasters were required to keep a register of all the boys in the district according to the classes to which they belonged. At the close of each recitation they were required to call this roll, and if the absentees were not able to give satisfactory excuses, " they were fined according to their deserts." These provisions were looked upon with favor by other districts of Germany, and in some instances laws of a simi- lar nature were passed. Nearly half a century before these provisions for the education of the common people were made, secondary schools were established thruout the duchy by the authority of the state. May 15, 1559, Duke Christopher issued what is called the "Grand Ecclesiastical Order." The purpose of this order, as stated in the preamble, was "to Department] RISE OF NA TIONAL EDUCA TION 6 1 7 carry youths from the elements thru successive grades to the degree of culture demanded for offices in the church and in the state." This order received the sanction of the diet in 1565, and, with some modifications, remained in force till 1803. As a result of this order, there were in Wur- temberg, in 1607, forty-seven Latin schools {lateinische Stadt-Schuleti) and eighteen cloister schools in operation. During this period there was no neglect of the higher education by Luther. The union of church and state gave the latter an indirect control over the universities. The old ones were organized in accordance with the constitution of the church, and several new ones were founded. The first of the new institutions was at Marburg, in 1527. This was followed by the establishment of one at Konigsberg in 1544, Jena in 1556, and one at Helmstadt in Brunswick in 1576. Wherever the Reformation spread, plans for universal education accom- panied it. In 1542 Calvin organized the ecclesiastical state of Geneva. Education was made universal, and, so far as Calvin was able to realize his plans, it was obligatory. In 1560 the Protestants of France took up the cause of universal education. In that year the states-general of Orleans sent to the king the following memorial : May it please the king to levy a contribution upon church revenues for the reason- able support of teachers and men of learning in every city and village, for the instruction of the needy youth of the country; and let all parents be required, under penalty of a fine, to send their children to school, and let them be constrained to observe this law by the lords and ordinary magistrates. Reasonable and just as were these recommendations, they did not meet with the approval of the king. Eleven years later, on the recommenda- tion of the queen, Jeanne d'Albert, the estates of Navarre passed a law making primary instruction compulsory. Probably this was borrowed from Geneva. Queen Jeanne was a zealous Calvinist, and Calvin himself wrote to her at times concerning the affairs of her government. What Calvin did for education in Geneva, John Knox attempted in Scotland. The First Book of Discipline, prepared under Knox's direc- tion in 1560, ordained that each kirk should appoint a schoolmaster able to teach grammar and the Latin tongue. In the upland towns the minis- ter is to take care of the children and instruct them in the first rudiments and in the catechism. It seems that the civil authorities gave Knox very little assistance in his endeavors to establish schools. It was not till 1633 that there was a legal enactment for the establishment of schools. In that year it was ordained by parliamentary legislation "that a school should be established in every parish, and that the lands be assessed for that purpose." Early in the history of the Reformation, Protestant Holland attained a higher standard of education for the masses than had been realized elsewhere. In speaking of the institutions of Antwerp, Motley says : 6l8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher The schools were excellent and cheap. It was difficult to find a child of sufficient age who could not read, write, and speak at least two languages The standard of culture in those flourishing cities was elevated, compared with that observed in many parts of Europe. The children of the wealthier classes enjoyed great facilities for educa- tion in all the great capitals. The classics, music, and the modern languages, particularly the French, were universally cultivated. Nor was intellectual cultivation confined to the higher orders. On the contrary, it was diffused to a remarkable degree among the hard- working artisans and handicraftsmen of the great cities. The progress of the Reformation brought with it greater zeal for the education of the masses, and before the close of the sixteenth century there had been established a system of schools fostered by the state. A resolution was passed in the first synod of Dort, in 1574, urging "the servants of the church " to obtain permission from the magistrates to appoint schoolmasters in every locality. A more advanced step was taken by Friesland in 1582. There it was decreed by the estates that the inhabitants of towns and villages should within the space of six weeks provide good and able Reformed schoolmasters, and those who neglected so to do would be com- pelled to accept the instructors appointed for them. In the year following, a law was passed in Zealand insisting upon edu- cation because "it is the foundation of the commonwealth." In 1586 the synod attempted to make schools universal. Then it was ordered that the consistories or assemblies of ministers and elders of the church should take care that schools should be everywhere provided with good schoolmasters to instruct the children of all classes of persons in reading, writing, rhetoric, and the liberal arts, as well as in the doctrines of religion and the catechism of the church. By 1609, the year in which the Puritans took up their residence in Leyden, schools for the people had become municipal institutions, which were paid for as were other expenses of the municipalities. In England the state did but little for the cause of universal educa- tion during this period. The magnificent results achieved by the labors of Luther, Melancthon, and other reformers of Protestant Germany are in marked contrast with tho&e accomplished by the labors of Erasmus, Colet, and More in England. Almost nothing was accomplished during the first half of the sixteenth century. At the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. the Oxford reformers had hoped and looked for a reawaken- ing of the people thru schools established for them. But Henry did but little toward establishing schools. During his entire reign of thirty-six years he founded but ten grammar schools. Twenty-seven were estab- lished by Edward VI. and thirty between Mary and Elizabeth. When the Reformation was considerably advanced, Cranmer formulated a scheme for the founding of schools of every grade in connection with new cathe- drals which he hoped would be established. It was a part of his plan to use the revenues from the monasteries for this purpose. But the spoils of the monasteries went into other hands, and his plans were far from realized. The Reformation and that great intellectual movement which Department] EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL CONTROL 619 accompanied it, both as cause and as effect, gave thru private charity the facilities for education which the state had failed to provide. In all, 250 grammar schools were established by the state and private donations during the period of the Reformation. But these schools did not fur- nish the primary instruction which the people needed. They were higher schools, and corresponded to the laieittische Stadt-Schulen established by Duke Christopher in Wurtemberg. Probably these schools accomplished the object which the leaders of the movement had in view when they established them. They undoubtedly did, if that object was the furnish- ing of the means of education beyond primary instruction to the middle classes. But if they also had in view provisions for the intellectual train- ing of the poor, then in that respect they must have failed. What this class needed was primary instruction, and the Reformation was far advanced before schools giving such instruction were established, and then only by private benefice. Such was the origin of modern compulsory education, and such the progress that universal education and the principle of compulsion had made at the end of the sixteenth century. . The great movement which began with Luther's breaking' the ecclesiastical shackles which Rome had placed on the Christian world had transferred from the church to the state all matters pertaining to the instruction of the youth. That prin- ciple, maintained so strenuously by Luther, that the city or state, for its own safety, must establish schools for all the people, and compel the attendance of the youth upon them if necessary, had won the battle so far as it had then been waged. The next victory for the cause of uni- versal education and the principle of compulsion was won on the Ameri- can continent by the New England Puritans. EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL CONTROL WILLIAM E. CHANCELLOR, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BLOOMFIELD, N. J. The nature of social control is now the most important question in American life. So important is it, and so vast, that we forget it just as we ignore the horizon, the sky, and the sun when we go on our busy personal errands over the earth. It was the prayer of Lincoln that " government of the people, by the people, for the people, may not per- ish. " Every other kind of government has at last perished. Every other civilization has come to naught. An amazing labyrinth of lines of social control is the peculiar characteristic of every great civilization. Every civilization either has at last broken down, as in Egypt, Chaldea, Greece, Rome, and France before the Revolution, or has atrophied, as in 620 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher India and China, for want of righteous and efficient control. It may be that no race can produce enough wise and strong men to keep it devel- oping in freedom and happiness thru ages on ages. No civilization can proceed without agents whose wisdom and right- eousness measure its efficiency and condition its vitality. Democracy cannot escape from its servants. This difficulty of producing enough competent agents for social control has never been solved. Social right- eousness means more than acceptance of the brotherhood of man. We read in a very old document that one brother did not deny another's brotherhood, but simply questioned whether he was his brother's keeper. Social righteousness is greater and more difficult than personal righteous- ness. Single individuals are not often responsible for the poverty, the disease, the ignorance, and the sin of other individuals ; but society itself may be responsible. Its obligation may be greater than the total obliga- tions of all its members, for its opportunity may be greater. Schools are the agencies for the transmission of culture in as real a sense as the courts are the agencies for the transmission of that lesser inheritance, the lands and goods and rights of the earth. But in our educational system, or that concatenated order which passes for a system, we have singularly neglected the preparation of our youth for the high- est duties. First we must acquire property in our own bodies, learn our own hands and feet ; then add skill in tools, in games, and in athletics. We know that every human creature is worth most to himself and to us when he completely possesses himself. Next we must acquire the facts of the senses — that is, world-knowledge ; and we have nature study and science laboratories, social investigations, history, and geography. These furnish the elements of preparation for self-support. Hitherto this world-knowl- edge has been for most men fragmentary and often incorrect. Yet the human race has blundered forward, thinking that the world is flat, that priests own God, and kings are by grace of God ; that history is a series of accidents, and that whatever'is is fate. After getting this objective knowledge, the individual turns to him- self, to his own soul and mind. Therefore the wise teach others litera- ture, philosophy, and religion, which reveal the soul of humanity. The beginning of this stage of development is self-consciousness, and its end is self-control. Beyond this few ever advance. " Know thyself " was the highest point reached by the philosophy of Socrates, who exploited that popular saying. Yet there are two higher stages to which we may attain, if we do not crystallize in character and mind at earlier stages. Beyond self-knowledge is self-direction, amid the forces and events and facts of nature and of the human life. This self-direction is possible only to men of objective social knowledge. The earlier objectivity that leads to observational science and to industry is not enough. This later Department] EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL CONTROL 621 objectivity is not of the senses so much as of the will, carrying one beyond truthfulness of vision to truthfulness of action, to self-revelation and self-direction in the world. Of every hero who has stood for his mission, even of every man who has risen in the world, these words of Arnold are true : He within Took measure of his soul and knew its strength, And by that silent knowledge day by day Was calm'd, ennobled, comforted, sustained. The philosopher Rosenkranz was unable to carry his argument farther than this, the climax of individualism. The appeals by teachers to the desire in their disciples for property, both as wealth and as income ; the exhortations to self-knowledge for one's own sake, and to self-con- trol so as to win and to hold the respect of others ; and the incitements to acquire power, so as to make a place by one's own will for one's self in the world, are very familiar to us all, both as students and as teachers. These appeals are absolutely necessary ; they are as milk to babes and as meat to strong men. " Seize your opportunities," is the maxim of those whose philosophy must end with self-control. " Make your opportuni- ties," is for those who are capable of self-direction. Some of the great- est names of history illustrate this exalted stage of culture ; of these Napoleon is the most striking, the startling example. Higher than self- direction and social knowledge, but possible only to those who have conquered the forces of social habit and of social thought, is the stage whereon a man represents in his mind and will the best thoughts and purposes of humanity, and, as such a representative, exercises social con- trol. For this stage our education, our very institutions, self-governing tho we Americans may be, afford no adequate preparation. Social con- trol is a state of the mind, completely absorbed in the affairs of society for its sake ; absorbed, tho never equally alive, in any earlier state. Our democracy employs some who cannot see even the facts of objective experience; others who are incapable of self-support; and many who have no self-reliance, but who, knowing nothing securely of themselves, wait to see what others will do or say. Our citizenship is afraid of the selfishness of educated intelligence. To develop self- control, to raise men out of unthinking subordination to superiors, to achieve democracy, education — elementary, secondary, and collegiate — can do much by employing the original self-activity of children and youth, and can do nothing otherwise. Unless education does produce self-reliance, the youths are better out in the struggles and temptations of life than at school or college. The truthful observer — clear-eyed, self-reliant — and he alone, can become the righteous servant-ruler in church and state, in business and school and society. Many such self-understanding men may be called ; but even of these only a few will be chosen for continued service. Upon 622 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher these few depends the further progress of a great and difficult civili- zation. But why is it all cannot become agents of social control in a nation of free equals ? We have done away with kings in the state, with priests in the church, and with patriarchs in the family. We are doing away with men as masters in business, and may some day dispense with our lords of the land. We have opened the schools to all. Why do not all ascend to the very highest stages of culture, to be their own kings and priests, employers, teachers ? If the way up the Parnassus of the muses is steep, that to the Olympus of the gods is sheer. If it is difficult to master the great classics and the fine arts, it is more difficult to master the sciences of humanity and the arts of the control of men. Sometimes the early environment is so barren that it affords no proper and adequate nourishment for the mind struggling to compass the objects of the world. Sometimes — and I doubt not that this is true in at least 40 per cent, of the children of our race — the bodily apparatus is so defective, especially in the eyesight and external muscular accom- modations of the eye, that the soul cannot find the real world or truly express itself in it. Many others cannot progress in culture because they must stop by the way for the means of existence. Getting beyond self-control to intelligent self-direction, and then on to competent righteous social control, is personal pioneering ; for not only are there no teachers or books, save biographies seldom full of truth, but even the philosophy of modern education can point out no path. Consider the spectacle of eighty millions of men, women, and chil- dren between our oceans, living in all these varied stages of culture ; so many in the earliest stages, so few in the last ! Few are they who are capable of self-control ; very few are they who are capable of self-direc- tion ; very, very few, a mere handful among so many, fitted for social direction ; only a fraction of those who are actually exercising social con- trol. Consider, too, that nature brings to birth very few creatures of genius able to rise without teaching to self-knowledge, self-control, self- direction, social direction toward the righteousness which is taught by the wisdom and goodness of a hundred centuries of the cumulative experience of unknown billions of men. Children of one Mother Earth, warmed and lighted by a single sun, joint heirs to the acquirements of countless generations of creatures, which taught our very nerve-cells the right ways to do things ; disciples of the common human thought, devel- oping for ourselves practically nothing, we have a common obligation and a common opportunity. And yet to develop our people, these eighty millions, our democracy spends for all kinds of education, private and public, of our immense national income about one-third as much as it spends for beverages to make us forget our troubles ! And there are educators so unaccustomed to the ratios of large figures as to compliment Department] EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL CONTROL 623 our people, to cheer the hearts of niggardly politicians, and to put stumbling-blocks in the paths of the actual workers, the money-getters, in the cause of culture, by exclaiming upon the liberality of a nation of eighty million people which, out of an income of one hundred billions a year, spends three hundred millions on all forms of instruction — less than one-half of what it spends on tobacco ! of which paltry three hundred millions by far the largest amount is spent upon the very rudimentary education of reading, writing, and arithmetic. As long as tobacco costs scholarly men about as much as do their books ; as long as beer for the men costs all our people as much as meat for men, women, and children together; as long as all our universities cost less than our warships; as long as we are willing to spend on conquests more than we are willing to spend to irrigate our arid West ; as long as city slums endure ; as long as men, women, and children who work must work anywhere in inhuman conditions ; as long as the doors of opportunity are shut to many ; so long we can regard neither our nation as a nation of well-educated humanity nor our schools as truthful exponents of human culture. We are better than any other people ; but we are only at the beginnings of wisdom and righteousness and wealth. In the last generation of men and women we heard much about prepa- ration for social service. " He that would be great among you, let him be the servant of all and the minister of all." The converse is equally true. He that serves all rules all. The lesson of a longer experience is the need of preparation for social control. The old required course is a thing of the past. No mere change of studies, however, can effect an essential change in the fitness of the bachelor of arts, for either social ser- vice or social control. At best he may issue into the world intending to reform it ; at worst he issues into it intending to master it ; sometimes he hopes to find opportunities for acquiring more knowledge or greater skill ; generally his intention is to enjoy, not the world, but himself in the world. We need none of these men. We do not need men bent only on accumulating knowledge of specialties. We do not want masters. We do not accept reformers — the history of the world is the miracle of constructive omniscience. We do not care for aesthetic dilettanti good only as critics. We object to eager executives seeking to convert the treasures of the world's labor-power into plunder for themselves. We need and we use self-reliant men, who see the facts of nature ; who are interested in the welfare of humanity; who are ready both to serve and to rule ; who are keen for action after thought. To prepare such men the elective system leads in the right direction ; it does not reach the goal unless individualization is the one thing desirable in education, and self-reliance is the final stage of culture. The elective system has introduced the right studies. Let these now take the place of required constants. 624 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher Time was that the college graduate came from the college at sixteen or seventeen years of age. The youth scarcely goes to it nowadays until he is eighteen or nineteen. Great as has been the change in the cur- ricula in the past half-century, it has not been as great as is demanded by the entirely different characters of the boy of fifteen and the young man of twenty. Not the college only must change its subjects, but the sec- ondary school as well. The elective system is beginning to disclose that great mistakes have been made in the location of studies in our courses. There are college studies requiring such simple processes of thought that they belong in the secondary schools, even in the grammar schools. Psy- chology has demonstrated that the powers and interests of the students are the sole tests as to how early in life any subject shall be introduced, and in what form it shall be introduced. And sociology, when it has taken its form and marked out the nature of its content, will demon- strate that the needs of society are the sole tests whether any subject shall be studied at all, except as a diversion or a recreation, or by investigators in the hope that something useful may be found. The fundamental science of the modern time is biology. The man destined for social control ought to understand humanity as it really is, offspring or kindred of all the living creatures of this realm of one Father. A knowledge of physiology is required far beyond the compass of a course of lectures or of an abridged text-book. Some of the most impor- tant questions any society of men and women has to solve arise solely from the general ignorance of fundamental human facts. The compe- tent, if in authority, could easily dispose of them. The tenement houses in the slums, the children with neglected teeth and eyes and bodies, the widows bringing up orphans in the awful poverty of homes in which mothers worry all night after working outside of them all day, social evils and wrongs resulting from customs quite contrary to physiological facts — sorrows like these are remediable by competent and righteous men in business and politics. Psychology has extremely important contributions. The ability to locate individuals in such and such stages of culture has countless uses. The study of human nature belongs to the rulers of men, for it not only makes them rulers, but it qualifies them to rule well. We can save society from becoming the prey of the able but evil only by producing the wise and good who may overcome them. Sociology serves, for the youth about to be graduated, as the final interpretation of this human life as it really is. History is both the treasure-house of human facts and a method of finding the truth. Eco- nomics is the arithmetic of the collegiate course. No man is competent to rule his fellows who does not understand the nature of capital, wages, rent, interest, profit, and taxes; just as no man is competent to buy or Department] EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL CONTROL 625 sell merchandise until he knows addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. By this standard most men in office and in business, exer- cising social control, are incompetent. When this great nation at last seriously undertakes the higher education, and seriously enters upon its mission of developing the human spirit, every college graduate will understand political economy. Political science demonstrates why the strong rule, just as sociology demonstrates why the good ought to rule. The man who is to exercise authority needs to know the elements of the law of his nation, his state, and his community, the rights and duties of citizens, the nature of property in lands and goods, the principles of contract, and the definitions and sanctions of crime. Especially ought he to know the nature of corporations, private, public, and quasi-public ; for corporations are the greatest devices for progress — cultural, political, economic — yet sprung from human brains. The youth broadly prepared to rule should know the literature of his race. He cannot know this too well. He must have an adequate com- mand of thought-imagery. This is a requirement, not only of content- knowledge, but also of skill in the arts of speech and print. No subject is to be studied for its discipline alone. In the wealth of subjects today, we ought to choose subjects for their contents as well as for their logic. This prepared servant of society ought to know for himself — not by books merely, nor by observation merely, but in personal experience — the life-conditions, both economic and domestic, of the men and women who are working for humanity in some great industry or in agriculture or in commerce. He will find that most opinions of the great working millionaires are caricatured by reporters and casual acquaintances, who are as incompetent to understand their motives and capacities as our school children to understand their teachers. He will learn that the con- trol of men must neither be solely for one's own ends'nor academic and impractical. Every college graduate should be trained physically, manually, organically. He ought to know something of the fine arts and music and architecture, that our social life may be more attractive, and the appearance of our buildings and homes be more beautiful. Meantime, during these four years — the very best for training in any man's life — the youth who is being fitted for the authority, duty, and responsibility of social control should be learning self-government by practicing its principles in a self-governing student body and in self- governing student organizations. Any college that cannot maintain student government is in need of a new faculty, and its trustees sin against the light. If half-trained councils can oversee the self-govern- ment of great cities, full of ignorant people, some of them bad, a college faculty can do as well by bodies of the finest young men in the land. 626 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher They may not be what the faculty wants; and, again, the faculty may not be what the nation needs ; but the young men are the best God yet intrusts to this people. The college belongs to the democracy of culture. Its teachers ought to be broad-minded workers for social betterment. By profession every teacher exercises social control. In what spirit does he exercise it ? None of us will expect that the deepest lessons interpreted from the printed pages of the masters can eventuate at once in the action or even the character of the graduate or post-graduate. But we not only can expect, we ought to know, that the young men and women sent into the world from these cities of the light will manifest, in moments of oppor- tunity, some memory of the wisdom of the great, and some emotion of the righteousness taught by them. The righteousness of a cultured society would transform the wealth and the labor power of the world into opportunities for intelligence, health, happiness, homes, and work worth doing for all. Every teacher fails utterly of his duty both to his students and to the mighty dead who, thru pain, toil, and danger, have won progress for humanity, if he does not bring to his students the message of social duty. The scholar in politics ? Yes, and only the scholar trained to dis- place all others. The scholar in business ? Yes, and the scholar first of all. But in politics and business such scholars need training and knowledge as much better than at present offered in the schools as modern life surpasses earlier conditions. Education ought no longer to lag so far behind the actual progress of the times. Today home and church are visibly disintegrating. The school by integration grows more and more. The making of men for social control is today the opportunity of higher education. In this nation its youths of talent are as the water of the river of life. To state and church comes the challenge of the poet ; and the question of Lowell is the question of the living Christ of history : Have you founded your thrones and altars then On the bodies and souls of living men, And think ye that building shall endure Which shelters the noble and crushes the poor ? It may be that our historic mission is but to do better than any pre- ceding people, and then, like all others, to fail, leaving lessons to instruct a new people in the valley of the Amazon, or to revitalize an ancient people on the shores of the China Sea. And it may be that the American republic will become the center of one self-governing world-nation, bounded by the circumpolar seas and the signs of the zodiac, postpon- ing the day of doom by the thousand years of a millennium of human righteousness. Department] THE MORAL FACTOR IN EDUCATION 627 THE MORAL FACTOR IN EDUCATION WM. H. P. FAUNCE, PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, R. I. Over every true school might well be inscribed the sentence which we find in Genesis : " Let us make man." That great purpose, anterior to creation, lies behind all the work of the teacher. Teaching is a species of creation. The writer of Genesis little knew how much was involved in the making of man. He conceived the process as needing only a handful of dust and a day of twenty-four hours. Now we know that the making of man means millenniums : the slow climbing from dust to crystal, from crystal to plant, from plant to infusoria, from infusoria to mammal, from mammal to Moses and Dante and Shakespeare. But as each student repeats and epitomizes the history of the race, each involves a fresh creative process, and all true teaching has behind it the basal purpose of the world : " Let us make man." To make a muscular marvel — a Samson or a Sandow — is not to make man. To make a prodigious memory by conning Chinese classics for generations is not to make man. To produce a logical mechanism, a mere reasoning faculty, by sacrificing to it all the rest of human nature, is not to produce a man. To produce, as the output of an educational system, shrewd manipulators, abnormal geniuses, like Machiavelli in political life or Barney Barnato in commercial life, is not the object of our work. We cannot allow any part of the pupil's nature to atrophy in order to produce a dazzling prodigy. We aim to make full-orbed men — men of keen senses, trained intellect, warm hearts ; men rich in imagi- nation and emotion ; men of power to resolve, to initiate, to administer, to achieve; power to see swiftly, judge accurately, decide immediately, to love deeply and hate persistently, and grow forever — men such as all the past of human history now should culminate in producing. But the fact is that for the past few centuries we have tried in our schools to produce minds rather than men. We have given our whole strength to mentality, often ignoring the physical basis on the one side, and the entire gamut of desire and volition on the other. Modern psychology makes the will central in human nature. To possess a will active, and active on the side of righteousness, is more than to carry in one's head all tongues, ancient and modern, or to be familiar with all the sciences of the world. Just as the old political economy dealt with an imaginary "economic man," who had only slight resemblance to the true, so our schools have often dealt with a supposed learning and remember- ing man, only a fragment of the true man. We have thought of the educated man as one who knows certain things, regardless of how he feels or what he does. But no mere knowledge ever yet guaranteed an educa- tion. The educated man is, above all, one who controls his own powers, and controls them for righteous ends. Encyclopaedic knowledge with a 628 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher weak will George Eliot has pictured in Doctor Causabon. Vast knowl- edge with an evil will Goethe has pictured in Mephistopheles. One of them is less than human, the other is more. It is a severe indictment of our modern training that we can conceive of an educated bad man, while to the Greeks such a being was inconceivable. As Mr. Bosanquet has said : When we compare the ancient Greek education with our own, whether primary or secondary, as a training of the whole man, we are surprised to find ourselves put on our defense We think of education, on the whole, as an intellectual process, as a process of learning a number of things, each of which on separate grounds is necessary to be known. The Greek thought of it on the whole as a moral process ; or, rather, he would not have understood you if you had asked him which of the two he thought it to be. We, alas! understand perfectly the divorce between intellect and char- acter, between mind and conscience, between learning and doing ; but the Greeks could not conceive such a separation as possible. Plato and Aristotle shall rise up in the judgment with the men of this generation and shall condemn it ; for they aimed everywhere at the production of moral human beings, and we have aimed at making learning and remembering machines. But our ideal is changing — thank heaven! The idea of self-activity has in many quarters displaced the immorality of passive reception. The idea of action as the method of learning has been embodied in our manual training. We begin to perceive that the end of education is volition — as Kant said: "The only good thing in the uni- verse is a good will." But how shall we embody these new perceptions of truth in our present school and college life ? How shall we moralize education ? 1. The first requisite is character in the teacher. When Emerson's daughter wrote to him about her choice of studies, he answered : " It matters not so much what you study as with whom you study." A small man cannot cast a great shadow. A teacher cannot do work at a higher level than that of his own interior Hfe. No formal instruction in moral duties can ever have one-thousandth part of the influence which steadily flows from a teacher by nature magnanimous and steadfast. Especially is character in the teacher indispensable in dealing with very young pupils, for they depend almost wholly on example and con- tagion. To force little children into moral philosophy, into analysis of their own mental states or their deeds, is to produce insufferable prigs. Emphatically true is it of children : "Theirs not to reason why." Intro- spection, self-scrutiny in childhood, is abnormal and dangerous. Abstract virtue they should never consider. Goodness they should know, not as a quality, but as an incarnation. Hence a teacher of rich, large, generous spirit, noble by instinct and righteous by training, is the best possible code of law and the only true treatise on moral philosophy for little children. Department] THE MORAL FACTOR IN EDUCATION 629 " O'er wayward childhood wouldst thou hold firm rule And sun thee in the light of happy faces ? Love, Hope, and Patience, these must be thy graces, And in thine own heart let them first keep school." In dealing with older pupils, the need of character in the teacher is hardly less. The graduates of our secondary schools and colleges, when they come to talk over the old days spent in study, always speak first, not of the buildings in which they studied, not of the formal lessons, but of the character of their instructors. That is obviously the thing which makes the deepest impression on the student mind. A college alumnus forgets everything else sooner than he forgets the personality of his instructors. And as we all look back in life, we see that the best our teachers did for us was to incarnate before our eyes the simple, homely virtues which are the warp and woof of noble living. Marcus Aurelius opens his Meditations — one of the best books in the world for a modern student — with striking tributes of this kind : From my grandfather Verus I learned good morals and the government of my temper. From the reputation and remembrance of my father, modesty and a manly char- acter. From Apollonius I learned freedom of will and undeviating steadiness of purpose — and how to receive from friends what are esteemed favors, without either being humbled by them or letting them pass unnoticed. From Alexander, the grammarian, I learned to refrain from fault-finding. From Maximus I learned self-government and not to be led aside by anything, and to do what was set before me without complaining. As our colleges increase in size, one of the greatest problems is how to preserve this priceless touch of soul on soul. A university whose faculty are all specialists of high repute, absorbed wholly in advancing human knowledge, may do much to widen the domain of science, but may do little or nothing in the making of men. And if it is not prepared to aim at the molding of character, it ought frankly to abandon undergraduate instruction. Here is a consideration demanding attention from every father who has son or daughter to educate. But in our secondary schools the power of personality still has full play. The head of an excellent secondary school need envy no college president. Such a head-master is one of a great fraternity of noble spirits ; he is the heir of Arnold and Thring and Quick ; he is a true leader in the progress of the world. 2. But the moral power of a teacher is exerted largely thru the adminis- tration of a school. The whole arrangement of a building, the conduct of school affairs, the method by which pupils enter and leave a room, their attitude in study and in recitation — the entire management of a school constitutes an atmosphere in which the pupil's life is to unfold. One of the graduates of Brown University was employed during his entire course to ring the bell for recitation about seven or eight times a day. He now declares that the best thing he received from his college course 630 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher is the habit of regularity and punctuality derived from four years of bell- ringing. When a school is administered in the spirit of impartiality and justice, it is giving indirect instruction in rights and duties. Candor and honesty in personal intercourse means love of truth in the pupil. Kind- ness and courtesy in manner means refinement of spirit inculcated in the best possible way. Neatness of attire, erectness of position, grace of personal carriage — these things produce the self-respect without which virtue is impossible. Regularity of habit and attention to method enable a pupil to pass over much of his life to the region of the automatic, and so leave him free to make fresh acquirement. The spirit of pettiness and fussiness in school administration, the exaltation of the trivial, and the nagging of pupils by martinets dressed in a little brief authority, may pro- duce serious nervous disorders in children, and must produce a narrowing of horizon and a contraction of spirit. The generous, magnanimous teacher who daily lives in touch with the great souls of all time, who is constantly fed by literature and art and science, and who never loses the forest in the trees, is creating unconsciously an atmosphere so genial and vernal that all the souls in the room feel, like the very clods in the month of June, " a stir of might, An instinct within that reaches and towers." Just because the human personality is a growth and not a manufac- tured article, this indirect approach to its moral life is far more valuable than any didactic pressure. In carving a granite column which lies cold and passive under the chisel, we need the direct blow on blow which shall shatter the surface into the desired shape. But in training a vine or a blossoming shrub, nothing is gained by pulling the branches or untwisting the tendrils or forcing open the buds. We must approach the plant life by moistening the foots, by bathing the leaves in light, by nourishing the soil, and then letting nature do the rest. A great sermon might be preached to teachers from the text : " The earth bringeth forth fruit of herself." The student's nature is not a foe to be subdued, but a friendly power to be understood and directed. In the right atmosphere the innate moral forces come to the front and reinforce the teacher's word. In such an atmosphere the pupil will learn to abhor cramming as an essential falsehood, will learn the necessity of leisure in order to grow, will shrink from all exhibitioner se, and will love knowledge for the sake of richer, deeper life, and not for the sake of rewards of any kind. Where the moral tone is lofty, the school will unitedly seek to be rather than to seem, will wish to possess rather than to display, and will have a self-respect and poise and deliberation which will disdain superficial smattering, and will know the thing in itself. The teacher who "paints the thing as he sees it for the God of things as they are" will find that he Department] THE MORAL FACTOR IN EDUCATION 631 is teaching both painting and godliness as no art manuals and no theistic treatises could possibly do it. In such a school the great moral laws of the world outside will be the laws of the school world inside. Class morals will be impossible. The idea that the student code of conduct is separate from that of the rest of humanity, and that the high-school pupil or college freshman is superior to the laws which bind the clerk in the store or the commercial traveler, will vanish, and the great moral cur- rents of the world will flow thru the entire life of the school. To recur again to our masters, the Greeks, they had no ten com- mandments to teach their pupils, their religious sanctions were feeble compared with ours, and they could not enforce duty by any clear vision of the life to come. Yet their education was so serious and noble, so essentially bound up with moral action, that at the age of seventeen or eighteen, when a young man received the soldier's spear and shield in the presence of the magistrates, he took the memorable oath of the Ephebi : I will not dishonor my sacred arms; I will not desert my fellow-soldier by whose side I shall be set ; I will do battle for my religion and my country, whether aided or unaided. I will leave my country not less, but greater and more powerful, than she is when committed to me ; I will reverently obey the citizens who shall act as judges ; I will obey the ordinances which have been established, and which in time to come shall be established, by the national will ; and whosoever would destroy those ordinances I will not suffer him, and I will do battle for them whether aided or unaided ; and I will honor the temple where my fathers worshiped : of these things the gods are my wit- nesses. Can the average American youth take that oath and keep it ? And if he cannot, is it not irrelevant, if not impertinent, for him to offer as a substitute a certain amount of Greek, Latin, and mathematics ? 3. Briefly we may advert to the moral culture of athletic sports. That there are moral dangers in athletics none can deny. Especially when great notoriety is given to those who participate, when the contest is chiefly for gate-money, when professionalism creeps in and life is degraded to livelihood, then the result of athletics is a relaxation of moral fiber and a confusing of standards. But when pursued in legiti- mate ways, modern athletic contests not only develop the physical powers, as do gymnastics, but they develop certain moral qualities which exclu- sive attention to mental development has led us to ignore. Our ever popular games of football and baseball develop a power of quick observa- tion and decision, a self-reliance, and at the same time a subordination of personal advantage to the common good, a spirit of obedience to authority and spontaneous co-operation, and a score of other qualities which are essential in the social order. The spirit of fairness in compe- tition developed in sport may be easily transferred to the industrial arena. The willingness to face heavy odds on the gridiron may be car- ried into the field of battle. The spirit of generosity to a defeated 632 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher opponent and of faith in a defeated friend is the very instinct of chivalry, and without it life will become, like nature, "red in tooth and claw." 4. Some teachers who readily admit the moral effect of administration and of student sport have never yet fully recognized the power of moral methods in the class-room. They have never realized the value of what Mr. Lecky calls " the intellectual virtues." In the study of language, training in translating is training in truth-telling, in just discrimination, in fair comparison, in adequate representation. One's choice of words in writing is an index of the character, and the style is the man. It was said of Gibbon, perhaps unjustly, that he wrote in a style in which it was impossible to tell the truth. Anyone who compares Macaulay's glittering sentences with his style in correspondence or conversation will see how far he was willing to sacrifice truth to epigram. The influence of the scientific spirit on literary, and especially on oratorical, style has been profound. The orations of Webster are too ponderous for our day, and the delight of Everett in mere rhetorical splendor is wearisome to a gen- eration which is eager for the fact and distrustful of verbal drapery. College writing ought to feel the changed temper of our time and culti- vate the virtues of simplicity, directness, and truth. The study of science itself has done much to promote exactness of observation and honesty in report. It has taught us to trace events to causes and reserve our con- clusions to the end of our investigation. It has set before us, as the model student of the nineteenth century, Charles Darwin, of whom it has been said that in all his voluminous writings not an instance can be found of a fact misstated or consciously perverted. It has given our students patience in study and taught them the greatness of the creation. It has silently molded the character of millions. Manual training has given to many pupils certain virtues that books cannot impart, and history when really taught will be, as Froude says, " the voice of God forever sounding across the centuries the laws of right and wrong." 5. Thus far we have said nothing about direct ethical instruction. This is last in order of time, and last in order of importance. But it cannot be ignored. After a student has learned to admire the right and to do the right and to love the right, comes the formulation of right principles and rules, and the question why one thing is right and another is wrong. As flowers come before botany and stars before astronomy, moral living comes before moral philosophy. Yet inevitably the student will come to ask as to the reason of righteousness, and will need direct ethical teaching. Here our procedure must depend largely on circum- stances. In institutions wholly under private control we may add certain religious instruction as a powerful sanction to the moral life. In public schools and state universities this is impossible. But it does not follow that the teaching and study of practical ethics is impossible. The Department] THE MORAL FACTOR IN EDUCATION 633 theory of ethics is still in debate among philosophers, but the praxis, the actual life according to practical reason, is something which may be taught by Christian, Jew, or agnostic, and may be taught in the same way by all of them. There can be no valid objection to the use of brief treatises on moral conduct which shall formulate principles and enforce them by the actual consequences of conduct as seen in society and history. That righteousness tendeth to life, and that the wages of sin is death, is not, and never can be, sectarian instruction. It is simply a statement of moral gravitation, as universal, as pitiless, and quite as important for us to appreciate as the law of physical gravitation. A text-book on this subject must describe the virtues which are essential to human beings dwelling together, must show them in the great characters of history, and reinforce them by their results in the social organism. In two respects, especially, do we need such instruction today. First, we need training for citizenship. The average student knows little about the government under which he lives, and feels small responsibility for its character. He does not look forward, as did the pagan youth, to the service of the state as the noblest possible career, but he thinks of laws and courts and legislatures as instruments thru which, by proper manipulation, a skillful citizen may attain his private ends. Such an attitude is anti-social and anarchistic. The worst anarchists are not those who wave a red flag. They are those who use the American flag as a cloak for the concealment of private schemes and the attainment of selfish ambitions. The essence of anarchy is the exaltation of self above the state. This spirit must be conquered, not in Haymarket square, but in the school and the college ; not by the policeman's club, but by the teacher's personality. "To replace is to conquer;" and this anti-social attitude must be replaced by a large-minded patriotism which counts the highest honor for a citizen the service of the state- In another direction is this training still more important — in prepa- ration for the duties of home life.. Back of state and church and school stands the home, the fundamental institution of civilization. When the home is strong and pure, all other institutions will flourish; when the home decays, all is corrupt. Yet probably all of us who have been thru the public schools have heard not one word of direct instruction on the duties of parenthood or even of simple home life. The great facts of the transmission of life, the sacred mystery of the relation of parent and child — these are things which Puritan prudes have banished from the teaching in either school or home ; and in the one domain where the student most needs reverent instruction from noble minds, he is left to seek it from the least reverent, if not the most degraded, of his companions. An education which is silent here is wretchedly incomplete. Like the ostrich, it hides its head in the sand and hopes all will be well. I rejoice in an increasing literature treating of these themes ; and in every true 634 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Higher school a reverent teacher may find a way to lead from the bird's nest to the human home, and show how all creation culminates in the love which makes the fireside and the cradle. In our secondary schools and colleges, the obligations and opportunities of home life may be clearly set forth. When they are thus seriously studied, our young people will not blunder into marriage so often as now, and the divorce courts, that have been already driven west of the Mississippi, will be driven by a rising public sentiment into the Pacific ocean. Our teachers will then think more of students than of studies, more of making men than of school programs or apparatus. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, July io, 1901 The Normal Department met in the chapel of the First Congregational Church at 3 P. M., President Charles D. Mclver in the chair. James E. Russell, dean of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, read a paper on " The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools." The discussion was introduced by Professor George H. Locke, of the University of Chicago, and was continued by Principal F. B. Palmer, State Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y.; President Z. X. Snyder, State Normal School, Greeley, Colo.; Dr. C. C. Rounds, New York city; Principal H. B. Frissell, Hampton Institute, Virginia ; Professor Walter Ballou Jacobs, Brown University, Providence, R. I.; Principal F. J. Cheney, State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y.; President Charles McKenny, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.; President John R. Kirk, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.; and Principal A. S. Downing, Training School for Teachers, New York city. The following Committee on Nominations was appointed : John W. Cook, De Kalb, 111. A. S. Downing, New York city. SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July 12 The department was called to order at 3 p. M. by President Mclver. The Committee on Nominations reported as follows : For President — J. F. Millspaugh, State Normal School, Winona, Minn. For Vice-President — Myron T. Scudder, State Normal School, New Paltz, N. Y. For Secretary —John R. Kirk, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. The above-named officers were duly elected. A resolution was adopted that the meetings of this section next year should be held on Wednesday and Thursday afternoons, and not on Wednesday and Friday afternoons. The speakers on the program being absent, the meeting was resolved into a round- table discussion on the practice school, led by President John W. Cook, and participated in by Messrs. Millspaugh, Lyte, McFarland, Mclver, Scudder, and others. After the discussion, Miss Laura E. Aldrich, Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O., spoke briefly, saying that she was one of a committee of four representing the National Academy of Elocution, whose aim it is to gain recognition in the normal schools of this country of the necessity of teaching enunciation, articulation, and pure tone. Miss Aldrich's remarks were favorably received, tho, owing to the lateness of the hour, no resolution or recommendation touching the matter was introduced. Adjourned. Myron T. Scudder, Secretary. 635 636 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS JAMES E. RUSSELL, DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK Two years ago, at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence held in Columbus, O., I read a paper on this topic. In that paper I attempted to sketch the situation as I saw it, and to emphasize what seems to me still the essential qualifications in the professional training of teachers for secondary schools. These qualifications were summarized under four heads, viz.: 1. General knowledge. 2. Professional knowledge. 3. Special knowledge. 4. Skill in teaching. First, general knowledge. The liberal culture implied in four years of training in advance of the grades to be taught is surely not too much to require from every applicant for secondary teaching. The fact that the secondary teacher is to some degree a specialist, that he knows his subject and exercises considerable ingenuity in satisfying the requirements of college entrance or some examining board, is no indication that he has a world-view of sufficient breadth to justify him in attempting the training of youth or an understanding of related studies sufficient to enable him to teach his own subject in a scientific manner. The inspiring influence that comes from well-developed manhood or womanhood taught to view the subject-matter of secondary education in a comparative manner, trained to see the relationships everywhere existing in the various spheres of knowledge — yes, the unity pervading all knowledge — is an influence that the secondary school can ill afford to neglect. Second, professional knowledge. It is equally important that the secondary teacher be able to view his own subject and the entire course of instruction in its relations to the child and to society, of which the child is a part. A teacher may be able to teach his subject never so well, may even have the reputation of being a distinguished educator, yet his life long be a teacher of Latin, or physics, or history, rather than a teacher of children. The true educator must know the nature of mind ; he must understand the process of learning, the formation of ideals, the development of will, and the growth of character. The secondary teacher needs particularly to know the psychology of the adolescent period — that stormy period in which the individual first becomes self-conscious and struggles to express his own personality. But more than man as an individual the teacher needs to know the nature of man as a social being. No knowledge, I believe, is of more worth to the secondary teacher than the knowledge of what standards of culture have prevailed in the past, or now exist, among various peoples, their ideals of life, and their methods of training the young to assume the duties of life. Such study of the history of education is more than a study of scholastic institutions, of didactic precepts, or the theories of educationists ; it is Kulturgeschichte with special reference to educational needs and educational problems. It gives that unifying view of our professional work without which it is idle to talk of a science or a system of education ; it prepares the way Department] TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 637 for the only philosophy of education which is worth teaching. Under professional knowl- edge I should also include such information as can be gained from a study of school economy, school hygiene, and the organization, supervision, and management of schools and school systems at home and abroad. Some of this technical knowledge is indis- pensable for all teachers ; all that can be gained is not too much for those who will become leaders in the field. But the least professional knowledge that should be deemed acceptable is an appreciation of the physical conditions essential to success in school work and a thoro understanding of psychology and its applications in teaching, of the history of education from the cultural standpoint, and of the philosophic principles that determine all education. Third, special knowledge. The strongest argument that can be urged against the average college graduate is that he has nothing to teach. The argument applies with even greater force to the normal-school graduate, however well he may be equipped on the professional side. Neither liberal culture nor technical skill can at all replace that solid substratum of genuine scholarship on which all true secondary education rests. A teacher with nothing to teach is an anomaly that needs no explanation. And I count that knowledge next to nothing which must be bolstered up by midnight study to hide its defects from a high-school class. No one who knows the scope, purpose, and methods of collegiate instruction, no one familiar with the work of the normal school, will posit for a moment that such training necessarily gives any remarkable degree of special knowledge. I say this without any disrespect either to the college or the normal school'; it is not the first and foremost duty of either of these institutions to turn out critical scholars or specialists in some small field. But special scholarship, I maintain, is an absolute necessity in the qualifications for secondary teaching. Without it the teacher becomes a slave to manuals and text-books ; his work degenerates into formal routine with no life, no spirit, no educative power, because he knows no better way ; the victims of his ignorance rise up to call him anything but blessed, and take their revenge as citizens in ignoring altogether professional knowledge in the conduct of public-school affairs — because they, too, know no better way. Now as never before, I believe, do we need to emphasize the possession of special scholarship as an essential prerequisite to secondary teaching. Fourth, technical skill. It is safe to say that no quality is more earnestly desired in the teacher, or more persistently sought for, than the technical ability to -teach. The first question asked of an applicant is not, " Has he had a liberal education ?" or, "What is his professional knowledge ?" or, "Has he anything to teach ?" but this : "Can he teach ? " The popular mind fails to recognize the interdependence of these qualities, and failing in this it bases judgment of a teacher's ability on the relatively nonessential. Ability to maintain order in the class-room, to get work out of his pupils, to satisfy casual supervisors and examiners, to keep fine records, and to mystify parents — this too fre- quently passes for ability to teach. How seldom, indeed, is a teacher tested by his ability to get something into his pupils, by his ability to impart his knowledge in a way that shall broaden their horizons, extend their interests, strengthen their characters, and rouse within them the desire to lead a pure, noble, unselfish life ! School-keeping is not necessarily school-teaching. The technical ability to teach includes both. The art of teaching is mimicry — a dangerous gift, unless it is founded on the science of teaching which takes account of the end and means of education and the nature of the material to be taught. School-keeping may be practically the same for all classes of pupils, but true teaching must always vary with surrounding conditions and the ends to be attained. Graduates of colleges and normal schools alike must fail in technical skill if they teach as they have been taught. The work of the secondary school is unique. It requires an arrangement and presentation of the subject-matter of instruction in a way unknown in elementary education and unheeded in most college teaching ; it requires tact, judgment, and disciplinary powers peculiar to the management of youth. Herein is the need of 638 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal that technical skill which is not, as has been well said, " a part of the natural equipment of every educated person." The question before this department is : How can these qualifications best be secured ? There may be, however, a preliminary question which some will desire to have answered : What is the relative importance of these qualifications, if all cannot be secured ? In attempting an answer, I am well aware of the difficulties presented by actual conditions in various parts of the country, even by conditions which occasionally arise in almost any school, and more particularly by situations presented in the individual characteristics of teachers. There are schools in all parts of the country (one might almost say, all schools in some parts of the country) which think that they cannot afford good teachers. To such schools I can only say that they are too poor to be able to afford poor teachers. It is our business here to assert that the best teacher is always the cheapest ; and if our influence has any weight, it should be used ener- getically wherever it is proposed to employ a poor teacher merely because the poor teacher will work on a lower salary. The personality of the teacher, however, is another matter. There are persons who might conceivably possess all of the qualifications which I have called essential, and yet be unfit to train animals, to say nothing of teaching children. In fact, these qualifications which I have enumerated are really conditioned by certain universal human attributes which are prerequisite to the truest success in any vocation in life. The person who does not first of all have high moral worth, intellectual honesty, fer- tility of imagination, industry, sympathy, tact, and common-sense can never become a good teacher, and a notable deficiency in any of these attributes will assuredly prevent a person from becoming a great teacher, regardless of professional training — the best that can be given. No one knows better than we do how absolutely essential is the right personality in the teacher. This knowledge, however, should not make us unap- preciative of professional training. The rather should we see in profes- sional training the means whereby native impulses are made available and directed systematically toward the highest ends of education. It can do no harm for us to exalt the native qualities in a teacher's equipment, but it can do no good to overestimate them. School officers too often exhibit a lack of intellectual honesty or common-sense when they make professional qualifications of secondary importance in the selection of teachers. From that position it is only one step to personal and partisan favoritism ; for no school principal or superintendent can make a strong case against political interference in school affairs, if he himself does not consider professional training an essential article in his educational creed. I yield to none in my appreciation of what is called " personality " in the teacher, but I maintain that the " personal " and the " professional " are co-ordinate, and that both are essential. To make the " personal " Department] TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 639 subordinate to the " professional " may be a sin ; but to subordinate the " professional " to the " personal " is a crime. What, then, of the four qualifications which I have enumerated as essential in the professional training of a secondary teacher ? Is any one of greater relative importance than any other one ? First, it may be said that a college course nowadays gives no assurance of general knowledge. There is considerable justice, I fear, in that claim. Our colleges are all pretty thoroly inoculated with the germs of the elective system, and some of them have already developed into serious cases. In fact, it has become so epidemic that it seems useless longer to maintain a quarantine against the contagion. However, this movement may not be a plague except to those who do not know how to take advantage of it. It is true that never before has such wealth of opportunity been presented in higher education. The list of courses offered in our largest universities is cer- tainly bewildering to one who is in doubt either of his own abilities or of his future needs. So long as I do not know myself, or what I shall become, how can I choose intelligently from the tender made by a modern uni- versity? And, from another standpoint, it may be asked : How can a college faculty intelligently prescribe a curriculum for an unknown person bound for an end that is also unknown ? It is the complexity of modern life that affords the fullest justification of the elective system in higher edu- cation. But there is no justification for free election when a definite profession is in view, nor should there be any serious doubt of what sub- jects are of most worth in the training of a lawyer, a physician, or a teacher. And, in the case of the teacher, most subjects of the college course enter into his professional equipment. They are in part the means and instruments which he must later employ in professional service. .Hence I do not hesitate to say that the collegiate education of the secondary teacher should be general in character and liberal in its nature and influence. Moreover, it is not the duty of the college or uni- versity to make courses of study suited to the needs of teaching or of any particular profession ; it is our business as teachers to know what is best for those who will come after us, and it is our duty as a profession to insist upon public recognition of our claims. In other words, it is absurd for us to criticise the college for not giving us what we want and in the way we want it ; our part is to know what we want and to see to it that we get it. There is an assumption in what I have said that a college course is an integral part of the professional training of a secondary teacher. After due allowance has been made for all the defects of collegiate education, it must still be acknowledged that there is no other institution which can more satisfactorily give the general knowledge so essential in a teacher's equipment. In my opinion, it is scarcely worth while to discuss this 640 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal point. Nevertheless, the practice of some normal schools warrants the belief that a different conclusion is possible. I fail to see on what grounds such practice can be defended. A normal school that sets itself up to train teachers for secondary schools either greatly magnifies its office or deliberately stultifies the profession which it represents. Of course, I do not refer to those institutions which maintain academic courses equal in scope and quality to college courses, and which provide for four years of instruction in advance of the secondary school. A col- lege degree is no criterion of excellence, nor is it necessary that the institution be known as a college. What is wanted is an education broad enough and liberal enough to qualify the teacher to select and train leaders for the coming generation. Such an education surely cannot be given by an institution that limits its field to the needs of a single profes- sion, whether that profession be dentistry, medicine, engineering, or elementary teaching. Not all of a college education comes from the class-room ; an important part of it comes from the associations of per- sons with widely differing interests and ambitions. A professional school is narrowing in its influence. A normal school, therefore, if true to its own high calling, cannot be expected to afford a liberal education or to meet the requirements in general knowledge which the secondary teacher should have. In the second place, no ordinary normal school can sufficiently equip the secondary teacher in special scholarship. And the secondary teacher who is not a specialist is an elementary teacher who has mistaken his calling. I am well aware that there are schools which expect teachers to teach anything and everything, but unless such schools can secure teach- ers who are masters of anything and everything, it is a misnomer to call them secondary schools. The age of pupils is no guide to the grade of a school. If it were, we should have " evening universities " in New York city where adults learn their A B C's. It will be a glorious day in American education when we have teachers thoroly capable of teaching any subject in the secondary-school curriculum, but until we can be cer- tain that such universal specialization is an assured fact, we would serve our profession better to insist on sound scholarship in one or two sub- jects. As things are now in most states, it is a disgrace to the teaching profession that we teachers make no efforts to distinguish between the competent and incompetent. We even look complacently upon the efforts of politicians and lawmakers to fix the metes and bounds of our own profession. While it may not be proper for us to adopt trades- union methods, it is certainly most becoming in us to uphold the dignity of our profession by advocating at all times those standards which we know to be right — right not only for us as teachers, but right also for those whom we instruct. And I know I am right when I say that the secondary teacher should be master of every subject which he is called Department] TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 641 upon to teach. Moreover, I am convinced that the patrons of our sec- ondary schools will believe us when we say it honestly; and when they are convinced, the means for securing such teachers will promptly be provided. Finally, we have to consider the aim of the whole matter in what I have called the technical qualifications of the teacher. The public is coming to recognize, what some of us have long known, that trained teachers are superior to novices. That graduates of normal schools are in demand for secondary-school positions does credit to public opinion ; that they should be encouraged to accept such positions without having made adequate collegiate preparation is not creditable to the normal schools. The fact is that collegiate and normal training are both essen- tial. The problem is how to secure both. I can see only two ways that are practicable. One way is to provide in the normal schools a distinct course to train college graduates for sec. ondary schools ; the alternative is to establish, in connection with univer sities, professional schools for teachers. Either plan is difficult of execution. College graduates do not assimilate readily with normal- school students ; and even if special courses were provided, it would require a change in policy and an elevation in standards which few nor- mal schools could or should be expected to meet. On the other hand, it ought to be perfectly clear that a chair of pedagogy — even when it is called "education" or "the science and art of teaching " — is no adequate substitute for a professional school for teachers. Sixty years ago there were such professorships in law, but today we have law schools. How long must we wait for "schools of education"? The universities must provide not only courses in the history and philosophy of education, psychology, and its applications in teaching, school economy, and the like, but, they must also provide for extensive and thorogoing practical work. A professional school for teachers is no more complete or ade- quate without schools of observation and practice than is a medical school complete and adequate without a hospital and clinical laboratory. So far as secondary -school work is concerned, therefore, either the normal school must raise its standards and prepare to enter a new field, or the universities must deal with teachers as honestly and liberally as they do with lawyers and physicians. Personally, I think the universities are the better fitted to take over this work, and it seems to me that they are making very satisfactory progress. But there is chance for great improve- ment, and this body should let it be known that it appreciates the gifts received, but never ceases praying for still greater blessings. DISCUSSION George Herbert Locke, assistant professor of education, University of Chicago. — The educational world does move. We are entering upon the new century with only 642 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Normal a few doubting Thomases in our ranks. This is a happy state, because we have many warnings in the history of education that we become so joyous over our victories that we are inclined to press them too far, and so spoil the result. The doubting Thomases keep us to the earth and to the necessity of making haste slowly. Proof of this progress of which I have spoken was given me this year, when a mature student in my department undertook to ascertain, by private correspondence, the opinions of representative professors of our universities — in departments other than that of education and teaching — on the advisablility of professional training for those who intended to enter the teaching profession. The result was extremely gratifying, and I was surprised to find how many felt that such training would greatly aid the young college graduate. True, we heard the old song of " teachers being born and not made " again and again, and it was quoted just as if it were a new discovery, and that this generative process applied only to teachers. This, to my mind, is an economic question in which is involved the old law of supply and demand. If the supply of " teachers by the grace of God," as Laurie calls them, were equal to the demand, we should be delighted to turn our energies to some other field of human endeavor ; but we are facing a condition, not a theory, and as the demand far exceeds the supply, and as there seems to be no apparent way of applying any Dr. Schenck theory to aid the generative process, we are trying to do our best with the people who were apparently born to something else, but who wish to enter our profession. We can justify our position on historical grounds — always a strong argument with the Anglo-Saxon. In the first of our great universities, that of Paris, founded in the twelfth century, the degree of bachelor of arts was given to the student who had satisfied certain scholastic requirements ; i. e., it stood for a certain amount of knowledge. The holder of the bachelor's degree was allowed by his master to teach in the school, that he might gain experience in teaching, and that the worshipful company of masters of arts might decide whether he had the ability to communicate knowledge as well as to acquire it. It was only after he had shown this ability that he was admitted to the degree of master of arts, and was given the diploma conferring upon him the jus ubicunque docendi — the right of teaching everywhere. In those days the degree of master of arts had a significance, and it is interesting to see how early in our university life was the idea that there was an essential difference between the ability to acquire knowledge and the ability to impart it. But the burden of proof in other respects is still upon us, and our work is by no means done. Granted that there is this difference today, what are we to offer the college graduate in the shape of professional training that will really help him in his work ? This must be a dignified, solid, substantial, and reasonable course for an educated man. Such a course of training should certainly be given in a university and not in any separate institution, such as a school of pedagogy or a normal college. It should not be given entirely in one year, as is often now the case, for there is but little chance for adequate correlation and sequence of work. The study of education falls naturally into three great divisions : (1) the history of education; (2) the theory of education, including the principles of education; (3) the organization and administration of education, including practice teaching. This also is the natural order in which these divisions ought to be studied. The history of education should come in, say, the junior year, as an elective in the college course. It ought to be treated as a culture subject, and deserves adequate treatment as such just as much as does the history of government or of any other social institution. It can be made so interesting and suggestive that it will be chosen by many who do not intend to enter the teaching profession, but who will possibly be associated with education as members of school boards, or in some other public position in which they may help toward an enlightened public opinion on educational matters. Students who intend to teach will, of course, take psychology in the college, and Department] TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 643 this should not be differentiated from the ordinary psychology course offered to under- graduates. It is for culture purposes, and has no direct application to teaching. But there will be offered afterward a course in educational theory, in which can be intro- duced whatever educational psychology is necessary; but psychology as such must be a prerequisite. This study of educational theory can be made very suggestive, especially if the student has had the history of education and psychology. And now remains a peculiarly important professional course — the organization and administration of education. This involves the application of the theories of education, a comparative study of how these theories are being applied at home and abroad, and a constructive study of how they might be applied, given certain local circumstances. The students have been observing teaching in various schools, and this has been discussed in conferences with the instructor, and they are now prepared to put their theories to the test in actual teaching. By this practice teaching I do not mean playing at teaching with some person ever at one's elbow to suggest, warn, and sometimes even to instruct and dictate ; on the contrary, the student must be assigned a class for the mental, moral, and physical advancement of which he is to be held responsible, and over which he is given authority, for there is no meaner situation in life than to be charged with responsi- bility and yet deprived of authority. There will, of course, be careful supervision at intervals, so that the interests of pupils and teacher may be conserved. The success of practice teaching depends largely upon the skill and care with which it is supervised. The student should have control of a class for a period long enough to attain some definite results. I am of the opinion that he should teach for not less than two and not more than six hours a week during some three months, and that he should be allowed to choose, as far as is economically and educationally possible, the major and minor subjects in which he has the best scholastic training and in which lie his interests as a possible teacher. Now, this is what I would call the minimum amount of professional training for the person who wishes to teach in our secondary schools. It may be almost indefinitely enlarged, and if one is so fortunate as to have a magnificently equipped teachers' col- lege, such as that over which Mr. Russell presides, there are possibilities for greater and better work which is legitimate graduate study. I am offering this simple plan as one that can be profitably used in a comparatively small college, provided that the local school authorities} or indeed the academy authorities, will co-operate, so as to make the secondary school available for practice teaching. There are some who oppose practice teaching, in the belief that it is not good for the students who are being practiced upon. This position is tenable when the practicing teacher has a class for only a very short time, when teachers are frequently changed and the continuity of the school work is interrupted, and when the teaching is not skillfully supervised. Where these details are attended to, the results have been wonderfully satis- factory to the headmaster of the school, to the pupils of the school, to the regular teach- ers, and to the parents. This is not mere hearsay evidence, but I speak that I do know; and I am persuaded that these are possibilities in even a small college, and that no college should send forth graduates into our secondary schools without at least this minimum of sound professional training. Principal F. B. Palmer held that college graduates could get ample training in the normal schools. His experience showed him most satisfactorily that college gradu- ates coming to a normal school entered into the spirit of the school, enjoyed their work, and got great benefit from their study and practice. President Z. X. Snyder likewise held that secondary teachers could be prepared in the normal schools, but only in case rich four-years' courses were established. The normal schools must come to this ; for, otherwise, how are our secondary schools to get trained teachers ? 644 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASS0CIA7 ION [Normal Dr. C. C. Rounds said that the doctrines laid down in Dean Russell's paper were revolutionary, but revolutionary in the right direction. The normal schools should not attempt to give higher education or to prepare teachers for secondary schools. Let the colleges and universities do that. Let the normal school return to the more modest duty of preparing teachers for primary and grammar grades. Of course, teachers for secondary schools need training ; they also need more subject-matter than the normal schools are equipped to give. Why should the normal schools attempt to do more than they are able, or more than they were originally intended, to do ? College professors also need pedagogic training. It is a fraud for men to attempt to do that for which they have had no preparation and training. The universities them- selves must provide facilities for this training ; must prepare as soon as possible to give us expert teachers for higher as well as for secondary institutions ; the normal school could then keep to its own function of training teachers for the grades. Principal H. B. Frissell thought the universities would soon come to this if there were a sufficient demand for it. We ought to insist on the highest training on the part of our teachers. If we do this, we shall get it. The training profession will always lag behind until we thus insist. Professor Walter Ballou Jacobs spoke, by request, concerning the pedagogic training given at Brown University. The pedagogic instruction in the university is sup- plemented by actual experience in teaching in the high schools and grammar schools of the city of Providence. In these practice classes the student-teachers teach under the supervision of teachers of experience. The damage to the pupils in the practice classes is practically nothing. Not one complaint has been received from parents to the effect that their children were suffering at the hands of the student-teachers. Professor Jacobs feels that the work done by the college students, when carefully supervised, is better in many instances than that done by other teachers. He believes that the place to train teachers for secondary schools is either in college or beyond the college. Principal F. J.Cheney claimed that in some normal schools the academic facilities afforded were so superior that it is perfectly legitimate to recommend normal graduates for secondary work. Some normal schools have better equipment in certain subjects (e. g., physics, chemistry, and biology) than many a college or university. This superior equipment is provided in order that the normal schools may prepare teachers for second- ary schools. Colleges are not training teachers. What are secondary schools going to do for trained teachers if the normal schools do not supply the demand to the best of their ability ? President Charles McKenny said that in his state the question has come up as to whether the college or the normal school should prepare teachers for the high schools. The sentiment has been growing that it is impossible for normal schools to furnish the kind of teachers that the better grade of high schools demand. The normal schools are therefore confronted with a serious problem : either to equip for preparing teachers for the high schools or cease to attempt it at all. What should they do ? Secondary schools demand better teachers, yet the universities do not supply these. Wisconsin is making an attempt to solve this problem by forming, as it were, a joint partnership between the normal school and the university, whereby the university gives credit for the work done in the normal schools, and gives normal graduates a degree after two years of university work. Thus both ends are attained, to wit, scholarship and pedagogic training. President John R. Kirk deplored the tendency to regard the lower grades as needing only inferior scholarship on the part of teachers. Superior scholarship is needed here as elsewhere, and normal schools should aim to give their graduates a high grade of scholarship, with the idea of sending them, not into the secondary schools to teach, but Department] TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 645 into the elementary schools. He believed that normal-school faculties should urge thei graduates to go into the lower grades. Principal A. S. Downing strongly favored Dean Russell's position, and also com- mended very highly the remarks of Principal Kirk. He declared that the weak point in the normal schools of today is that they are employing normal graduates as teachers instead of college-bred instructors. Men and women trained in college will, when they become members of a normal-school faculty, lay stress on the great importance of the best scholarship and the best skill in teaching for the lower grades. Dean Russell, in summing up, said he was much gratified that the consensus °f opinion had been strongest on his side of the argument. He admitted that normal schools had done some good service for secondary education, but he felt strongly that normal-school principals ought not to encourage their graduates to teach in secondary schools, but should insist on their making the best possible preparation, in academic as well as professional subjects, for teaching the elementary subjects in primary and gram- mar schools. DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING SECRETARY'S MINUTES JOINT SESSION WITH DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION.— Wednesday, July io, 1901 The session was called to order in the First Congregational Church at 3 P. M., by the president of the department, Charles A. Bennett, of Peoria, 111. The opening number on the program was a vocal solo — " Could I But Tell," Klein — by Harold Jarvis, of Detroit. A paper on " Textile Arts as Constructive Work in Elementary Schools " was read by Miss Clara I. Mitchell, of the Chicago Institute. A paper on "Artistic Handicraft in Primary and Secondary Grades," by Miss Helen M. Maxwell, principal of the Corcoran School, Minneapolis, who was unable to be present, was read by Miss Bonnie E. Snow, president of the Department of Art Education, who added interesting explanatory statements and answered many questions. The paper was illustrated by a collection of objects made by students in the public schools of Min- neapolis. A general discussion followed by Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn.; Colonel Francis W. Parker, Chicago, 111.; and C. R. Richards, Teachers College, New York. The president appointed the following committees : ON NOMINATIONS Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn. Arthur D. Dean, Springfield, Mass. Daniel Upton, Buffalo, N. Y. ON RESOLUTIONS William E. Roberts, Cleveland, O. Harris W. Moore, Hartford, Conn. A. C-. Newell, Des Moines, la. At the close of this session a most enjoyable informal reception was given in the church parlors by the local committees on art education and manual training, the chair- men of which committees were, respectively, Miss Myra Jones, supervisor of drawing, and J. H. Trybom, supervisor of manual training. SECOND SESSION.— Thursday, July ii President Bennett called the meeting to order at 3 p. M. Mr. W. E. Roberts, of Cleveland, chairman of Committee on Resolutions, read the following, which was adopted : Mr. President: Your committee offers the following resolutions : Resolved, That we, delegates to the annual meeting of the National Educational Association, express our appreciation of the effective efforts of the officers of the Department of Manual Training and the local committees for our instruction, comfort, and pleasure in providing an exceptional program; second, a sugges- tive exhibit of educational work ; and third, a delightful reception ; and that our appreciation be made manifest by a vote of thanks. 646 Department] TEXTILE ARTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 647 Further, as the joint meeting of the Manual Training and Art Departments has proved so instructive and significant, be it Resolved, That the officers of the Manual Training Department co-operate, if possible, with the officers of the Art Department, in arranging a similar meeting for the coming year. The committee: W. E. Roberts. A. C. Newell. Harris W. Moore. Charles H. Keyes, of Hartford, Conn., chairman Committee on Nominations, reported the following nominations : For President — Charles H. Richards, Teachers College, New York city. For Vice-President — Charles F. Warner, Mechanic Arts High School, Springfield, Mass. For Secretary — J. H. Trybom, Detroit, Mich. A motion was made that the secretary be instructed to cast the ballot for the nominees, which was carried. The ballot was cast as ordered, and the nominees were declared elected as officers for the ensuing year. Principal Charles F. Warner of the Mechanic Arts High School, Springfield, Mass., was then introduced, and read a paper on the topic, " Education for the Trades in America: What Can Technical High Schools'Do for It?" Following Mr. Warner, Mr. Virgil G. Curtis read a paper on the topic, " The Rela- tion of Manual Training to Technical Education." The discussion was opened by Professor Charles R. Richards, of the Teachers Col- lege, New York city, who was followed by Professor Calvin M. Woodward, of St. Louis ; Dr. Belfield, of Chicago ; Superintendent Charles B. Gilbert, of Rochester, N. Y.; Presi- dent J. L. Snyder of the Michigan Agricultural College ; and Principal G. B. Morrison, of Kansas City. The discussion was closed by Mr. Warner. The department then adjourned sine die. Foster H. Irons, Acting Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TEXTILE ARTS AS CONSTRUCTIVE WORK IN ELEMEN- TARY SCHOOLS MISS CLARA ISABEL MITCHELL, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. To present the subject of textile arts as constructive work I shall, with your permission, discuss constructive work generally, and its place in the curriculum, perhaps gaining by that means a clearer point of view from which to study the value of this particular activity. As the educational problem is now shaped, the most economical policy for a body of teachers to pursue is in the free and critical discus- sion of the course of study. The discussion of that question by this particular company is of vital importance, because upon the grade teach- ers, manual-training teachers, and art teachers rests the responsibility of the initial acts in reconstructing our course of study. 648 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training The present course of study is, evidently, not adequate to the demands of the time. Our educational ideas are undergoing radical changes. Our course of study does not meet these changes. We need a course which acknowledges the claims of the new ideals and assists in their realization. The new educational ideal is changed from "school as preparation for the future" to "school as present community life." It insists that school is life; that it is the place where every child begins at once to realize himself according to his own innate capabilities. By community life we mean that state of society in which every individual member orders his conduct with reference to the good of the whole; the whole being so constituted as to necessitate the highest devel- opment of its members. As this state of society is the only means pow- erful or complete enough to set in motion all forces of individuals, it is evident that individual progress is only possible as community life exists, and that the good of one is identical with the advancement of all. Our schools, in fulfilling this large social aim, must give to children all-sided growth as the result of their service to the community. It must insure to them the development of all powers — physical, mental, and moral. As all education is thru self-activity, and human faculties develop thru use, the community which is to provide for all-sided growth of indi- viduals must call into action all the forces of those individuals. Community life is made up of work and play; it depends upon these activities for its existence. The individual is developed thru his work and play. It is, therefore, the function of the course of study so to guide the school community as to engage all its members in educative work and play. Such work and play we call social occupations, and in their organization lies the problem of the course of study. Constructive work, manual training, industrial arts, drawing, painting, handwork of all kinds, form a large part of these social occupations of the school life. The question is as to their place and educative value. Psychology, as well as experience, proves them to be among the central interests of life, the strongest forces in the schoolroom, the most eco- nomical means to power and knowledge. Grouped together with other social occupations, they should be the center of the course of study, and about them should be ranged all the other subjects of the curriculum. The fitness of social occupations to stand as the central force in edu- cation is proved by history. The social life of our great world is seen to consist in the interrelation and development of a few primary and funda- mental activities. Cities, farms, mines, quarries, and water-ways are filled with men and women busy with the affairs of life — engaged in the work and play of the world. All this work and play is for the satisfaction of man's needs. His necessities, reduced to simplest terms, are com- panionship, shelter, clothing, and food. The needs of society today, complicated as they seem, arise from these few fundamental ones, and Department] TEXTILE ARTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 649 are the elaborations of them, developed and refined by man's educated taste. Thru self-activity, under the necessity of food, clothing, shelter, and companionship, the human race has educated itself out of savagery into civilization. In the getting and cooking of food, the making of houses, the weaving of clothing, and adjusting himself to the habits of other human beings, man has gained the knowledge of nature and society, and grown to the power of self-direction, which constitute his present state of culture. His activities, set in motion under the pressure of necessity, have developed and multiplied with use. The rude strength of the primaeval hunters, fishers, farmers, and shepherds has grown, with experi- ence, into the skill and art of our civilization. This has been the educational process thru which the race has passed — self-activity aroused by need. The result is our present state of society, with its sum of knowledge and stored-up power — knowledge organized into sciences, mathematics, history, civil law, philosophy ; power expressing itself as skill in the arts of living — agriculture, manu- facturing, commerce, social government, language, literature, and the fine arts. Our human family has educated its children thru centuries of build- ing, cooking, weaving, family life, and lawmaking; in processes at first simple and primitive, but growing in complexity as the race advanced. As there arose necessity for bridges and machines, people became engi- neers; seeing the need of better and more beautiful homes, they became architects and artists; conscious of still higher needs, they devoted them- selves to the study of sciences, religion, law, government. Sense of social need has, from the beginning, acted as the most powerful incentive to individual human effort. The school must apply the principle of education learned from the great world. It must be a community into which the child puts himself in work and play, and from which he gains the knowledge and power which are his individual right. Like the larger world, it must demand of its members work which sets in motion all their latent energies and puts them in contact with people, materials, forces, and laws. As the race has gained its learning and skill, the child will get his — by working out the problems of life thru the incentive of human need. Representative forms of the great type industries appear in the school under the names of constructive work, manual training, industrial arts. The processes they involve are wood-working, metal-working, cooking, gardening, weaving, needle-work, pottery, modeling, drawing and paint- ing, bookbinding, and printing. Heretofore these have been superadded to the already overcrowded curriculum as valued but unrelated subjects. The time has come when, if they are to fulfill their great educative function, the course of study 650 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training must recognize their social significance and establish them as funda- mental factors in the life of the school. Socialized work has been the maker, builder, educator of our race. It must be such to the children of the race. It is for the course of study to provide work and play that will place the children in the normal, vital relations with life — in free and living contact with nature on the one hand, on the other with society. To allow for this normal interaction between the child, his work, society, and nature, four conditions are essential to the planning of all constructive work in school: 1. Everything made must be made for the sake of its social value. 2. The need for the thing to be made must appear to the maker, and must be recognized by him as genuine. 3. The work and play must be so varied and universal as to make an all-sided appeal to the child's nature. 4. It must be so directed as to connect the worker with nature and with human life as sources of knowledge. The first condition is so bound up with the second that the two must be considered together. Both are essential to community life in accord- ance with its definition as a state of society in which the individual orders his action with reference to the good of the whole ; for the workman can direct his powers only toward such ends as he sees and understands. He puts his intelligence into his work just in so far as the work appeals to his intelligence. He who knows the purpose of his labor can focus his attention upon it, measure his forces in relation to it, and shape condi- tions toward its fulfillment. That the student should know the use of what he is making is essential to his education as a free, socialized human being. Originality, freedom, taste, can grow only under power of initiative. To know a need, and to be allowed initiative as to ways and means of fill- ing it, gives opportunity for play of the creative element, without which work will be imitative and slavish, because the worker has not put himself into it. The putting of himself, his taste, his invention, into his service makes it a genuine offering to society. It is just that which makes the school a social, community life. Work done in the textile arts, as in all other forms of handwork, should be the making of things of use for the school or the home, for some other school or home, or for people somewhere in the world. Enough human needs are waiting to engage our energies at all times. The necessity for laws restraining child labor proves that the work of little children is of value to society. The children, then, may be set at the simplest beginnings of that great industry which ends in clothing the human race and in beautifying human homes. Let them weave baskets, make rugs, embroider aprons and curtains, and sew garments, because Department J TEXTILE ARTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 65 1 people need their work. Such making will be their education into origi- nal, creative skill. Let them know the use of each thing they are making and appreciate its value, for sense of value is interest. Interest, the great motor force in human action, makes effort easy. Interest in spinning, dyeing, and designing of things for use will open new chan- nels for the movement of activities outward — the freeing of creative energies. The third condition necessary to the socialization of constructive work is that it be of sufficient variety and breadth to call into action all of the child's powers, and so give him all-sided development. The power of community life as an educative force lies in the fact that its needs are so many and so varied that no individual, however abnormal or undevel- oped, can escape the appeal of all of its claims. Somewhere in the work demanded by the maintenance of society is the particular need which will put into action the individual energy of each member. And everywhere is that call to disinterested, unselfish action which alone develops the highest and most potent force in man's life — consideration for his fellows. When the course of study shall make of the school a. place of play- rooms, workshops, studios, gardens, kitchens, and laboratories where children are co-operating in a real, tho small, part of the world's work, every child can find that activity thru which he may begin to realize himself. Somewhere there will be the piece of work which is to set him to thinking, feeling, doing. Then the thing he does is the expression of himself. Into it he puts his thought, feeling, skill. It is at this living point of self-expression that human growth takes place, and that education is possible. Here the teacher recognizes his opportunity. Work in the shops, studios, and laboratories, made power- ful thru purpose, self- directed, moves outward and manifests itself in a rug, a chair, a piece of pottery, a thing of use. This is art. It is a gift to society expressing the thought and feeling of the maker. Art is developed, skill grows, under the demand for creative work and thru incentive to self-expression. In complete community life this demand and this incentive exist. The course of study must provide for the use of material and employment of processes so varied as to make possible full expression of all sides of the self in art. When our school life sets children to work in designing and making happily the things used in daily life, making them beautiful that they may the better serve human needs, it will give them art education — education in art for all the people by all the people. The final condition for constructive work is that it shall have such direction as to connect the worker with all of life, nature, and society as the sources of knowledge. 6s 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training Fitness for community life demands that its individuals have knowl- edge to contribute to the general good. We have seen that the whole sum of human knowledge has been generalized into great bodies of facts. It is for the course of study to provide types of industries in the schools which will direct the children toward this knowledge and give them the power of comprehending its meaning and its use. Things made in the textile arts, for example, must be so closely related to the necessities of the child's life that his interest in the things themselves, extending to the materials of which they are made and the processes by which they were produced, directs him toward the facts which explain those materials and processes. Desire to fill completely the needs for which the fabrics are woven must lead him to consideration of fibers and fabrics. It should move him to study of qualities ; of causes for success and failure in their culture. He must feel the community so genuinely dependent upon the excellence of his work that he willingly investigates processes ; he invents ; inquires into laws and forces to apply to the improvement of his art or craft. Thus he will become a self-propelled investigator in the field of science and a contributor to the sum of knowl- edge in applied science. The materials used in these arts are so varied in their qualities and suggestiveness that they will set the worker wander- ing thru all the world of nature in search for the meaning of their charm of color and design. His own experiences in dyeing fabrics should lead him into delighted appreciation of the coloration of sky, water, flower, fruit, bird, and insect. These are but a few hints at the vital connections between nature, the sciences, and the work in the textile arts. It is suffi- cient, however, to indicate the closeness of relationship existing between all forms of social occupations and the natural sciences. The course of study must establish these relationships in school, thru organic correla- tion of subject-matter. The facts of science should come into the child's life as they came into the life of the race; thafis, when needed for immediate use. Not by the page, by the book, or even by the subject, but principle by principle, as it can be applied to daily life. To illustrate, let knowledge of physics come to him as he constructs looms, runs the sewing machine by steam, or rings the door-bell by electricity. Let him learn chemistry in dyeing, in cooking, in testing building materials. As to the correctness of the pedagogical method involved in this we may be sure. If the facts of science are to have value and force to a student's mind, they must fit the problems of his individual life. They cannot be brought to him as pos- sible helps for the future. They must be sought by him as necessary to the movement of his work and play. Knowledge gained in this way will have clearness and meaning. It will be full and vital, because life itself is greater than any school and more potent than text-books. Under such a plan history will be to the child the story of how other Department] TEXTILE ARTS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 653 people have done work like that which he is doing. Interest in his own building, weaving, and cooking will give him interest in the building, weav- ing, and cooking done by peoples of all times. If, while weaving a rug, he reads the story of man's struggle for clothing from the beginning, he learns to see in that struggle a great part of the history of man. He is able to interpret that history, because in his own person, thru the work of his own hands, he has partaken of the experience of the race. Struggle with the world's work, however elementary, puts a human being into intelligent relationship with all the workers of the world, past and present, giving him insight into history and sociology, which, reinforced by observation and study, is scholarship of social value. Contact with materials of all kinds, study of qualities, interest in work and workers, build up in the child's mind great images of the earth and its products. Tracing the course of silk from China or Italy, woods from the tropics, metals from ^Siberia or the Rockies, dyes from the Mediterranean or the depths of the coal bed, the child learns to picture the earth as the rich source of materials, the background of man's life, the scene of his activities. Geography becomes the science which explains to him much of man's history, his work and civilization. So the subject-matters of the sciences, history, sociology, and geography correlate with all forms of social occupation, and on such a basis should they have their place in the curriculum. To recapitulate, the new ideal of education demands the reconstruc- tion of the course of study. It makes social occupations the center of correlation. About these occupations it groups all sciences, mathemat- ics, geography, history, literature, and language as helps to the child's better understanding of his work and its relation to life. Handwork, which is a large part of these occupations, must fill four conditions : (1) Everything made in the school shall have distinct social value. (2) The child, in making any object, must appreciate the social need which that object is to fill, thus rendering willing and intelligent service. (3) The handwork must be so varied as to call into activity all the faculties of the children. (4) It must be correlated with such studies in the sciences, history, geography, and mathematics as will give the children increasing knowledge of the work they are doing, and a growing insight into its scientific and social significance. Teachers of handwork, in conjunction with grade teachers, can do most to bring about this reconstruction by establishing the different forms of handwork as social occupations, and bringing all other subjects into relation with them. The most radical change involved in the re-forming of the course of study will be the correlation of he sciences, mathematics, history, sociol- ogy, literature, and the languages with the school occupations. To accomplish this, expert knowledge in different branches of subject-matter 654 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training must be called into consultation. When, with its aid, the school shall be a center of productive social activities leading outward to all sources of knowledge, we shall have an education worthy of our ideal. In such a life our children will be happy co-operators in the work of the world, Its occupations will unite them in the brotherhood of community interest, take them closer to all workers and builders past andjpresent, and direct them toward nature as the source of all knowledge and good. When, thru the co-ordinated working of mind and body, the children of men have learned to help each other in making the earth a garden ; in building cities which shall be the beautiful dwelling-places of men ; when they have become generous and skilled in fitly clothing all of the children of the race, the world will have a great new art. One product of that art will be the beauty added to the external world of man's build- ing ; the other will be the greater beauty wrought in the quality of human spirit — the end of all construction. ARTISTIC HANDICRAFT IN PRIMARY AND INTER- MEDIATE GRADES MISS HELEN M. MAXWELL, PRINCIPAL OF THE CORCORAN SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. For many years " construction work" has been written in our ^course of study. All of us have believed in the necessity of hand-training and its relation to the mental development of children. Living up to their best light, our primary grades have been trying to solve this problem, and have attempted many constructive exercises that proved themselves almost useless and without the first element of beauty. Paper chairs that will not rock and paper wheels that will not turn are a rather discour- aging and unsatisfactory product. Last summer a part of the Minneapolis principals and teachers spent a week at the Chicago Institute and at the summer school at Chautauqua, refreshing their minds with study and seeking sources of knowledge wherewith to enrich their future work. At an early day attention was called to weaving and basketry, as taken up in connection with the study of primitive people, and as a phase of manual training for young chil- dren. To those of us who had known of the fruitless plans and gropings after something better in the industrial line came the thought that here was the foundation for occupations that would train both hand and brain, and would result in a product of some practical use, and even of artistic worth. It is needless to say that that line of work was pursued with a vigor and interest characteristic of our teachers, roused by the needs of our pupils and inspired by the possibilities in store. Department] ARTISTIC HANDICRAFT IN PRIMARY GRADES 655 Returning in September, the arts we had acquired were shared with fellow teachers, who were quick to see their value, and lessons were planned and given to large classes and to individuals as opportunity offered. The spirit of industry rapidly spread, until before the close of the first terra nearly every building in the city was engaged to some extent in the work, tho to a large degree in an experimental way. The question of materials was rather a formidable one at the beginning. The sympathy of our superintendent and supervisors was evinced in a very practical way by the readiness with which they joined the principals in contributing a sufficient sum to purchase enough material for a large beginning. Small hand-looms of pasteboard were used, and many a little rug of pleasing colors and simple design was woven. These were afterward replaced by larger wooden frames, similar to slate frames, and made by older pupils. Ravelings of carpets, yarns, and Germantown wools, large and soft, were used, being supplied mostly by the children, with generous contributions from other sources. Our school board has shown its appreciation of the value of this work by voting a liberal sum for its continuance the coming year. Class exercises in rattan weaving and a combination of rattan and raffia were given in a variety of stitches evolved from the inner conscious- ness of some of our more resourceful teachers. This is largely individual work. Children were taught in groups, who in turn showed their class- mates. These exercises have resulted in some of the most artistic work of the year. Raffia, which is a product of the Madagascar palm, is rich in possi- bilities. Hats for dolls and people, mats, boxes, and shopping bags of real service, which easily claim a commercial value, are made and can be disposed of in the Twin Cities, as well as any other well-made article. But the work has not been introduced as a source of revenue, but as a means of education. Nor are we dependent upon materials of commerce. Willows from the roadside are made to lend themselves to the making of serviceable baskets, and even the reeds and grasses have a use. Pretty effects have been produced by coloring both raffia and rattan with diamond dyes. Few tools are required. A knife, a pair of scissors, and a worsted needle are all that is necessary. One lesson a week has been given in handicraft above the first grade. In that grade it has been used largely as " busy work " for the leisure moments that always come. As far as has been practical, the co-operation of older pupils has been enlisted, they doing those portions which require more muscle, while the smaller fingers carry the work to completion. A feeling of unity and a spirit of interest and helpfulness thruout the building have shown them- selves in a very marked degree by this plan. An effort, never lost sight of, has been made to place before the children high ideals as to excellence of results in strength, durability, 656 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training quality of workmanship, and artistic worth. To this end, class and indi- vidual discussions always form a part of every exercise of this kind. What shall we do in this emergency ? You think out for yourself a plan for producing this or that effect. Always, what do you think is the best way to do this ? As a result, we feel a just amount of satisfaction, for a beginning, in the exhibit found in our state building at the Pan-Ameri- can Exposition in Buffalo and in that placed before you today. The revival of handicraft is in no sense local. It is entering all circles, and attracting the attention of educators all over the country as a means of hand and brain development, and as holding a relation to the other work of the school. A recognition of the need is growing every day. To meet this need we know as yet of no more satisfactory means than that which you see before you. I know of no portion of the school work in which the life and individuality of the child are embodied so much as here. It means so much to him in the quick eye, the deft hand, ability to adapt, and in the cultivation of those qualities of patience and perseverance that count so largely in character-building and that go to make up strong manhood and womanhood. DISCUSSION Charles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn. — We are going to give up a great deal of the so-called busy work. There must be more purpose back of our manual training. We have worked too much with blocks. We are getting nearer the crafts and the trades schools. The work must become dominated more and more by art, and the work must become constructive art instead of simply manual training. Clay is the best material for use in awakening the artistic interest in the child. Clay, drawing, reed, and raffia are but different mediums to carry out the constructive art ideals. Manual training must learn more from art. Colonel Francis W. Parker, Chicago, 111. — The art and manual-training work should be united, but we should not stop there. With these we must unite geography, history, and science. Clay is the greatest medium for developing the constructive art instinct, but the work must not be "thrown back into the clay box when made. A kiln should be on hand in order to complete the work. C. R. Richards, Teachers College, New York city. — I wish to emphasize this union between art and manual training, but art needs as much help from the manual training as the manual training does from the art. Art will never be able to meet its true results until it is the expression of art in useful articles. Langdon S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J. — I do not think the departments of art and manual training should unite. They should continue their work side by side. President J. L. Snyder of the Michigan Agricultural College. — We want some- thing more than skill in education. We want culture back of it. I would give all the manual training possible, adapted to the conditions and necessities of the life in the community in which we are situated, but would do nothing that would interfere with the freest mental development, and with the freest right to choose the occupation in life that the student may wish to follow afterward. I believe it is possible to give a technical training and at the same time give a general cultural training with it. And if that can be done, well and good ; but if either must be sacrificed, let it be the technical training. Department] MANUAL TRAINING AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION 657 THE RELATION OF MANUAL TRAINING TO TECHNICAL EDUCATION VIRGIL G. CURTIS, SUPERINTENDENT OF TOLEDO POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, TOLEDO, O. If we were entirely done with urging the claims of manual training to a dignified place in the educational system ; if we had carried convic- tion to the minds of all the doubters, and made it an established and accepted proposition that the full co-operation of hand and mind is absolutely essential to the realization of a harmonious development of the human powers, then might we address ourselves to the pleasing task of carrying out the logical continuity of the new education and pushing it forward toward the achievement of that skill in useful arts which con- stitutes the highest stage of civilization. But while all progressive educators, all wise philosophers, and all far-seeing statesmen agree that hand-training is not only a fundamental element in education, but that it bears promise of being one of the most potent factors in the solution of the great economic and social problems of the day, still it must be admitted that the general public has not yet grasped the idea in its full significance. Too many of our administra- tors of educational affairs still look upon manual training in the school as an innovation, if not a fad, and entertain grave doubts as to the expediency of expending public money for the equipment of shops for teaching boys carpentry, and kitchens for instruction in household science and cookery. Thus has the tremendous obstructive power of tradition stood in the way of progress in education. The speculative philosophy of the Middle Ages has so long held sway over our institutions of learning that it is extremely difficult to break away from its baleful influences. That blind reverence for the dead past, that self-satisfied content with methods of antiquity, has compelled a slavish adherence to text-books, a study of abstractions rather than things. So the schools have gone on in the old grooves, teaching history, mathematics, languages, literature, and the sciences in the traditional way, to the utter exclusion of those arts and handicrafts that touch human life at so many points. The people of the United States are enterprising enough in material ways. They have conquered the virgin soil of the vast continent, bridged the streams, tunneled the mountains, felled the forests, and in the place of the ancient wilderness set up a thousand populous marts, and made the waste places blossom like the rose; but in matters educational they are slow and conservative. We remember how difficult it was to establish the equality of the sciences and the classics in our colleges. It is now thirty-one years 658 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training since Massachusetts placed upon her statute books a definite act making free instruction in industrial and mechanical drawing compulsory in all the schools of the commonwealth, and secured the services of Professor Walter Smith, of London, to make the experiment of introducing the study in the public schools. Drawing is now universally recognized as the most practical and most valuable study in the school curriculum, the basis of all mechanical and industrial work, important in its relation to all other studies, and an indispensable aid in developing public taste and making artistic work- men. Many of us remember the struggle against ignorance, prejudice, and indifference which continued for twenty years or more before this important subject gained its proper recognition and held its deserved place in the schools of the land. Manual training has also had its struggle. It has had persistently to fight its way to recognition as an educational factor. It has encountered at every step the stolid resistance of habit and tradition, which, like a baulky mule, stubbornly braces itself and holds back with all its might. Neither the voice of wisdom nor the onward march of events was heeded by our educators. Rousseau had long since taught the doctrine that learning is not education — that the true object of education is har- monious development. Comenius had said: " Let the things that have to be done be learned by doing them." Pestalozzi had defined education as " the generation of power." Froebel had said: "The end and aim of all our work should be the harmonious growth of the whole being." Kant and Hegel and Rosenkranz and Spencer had advocated higher aims for education and indicated better methods of teaching. Harris, Runkle, MacAlister, Woodward, Parker, and Hailmann were attempting to put into practice the principles of Comenius and Froebel, and trying to show, by actual demonstration, .the value of handwork as an efficient educational factor. And still the traditionalists braced themselves, and pleaded lack of time, and expense, and claimed that the schools were already so overburdened with subjects of instruction that there was no place for manual training. The advocates of the new education have ever held manual training up to the high plane of pure education, contending that it would main- tain the true equilibrium of mental and physical forces ; that it would be of great value in the building of the brain ; that it would develop the reason, the judgment, the imagination, and the creative power. This has doubtless been well, but we have learned that the utilitarian idea appeals most strongly to the majority of people. Manual training must be tested among the people who pay the taxes, not by theory and specula- tion, but by its benefits to society, both in a moral, a social, and an indus- trial way. We cannot longer ignore the practical phase of the question. Our department] MANUAL TRAINING AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION 659 education, to be complete and effective, must concern itself with the facts and forces of the world in which we live. The industrial pursuits of life upon which the whole fabric of society rests must be taken into account. The imperative needs of that large majority of our future citizens who must of necessity obey the primal law and earn their bread by the sweat of their brow must be recognized in our scheme of education. It is not difficult to convince even the most conservative official that the perma- nent duty of the schools is to equip the student for life, active, produc- tive, and aggressive. He will readily agree that education for the people must include what life calls for, when perhaps the more elevated purpose of the training — the pure educational process for the complete moral, physical, and intellectual development of the child — will be too much elevated to appeal to him at all. Principal Gilbert Morrison of the Kansas City Manual Training High School said in one of his reports to his board of education : "The period of manual-training advocacy is passmg, if it has not already passed, into the period of manual-training realization, improvement, and perfection." I must say that I cannot take that hopeful view of the situation. There has, indeed, been a great awakening since the advent of the kindergarten in this country, yet there has not been a revolution. Altho manual training has forced its way into many of the school systems of our larger cities, and its advantages are coming to be appreciated, yet the whole territory is by no means occupied. The conquest is not complete. Not all school administrators, not all the so-called educators, not all the people, are alive to the far-reaching influence of a rational system of edu- cation which shall bear close relation to the practical needs of life, which shall furnish that kind of training so essential to the welfare of all classes, and which puts into the hands of the large majority the means to earn a living. The first need of the great majority of the people of these United States is ability to earn their livelihood, because the first duty of every man is to support himself by his productive industry. Educational pro- visions should always be adapted to present conditions and to the imme- diate need of the people. Manual training should enter into every school and form a necessary part of its curriculum, from the kinder- garten to the university. The equilibrium of our national education should be so adjusted that it will include what life calls for. Industry should come in for its equitable share in what has been so long the exclusive empire of literary instruction. Let the avowed purpose of our whole educational scheme be to fit our youth for life, bearing in mind the inevitable prospect that nine-tenths of them must face a life of work with their hands. Dr. Hailmann, in an able address delivered last winter before the Present- Day Club of Dayton, O., quotes some interesting statistics from 660 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training a report of Mr. Hodge, secretary of the international committee of the Y. M. C. A. He says : Of 13,000,000 young men in the United States between the ages of 16 and 35, only 5 in every 100 have been prepared by education received at some kind of a school for their occupations; 95 have not been so prepared (1895). From a study of the subject .... it is found that of every 100 graduates of our grammar schools only 8 obtain their livelihood by means of the professions and commercial business, while the remaining 92 obtain the same by means of their hands. The 8 are fitted for their wage-earning capaci- ties by the training obtained in colleges, universities, and professional schools, while the 92, denied similar opportunies, are obliged in the great majority of cases and amid great embarrassments to fight their way for a livelihood by experiment and imitation of other workmen. It may seem strange that the American people, who are so keen and alert, so energetic and full of push, should have been so long indifferent to the vital importance of special industrial education. The age is pre- eminently an industrial age. The spirit of our industrial, and even our professional, life is specialization. But the American people have been so absorbed in the development of the wonderful agricultural, mineral, and oleaginous resources of our vast domain that they have not con- sidered our deficiencies nor realized how far we are in the rear of other nations in providing for the future and securing for this country the advantages of technical training that are offered freely to the workers of other countries. The rich products of our fertile soil, the abundance of valuable minerals in our mining regions, the vast supply of timber from our forests, the water power from our rushing streams, our wide expanse of territory, and all our other marvelous facilities for the accumulation of wealth, have been such prolific sources of profit that we have come to look upon them as inexhaustible sources of wealth, and have shut our eyes to any necessity for future provisions or precautions. But altho our exports of raw materials or products of the earth are valued at from ^500,000,000 to $700,000,000 annually, yet it is altogether probable that agriculture and mining and lumbering and oil-producing must eventually decrease, and the people of the United States must of necessity become more of a manufacturing people. Those who have observed the trend and progress of education in other countries know what might be learned from their example. More than half a century ago France began to establish special schools for the purpose of fitting young men to superintend and develop her various industries. Young men were thus educated for various callings, and those possessed of superior qualifications were placed at the head of the leading factories and shops. If you visit the vast porcelain factories of Sevres, you will find that the rules for their management are issued by the minister of instruction, and you will learn that these great works are conducted primarily as an educational institution, and that the commercial value of their immense output is held subordinate to the Department] MANUAL TRAINING AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION 66 1 purpose of supplying other establishments with skilled workmen. The technical school at Limoges, the center of porcelain industry in France, is a state institution. The famous school of theoretical and practical watch manufacture at Besancon is founded at the expense of the city which is the seat of the industry it is designed to promote. The Central Technical School in Lyons is under municipal control, and its aim is to educate skilled mechanics and workmen, foremen, overseers, and manu- facturers for the various industries at Lyons. Schools of arts and sciences are supported by the state in several cities in France, and municipal apprentice schools for special trades, such as upholstering and making furniture, carriage-making, watch-making, weaving, dyeing, manufacture of mathematical and electrical instruments, the making of tapestries and mosaics, are numerous. Such schools have been multiplied until they exist in all the cities and manufacturing communities in France, and it is not a wonder that her skilled labor has brought in its account against the world and that every civilized nation on the globe has paid tribute to her prosperity. In all kinds of commodities which depend upon beauty of design and artistic finish, France long held the monopoly in the markets of the world. You know the history of England's great transformation of her indus- tries from a condition of crude inferiority to one of the greatest refine- ment. From the humiliating lesson which England learned at her great exhibition in 1851, she set herself resolutely about the task of building up, by means of definite industrial art training, the manufactures and art products of the country. This was kept up for a quarter of a century in no half-hearted, haphazard way. The revenues of the realm were freely expended. The royal family, the Parliament, the manufacturers, the artists, the educators, the guilds, and the workers of England all co-operated. Appropriations for works of art, for museums, and for technical schools were made with a rare liberality. The greatest efforts were made to discover and encourage talent, to train to efficiency design- ers and artisans to meet the demands of the times and to aid in regaining their lost prestige in the industries of the world. The results of those combined efforts of a great people imbued with an earnest purpose were wonderful. Never before had there been presented such a combination of facilities for industrial supremacy. With her accumulated capital ; her abundance of coal, iron, and cheap labor ; with her trained mechanics, her enterprising merchants ; with her ships and her sailors to carry her products to the ends of the earth, she seemed to have fulfilled the boast of her historian that she was the workshop of the world. But other continental nations looked upon the prodigious increase of the British manufacture with some apprehension, and they were aroused to efforts to compete in this great industrial contest. They all resorted to the same means, and speedily began establishing schools of various 662 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training names, but with the same general purpose, adapted to their local necessi- ties, and for the industrial education of the people. Belgium has a technical school at Tournay for instruction in lock- making, and for iron and copper founding and molding ; one at Verviers devoted to weaving, dyeing, and chemistry; while in each of the cities of Ghent, Antwerp, Ostend, Bruges, Liege, Charleroi, and numerous other towns thruout the little kingdom, there are established trade schools in each case suited to the industry of the place ; all subsidized by the government or supported by the muncipalities. In addition to these there are many apprenticeship schools adapted to the special industries of weaving, training designers and artisans for those beautiful products of the loom for which the country is famous. In Germany the schools for training workmen are among the most remarkable in Europe. Schools of design, polytechnic and industrial schools, are as numerous as any other kind of schools. Trade schools are numerous in Switzerland, in the Netherlands, in Sweden, Denmark ; and have been introduced to some extent in Italy and Spain. Russia, tho far behind other European nations in education and civilization, has her Imperial Technical School at Moscow, the Alexandria Technichal School at Tcherepovetz, the School of Trades at St. Peters- burg, the Strongenoff School (from which we got our idea of manual- training schools in this country), and others of a like character, which are sending forth every year hundreds of young men well educated and skilled in the civilizing arts of life. The aim and object in every one of these countries cited is to improve the industries, by training up skilled workmen and diffusing them into all branches of their manufactures, trades, and commerce. These foreign examples must have significance for us. We are richer in natural resources than any of them ; but we have not kept pace with other countries in fostering Our home industries. We have imported the articles of taste and luxury, and imported the skilled laborers, relying on our vast product of raw material to give us the balance of trade ; and so it has. American enterprise and pluck have supplied all deficiencies. Our marvelous resources have enabled us to lavish our treasure upon other countries for commodities that could as well have been made by our own artisans, had they been properly instructed in the knowledge of their arts. And the raw material for many of the imported commodities is produced in this country, exported to Europe, and returned to be purchased by us at four or five times the price we received for it. As a consequence, the skilled labor abroad receives the benefit of this great increase of its value, while our own people swell the ranks of the army of the unemployed for lack of skill to produce it. In a far shorter time than was required of England, America might, Department] MANUAL TRAINING AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION 663 if she would but make the effort, put herself into the front rank of the manufacturing nations of the earth. Our economic advantages excel those of any other country; our people are hardy, intelligent, ingenious; but our magnificent inheritance of vast domain and all our rich materials for economic aggrandizement have been in part rendered of no avail, because we have neglected the means by which the higher industries are fostered and developed. Our cheap lands for homesteads are becoming scarcer every year. The operations of agriculture are now wrought by costly machinery which has revolutionized the old system of farm tillage. We have witnessed the passing of the apprentice system ; we have seen the marvelous development of machinery which seems to make men into machines and make them simply serfs to capital ; we have seen a revolu- tion in the methods of production, transportation, and distribution. The time has come, and now is, when we should revolutionize our methods of instruction in a way that shall substitute industry for idleness and skill for ignorance in the useful pursuits of life. We believe that Americans in trades of any kind are brighter, more inventive, more adaptable, more progressive, more productive than the people of any other nation. Give the American the thoro training of his rivals, and his native keenness of insight, his adaptability to circumstances, his readiness of method, will enable him to lead the world in those higher qualities which all admire and which are so essential to national progress. But our American principle in education has so long been general training rather than specialization, culture rather than technical education, that the artistic trades and the skilled trades have been practically closed against American youth. The tendency to crowd into the cities is marked, but bear in mind Mr. Hodge's statistics, and remember that, while of the average hundred young men in the cities five only are prepared by their education for their pro- fession, business, or trade, ninety-five are not. It is stated also, on good authority, that there are three times as many skilled positions open to young men as there are men qualified to fill them, while there are three times as many awaiting commercial and professional positions as there are places to be filled. But our manufacturers meet these conditions by an increased use of machinery rather than of men, by importing from foreign countries a few skilled laborers, and by employing women and children at small wages to do the work which men should do at larger wages; by encouraging machines of iron and limitation of processes rather than by educating the youths in those lines that will make them accomplished and artistic workmen, increase their earning power, and add to the general prosperity of the country. " Cheap labor, not educa- tion ; mechanism, not skill," has been their sordid cry. We have made considerable progress in the right direction, but we haven't covered the whole ground. We have many technical schools in 664 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training the United States quite similar to the polytechnic schools in Europe> and the agricultural and mechanical colleges in the several states which have accepted the aid of the land grant made by Congress for that purpose have done much to advance the movement for education in the indus- trial pursuits and professions. But technical courses in these schools are designed for professional purposes and for professional men alone. They are admirable, and they train a set of masters of industry that are abso- lutely necessary to a country that has such extended systems of railroads, such immense steel bridges spanning the streams, such tunnels to bore, such sky-scrapers to rear, such power-houses to construct, such pipe lines to run from oil fields to the seaboard, such ships to build, such mills and furnaces and factories to be managed. These schools train the leaders, but not the artisans. They are a most interesting feature in our educa- tional system, and they are helping to solve the industrial problem. Many who favor manual and technical instruction are not ready to urge the establishment of apprentice or trade schools at the expense of the state. They hold that the state should go no farther than to furnish a general industrial training, and this on an educational basis ; that for anything further private beneficence should furnish the ways and means. Not so thought England, when she organized her art and industrial schools ; not so thought France, Germany, and Switzerland, when they established their apprentice schools and their trade schools ; not so thought the hundreds of European municipalities which revived their deteriorated local industries and created new ones by the establishment of trade schools. The education of a people must have unity as well as logical con- tinuity. Technical education should not be separated from general education. Intelligence and skill must not be put asunder. Education is a means to an end, and only as a means to an end does it pertain to the state. Whatever education is necessary for the general welfare it lies within the province of the state to provide. This is the broad proposition on which public education rests, and no question can be raised as to the right of the state to teach any branch of knowledge which will promote the general welfare. No logical line can be drawn at any given point which limits or restricts the inherent right of the state. The right to establish higher institutions of training, to give opportunity to the ambitious student in one hundred who wishes to fit himself for a learned profession, is not questioned ; neither can the right of any state or city to organize special schools, or to promote important industries, be disputed on any logical grounds. The extent to which the state or municipality should carry its education is determined entirely by its own needs (or its own judgment of its peculiar needs) and its own ability, financially and otherwise, to provide for those needs. Whether a city Department] EDUCATION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 665 shall provide laboratories and shops, and instruction in the arts and trades, or whether it shall do without this industrial feature of modern education, is for the city to determine, just as it determines the question of paving, sewerage, and street lighting. Let the state see to it that the right kind of education is provided for its great army of workers ; let the state suppress idleness as it does igno- rance ; let it provide trade schools rather than workhouses and prisons, and this country will make such advances in the arts and sciences, such strides toward a higher order of material prosperity, as some of us have never dreamed of. EDUCA TION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA — WHA T CAN TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS DO FOR IT? CHARLES F. WARNER, PRINCIPAL OF MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. The question of education for the trades is only a part of the larger question of technical education, which includes every kind of teaching that may have a direct and practical influence upon the varied industrial life of our times. Such a question cannot properly relate to all grades of schools from the primary up ; but it may concern the secondary schools, and possibly the upper grades of the grammar schools, as well as the colleges of technology and of commerce. Broad and general principles should control the earlier education with little or no reference to special callings; but so soon as the youth comes to the point in his career when, considering his own capacities and the conditions which surround him, he ought to face the question of fitting himself for the best form of self- support and service to the community that he is capable of attaining, then education may properly take on more or less of the characteristics of special training. This principle has long been recognized, and for the comparative few, who have unfortunately been called the favored class, schools have been provided, both at public and at private expense, whose chief function has been to furnish their students with the intel- lectual equipment needed for further study in colleges or professional schools. That much of the teaching in these schools is of a general nature — intended to assist in the all-around development of the man or woman, rather than to begin the creation of the specialist — cannot be denied ; but the ultimate object of American colleges, whether classical, scientific, or technical, and consequently the ultimate function of the preparatory schools, tho rarely admitted in either case, has, nevertheless, been in large measure to give their students that information and training which should enable them to earn their way in some form of business or professional life. This tendency of American schools toward practical 666 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training aims and methods has been assisted by the rapid and successful develop- ment of the elective system, which has caused the so-called broader features both of collegiate and of popular education to assume even less relative importance, yielding to the growing demand for that instruction which may be quickly turned to practical account. That there is a distinct and just demand for a continuation and exten- sion of the reform already begun, which is to bring the work of American schools more closely in touch with the life of the times, cannot be doubted. The remarkable growth of higher technical schools, the success of the manual-training movement, the prosperity of private commercial schools and correspondence schools for mechanics and other workers — not to speak of the occasional trade school — furnish sufficient evidence that all, or nearly all, of the various forms which practical education has thus far assumed have come in answer to a natural and extensive demand. But that all these schools fully realize all that is sometimes claimed for them cannot for one moment be maintained. We must recognize their value, but at the same time acknowledge the incompleteness of the answer which they furnish to the general industrial needs of our time. The higher technical schools as such have reached a high degree of excellence in this country. They compare favorably with the best in any other country; but their main function is to train men for the engineer- ing professions who shall intelligently direct the application of natural forces to industrial and economic problems, securing the greatest possible efficiency by taking full advantage of every new discovery and invention. The graduates of these schools are well equipped in science, both pure and applied, and qualified to investigate new problems ; but their proper work is to plan, advise, and direct. Generally speaking, their education stands in the way of their serving manufacturing corporations as foremen and managers, positions which .many of them would be glad to secure, because of unwillingless at their age and with all their knowledge to begin at the bottom of the business and acquire, patiently, the necessary details. They have been educated away from the rank and file of the great army of industrial workers. Shop foremen say that they prefer to teach boys, who realize that they have much to learn and are willing to take the time for it. I have said that the graduates of these schools of engineering fill a comparatively limited, tho important, place in the industrial world. But, notwithstanding this fact, there seems to be a tendency in technical schools of a lower grade to aspire to the higher rank, forgetting that they were organized upon a more general educational basis and with the avowed purpose of serving industrial needs in the broader sense. As examples, one may recall a certain school in Chicago, one in northern New York, one in Maryland, and one in California. This tendency, it seems to me, is to be lamented. The great need of our time is more Department] EDUCATION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 667 technical education of a secondary type ; there is quite enough of the collegiate grade. We must lay the foundations broad, as well as deep, if, as educators, we are to meet fully the responsibility laid upon us of contributing our share toward developing and maintaining the industrial supremacy of the nation. To do this we must work thru the people's schools — the public high schools in which manual training is emphasized. Here is where a good part at least of the great work for industrial education must be done. If we examine into the causes which have operated most powerfully to bring the manual-training movement to its present state of develop- ment, we shall find, I think, much to justify the proposal to teach trades in the technical high schools. We flatter ourselves sometimes, I suspect, that the educational argument for manual training is a complete answer to those prejudices which have so long held up the traditional training in the so-called liberal studies as educationally superior to the results of technical instruction, and that it has at the same time fully satisfied those who have been clamoring for the practical school. While I am in hearty accord with the theory of manual training as an educational principle, and would pay all due honor to its many noble advocates whose influence has surely been great, I cannot ignore the fact that the practical argu- ment has had greater weight than the educational with the average citizen and with his boy. Manual-training schools have come to stay, because there is a demand for that form of education which shall connect itself with productive industries and with the employments which the youths of our land are by force of circumstances bound to follow. They are one result of the development of our civilization, and are as inevitable as other results of the operation of natural laws. It is our duty to appreciate their full mission and see that they fulfill it. A clear recognition of the demand for the practical in education would relieve us of the supposed necessity of proving that manual train- ing is as intellectual, as ennobling, as uplifting as training in the liberal arts. Since we have this form of education well established, let its gen- eral educational basis be admitted, while we give our attention to making it more effective in those directions in which its peculiar value seems to lie. In doing this we shall not by any means set aside educational principles. We may look upon educational manual training as a neces- sary intermediate step in the growth of modern educational philosophy and practice ; but we have not, it seems to me, rightly conceived the true destiny of the practical movement in education, if we are content with introducing manual-training departments into the traditional high school, or, indeed, with organizing the independent manual-training high school so-called, if such schools do not somewhere in their cur- ricula give greater emphasis than has yet been given, generally speaking, to technical education. 668 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training The time-honored argument that this or that study is to be pursued, not because it has any practical value, but simply for the mental dis- cipline it affords, is not now generally regarded as sound ; but it must be admitted that we do not better it much by substituting for the discipline of books the discipline of a few mechanical exercises which, in themselves, have very little practical connection with the industrial world. This criticism is in full accord with modern educational theory. It is coming more and more to be recognized among educational experts that educational values should not be estimated altogether according to the training which a certain study affords while it is being pursued, but rather by the consideration of whether that study or that exercise is likely to be continued in practical life. It seems strange that so little attention has been paid hitherto to a question of so great importance. If the school is to fit for life, why should it not teach the youth what life demands in maturer years ? There has always been a stereotyped answer to this question, namely, that it is the function of the school to furnish broad and general discipline, leaving the more practical lessons to the experience of actual life. But if the youth may begin with the actual experiences of life in school, so to speak, and thereby gain, not merely equal, but better, disciplinary advantages, it seems to me that the old ideas of educational values will need to be amended, if not altogether abandoned.1 I suppose we may take it for granted that the dogma of pure mental discipline has been well-nigh demolished. This is one great point gained. No modern teacher considers that a study is of great value if it furnishes strong mental discipline in school regardless of all other questions. Such a study may, indeed, be very valuable as a means of discipline during school life, but if it is to be entirely dropped at the end of the school period, and especially if the peculiar mental processes which it furnishes are not. to be carried on in after-life, no matter how valuable it may be in itself as a study, it loses greatly in educational value when compared with another study which is equally valuable as a school exercise, and at the same time likely to be carried into practice when the school days are over. Now, while it will not be questioned that the introduction of the manual-training element has enlarged the educational output of our schools, it is equally clear that there is a real danger that the manual-exercise element as such may be open to the same criticism of comparatively inferior educational value as is now being generally admitted to be true of the old doctrines of mental dis- cipline. But these educational considerations, however valuable, are not the only ones to be kept in view. The real motive power behind the whole * See paper on "Some New Aspects of Educational Thought," by Superintendent Thomas M. Balliet, Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1899. Department] EDUCATION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 669 matter is the demand of the practical age in which we live. This must influence all educational thought, and it certainly has modified it to a considerable extent in recent years. One cannot, of course, claim that the great advances that have already been made in technical education are due wholly to material or mercenary motives. Probably the best expression of the practical element in education has been due to a broader view of edu- cational principles and an almost unconscious drift in the direction of the technical element. But, after all this is admitted, I still believe it is the urgent demand for the practical which has shaken up the old educational systems, and called for a thoro study and readjustment of educational values. There can certainly be no doubt about the demand for indus- trial teaching, and especially for that part of it which has been described as education for the trades. One needs only to ask his next-door neigh- bor, if he be a manufacturer, to be told that the situation in industrial quarters is alarming, and steadily growing worse. We have an increas- ing army of inferior workmen ; but skilled mechanics who are not specialists — i. e., the all-round machinist, carpenter, pattern-maker, blacksmith, etc., of former days — are few in number, and are, for the most part, advanced in years. Some of them were trained under a sys- tem which, in this country, is practically gone. Others have got their training thru a combination of fortuitous circumstances which can hardly be called a system. They are the lucky few who have managed somehow to circumvent the tendencies of the age, and secure what has remained of the old-time shop instruction, which was universally the pride of our industrial fathers. Young men are not, as a rule, being trained to take their places ; and the manufacturing industries are so conducted in our time that there can be no adequate provision made for supplying the need which was formerly met by the apprentice system. In every part of the country the great industries are seeking in vain for American- trained foremen and mechanics of the old-time type. Our shops are filled with foreign-born, unskilled workmen, often under the direction of experts born and trained abroad, while the grammar schools and high schools are every year sending out vast numbers of our own boys utterly .unfitted to enter the shops excepting in the very lowest capacity. But, as has already been pointed out, there is little or no opportunity for them even in this lowest capacity, since there is no apprentice system. Manufac- turers, superintendents, foremen cannot afford to be bothered with them. They are entirely out of adjustment with modern industrial conditions. American boys ought to have the opportunity, and they ought to be fitted to enter the trades and become skillful, thinking mechanics, greatly superior to the foreign-born workers who now fill our shops. How is this result to be brought about ? The modern system of intensified production cannot be changed. An apprentice system like that which has passed away cannot be revived. The higher technical schools are concerned 670 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training with questions of a different nature, and cannot directly meet this need. The various efforts made thru correspondence schools, Christian associa- tion schools, night schools, can never furnish a complete answer to the real problem. It is a question of public education just as surely as train- ing for commercial life, or any other form of employment for which our youths now find more or less adequate training. What department of our public-school system, as now organized and carried on, can more properly undertake to solve this question than the manual-training school of the higher grade ? But in this, as in all educational matters, it is often easier to see that a certain result should be accomplished, and, indeed, to state thru what agencies it may be brought about, than to map out a plan of action along the desired line which shall be thoroly practicable. If it be admitted that our educational system ought to be adjusted to industrial needs and demands in the direction of the leading trades ; and if it be admitted also that the best medium, at present, thru which this adjust- ment may be brought about is the manual-training or secondary technical school, the essential part of the problem still remains unsolved until we have shown more definitely what can be done by these schools, and how they are to do it. This question cannot be adequately met within the limits of a brief paper, nor should it be left entirely unanswered. At first thought the question seems appalling. Teach the trades — men exclaim — all the trades, in our manual-training schools! Impos- sible! we are told; and if one admits the extreme conception of indus- trial education which some hold, there is some ground for the objection that such education is impracticable. But education for the trades does not necessitate that highly specialized instruction implied in the term " mono-technic" or " trade school," as commonly understood. And, if we examine closely the present. status of the trades themselves, we shall find that in the very field we propose to enter many of the supposed complications and difficulties vanish on approach, while others may be easily eliminated. The decay of the apprentice system is not the only result of the changes in the industrial methods. Along with it have perished many of the trades as known in former times. The wonderful development of machinery and machine methods, especially in this country, and the realization of the immense profitableness of rapid production thus made possible, have led to such a degree of specializing in the trades, thru the principle of the division of labor — to such a development of trades within trades — that many of the original, all-round trades of our fathers have been lost. Take the single example of the wood-working trade. Instead of the carpenter, cabinet-maker, and pattern-maker, which was the old division, we now have the plain sawyer, band sawyer, turner, pattern-maker, molder, carver, framer, lather, stair builder, and joiner or finisher, each Department] EDUCATION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 67 1 skilled in his own specialty, but in no other. These may be called the ten distinct wood-working trades; but in reality there is scarcely more than one of the original trades left, viz., pattern-making, and that has, and always did have, a limited field. The same thing is true of all the so-called machine trades. In European countries such an intensified division of the fundamental trades is not found. Germany is still a country of all-round trades, altho she is rapidly developing her manufactures on a large scale, and is even now in many lines successfully competing with us in the world's industrial markets. Her class system enables her to retain her general trades as practical training schools for her artisans ; and her lesson to us is to be found in this fact more than in her trade schools, in which, for the most part, she offers to her industrial workers instruction in the common branches. Her mechanics, even tho they become specialists, are thus broadly educated in technical, as well as in more general, direc- tions. They are greatly superior to American machine hands. Had she equal natural resources, she would soon distance us in the industrial race> and may, indeed, as it is. In her system of industrial education, as well as in her social conditions, she already has an immense advantage in the field of trades. If we would maintain our industrial supremacy, we must supply in our educational system some equivalent for the technical train- ing furnished by the old-time apprentice system in our own country and by the fundamental trades abroad. But what can we do ? It is clearly impracticable to teach highly specialized trades in our schools ; nor would this be right. Specialization is the result of high-pressure production and has, on the whole, made against the technical education of the individual. The schools should not, if they could, fall into line and help along an evil which they ought to strive to remove. Education may recognize the problem of the mill and give it due weight ; but in the last analysis its duty is to seek the good of the individual. This high duty demands that the individual be given a chance to develop all his powers, and be limited only by natural con- ditions, to the end that he may make the most of himself in whatever line of activity circumstances may place him. If he is to become a machine specialist, his education should be directed to giving him as much as possible of the broad training useful in any calling, but it should not fail to give also that technical preparation which shall enable him to learn, without waste of time, to do whatever is demanded by his specialty, intelligently and with the highest degree of efficiency. The manual- training school, while it should constantly hold before him the best ideals of citizenship, and offer him studies which shall cultivate those ideals, should also develop him along technical lines, both in theory and in practice, by exercises in both lines of work which are consistent with modern industrial methods. He should not be taught anything which 672 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training he will have to forget, or which will be of no use to him when he gets to work. No time should be wasted in exercises for mere discipline. His education should furnish him with the essential practical elements given by the apprentice system, and add much of a general nature which that system did not give. With this conception of the character of the education needed for the trades, it will be seen that we have not to consider the highly special- ized trades of our time, but rather the principles and operations which are fundamental to certain groups of these trades. But these principles and operations should be so thoroly mastered that entrance into the field of the specialist shall be made very easy. No one will pretend that this is the case now, even in our best manual-training high schools. The time devoted to mechanical work during the four-years' course is about ninety working days of nine hours each, divided about equally between wood-work and iron-work, each of which is subdivided into two or more lines of work. Thus each line of work has scarcely more than the equivalent of one solid month's time devoted to it. Compare the technical product of such a course with three or four years of apprentice- ship in any one of these lines ! No wonder that practical men say of the manual work accomplished in many of our schools : " It's well enough. My boy likes it, and goes to school more willingly on account of it ; besides, he learns quite a number of things that make him handy about the house." It is not reasonable to expect so much time to be devoted to mechani- cal work, even in our best schools, as is implied in an apprentice system, nor is this necessary. In the old shops, for the first job, boys were often given a barrel of nuts to tap, and for the second job a second barrel of nuts to tap, and for the third two barrels of bolts to fit to the nuts. Such intensified practice as this is not called for nor admissible in a school, but it contrasts strangely with the prevailing theory of manual training that the educational, and therefore the entire, value of a given exercise is exhausted after it has once been laboriously worked out. For a thoro mastery of technical principles there ought to be some repetition ; and both in plan and execution the question of economy of material and time should have an important place. This would be one step in the direction of teaching for the trades ; the second step should be to allow specializing for three or four years in one line of mechanical work — say, pattern-making, cabinet-making, forging, machine-shop practice ; the third step should be to double the amount of time devoted to mechanical practice by allowing voluntary work after the regular school hours ; the fourth step should be to bring the other school exercises — especially those in science and mathematics — into closer correlation with the special mechanical work being done. With these four changes accom- plished in a well-equipped school, we may then claim to have done some- Department] EDUCATION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 673 thing in educating our boys for the trades. Let there be, if possible, in addition to this, a single post-graduate year, during which a boy may devote all his time to his chosen line of work, and the problem of making up for the loss of the old-time apprentice system in certain trades is practically solved, while we have secured at the same time four years of general school work which that system could not permit. In conclusion, it may be well to say, lest I be misunderstood, that I do not take the ground that education for industrial pursuits is, or ought to be, the sole object of the manual-training schools; nor do I believe that the manual-training school is the only one where such teach- ing may properly be done. We probably shall make in due time a place in our school system for the trade school, in which a much more com- plete and specialized line of industrial training will be carried on than it is possible to mingle with the standard features of the manual-training or technical high school. In the meantime, the schools we have ought to rise to their full duty and recognize a need which they can in some measure meet. But we must hold to the fundamental principle involved in that educational trinity — the hand, the head, and the heart; nothing complete in education without these three. We must maintain the dignity of labor, throw aside mere mercenary motives, and uphold the ideal practical school by whatever name it may be called, and make it, no less than other parts of our great system of education for the people, a means of expansion into a higher life. DISCUSSION Charles R. Richards, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. — In discussing the very able papers that have been read this afternoon, I find myself in the apparently anomalous position of one who believes most thoroly that the instruction of the schools should be based on the conditions of actual life, and yet who does not feel that manual training in the high school can or should be made to serve the purpose of trade training. On the other hand, I find myself very thoroly in accord with most of what has been said in these papers, with the single large exception that, in my judgment, the thing so ably discussed is not trade training at all, but something very different. In approaching this subject, it seems to me that we need first of all to define very clearly and very carefully what we mean by certain things. In the first place we need to know just what is meant by trade training ; and, secondly, in what the demand for trade training consists. With these facts established, we can then examine most profitably in what way the manual-training high school is related to this demand. Trade training, I take it, is such a training as will allow the worker to enter at once into practical and profitable work at a trade — not as an expert journeyman, but with a degree of practical skill that an employer will deem remunerative. Any training that does not fulfill this condition surely does not begin to meet the problem in its fundamental requirement. To fulfill this condition means continuous practice at one kind of opera- tions for a very considerable time until the special skill and judgment necessary for that 674 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training particular class of operations are gained. Direct efficiency in this field means concentra- tion rather than breadth. It means muscles and eyes and judgment trained by habit to deal almost instinctively with a certain method of manipulation. On the other hand, from whence comes the demand for trade training ? Who are the boys, and girls for that matter, that are to form the army of trade workers and who need such training under the present economic conditions? From an experience of ten years in trade-school work, my answer to this is that they are the boys below and outside of high-school possibilities. They are the boys and girls that must become wage-earners directly after the compulsory school age. It is these, and these only, that form, and from the nature of things must continue to form, the great bulk of the manual workers of the country. For the majority of the boys and girls who feed the ranks of this enormous section of our population a high-school course is, today at least, an economic impossi- bility. Considered purely from the economic side, it seems to me that the proposition con- tained in the report of Superintendent Maxwell, of New York city, for the year 1900 is the most practical suggestion for dealing with trade training in connection with public education that has yet been put forward. In this plan it is proposed that the pupils in the crowded tenement districts of the East Side of New York shall be taken out of the regular elementary school at the end of the sixth year, when they so elect, and allowed to spend the next two years, or until they are fourteen, in learning, not only history and composition, but some trade whereby they can earn a living. Such a plan is, of course, capable of only limited application under special conditions of population, and I am not sure that even then it is a plan that would fit into our American ideas of education or prove practicable in operation ; but it has the virtue at least of aiming directly at a class that actually needs and will profit by training for the trades, and in a way that would make it economically possible for this class to be reached. These two facts — first, as to the requirements of a trade training, and, second, as to the economic limitations that rest upon such training — seem to me to be at the bottom of this question under discussion. Consider for a moment the nature of the work that has thus far been found practi- cable and valuable in the high school. We teach the elements of a very few typical trades, or rather the elements of certain general groups of trades. For the different branches of handwork taught in the manual-training school do not actually represent any special trade as practiced today. The- machine work perhaps comes nearest, but even this is only suggestive of the general processes entering into the field of machine con- struction. The essence of industrial operations today is specialization, and preparation for practical trade work, to be effective, must take on this same character. If we should attempt to transform the shop work as represented in the manual-training schools at the present time into real training for a few trades, and carry out the instruction, both as to time and methods, so as to make it effective, we should come to a very narrow field indeed. Besides greatly narrowing the scope of such work, we should, on the other hand, so reduce the possibilities of broad training in other directions as to lose the dis- tinctively liberal character that these schools now stand for. These are the facts that seem to me to render it impossible for manual training in the high schools to become in any sense a means for the practical training of artisans, or even to scratch the surface of the real problem of trade training. This is a negative view, but there is another side to this question in which I believe manual training bears an enormously important relation to industrial activity and trade development, a relation, in my judgment, of vastly more practical significance than the preparation for a few trades. The reports of the eleventh census show that between 20 and 25 per cent, of the Department] EDUCATION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 675 whole number engaged in gainful occupations in the United States are employed in manufacturing or mechanical industries. They also show that the value of the products of such industries is over half of the total value of the productions of the country. This means that this country of ours is just now passing from an agricultural nation into a manufacturing nation, and, indeed, taking a place where it is beginning to command the markets of the world. Furthermore, it is on this side that the future development of our wealth and resources must more and more take place. Why, under these conditions, must we seek an economic justification of manual training in the high school in the training of a comparative few for certain special trades, when there are nearly 25 per cent, of the workers of the country engaged directly, and many more indirectly, in all sorts of trades and mechanical operations ? Is it not a thousand times of more practical and economic value to represent in the highest public school such instruction as will bring to great numbers of future wage-earners a broad insight into and understanding of the vital facts in this whole field of activity, so that they may be prepared to enter intelligently into relations with this industrial world and to become efficient leaders in its various branches ? If preparation for social life means anything as an aim of education, is there not fully as much need for including such instruction in the opportunities of the high school as for providing instruction in history, science, or mathematics ? Indeed, is not such work carried out in a broad way simply the logical application of industrial history, sci- ence, and mathematics to the life of today ? But to reach such broad results such work must be dealt with in a broad spirit. It must recognize that the outlook of the worker should be enlarged from his special task to the significance of this task in its relations to industry at large. Not only the concrete result in wood or iron should be considered, but materials should be traced back to their sources, and the processes by which they are made available should be studied. Further- more, some comparison should be made of the complex and specialized processes of manufacturing with the simple experiences of the school shop ; and finally such instruction should find some way to make clear at least the elementary principles and relations that govern the organization and operation of modern industrial establishments. Such a school experience would give knowledge and insight fully as much as skill, and it would give insight into the principles governing all industry as well as acquaint- ance with the special branches of handwork practiced in the school. It would give a preparation that would fit its graduates to enter intelligently into the relations with the industrial world, and to understand and control its forces rather than to practice a special trade. Of course, such work has a vocational value, but it is vocational value of a broad type. It is vocational just as all work in the high school is in a large sense vocational. The constant tendency to arrange the high-school curriculum upon a vocational basis is strik- ingly evident from a study of the evolution of the high school in this country. The first secondary school in America was, I believe, the Boston Latin School, the object of which was to prepare for Harvard College. This school had a distinct voca. tional purpose — it was a stage in the training of men for the learned professions, a preparation for admission to Harvard College. In the course of time, when a classical college course was no longer the object of all those who desired a secondary-school train- ing, the English High School was established. The founding of this school represented again the vocational influence. Its aim was to afford a training nearer to the life demands of those not going to college. Later came the provision of departmental courses in the high schools — the classical course, the English course, the scientific course, and sometimes the commercial course — all signifying the effort to still further meet vocational requirements ; and finally we have the system of elective studies, which seems to provide the final step in the adjustment of high-school instruction to the life needs of the individual. 676 NA TIONAL ED UCA TIONAL ASSOC! A TION [Manual Training It is in this broad sense, it seems to me, that manual training in the high school is related to the question of vocation — not as a training for work at a special trade, but as an instrument to develop a keen and intimate understanding of modern industrial prac- tice and conditions. Furthermore, it seems to me that this office of manual training in the high school is of infinitely greater economic meaning than any attempts at trade train- ing, even if the latter were practicable. On the other hand, it is a training of this scope and character that the present organization and equipment of the manual-training high schools are fitted to develop and extend. If the attempt is made to turn such schools into special trade schools, I believe they will fall between two opportunities and lose their position as true high schools, on the one hand, and fail to become trade schools, on the other. I believe, on the contrary, if we resolutely set our faces toward making the work of these schools contribute to a broad and real insight into the fundamental facts and relations of the industrial world at large, that we shall be giving these schools a place in American education that nothing can shake, and that we shall be doing a greater service to the industrial progress of the country than is possible by any other educational means. Calvin M. Woodward, director of Manual Training School, Washington Univer- sity, St. Louis, Mo. — I have enjoyed listening to these papers and this discussion very much. Of course, I agree with four-fifths of what has been said. I agree that the organi- zation of our school work should be such as to enable every boy to make the most of him- self. I believe that is what our education is for. It is what our high schools are for, and what all our schools are for. Every system must be " open at the top," so that the most enterprising and ambitious boy shall feel that the world is his, or the opportunity to make it his belongs to him as a birthright. Now, in 'regard to the extensive study of narrow occupations, referred to by Mr. Curtis : In Europe they are called trade schools, and, as Mr. Richards says, there are scores and scores of them. They are training boys for very narrow occupations. I have visited several of them. The manufacture of a certain kind of goods is the object. It may be the manufacture of magnetic needles ; it may be the manufacture of microscopes ; it may be locks ; it may be the manufacture of some line of goods which the community wishes to establish and for which it wishes to have skilled workmen. The pupils are given a little mathematics, a little literature, and a good deal of work ; and that work applies directly to the articles proposed to be manufactured ; and after they have learned to manufacture them, they turn out goods for the market ; and those boys keep to that busi- ness the rest of their lives. That is a kind of trade school'; it is narrow, it is definite, it is certain, and there is no practical way out of it. That school is closed at the top. That kind of a school we do not want in America. It is utterly opposed to the genius of our institutions. There is another kind of trade school in Europe, a little broader than that, which I should like to describe. I visited a school in Paris, on the Boulevard de la Villette, a school where they take boys at about fourteen and keep them three years. It is a trade school. They teach, I think, four very narrow trades. They are not trades in the broad sense in which Mr. Richards uses the term, but they are occupational trades — vocation trades or courses. They give the boys a little mathematics, a little French history, a little French geography, a little drawing, and a half-day at least of tool-work. At first they send the boys thru a series of four shops. One is some kind of machine shop, where they have certain articles in view ; another a kind of forging shop, another a cabinet shop, and another a locksmith shop. The boys go thru that series of shops, spending a few weeks in each one, sampling it, as it were, to see which they think they are cut out for ; and this sampling business is all done in the course of one year. They make up their minds at the end of the year as to the trade they want to learn, and from that time forward they devote themselves absolutely to one thing until the end of the school. Department] EDUCATION FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 677 When they leave, they go right to work at that trade and nothing else. They never swerve ; there are no exceptions to this rule. Now, you can easily judge of the propriety of forcing a boy of fourteen to make up his mind for life ; because there is no going back after he has once decided. I asked the director of the school, after looking it all over and seeing just what the plan was : " What do you do with the boy who finds he is not fit for any of these occupations ? " He replied : " We haven't any of those boys here, sir ! These boys have got to learn one of these trades, and then work at it the rest of their lives." Now, there is nothing open at the top there. In Europe, as you know, a boy very often inherits his trade as he does his name, but in America we do not believe in that. We do not want anything of that sort in this country. I wish to say fairly and squarely that I am not in favor of converting the manual- training high school into a trade school. I want to keep it as broad and as generous as our civilization. I want the career of every boy and every girl who goes into it to be the right one, and I do not want to take advantage of an immature and ignorant boy and force him to decide what sort of business he is to do in the world, when he is utterly unfit to make such a decision. I say the freedom of the boy, and his right of choice after he is prepared to choose, are inalienable, and we have no business to take them away from him. It is one of the great functions of a high school to let a boy discover himself. I am very glad to hear Mr. Warner say that, after all, what we have got to do is to teach the processes which underlie a group of trades. That is just exactly what we do in every well-organized manual-training school, whether it is on a private basis or whether it is a public free school. That is, we teach the fundamental mechanical ele- ments which underlie the use of the various materials with which our American industries have to do. We do not teach particular trades, but we do teach the alphabet with which all those trades are spelled out ; and that is the way in which we prepare them for intelli- gent choice, and for going out into the world in many different directions. I have had a great deal of experience in this matter. I have conducted a manual- training school for twenty-one years. I have had thousands of pupils. About one-half of them have completed the course and received the diploma of the school, and gone out into the world and gone to work. Now, what are they doing ? They are doing every- thing that comes to the hands of honorable, skillful, and high-minded men. Those young men have gone into all the occupations of life without bias and without prejudice and without difficulty. This problem in regard to the trades is being solved in every community where the manual-training high school exists. I do not quite agree with Mr. Richards here. 1 believe we are meeting, and are destined to meet, the demand for artisans much more fully than he seems to think. I have immense faith in the ultimate success of manual training to meet all our industrial wants, but the number of manual-training schools must be very greatly increased. The doors must be open to every boy who reaches the age of fifteen and who desires it. The number of those who cannot afford to take it is diminishing. I believe we are bound by and by to give at least 50 per cent, of all the boys in the community manual training in secondary schools. I should like to say a word in regard to Mr. Maxwell's scheme. It seems to me that one fundamental defect in it is that it begins far too early. What can you do with boys of the seventh grade toward trade training? I do not believe you can do much with them at that age. They are too immature. They can scarcely do rational analytical wood-work. When you come to give them the full amount of rational work which under- lies the mastery of processes in any trade according to our standard of today, you are asking altogether too much. You will mislead those boys, and, above all — and here is the most objectionable point — you will compel those boys at a tender age to decide what they want to do in life ; to choose their occupations at the age of twelve. Every- body knows that is an unnatural thing to do. 678 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training The other course, which is practically suggested, I think by Mr. Warner, is almost identical with that of Superintendent Higgins, of Worcester. He proposes to divide his school into two sections ; one attends an ordinary high school, and the other the trade shop, in the forenoon ; in the afternoon they change places. Mr. Warner said he would double the amount of shop-work ; and, of course, that means to cut down something else. When a cup is full, you cannot put in any more without taking out something. This half-time plan I do not favor. In the first place, there is the objection of cutting out the generous and necessary elements of a liberal training in the secondary school, all of which should be retained in fair proportion. If you are going to double the shop-work, you must cut out some of the academic work ; and I think you will do it with a loss to the boy. The interests of the boy are what we are all after. We are not trying to meet any demand for boys who have been wronged and cheated and defeated in their plans for an education, but we have got to do what is best for the boys. Then there is another thing : You and I know there is a limit to the time you can spend upon any school exercise profitably. When we started manual training, the shop- work covered two hours per day. The boys were fourteen and fifteen years of age. At the end of two hours, as a general proposition, the boys had about enough for once. It was time to stop. If we had gone on for two hours more, they would not have done double the amount of work. People reason that, if one hour is worth so much, three hours are worth three times as much ; yet every teacher knows that is not so. Think of teaching geography to a class three hours, expecting to get six times as much done as you can do in thirty minutes ! The first teacher of shop-work in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology arranged his program to give his students of the engineering course — I am not talking now of young boys, but of young men, of college grade — three hours at a lesson, and he said in his printed report that he had found in actual practice that the lesson was too long. Of course, they could work all day in the factory, but where would their minds have been ? They would have been miles away ; they would have played all over the athletic fields of New York, Boston, and Chicago. Their minds would have been absent while their fingers were busy. There is no education in that. When their minds leave their work and go out across the country, education stops. That shop teacher found that the education of those young men stopped before the three hours were up. Now Mr. Maxwell proposes to teach young boys a trade half a day at a time. That means four or five hours, and that is too much. It means an hour of educa- tion and three or four hours of absent-minded drudgery. . My solution of this problem is that we shall meet the demands of the trades in every legitimate way by multiplying all the while our manual-training schools ; by making it possible for a larger and larger percentage of our young men to enter them. We are going to organize a manual-training high school in St. Louis very soon. The school I have charge of is not a public school. It has not been a free school except to a sprinkling of boys. But we shall have a manual-training high school there, and perhaps two of them ; and we shall have a thousand boys, perhaps two thousand boys, in attend- ance. They are the boys that are going to form the sinews of our industrial system. Mr. Richards just said that such boys work for a while in a trade, but as a general proposition they abandon the trade and do something better. That is the case with my boys. When I scan their record, I find very few of them working at trades, particularly those of the older classes. The recent ones we find at manual work scattered thru all occupations, but those who have been out several years have worked themselves out of their trades. Why ? Because they could earn a great deal more at something else. There are lots of vacant places for them, and the world would not let them stay at the bench or drawing stand or lathe, as they were willing to do at first. It called them to work at something harder and which paid better. And they went on, as you and I would go, and as we would have them do. But a great many of them started at the trades. Now, what will be the effect when the number of graduates immensely increases ? Why, Department] EDUCA1 TON FOR THE TRADES IN AMERICA 679 they will of necessity remain, because the demand for higher positions will be less strong ; and they will fill the ordinary ranks, and they will stay there as long as the world will let them. It is a question of where they can be of most service to themselves. Therefore, I say, multiply, multiply, and multiply the opportunities for this immediate general training. Here is another serious objection to any general attempt to teach boys trades. One- half the boys are not fit to be mechanics. They should do something else, and the boy is a fortunate boy that finds it out. Hence do not try to run them all into the same hopper, but give them a chance in the manual-training high school to find out what they are good for. I suppose half the parents who send their boys to my school have this controlling motive, viz., to find out what is in the boy, to find out what he is fit for. The boy, of course, has his fancy, which is all right. I respect him for it. It is natural and wholesome that he should have a fancy for what he wants to do in the world. But I do not rate that fancy as of any great importance. I remember when I was determined, if I ever got to be a man, that 1 would own a sawmill and run it. I could think of nothing more attractive for a future life than to lift the gate, turn on the water, and saw logs. I thought it was perfectly delightful. Well, I changed my mind and did something else. Now, that is what a boy has a right to do. The boy that was deter- mined last year to be an electrical engineer this year has made up his mind to be a chemist. He has just been studying chemistry. He did not know anything about it last year. If he had known it, he would not have said anything about electrical engineering. Next year he will wish to be an architect. His instruction will carry him into the intricacies of framework, and he will begin to understand something about the strength of materials, and architecture as a fine art. He will end, perhaps, with being a lawyer, and a first-rate lawyer too. That is growth, and the parent or the teacher who calls such a boy fickle does him a great wrong. I think the parent should sympathize with every such change as that, because it is healthy growth. And so, I say, not half the boys are fit to be mechanics, and they should be allowed to become something else. It is one of the great functions of the secondary school to cultivate the ability to choose correctly, and it must not be taken away ; you must not substitute for it any cast- iron plan that forces the boy into one thing, willy nilly, and never allows him to get out. You must give the boy a chance to grow out into some sort of manly excellence, to become familiar with what a man can do who has skill, and who has that skill added to intelligence. Our boys do not acquire any great amount of skill or expertness, so as to do work on time. We do not aim at it. We aim at doing work well and understanding it. When our pupils go out, they readily become swift and expert and all that, but it would be a mistake to try to do all that in school. We aim at intelligence, not speed and skill. H. H. Belfield, director of Manual Training School, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. — This certainly is an age in which the world moves. I think fifteen or twenty years ago — yes, eight or ten years ago — it would have been impossible to have a meeting of this kind in connection with the National Educational Association. I was sur- prised with the paper read yesterday afternoon in the Art Department, in which a descrip- tion was given of work done in the second grade of the public schools in Minneapolis, on the theory that the children should be taught in the school what society demands ; that the children were taught to make baskets and in certain cases to sell them for money. If that is not trade education, what is it ? Now, I believe very largely in what has been said by every speaker. I certainly must agree with those who say that manual-training schools should not be converted into trade schools. The manual-training school has its field, and the trade school has its field. It is true, however, that we do need mechanics in this country, but we are not going to make them in the manual-training school. I have graduated about eight hundred from the Chicago Manual Training School, three of whom are working at the bench. Now, we all know that a great majority of boys 68o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Manual Training have to leave the public schools at the age of twelve or thirteen. The great majority of them leave, we are told, on an average from about the fourth grade, or the fifth grade at the highest, and the large majority of those boys go to work at learning trades under every disadvantage, you may say, because a boy can be taught a trade in school to far greater advantage, with a far greater saving in time and everything else, than he can be taught in the shops. I believe in what has been said in regard to the boy not being made to choose his vocation in life early. That is cruelty. It is a fact that the great majority of the boys who leave school and go into trades in this country do it at a very early period of their lives. Now, what are you going to do about it ? I doubt very much the wisdom of attempting to add our instruction to an already overloaded curriculum of the lower grades of the public schools, notwithstanding the very interesting paper of yesterday afternoon. I think we must have trade schools in this country. Our position as a manufacturing nation demands it. I believe trade schools are not to come in connection with the public schools ; but, as the manual-training school started outside of the public-school system, so will the trade school. Whether it will leap over the boundary and get into the public schools or not, is a question. It seems to me that the trade schools must start as private enterprises. The great manufacturing establishments must establish their own trade schools and train boys for their own work. That must be done in the machinist's line, for instance, by the great manufacturers of machinery ; and so on with every other trade. Twenty years ago the Baltimore & Ohio began an experiment of that kind. That I may not seem to lack enthusiasm on the manual-training school question, let me add to what Dr. Woodward has said that there is no doubt of the ability of the manual-training school boy to earn a living at the very start. One trouble is that he does not stay in school long enough ; he leaves at the end of the second year, because he can earn eight or ten or fifteen dollars a week. I have now on my desk more appli- cations for boys than I can possibly fill. The man who says that the manual-training school boy cannot earn his own living is, in my judgment, a man who knows nothing about the manual -training school boy. Charles B. Gilbert, superintendent of public schools, Rochester, N. Y. — I am interested in manual training as a department of public-school education, rather than in manual-training schools as such. And, from my point of view, the manual-training school represents rather too close a differentiation for a public school. My experience with public schools has led me to the belief that it is better to ) " The River and the Sea." Johnston. Hon. L. D. Bonebrake, of Columbus, O., read a paper on "The Centralization of Rural Schools." He was followed by a paper on "Schoolroom Temperature and Humidity," by Wil- liam George Bruce, editor of the American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. A paper on the " Relation of State Legislation to Modern School Building," by C. H. Parson, of Des Moines, la., followed. The chair then introduced Mr. M. R. Marr, of the Detroit school board, who extended a cordial invitation on behalf of that body to the department to spend the following day as the guests of the Detroit school board on the steamer " Sappho." The chair then appointed the Committee on Nominations, consisting of : H. S. Prophet, Lima, O. Harlan P. French, Albany, N. Y. Fannie G. Gies, Austin, Minn. A motion was made and adopted authorizing the president to appoint a committee on legislation, to consist of one member from each state and territory of the United States, whose duty it shall be to promote legislation for sanitary school buildings, as out- lined in a paper read by Mr. C. H. Parsons. SECOND SESSION.— Thursday, July ii (On board the steamer "Sappho") At 10 o'clock a. M. the members of the department boarded the steamer "Sappho," and after a twenty-mile journey landed on the island Bois Blanc, where a dinner was served. After a half-hour's stroll on the island the members boarded the steamer again for the return trip and organized for the second session. The meeting was called to order by William George Bruce, who introduced Vice- President Peres as the presiding officer. Mrs. Josephine Ahnefeldt Goss, of Grand Rapids, Mich., read a paper on " The Value of Truant Schools." This was followed by a paper on " What Constitutes an Efficient Superintendent ? " by Israel H. Peres, of Memphis, Tenn. The Committee on Nominations then made the following report : 803 804 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School Your Committee on Nominations begs to report the following list of officers who shall serve during the ensuing year : President — Israel H. Peres, Memphis, Tenn. First Vice-President — Mrs. Josephine A. Goss, Grand Rapids, Mich. Second Vice-President — Edward F. Marschner, Detroit, Mich. Third Vice-President — L. D. Bonebrake, Columbus, O. Fourth Vice-President — Dr. Ella J. Fifield, Tacoma, Wash. Fifth Vice-President — George Fenton, Broadalbin, N. Y. Secretary — William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis. Executive Committee — Chairman, C. H. Parsons, Des Moines, la.; M. R. Marr, Detroit, Mich.; Hon. Samuel B. Huey, Philadelphia, Pa.; Dr. J. V. Gallivan, Boston, Mass.; Miles O'Brien, New York city. On motion of John A. Diederichsen, of Milwaukee, the report was adopted unani- mously and the officers were declared elected. Mr. J. W. Holmes, of Alma, Mich., then suggested that at the next meeting of the department a paper be read on "What Constitutes an Efficient School Board ?" He held that the efficiency of the superintendent frequently depended upon the competency of the board. Mr. A. W. Elson said that in recent years school boards had manifested a tendency toward appreciating in a more sympathetic way the children's side. Harlan P. French paid a tribute to the Detroit school board for taking such a keen interest in the work of the department. Mr. M. R. Marr discussed the truancy problem and described the manner in which the subject was treated in Detroit. Mr. Carpenter, of the Grand Rapids Truant School, held that the first duty on the part of school authorities in managing truants was to inculcate a desire on the part of the boy to do better. As soon as a marked improvement is shown, the boy should be returned to his regular school. Mr. Prophet then submitted the following resolution : Resolved, That the Department of School Administration hereby extends its hearty thanks to the Detroit board of education as a whole, and to its members and officers individually, for the kind as well as unique hospitality extended to us. Resolved, That these resolutions be spread upon the minutes of the department, and that a copy of the same be transmitted by the secretary to the Detroit board of education. The resolutions were adopted by a rising vote. A vote of thanks was also extended to the secretary of the department for his effi- cient and faithful services. President Peres then announced that he would appoint the Committee on Legisla- tion at an early date and announce the same thru the usual channels. Adjournment followed. Wm. George Bruce, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE CENTRALIZATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS LEWIS D. BONEBRAKE, STATE SCHOOL COMMISSIONER OF OHIO The country-school problem is one of the most important now being considered by the educators of America. A study of the population of every state of the union will reveal a growing tendency toward urban life Administration] CENTRALIZATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 805 as against a distinctively rural development. The cities are gaining in numbers and wealth at the expense of the rural communities. The fac- tory, the shop, the store, the warehouse, the railroad, the paved streets, the distribution of water and light to every home, the contact with the news of the world and the markets, the construction of edifices public and private, the organized city school systems, the opportunity for social life, and other motives more or less apparent, have conspired to produce congested centers of population. Over against all these there have been the well-known isolation of the farm, bad roads, bad postal facilities, uninspiring church services, unorganized schools, low prices for farm products, and other matters more or less connected in thought and more or less recognized as important to the best of social conditions. Some of these tendencies were, in a way, recognized prior to the great Civil War ; but they have been increasingly recognized in the last forty years of our national life. For the purposes of this brief paper it is not necessary to discuss them in detail. Sufficient to say that statistics amply confirm the claim that the city is being developed, in a measure, at the sacrifice of the rural community, the hamlet, and the village. This tendency was first made manifest in New England, where farming has always been a difficult undertaking. Of course, the rich level lands of the West have invited many aggressive and ambitious young men to leave the older states ; and this also must be added to the tendency just mentioned. The traditions of the country school, with its one schoolmaster, with its twenty to thirty recitations a day, its small children learning the alphabet, and its larger children mastering arithmetic and grammar and geography, its go-as- you-please course of study, its rough-and-tumble discipline, its spelling classes, spelling bees, singing schools, debating societies, and all that, are not yet entirely departed from us. Their memory lingers ; and occa- sionally we find rural communities where such conditions obtain, remind- ing us of the early days of pioneer life and of our earlier American civilization. But, on the other hand, we are constantly confronted with changing conditions. The log schoolhouse is fast disappearing; and "the little red schoolhouse" is not what it once was. A network of electric rail- roads is rapidly providing inexpensive transportation facilities for those dwelling in rural communities. Cheap telephone service is rapidly find- ing its way to farmers' homes. The government is providing free rural mail delivery as fast as the resources of the treasury will allow, and soon our farmers will have added to their own rich inheritances many of those conveniences which are so much prized in cities and large villages. To such improving conditions we must add the grange, the farmers' institute, free circulating libraries, and not infrequently lecture courses and Chau- tauqua circles. But these are all comparatively recent in origin, and their full significance is not yet comprehended. They are good, hope 8o6 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School signs, however, of better rural conditions, and all have an educational and socializing tendency more or less pronounced. How much they may do to reclaim our despoiled rural districts and fill them once more with that peculiar strength of character, that virility and soundness of judgment and patriotism, so long associated with rural America, I cannot say; but of this I am certain : they will tend to do away with the isolation of the farm, and bring some of the best things of the city to the country. But what about the school system ? Are there no hopeful signs for the farmer's boys and girls ? My answer is that great changes in the schools of rural America are taking place, and at least three distinct phases are to be mentioned : first, better supervision, gradation, and inspection, which represent in a word what we call effective organization ; second, township and county high schools, which represent enrichment and extension of the course of study; and third, centralization of schools and transportation of pupils, which stand for many matters which it is the purpose of this paper to point out in as brief form as possible. Concerning the inspection of the work, it is proper to note that there are two or three types. County superintendency is one ; township super- intendency is another ; and a district county superintendency is entirely possible where neither the larger unit of the whole county nor the rela- tively small unit of the single township is made the supervising district, and where the supervising unit consists of several townships grouped together as one district. The latter, a compromise arrangement, I per- sonally consider as preferable to either of the others. In the matter of rural high schools we have two types : the township high school and the county high school. The former I consider prefer- able, as the young people can sleep at home and be under the constant watchful care of their parents. The township high school will also reach the greater number, and respond more readily to popular demands. As to the centralization of schools and transportation of pupils, there is much to be said. It is a part of the solution of the great rural-school problem, and a very important part. It has great possibilities. Centrali- zation of schools means the closing of the small separate country schools and the gathering of the children of a township into commodious struc- tures usually located near the center of the township. It also means the transportation of the pupils to the schools in comfortable conveyances. This phase of the country-school problem is provoking at present a great deal of serious discussion. A score of states now have laws touching this subject, most of them permissive in character. The first law on the subject was passed by Massachusetts in 1869. The practice of transporting pupils at public expense had been in vogue for some years prior to that date, but it was not until 1869 that definite legislative sanction was accorded to the movement. Other New England, Administration] CENTRALIZATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 807 western, and northwestern states have followed in giving it legislative sanction. Some opposition has been met ; some still exists. But the movement has grown to be general in character. That I may not speak unadvis- edly or in lavish terms, I have deemed it best to speak by way of illustra- tion of that movement in connection with my own state, as the history of Ohio is but the history of the movement elsewhere. And I know you will pardon the characteristic modesty of an Ohio man, as he seeks to give the "Ohio idea," now happily worked out in our midst, and in successful operation in many of our townships. As early as the year 1872 centralization was discussed in some of the Western Reserve counties of northeastern Ohio. On p. 163 of Hon. Thomas W. Harvey's report of the school commissioner's department for the year 1872 there will be found the suggestion made by Mr. H. U. Johnson, one of the county school examiners for Ashtabula county, in the following vigorous recommendations : That something must be done soon by way of re districting the townships, or for providing for centralization of the schools in northern Ohio, is apparent to every careful observer. Our townships have from six to nine sub-districts, and very many of these schools are run, during the summer months, with from three to eight scholars. The winter schools are proportionately small. With this state of affairs, no person can create any great deal of enthusiasm in his school work, and the authorities do not feel that they can pay the wages that qualified teachers demand. As a result, all parties suffer. I am satisfied that some method of collecting the children of our rural districts should be devised by which they can all have the advantages of the graded school. Again, our school law should provide help for academies and seminaries in those communities where such schools are located, by allowing the people to tax themselves for that purpose. For a long time to come there will be a demand for the work done in this class of schools, and yet, as matters now stand, the remuneration is not adequate to the labor required. Discussions of various kinds were indulged in for some years follow- ing. The conviction that the per capita cost was too great in many of the districts was clearly recognized. The small daily attendance pre- vented interest and enthusiasm. Many schools were inefficient. Finally, in 1892, just twenty years after the pertinent suggestion of Mr. Johnson was written, the real work of centralization was actually begun in Kings- ville, Ashtabula county. The Kingsville township board of education, being confronted with the necessity of providing a new school building, boldly undertook to test the practicability of their convictions by provid- ing transportation of pupils to a neighboring school. Their schools were small ; the per capita expense was unduly large. The new plan was therefore given a trial, and their pupils were transported to a neigh- boring village. The success of the plan was manifest from the beginning, but its legality was questioned. Accordingly, a special measure was introduced in the general assembly providing for the costs of transportation, and it became a law 8o8 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [ School April 17, 1894. The measure applied only to Kingsville township, Ash- tabula county, and reads as follows : Section i. Be it enacted by the general assembly of the state of Ohio, That any board of education in any township which by the federal census of 1890 had a population not less than 1,710 nor more than 1,715, of any county which by the same census had not less than 43,650 nor more than 43,660 inhabitants, may, at their discretion, appropriate funds, derived from the school tax levy of said township, for the conveyance of pupils in sub-districts from their homes to the high school of said township. Provided, such appropriation for any sub-district shall not exceed the amount necessary, in the judg- ment of the board, for the maintenance of a teacher in such sub-district, for the same period of time. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. You will perceive how intimately the high school was associated with this first bill providing for centralization. It is gratifying to note that the complete system thus installed has, in a measure, set the pace for many other districts of the state. After ten years of successful experience it is also a pleasure to report that the people are thoroly satisfied, and still adhere to their original conception of graded instruction for the children and a course of study leading from a primary department to a high school under their own management and control. In time the leaven spread. Other counties and townships of north- eastern Ohio became interested, and in 1896, in the next succeeding gen- eral assembly, a second bill on centralization was passed, known as H. F. 830, and was for the relief of the counties of Stark, Ashtabula, and Por- tage. The wording of that measure is as follows : Section i. Be it enacted by the general assembly of the state of Ohio, That the board of education of any township district situated in the counties of Stark, Ashtabula, and Portage may, when in its opinion it will be for the best interest of the pupils in any sub-district, suspend the school in such sub-district and provide for the conveyance of said pupils to such other district or districts as may be convenient for them, the cost of such conveyance to be paid out of the contingent fund of said district ; provided, the board of any special school district in any county mentioned above may provide for the conveyance of pupils out of contingent funds the same as township districts aforesaid. Sec 2. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. Your attention is called to the provision of this bill which permits special districts, as well as township districts, to provide for conveyance of pupils out of the contingent funds at their disposal. You will notice also the provision whereby the board of education is to become the judge of the matter. It is not necessary to refer the question to the people for a vote. The board decides that question for the district. Another two-year period followed, and again the general assembly of Ohio was in session. Such was the success of the measure for the counties of northeastern Ohio that the demand was general for a law which would apply to the entire commonwealth. Accordingly we find that the general assembly on April 5, 1898, passed a bill amending section 3921 of the Revised Statutes so as to give Administration] CENTRALIZATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 809 to any township board the right to suspend any school where it was deemed necessary and provide transportation for the pupils. This very important law reads as follows : Section 3921. A map of each township district shall be prepared by the board, as often as it may be necessary, in which shall be designated the numbers and boundaries of the sub-districts thereof ; the board may at any regular session increase or diminish the number or change the boundaries of sub-districts, or may, when in its opinion it will be for the best interests of the pupils in any sub-district, suspend the school in such sub-district, and shall provide for the conveyance of said pupils to such other district or districts as may be most convenient for them, the cost of such conveyance to be paid out of the contingent fund of said district ; and any such sub-district which may be estab- lished by act of the general assembly shall be governed by the provisions of this title, except that it cannot be changed or consolidated by the board within three years after its formation, unless the written consent of two-thirds of the electors residing in the terri- tory affected by such change is obtained. Sec. 2. That section 3921 of the Revised Statutes of Ohio be, and the same is hereby, repealed ; and this act shall take effect upon its passage. Under the general provisions of this law twenty- three townships are reported as being centralized, and I am satisfied that many more are par- tially centralized — how many I am unable to say, owing to imperfect reports. In the session of the general assembly of 1900 another general law bearing on centralization was passed. It does not in any way modify the section just quoted, but it permits a different style of centralization ; and already several townships have taken advantage of its provisions. In substance the law of 1900 defines "centralization" as being a sys- tem of schools in a township providing for the abolishment of all sub- districts and the conveyance of pupils to one or more central schools. By its terms it permits the township board of education to submit the question of centralization to a vote of the electors of the township, and upon the petition of one-fourth of the electors the board must submit the ques- tion to a vote. Methods for providing a new central school building are outlined, a graded course of study is required, and permission for a township high school is given. One of the noteworthy provisions is the abolition of the boards of sub-directors and the election of a township board of five persons elected at large, the township clerk and treasurer acting ex officio as clerk and treasurer. This composition of the board will prevent deadlocks. In so far as applicable, the village school laws of the state are to govern the schools, and said laws by common consent are among the best we have on our statute books. Already several townships have arranged to place their schools under this new law, and inquiries recently sent out bring three replies, which follow : 1. We are very favorably impressed; we expect better schools. 2. It gives satisfaction. 3. It works very satisfactorily. 8lO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School Now, in a general way let me summarize the conclusions reached by correspondence in Ohio and in other states. No attempt at accurate statistics is made. There is too much detail, and this is not the time or place to give figures. A committee of careful and judicious educators appointed by the National Educational Association can get much valu- able information by compiling available material gathered from all the states of the union. Ohio will contribute its full share ; so will Massachu- setts, Indiana, and many other states. The movement toward centralization is generally approved in farmers' conventions and by the Grange. The farmers of America wish their children to be well educated, and once thoroly convinced of the prac- ticability of the new movement they will give it a fair trial and respond to all demands put upon them. In closing let me summarize : i. Centralization encourages the growth of high schools, thereby giving the country boys and girls an equal opportunity of receiving advanced training with those that live in cities and villages. 2. Centralization encourages supervision and inspection of all work done; thereby encouraging definiteness of aim and securing full return for money spent. 3. It permits better grading and classification. 4. It encourages an enrichment of the work, often giving to the pupi's of the township music, drawing, and other special branches under special teachers elected by the township board of education. 5. It fosters township libraries and provides ready means for the dis- tribution of good literature to both young and old. 6. It invariably insures better teaching, and generally it brings to the teacher more and longer terms of employment. 7. It invariably operates to keep the larger boys and girls in school, when otherwise they would be content with meager preparation for life. 8. It brings to the people of a township a certain community of feel- ing, a certain companionship and charity, which otherwise would hardly be possible. Sectarian and political differences are not so noticeable under the new as under the old regime. The people get better aquainted ; and frequently the same wagons which transport the children to school in the daytime will at night transport their parents to lectures, concerts, and other social gatherings. 9. The improvement in apparatus, laboratories, charts, blackboards, desks, furniture, heating apparatus, toilet arrangements, and matters of like kind is quite apparent. The board of education having but one building to paint, or shingle, or repair, naturally also there is saved much current expense. 10. The school attendance is invariably much more regular, is of longer continuance, and teachers are very little annoyed with truancy and tardiness. Administration] SCHOOLROOM TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 8ll ii. The cost of maintaining the school, including transportation, differs according to local conditions, and reports are made sometimes showing more expense than under the old plan, and sometimes less. One of my enthusiastic friends reports that he would rather have one month under the new conditions for his children than a year of the old. 12. The health and morals of the children usually are guarded better by the new method than by the old ; the children are happier ; they are better taught, and the people get larger returns for their money. SCHOOLROOM TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE, EDITOR "AMERICAN SCHOOL BOARD JOURNAL," MILWAUKEE, WIS. We have reached a period where the schoolhouse has become more than a mere gathering center or a shelter against the elements. We have come to recognize that its very walls are a factor in the educational growth of the child. We regulate its appointments in order that they may bear the largest educative influence upon the inmates, and also protect their physical welfare as a prerequisite to intellectual advancement. Until a few years ago the essentials of a schoolhouse were few. Today we discriminate among a variety of systems of heating devised by able engineers. Ventilation has been reduced to an exact science. Schoolroom lighting is thoroly understood and correctly applied. In drawing comparisons between the old and the new schoolhouse some school-board members are apt to lapse into the belief that the crude structure of former days, with its meager equipment, will suffice for today. Others reason that the modern schoolhouse is too expensive. One might as well argue that the wooden plowshare of ancient times will serve as well as the steel plow of today, or that a tallow candle will shed as much radiance as an electric light. The boy of today requires a better mental equipment for the battle of life than did his forefathers. The general progress in all lines of human activity will make greater demands upon the young man of the future. Thus, not only the modern school, with its well-devised courses of study and educational methods, but the schoolhouse as well, is the result of advanced conditions. One of the peculiar features which have developed in my inquiry on temperature regulation in schoolhouses is the tendency to confound it with another subject. It would seem unnecessary to explain that heat regulation pertains entirely to a system by which temperature is con- trolled against excessive heat or excessive cold! It would seem equally unnecessary to explain specifically that ventilation pertains to the induc- tion of fresh air and the removal of foul air. While everyone knows this, we find many school officials who do not 8l2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School differentiate temperature regulation from ventilation. No doubt, if asked point blank to define the difference between temperature regulation and ventilation, a correct answer would be received in each instance. It is not ignorance, but thoughtlessness, that causes the misconception. It is one thing to provide a class-room constantly with fresh air ; it is an entirely different thing so to regulate the air that it is neither too warm nor too cold. Thus, let us bear in mind the wide difference between ventilation and temperature regulation. A discussion of the subject of temperature regulation can only result in beneficial results. If school officials have hitherto occupied their minds with the various kinds of heating systems to the exclusion of tem- perature regulation, it is because the latter has not been urged upon them with any considerable pressure. Busy men — busy in their several vocations in life — do not always find it convenient to give the time necessary for a thoro study of all the things that ought to go into or about a schoolhouse. In the modern schoolhouse artificial heat need no longer be meas- ured out extravagantly or penuriously to discomfort or danger. It can be placed under automatic control by simple devices — insuring economy and protecting the health of the pupils. An even temperature at a certain degree is conducive to the growth of plant and animal life. Vegetable and animal foods owe their pro- longed preservation to an even temperature. An apple picked in October of last year and found in fine flavor and juice in the month of June this year owes its wonderful preservation to nothing else than an even temperature. The qualities of the apple have been prolonged by the control of natural elements. In the same manner has the growth of .the strawberry which reaches the market in the month of January been hastened by surrounding it with a temperate atmos- phere. Temperature extremes hasten the death of both plant and animal life. It may be claimed that a variation of temperature is conducive to hardi- hood. Under certain conditions, yes. A child may withstand extreme cold while engaged in healthful exercise. Under certain conditions extreme heat may be borne without injurious effects. When the body, however, is inactive, a variable temperature is harmful. Thus an over- heated as well as an under-heated schoolroom may do incalculable injury to the child. The automatic control of schoolroom temperature involves primarily the question of finance. The great majority of schoolhouses in the United States require artificial heating during seven months in the year. The fuel expense in cities and towns, where large buildings must con- stantly be kept warm, is a heavy one. The consumption of fuel is steady and constant during certain periods of the year — continuing year after Administration] SCHOOLROOM TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 813 year. Thus any slight daily reduction in fuel consumption may prove a considerable saving at the end of a month or a year. The saving of a few hundred dollars in the purchase of a school site or the erection of a school building offers no comparison with the aggregate saving accom- plished in a daily reduction of the fuel expense. Every degree of excess heat represents that much waste. Temperature regulation in the schoolroom, however, is a simple proposition. It requires no expert mathematician to measure its material advantage, nor a medical expert to determine its hygienic qualities. A few things only need be considered. If the outdoor temperature is fifty" degrees, and the school temperature should be seventy degrees, only twenty degrees of artificial heat is required to make the schoolroom comfortable. Consequently the fuel expenditure should cover twenty degrees only. That which goes above this is waste, and consequently extravagance. An open window to cool off an overheated room is an unwarranted exposure of the school occupants to coughs and colds, which may lead to serious results. No school board has the right to endanger the physical comfort and welfare of pupil or teacher. The fuel expenditure should cover only the difference between the outdoor and indoor temperature. This may vary all the way from zero up. Variation may be constant. The most attentive janitor may miss his firing by several degrees of the temperature desired or required. In the forenoon the outdoor temperature may be forty degrees ; in the afternoon, fifty degrees. Consequently thirty degrees of artificial heat are required in the forenoon, and only twenty degrees in the afternoon. The janitor may anticipate the changes in temperature. The chances are that he will not. The surplus heat has either escaped thru the chimney with the janitor's aid, or thru the schoolroom window with the teacher's aid. A well-adjusted mechanical device would regulate the temperature from minute to minute without human aid, and regulate the fuel con- sumption accordingly. Even a few degrees of excess heat will make a vast difference in the aggregate of fuel consumption for the year. Therefore an accurate adjustment of fuel consumption must effect a saving in the fuel expense. The physical welfare of the teacher and pupil cannot be treated as a secondary consideration. In fact, if it is admitted at all that hygiene is a factor in schoolroom temperature, it follows that it is one that must pre- clude monetary considerations. Therefore, if a system of temperature regulation will effect an actual saving in dollars and cents, sufficient to pay its installment in a few years, the advantage is a double one. Were this not the case, the hygienic proposition involved would alone be sufficient to warrant a recognition of the advantage derived from a heat- regulating device. The subject of atmospheric humidity, or air moisture, and its relation 814 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School to health has thus far received little or no attention at the hands of school authorities. While the subject is an important one, but few data have been collected. The scientists who have entered this field of investigation contend, however, that for certain classes of invalids the degree of humidity of the atmosphere is of more consequence than the variability of temperature, no matter how sudden or sharp the variation may be. Yet it is held that medical literature is almost entirely lacking in a scientific explanation of the effect of the different degrees of humidity upon the animal economy. Dr. W. M. Wilson, director of the United States Weather Bureau, who has given the subject careful study, says : It is safe to assume that during the winter months the normal relative humidity in lake cities is 72 per cent., and the average diurnal range is from 60 to 72 per cent. From observations with respect to moisture in business offices and living-rooms heated by steam, hot water, and hot air, it is safe to assume that the average relative humidity in artificially heated dwellings and offices in the winter months is about 30 per cent., or about 42 per cent, less than the average outside humidity, and drier than the driest climate known. The evaporative power of the air at a relative humidity of 30 per cent, is very great, and when the tissues and delicate membranes of the respiratory tract are subjected to the drying process, a corresponding increase of work is placed upon the mucous glands in order to keep the membranes in proper physiological condition. Nature in her effort to com- pensate for the lack of moisture in the air is obliged to increase the functional activity of the glands, and this increase of activity and the frequent unnatural stimulation, induced by the changing conditions of humidity from the moisture-laden air outside to the arid atmosphere inside our dwellings, finally result in an enlargement of the gland tissues, on the same principle that constant exercise increases the size of any part of the animal organism. Not only do the glands become enlarged, but the membrane itself becomes thickened and harsh, and sooner or later the surface is prepared for the reception of the germs of disease, which tend to develop under exposure to the constantly changing per- centage of humidity. The medical authorities tell us that the "physiological symptoms of an atmosphere too dry are parched lips and tongue, a dry, feverish condition of the skin, and, in those chil- dren predestined to lung diseases, a hacking cough, resulting from the desiccating effect of excessively dry air on the lungs and bronchial tubes." A mummified and shriveled appearance of the human skin is caused by a dry atmos- phere. The ruddy complexion and red cheeks of English men and women are due to air moisture. The importance of aqueous vapor as a constituent in our atmosphere was not exaggerated by Tyndall when he startled the scientific world by the announcement that " the removal, for a single summer night, of the aqueous vapor from the atmosphere which covers England would be attended by the destruction of every plant which a freez- ing temperature could kill." On the economy of fuel consumption achieved by controlling humidity in the schoolroom I can do no better than quote Director Wilson again. He says : A humid atmosphere is economical. In a room in which the temperature is 72 degrees the temperature of the wet-bulb is 54.5 degrees. If a room with a sensible tem- perature of 54-5 degrees is considered comfortable, the same result can be attained by heating to only 60 degrees, and supplying sufficient moisture to raise the humidity to 70 Administration] LEGISLATION AND MODERN SCHOOL BUILDING 815 per cent., which still conforms very closely to the normal condition of the outside air, so far as moisture is concerned. It would probably be impracticable to maintain uniformly a relative humidity of 70 per cent., especially with a low outside temperature, as the con- densation upon the windows would be undesirable ; but by heating to 65 degrees the relative humidity could be held at 50 per cent, without any ill effects, except possibly on extremely cold days. Competent engineers estimate that about 25 per cent, of the cost of heating could be saved by holding the temperature at 60 degrees and raising the humidity to 70 per cent., still maintaining a wet-bulb temperature of 54.5 degrees, the same as that obtained by heating to 72 degrees under ordinary conditions. But to be conservative and avoid the possibility of any unpleasant results from condensation, our dwellings could be heated to 65 degrees with a relative humidity of 50 per cent., and still save from 12^ to 15 per cent, over the present cost. The question which naturally arises in a discussion of this subject is whether humidity can be brought under mechanical control. Or, rather, can atmospheric moisture be supplied artificially to the extent that it may be desired ? The need of a larger quantity of moisture in schoolhouses heated by artificial means is recognized, but the difficulties encountered in solving the problem have, it is claimed, largely deterred practical research in this direction. But here the triumph of the scientist must again be recorded. Recognizing that a humidifier is as necessary to a first-class heating plant as is a temperature regulator, the inventive mind has also brought atmospheric moisture within automatic control and regulation. It remains for the authorities who govern the practical affairs of the American schools of the present day to avail themselves of the modern appliances whose efficiency has been satisfactorily demonstrated. RELATION OF STATE LEGISLATION TO MODERN SCHOOL BUILDING C. H. PARSONS, DES MOINES, IA. One year ago at Charleston, in treating of the subject of " School- house Architecture," I made this statement : " Each state should pass laws requiring that every schoolhouse should measure up to a certain sanitary standard ;" and in the practical experience of the year since, as an architect, in the designing and construction of many schoolhouses, making a specialty of this class of buildings, I have become firmly con- vinced that no permanent, satisfactory solution of the modern school build- ing can ever be attained even in the most enlightened of our communities that does not comprehend the remodeling of state laws so as both to enable and require school boards to produce certain definite and specific results in the school buildings under their control. In discussing this subject before you today, I recognize that your actions and efforts to produce satisfactory results in the building of new NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School school buildings are controlled and regulated in each state by state legis- lation. I also know that most of you who are here today represent school boards of the larger cities, and that many of the difficulties of which I shall speak do not exist to the same extent in your communities as they do in smaller towns, villages, and rural districts. On you who know the value of modern sanitary school buildings devolves the burden of taking the initiative in securing the necessary legislation to enable all communities in your repective states to have the same privilege that you enjoy. The school buildings that our fathers built are not sufficient for our needs today ; the legislation that produced the schoolhouse of the past is not comprehensive enough to create the needed modern school build- ing of today. As conditions change in our evolving and unfolding modern civilization, laws must be made broad and comprehensive enough to make possible an intelligent solution of all arising problems. Occasionally in some out-of-the-way place, where the influences of modern progress have been but lightly felt, some member of a school board will say to me that when he went to school no attention was given the question of sanitation that is so necessary to the health and comfort of the child in the crowded twentieth-century school building of today, and that they enjoyed good health, too ; and then he thinks he has defeated by a statement of one fact all argument in favor of school- house sanitation, when in fact his statement has only called attention to changed conditions and to the necessity of their intelligent treatment. In the years that our fathers went to school the attendance was small and the school year short, thus leaving more than double the time that is now given for outdoor exercise, physical work, and the upbuilding of a vigorous constitution ; while we today have to accomplish this result by artificial means. Our children are confined to the schoolroom from eight to ten months in the year ; the rooms are not built larger than necessary to accommodate the attendance. In order that the present generation of children may have the proper supply of fresh air, it must be brought to them thru artificial means of ventilation. There are conditions existing in most of our western states that imperatively demand enabling laws. The conditions are these : The school population is increasing all over the West faster than the tax- able valuation of municipal property. In almost all of our western states the laws limit the amount of money that can be voted for the purpose of building a schoolhouse to a certain percentage of the taxable valuation of the property of the district. In some of these states the limit is as low as 4 per cent., and in these same states the assessed valuation of the property ranges from 25 per cent, to 50 per cent, of the actual valuation, and thru kindness of the assessor in most of the communities the valua- tion will usually be very much less than one-fourth of the actual value. Administration] LEGISLATION AND MODERN SCHOOL BUILDING 817 The result has been that, when a town finds that it needs a new school building, it finds at the same time that it cannot legally raise money enough to build the building that it needs. The result of this in some of the western states is that there are very few schoolhouses built in which the board does not have to violate the law in order to secure the bare necessities of the building. This condition is at the present time worse than it has ever been in the history of this territory of which I speak, owing to the fact that during the recent period of depression, or " years of hard times," as we are wont to term them, the assessed valuation of all property was run down very low ; and since times have changed and prosperity has again struck our fair western land, there has been no effort made to increase the tax valuation, while, on the other hand, material and labor prices have kept advancing, until today it takes from 50 fo 75 per cent, more to build a school building than it did during those years of adversity. The result is that a school board will go to some place and see a school building that was built in the years from 1894 to 1897 and ascertain its cost. They go home and decide to build a similar school- house. They should have just as good a schoolhouse, and in fact better, because we know more about building schoolhouses today than we did five years ago. They undertake to build it, and, if the old house cost $10,000, they find that the new one will cost $15,000 or $16,000. What is the result? The board has so many children to provide for; they must have so much floor space in order that they may accommodate the number of children. They go to work, and the instruction to the architect is to cut out every ventilating flue in the house ; to take off and out every provision for sanitation that costs any money; to strip the building of every adornment and ornamentation that goes to produce an artistic schoolhouse ; and when they have finished their reductions they still have to violate the law to some extent to complete it; and instead of a modern school building they have a house that is no better in its sanitary features than we were building twenty years ago, while in appearance it is a thing that the community and architects are all ashamed of. The board is not to blame for this, for they have done everything they could do; the archi- tect is not to blame, for he has put into the building everything and more than the board had money to pay for ; the evil lies in the law. What we must have is laws to enable our communities to build the schoolhouses they need. It is necessary, I presume, for state legislatures to throw around their acts a certain amount of caution. I presume that it is necessary for them to limit, to a certain extent at least, the amount of indebtedness that a community can assume ; but I do not believe that it is necessary for any legislature to pass such laws as say to a local community that it cannot be trusted in the handling of its own resources, and in this way entirely thwart the development of the public-school system. We need more NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIAIION [School liberal legislation for the purpose of enabling boards in the villages and smaller towns to supply the necessary facilities for the proper conduct of their schools. Taking up the second point, that of compelling legislation, I will say that we find in many of our communities the following conditions exist- ing : The architect will go into the town upon the call of the school board that is looking for plans for the new school building, and will lay before them the things that are necessary to make a modern school building a success ; he will show them the necessity for ventilation, proper lighting, sanitary closets, easy stairways, and all of those things that go to make up a satisfactory school building ; and he immediately finds that the board is possessed of a commercialism that prevents them from ever adopting any of these ideas because they cost some money. You may lay before them the necessity of the thing in order to preserve the health of the children, and it does not appeal to them. They frequently think that it is the foolish vagary of an architect that knows too much. Now, when I am describing this board to you today, I am not speaking of an igno- rant board. Such a board is frequently found composed of the best men of our most progressive communities. If you go into their stores, their workshops, their factories, or their offices, you will find them equipped with all the modern devices .of the age for the accomplishment of the best results in their special pursuits. They are in no sense ignorant ; they are men of intelligence and ability; they are men who, if they were building a house for themselves, would build it in the best way possible ; but when they go on a board of education, they are so conservative or economical in the handling of the funds of the district that they will not pay one cent for things that look like fads to them. They will frequently say: " Why, I have a good house and it is not ventilated." Probably in that house of theirs, with three or four occupants, you will find more cubic feet of air than with the best system of ventilation can be given to a school- room for sixty pupils. Argue as you will, lay before them the necessity of the case, and show that there must be greater provision made for the ventilation of a room in which there are sixty pupils than for one in which there are six; you cannot influence their minds ; and when the result is reached, you will find that the board has turned down the provisions for ventilation as being extravagant. The result is that when we get thru erecting a school building under the control of a board like this, they have a ruined house. The teachers cannot reach these men, because with them the commercial instinct is developed to such an abnormal extent that they look upon the one that is teaching school as being entirely impractical and incompetent to deal with these problems. Even if the school-teacher is well read and well posted on the subject of modern schoolhouse construction, and if he Administration] LEGISLATION AND MODERN SCHOOL BUILDING 819 offers to give any advice to his board, the chances are that the president or some member of the board will politely inform him that he has been employed to run the school and not the school board. The question is how to deal with cases of this kind. The architect cannot control them, the teacher cannot persuade them, and there is only one thing that they will respect and bow to, and that is the law. To meet these cases, we need compelling legislation ; we need legislation that requires every set of schoolhouse plans, before they are used for the construction of the building, to be examined and approved by some competent authority. The law should designate just how much air should be supplied in a given length of time to each pupil confined within the limits of a schoolroom. We need to have attached to this law fines and penalties in proper amount so as to make the authority of the law respected. When this is done, indifferent school boards and incompetent architects will cease ruining public-school buildings. These measures that I am advocating are not new, for some states already have them in existence. Massachusetts requires these standards for all of her school buildings, and enforces her laws by the police power of the state. I have now outlined the difficulties; I have at the same time suggested remedies. The difficulties are of a twofold nature : first, boards that do desire to build sanitary school buildings cannot do so for the lack of funds ; second, many boards that could build proper school buildings do not do so for the reason that they cannot be made to realize the neces- sity. The first may be cured by means of enabling legislation, that is, making our laws more liberal so that more means can be at the dis- posal of these boards, and in this way permit them to give the people the buildings that the people actually want, but cannot get because the legislature has said they cannot have them. Second, we want laws to pro- tect the health of the child in school while we are educating him for the responsibilities of American citizenship. We want these laws to be so liberal that the very least damage possible will be done to the health of any child while he is in school. We want these laws framed in such a way and with such penalties that they will command the respect and obedience of the school boards and officers that have charge of the school buildings of the state. Without this, failures must continue to be made, the people's money will be wasted, the health of the children will be undermined, and we shall keep sowing the seeds of disease in the rising generation, until shortly we shall be reaping a bounteous harvest of early deaths. I would suggest that a committee be appointed to correspond with the officers of the various state educational associations for the purpose of agitating the question of securing the necessary state legislation for controlling the construction of school buildings; that this committee be empowered to prepare practical laws, especially along the line of 820 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School compelling legislation, and to urge local state associations to secure, if possible, the adoption of these laws. There is hardly a state, in the western half of the United States at least, but that, with a very small effort, the influence of all of the teachers' organizations in the state, and of the state and local boards of health, could be secured to push and agitate this question. All it needs is someone to take the initiative. We are dealing today with conditions existing in the twentieth century and must use twentieth-century methods. These are the times of organi- zation ; individual effort counts for but little in these days. If we at this meeting make a start to secure the result of intelligent state legislation, we shall have made good progress on the road to success in the near future ; we shall see our efforts crowned with success in laws wisely regulating the building of public-school houses. THE VALUE OE TRUANT SCHOOLS MRS. JOSEHPINE AHNEFELDT GOSS, MEMBER BOARD OF EDUCATION, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. The chief value of truant schools is their efficiency in bringing under school influence and discipline those delinquent juveniles who, owing to the imperfections of the public schools, cannot be reached by ordinary methods. Every truant is a living illustration of a weakness in our school system. Were the schools perfect, there would be no truancy ; but they are conducted and directed by human beings with human frailties, and consequently have deficiencies. It is the duty of school boards to adopt a policy which will remedy such deficiencies as far as possible. They cannot be eradicated, but they can be reduced to a minimum. Truancy is an evil pertaining, especially to city schools ; and the larger the city, the greater the truant problem. In the country truancy is an educational problem, but in the city it is a sociological one. In the country the truant simply stands still mentally, while in the city he goes to the bad morally. Truancy is chiefly found in those overcrowded dis- tricts of congested population where the manner of living is low and poverty and immorality abound. Truants sometimes come from pleasant home surroundings, but such are exceptions to the general rule. The truant is not a criminal ; he generally has entered the highway which leads to destruction, but has not committed crime. To rescue him from temptation is a problem for the truant-school management, and unless it successfully solves the problem, it has no value. Wisely conducted, a truant school is an active ethical force in society. It is by compulsory legislation that society finds its truants and com- pels their attendance at school. The systems of dealing with them are Administration] VALUE OF TRUANT SCHOOLS 821 as diversified as the states and territories of the union, while methods are as different as the cities of our country. Thirty states, one territory, and the District of Columbia have laws compelling the attendance of children at schools. The required time for attendance varies from eight weeks to the entire school year. In many cities and towns there are local schools under local management for dealing with truants. Many cities have separate and distinct schools for truants ; others send them to ungraded schools, or to special teachers. Good legislation is a great aid for effi- cient truant schools, but their true value is found not so mUch in law as in the character of teachers who conduct them. As the glory of the American navy is upheld by "the man behind the gun," so the efficiency of American schools is maintained by the teacher at the desk. In considering truancy it is necessary to study its causes, which, in a general way, can be divided into five classes : physical and mental defects in the child; bad home influences ; poor teaching and bad management in school ; the cigarette habit ; and a desire to be active and do some- thing in productive life. Most cases can be traced to two or more of the above causes. All of them can be reached by good school management, excepting cases that arise from bad home influences, which can only be neutralized. It is little realized how many children enter school handicapped by physical defects. Many have defective vision, others defective hearing; many have defects of the spine and breathing capacity ; while others have weak muscles, or do not perform all their bodily functions normally. During the past year thousands of school children in the Chicago schools have been examined, and the record is astonishing. In many schools 32 per cent, of the young children did not have normal eyesight, while in one school nearly one-half of the pupils had poor eyesight. In those schools where the pupils come from homes of poverty the physical defects of children were more numerous and marked than among chil- dren from good home surroundings. Children with physical defects are expected and required by ignorant teachers to do regular grade work. They are physically incapable of doing it. As a result, when they are old enough to run away from school they do so, and become truants. More than any other cause bad home influences drive children to truancy. Parents are ignorant, itinerant, intemperate, and indifferent; and their children become truants. Children who do not have enough to eat at home are not brilliant pupils in schools. Children from homes of disorder and distress do not readily submit to school discipline. Some children have vicious parents, and are incited at home to defy school authority and break school laws. Yet more than all others such chil- dren need school training, and, if their needs are too much for the grades, they must receive their education by special work. Occasionally a boy becomes a truant because of poor management on 822 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School the part of his teachers. The teacher may be " a nagger," or may take a personal dislike to the boy, which he feels and resents. I have known good teachers to fail utterly in dealing with individual cases. Teachers are subject to human prejudices, and often unconsciously deal unjustly with their pupils. Sometimes a child is driven to truancy by his teacher. I know one case in which the teacher desired to send a child to the truant school because the child was older than the grade, poorly dressed, and obliged to be tardy each session — the age and dress spoiled the appearance of the room, and the tardy marks spoiled the appearance of the register. The cigarette habit is a pernicious cause of truancy which must be met with keen weapons on the part of the teachers. Fully one-half the truants of Grand Rapids are cigarette fiends who have lost vim and cour- age on account of the insidious habit. The best prevention in the grades is reading and talking about its evil effects ; but literature and lectures upon the subject should emphasize the fact that it wholly unfits boys for games and sports, in which they all naturally like to take part and excel. In some states there are anti-cigarette laws, which are said to be very effectual in eradicating the evil. All connected with schools can do no better missionary work than to urge anti-cigarette legislation and its enforcement. A few boys become truants because of their ambition to get out in the world and do something. They do not realize the benefits of school discipline in preparing for life. They simply see life and wish to partici- pate in its activities. Were such boys understood and rightly directed, they would not be truants, but good students. In a large city a truant school cannot be done away with, but, by good administration, its membership can be kept small. For the considera- tion of school boards the following are suggested as good preventives for truancy : first, a good superintendent ; second, good principals ; third, good grade teachers ; fourth, pleasant schoolrooms and large play- grounds ; fifth, something for children to do with their hands. The superintendent should be, not only a thoro educator, but a man of large human sympathy and philanthropic instincts. He should have an intense love for poor and defective children, and an appreciation of their trials and difficulties. He should not only possess all these attri- butes, but should be able to impress them upon his teachers and make them feel his sympathy and philanthropy. Such a superintendent saves many a boy from destruction. Much depends upon the principal in preventing truancy. She should be an experienced teacher capable of doing good teaching, knowing good teaching, and appreciating good teaching. Above all she should know children, their wants, their needs, their trials, and their tribulations. She should have firmness in dealing with parents, tact in dealing with her Administration] VALUE OF TRUANT SCHOOLS 823 teachers, and justice in dealing with the children. She should have sympathy for defective, dull, and evil-disposed boys, and, if necessary, should play the part of a friendly visitor to learn their home influences and lessen their difficulties. The best preventive for truancy is good teaching in the grades. The grade teacher must put in practice the policy of the board, the theories of the superintendent, and the directions of the principal. She must rarefy and clarify the policies and theories of her superiors before apply- ing them to her pupils, and must be intelligent enough to apply the right theory to the right pupil, or both pupil and theory may suffer. With boys tending to truancy she must have infinite tact and patience, and above all she should lead her pupils to feel that she is their friend and protector ; she should have more pride in saving one boy from the streets than in sending a dozen candidates for class honors to the high school. She should be a close observer of children, and quick to perceive their physical and mental defects, so that she can place children of poor hearing on front seats, those of weak vision in good light, and use special expediments for other defects. All pupils are entitled to recognition as persons, and should not be regarded as things for experiment and trial. The personality of a child is as sacred as that of an adult. Our public schools are made for the children and not children for the schools. Pleasant schoolrooms and ample grounds have a wholesome effect upon boys prone to truancy. This is especially true of schools in the slums. It is inevitable that children from homes of poverty should have a respect and love for beautiful rooms and grounds. The ethical effect of beauty upon childhood cannot be overestimated. Many boys become truants because the school gives them too many books and too little work. Manual training does much to keep active, energetic boys in school. It occupies both their hands and minds, and, above all, it brings them into touch with that productive and industrial world for which so many of them are yearning. It is reported that in Muskegon, Mich., after manual training was introduced into the schools, truancy practical ceased. No more delicate problem is presented to a city school board than the management of its truants. All the requirements for superintendent, principals, and grade teachers for the prevention of truancy in the grades must be emphasized and intensified in the teachers of truant schools. None but experienced teachers should be employed — those who in grade work have shown special tact and ability in dealing with the truancy problem. Truant-school teachers must possess firmness, good judgment, tact, infinite patience, intense human sympathy, love for children, philan- thropic desires, and, above all, an aptitude for meeting people in poverty and misfortune. No one should be employed in a truant school who has not an intense love for the work and a professional pride in its success. 824 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School The schoolrooms and playgrounds of a truant school should be made especially attractive. All that can be said relative to pleasant sur- roundings for school children applies with special force to those who run away from school. The attractions of the street must be overcome by the attractions of the school. Truant schools should teach many things besides schoolbooks, and have many appliances besides ordinary school apparatus. Every truant school should have a complete gymnasium and an attractive bath-room. A strong, clean boy physically is far advanced toward mental and moral purity. Military training and discipline often accomplish much good in truant schools. Guns and swords are attractive to boys, and the immediate response to command is wholesome. Games are helpful to truants, especially those whose energy and will- power have been weakened. by cigarettes. Creating an interest in games and cultivating the spirit of rivalry and emulation often restores lost ambition, and brings back health and vigor. Plenty of exercise will counteract, and sometimes cure, the cigarette habit. Football, basket- ball, baseball, and tennis are excellent tonics for weak boyhood. Again, a skillful teacher by taking advantage of the "gang" instinct in truants can successfully organize them, first into teams for play, and then into clubs for reading and study. Frequently a boy will do more for his team, or his school, than he will for himself, and will even put aside his cigarettes to increase the chances of his team winning in a physical con- test. Manual training is an excellent agency for keeping and bringing boys to school. A few months ago manual training was introduced into the truant school of Grand Rapids. The results are flattering. Some of the boys said to me : " We do not need a truant officer on shopdays ; we can find ourselves." Our Grand Rapids truant boys at present are having shop-work three times a week. Boys who lack ambition to study books are often anxious to use tools. Manual training is an efficient character builder, and can be used to excellent advantage among boys who lack self-control, to teach them will-power and to eradicate vicious habits. The general educational value of manual training is great, but even more important in a truant school is its ethical and sociological value. It is difficult to impress abstractions upon weak minds. The child with such a mind cannot comprehend his own inability. He sees no differ- ence between an expression of an idea in his own jargon and its expres- sion in the language of the teacher or a book ; but give him something to be made with his hands, and he will at once see the difference between the model and the crude results of his own handiwork. He is slow to see the relations of abstract number and abstract quantity in the schoolroom, but quick to see the relations of concrete number and quantity in the workshop. Attempts at creation stimulate thought and develop accuracy. Administration] QUALIFICATIONS OF A SUPERINTENDENT 825 The workshop cultivates both hand and mind, and reveals the weakness of each in its products, and reveals them in such a way that the pupil cannot help seeing them, and profiting thereby. He would not have been a truant, if he could have seen its evils, but the workshop puts before his own eyes the evils of waste, false representations, and broken obligations. He there learns to act in sequence and to work honestly. Manual train- ing is a great teacher of moral law. A truant school is of great value because it saves boys to useful lives who otherwise might become criminals. As an ethical proposition it is worth all it costs to save the boys. Financially it pays, because every dollar expended upon truant schools saves itself many fold in police, court, and prison expenses. The rapid influx of ignorant immigrants, the poverty and distress in our large cities, and the rapid increase of vice are trying our institutions, and our country is looking to its public schools for salvation. In them all classes meet, and there the evils of society can be assuaged. It is in them that our hopes for the future are centered. The public is realizing the value of truant schools, and year by year greater demands are made for efficient teaching therein. Year by year greater demands will be made upon the grades for preventing truancy. School boards can meet these demands only by employing and keeping good teachers. The best teachers of a city should be assigned to schools where they are most needed rather than where there is the greatest political pull. Taxpayers are beginning to see the ethical side of our school system, and to realize that ethical considerations pay financially. A city school system can have no better investment than an efficient truant school. It aids the schools and benefits the truants. It pays morally, mentally, and financially. WHAT CONSTITUTES AN EFFICIENT SUPERIN- TENDENT? ISRAEL H. PERES, EX-PRESIDENT OF SCHOOL BOARD, MEMPHIS, TENN. A school superintendent should be a man of mental and moral integ- rity, swayed by neither his likes nor his dislikes in the performance of his official duty; a man whose every characteristic breathes a present whole- someness and not a musty antiquity; whose every decision about matters in his province, if not correct or satisfactory, is, at any rate, considered by the most hostile critic as strictly impartial. The least suspicion of his mental and moral integrity in the discharge of his duty renders him unfit, if not fatally dangerous to the purity of the school system. He must have a broad and liberal culture. He himself must be thoroly educated. He is supposed to be, and ought to be, an educational leader, and this he cannot be unless he be an earnest and assiduous scholar. Without 826 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School scholarship and culture he commands neither respect nor confidence, and his administration of his high trust results in no permanent good to the system. He should be a teacher; should have grown up in the teaching pro- fession. By his character, culture, teaching power, sympathy with and comprehension of pupils; by his will, tact, study, and kindly and confi- dent bearing, he should have won promotion to the high calling of a superintendent. His position should be reached because of his recog- nized ability as a teacher. He should gain the top by earnest work from the bottom upward, as is done by the great captains in industrial and other professional departments of life. The superintendent should be superior to the teacher in mental power, culture, and experience ; if the reverse is true, there is a mal-adminis- tration of forces which works a positive injury to the public-school system and tends toward regress instead of progress. If it should be a recog- nized fact that the corps of teachers knows more about the art and science of teaching and the needs of schools and pupils than the superintendent, the evil results of such a situation are patent to the most casual observer, and especially to those who interest themselves in public-school matters. To quote, the superintendent should be "an educational expert who does not waste his time in mechanical detail." His supreme delight should not be in looking after school furniture, buildings, and grounds, but his greatest interest should be in his profession and in the science and art of pedagogics and education. He should be a trained profes- sional expert before he is elected to office, and his experience should not be permitted to be gained by years of experimenting and routine contact with teachers and pupils. In a word, he should be the master of his position in every respect. He should lead ; should be capable of increas- ing the efficiency of his teachers by reason of his knowledge and capacity. He should be a man who has done something for education, and who is known or is making himself known to the great body of high-class educators in the United States. He should be an authority upon some pressing problem or some educational matter of moment, and should be recognized as such in the educational world ; a man who is looked upon in his profession as a student. He should command from his colleagues an enthusiastic admiration for his ability as an educator and manager of a system of schools, and not evoke a smile of good-natured toleration. To this end he should reinforce his study by attending educational asso- ciation meetings. An idea developed at the National Educational Association meeting in Charleston in 1900, in connection with superin- tendents, was that they should attend such meetings in order that they might give ideas to others who are there, if they have any to give, or, if they have none, to catch an idea from those who have. This proposition was strongly advocated. The live, up-to-date superintendents of the United States are, to a large degree, the life and brains of educational Administration] QUALIFICATIONS OF A SUPERINTENDENT 827 organizations, especially of the National Educational Association, which indicates that the modern superintendent who cares to succeed beyond the dollar-and-cent idea must be a man who can mingle among men for the purpose of exchanging views. There is something inspiring in com- ing in contact with such men, strong and virile, and to hear them discuss in a practical manner the best thoughts on leading educational topics. It is proper that a superintendent in his monthly or periodical report should present the number of pupils in attendance, the per cent, of attendance and per cent, of tardiness ; but it should also contain matters concerning the educational status of the system of which he should be the vital part and which from time to time come up in the administration of his high office. The greatest farce on earth is to hear or read the report of a superintendent which gives the number of pupils in attendance, the per cent, of attendance and per cent, of tardiness, adding not a word about curriculum ; the advancement of pupils in character, training, and learning ; nothing about methods ; not a bit of original advice about the change, adoption, or rejection of text-books; not a suggestion as to the fitness or unfitness of teachers; not a spark of intellectual fire; not a quickening thought; not an inspiring idea; nothing but figures — figures up and down, all in a row. A superintendent who is content with such a report has neither capacity nor ability beyond place and pay, and expects to retain his position, not because of his capacity, but by reason of "pull." Such a superintendent no doubt looks upon a gathering of the National Educational Association as itself a farce, and would not deign to descend from his lofty self-sufficiency to mingle with superintendents who have been eminently successful in their chosen profession, who have worked, studied, learned, taught, observed, and progressed, and who have done something vital for education in the United States. The American School Board Journal, edited by Mr. William George Bruce, some few years ago sent out for discussion the question whether the superintendent should have full power and control in the selection of teachers, text-books, and curriculum, or whether such matters should be left to him, with a revisory and final decision by the board. I was then of the opinion that the answer to this question depended entirely upon the personnel of the board and the personality of the superintendent, and upon the facts surrounding each particular case ; that it was impossible to answer the question flatly in the affirmative or negative, because a large number of superintendents did not come up to the full measure of their great calling. But I am a firm believer in one-man power. I believe that the superintendent should be a man of such culture, mental power, and strength of character, educative fitness and managerial capacity, strict impartiality and fairness, that the whole educational part of the school system can be left solely under his control without fear, on the part of the board or community, but that his selection of teachers, 828 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [School text-books, curriculum, method, and management will be based on merit, and only on merit, and that the schools of which he is the head will, year by year, substantially and permanently progress. This is not an ideal picture. It is a situation which can be attained, if the taxpayers who work hard for their daily living, and to pay their taxes to support schools, will demand for the position of superintendent a man who is trained absolutely in his profession along the lines hereinbefore indicated ; and, for this reason, his election should depend on his fitness and the faithful performance of his duty, and not upon the past records in war or politics. These two considerations should especially be divorced from the election of the superintendent, no matter how much of politics there may be in the election of the school board, or any other municipal agency having the care of the schools. I take the liberty to incorporate in this paper the editorial comment of the Charleston News and Courier of July 13, 1900 : One man, for example, is made superintendent because he performed good service for his country in the war that closed thirty-five years ago. It may be that be could not write an English sentence to save his life ; that he doesn't understand the multiplication table; that he has no acquaintance whatever with the history of our institutions; that he is without the least executive ability ; and yet he fills the most important office in the country, because he must have a place, and there is no other office to which he can be assigned in the distribution of the loaves and fishes. Such men should be left out of the schools, and all such considerations as the fore- going should be divorced from the election when it comes to filling the superintendency, either of the county or of the city schools. A superintendent should be a student of political and social science. He should. understand a philosophy of the development of individuals, nations, and races. He should understand the possibilities of his own section. (Mendenhall of the National Normal.) If he does, he can make his schools keep pace with the social progress from the primitive community to the highly complex social organism of which we are today a part. To summarize : The superintendent is the life-blood of the school system. He is the main-spring ; he is the fountain. From him come energy, ambition, progress, life, and success ; or from him emanate a dull conservatism and provincialism, content simply to be pushed along by the general growth, development, and environment. The superintendent most of all should be a man of liberal and broad education, a man of mental strength and power, a man of the present and not of the past. He should be a man who is willing to and does take an interest in educa- tional matters, who is making a study of the science of teaching and education ; and no man should be elected a superintendent of any system of schools anywhere in the United States who is not competent from every point of view suggested, for it is he, as much as, if not more than, anyone in the land, who controls the destinies of the coming generations, and " his brains and morals should be the best attainable." LIBRARY DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION. — Thursday, July ii, 1901 The first session of the department was held on Thursday afternoon in the Central Methodist Church at 3 o'clock. Music — "The Violet," Mildenberg — by Miss Edyth Lott. After a few preliminary announcements, President R. C. Metcalf, of Boston, deliv- ered his address on the subject, " The Library Movement — What it Means and What it Includes." Dr. James H. Canfield, librarian of Columbia University, New York city, spoke on "The Public Library and the Public School." The subject was discussed by Mr. F. M. Crunden, of St. Louis ; Mr. Buck, of St. Louis High School ; President Metcalf, of Boston ; and Miss M. E. Ahem, of Chicago, 111. The next paper was presented by Mr. G. F. Boyd, superintendent of Schools, Kosci- usko, Miss. This was followed by a paper on " What the Normal Schools Can Do for Teachers on the Library Side," by Miss Irene Warren, librarian of School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. W. I. Fletcher, librarian of Amherst College, Amherst, Mass., next addressed the department, bringing a greeting to the association from the American Library Associa- tion, and speaking on what he termed " The Essential A B C of Reference Work." A Committee on Nominations was appointed by the president as follows : O. H. Bakeless, of Pennsylvania. G. F. Boyd, of Mississippi. M. E. Ahern, of Illinois. The department then adjourned. SECOND SESSION.— Friday, July 12 The meeting was called to order at 3 p. M. by President Metcalf. The first paper was presented by Miss Isabel Lawrence, training teacher, State Nor- mal School, St. Cloud, Minn., on " How Shall Children be Led to Love Good Books ?" A general discussion followed the reading of Miss Lawrence's paper. " The Place of the Library in Education " was next presented by Mr. Melvil Dewey, director of the New York State Library, Albany, N. Y. This was followed by a paper on " The Library and the School as Co-ordinate Forces in Education," by Mr. Livingstone McCartney, superintendent of public schools, Hopkins- ville, Ky. The Committee on Nominations reported the following names : For President — James H. Canfield, Columbia University, New York city. For Vice-President — Reuben Post Halleck, president of Boys' School, Louisville, Ky. For Secretary — M. E. Ahern, editor of Public Libraries, Chicago, 111. Mr. Henry Utley, librarian of Detroit, extended an invitation to the department on behalf of Mr. James E. Scripps to visit his library and art collection. The invitation was accepted. The meeting then adjourned. Mary Eileen Ahern, Secretary. 829 83o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS— THE LIBRARY MOVEMENT— WHAT IT MEANS AND WHAT IT SHOULD INCLUDE R. C. METCALF, SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. In a great country like ours, made up of many free and independent states, it would be difficult to tell just what is meant by the library move- ment, or by any other movement which is carried on by local authority and influenced by local conditions. In fact, the term has a different meaning in different localities, corresponding to the differing demands of the people. Perhaps we may say that the general demand for library privileges which has come, is coming, and will continue to come from all classes of our people and from all grades of our schools, plus the response which has come from the libraries themselves, has caused, and may be called, the "library movement." Those of us who have seen fifty years or more can easily trace this movement from small beginnings to the present remarkable proportions. We can well remember the little library of fifty books, or less, kept in some favored house in a convenient neigh- borhood, free to all who cared to borrow, to care for, and to read the somewhat dreary volumes which fairly represented the literary taste of the so-called better families in the town. I can well remember just such a collection of books, some three miles from my home, kept in the best room of one of the best families, and can also remember the awe with which I approached the sacred precinct, took down one of the precious volumes, and received permission to carry it home. I can remember when the little public-school libraries first found place in the country school buildings. So far as I know, these were the only libraries in the town, private libraries being then unknown in the homes of the farmers. Few people cared to avail themselves of these books, and no effort was made to interest the children in reading. The change in my own state of Massachusetts in this respect has been wonderful, and is worthy a moment's notice. I select a few passages from a report made in 1899, entitled Ihe Public Libraries of Massachusetts : In 1839 the Hon. Horace Mann, then secretary of the board of education, stated, as the result of careful effort to obtain authentic information relative to the libraries of the state, that there were from ten to fifteen town libraries, containing in the aggregate from 3,000 to 4,000 volumes, to which all the citizens of the town had the right of access ; that the number of volumes in the public libraries of all kinds in the state was about 300,000 ; and that only about one-seventh of the population of the state had any right of access to them. From the eleventh report of the library commission, published in Department] THE LIBRARY MOVEMENT 83 1 1 90 1, we learn that at the present time there are but two towns in the state without public libraries, and only a very small fraction of 1 per cent, of the state's population without library privileges. Time wiH not permit today a more extended statement concerning the library move- ment that has been going on for nearly a hundred years in that state. The large number of free public libraries that have been established by means of gifts from public-spirited men and women ; the generous sup- port of these libraries by the people, who annually vote large sums for that purpose ; the provision made for opening the libraries to the children in the public schools ; and the special arrangements made in many towns and cities by which teachers are enabled to draw from the libraries large numbers of books at one time for use in their classes — these facts speak loudly in praise of the old Bay State, and constitute a record of which she may well be proud. The change in public sentiment toward libraries has not been con- fined to one state or to one section of our country; it has spread thru- out the union, and is now one of the great educational forces of the land. The common people now look upon the library as a necessity — as a grand, free public school, which brings education to the very doors of even the poorest. There is a general demand for the privileges which the library brings, a demand which has met with a most generous and enthusiastic response from the men and women who control the library forces. This is the " library movement," and it means a general diffusion of knowledge among all classes of the people ; it means the cultivation of a more refined taste, and a general uplifting of moral tone whenever and wherever the best literature is read. THE SPIRIT WHICH INSPIRES THE LIBRARIES OF THE COUNTRY Twenty-five years ago I was invited to give an address before the American Library Association, which at that time met in Boston. The address was never written, but, as nearly as I can recollect, the question assigned was : " How Can the Library Best Serve the Schools ?" The fact that such a body of men should have invited a schoolmaster to help them formulate a plan by which the public library could serve the schools shows the spirit which even then inspired the work of the librarians of the country. This has always been the spirit of the representatives of our public libraries, and any seeming failures to accomplish all that in reason could be expected must be ascribed to other causes than a lack of incli- nation on the library side. In fact, I may say here that the greatest obstacle in the way of leading children to read and to enjoy the reading of good books has been those teachers who themselves have little if any real love for good books. The only classes of pupils that I have found in my long experience to be enthusiastic lovers of the best books have been classes in charge of highly cultivated men and women of unquestionable 832 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library literary taste. The libraries have been ready to help ; too many of the schools have not been ready to be helped. All honor to those, whether teachers or librarians, who have given a helping hand in so training children that they will love the purest and best in our literature ! My experience teaches me that the library movement, to be success- ful, must be directed toward the teachers themselves. The normal schools and colleges, where so many of our teachers are now trained, have a work to do here that cannot be overestimated. I commend this feature of the work to the attention of all those who are connected with public libraries. NEED OF INFORMATION CONCERNING -THE LIBRARY FACILITIES OF THE COUNTRY Assuming that a great public library is a great public blessing, we, as representatives of the whole country, ought to be familiar with the library facilities of the whole country, to the end (i) that the influence of this department may be felt in aid of the establishment of libraries where none are now to be found, and (2) that the character of those now estab- lished, but sustaining a precarious and unprofitable existence, may be improved. How can we do this work more effectually than by appoint- ing some one of our number to collect, during the coming year, such facts as may be had concerning the public libraries of the country, the number of libraries in the several states, their distribution among the people, the phases of work undertaken, and such practical results as may be properly vouched for ? Such a report, reduced to reasonable propor- tions, omitting details, and making brief suggestions of good already accomplished, if widely circulated thruout the country, might be the means of giving a wonderful impetus to this branch of public education. In Charleston, S. C, one year ago, we listened to an excellent paper upon "The Traveling Library," by Mrs. Heard, of Georgia, who showed us how a few energetic, public-spirited men and women can, at little expense, add much to the intellectual and moral progress of a commu- nity. The free traveling library, however, does not belong to Georgia alone; other states have for some years been using similar means to accomplish similar ends. It has taken strong hold upon the people of several states, and it is thought to be an important factor in the education of all classes in the community. This is only one phase of the library movement, differing somewhat from the ordinary, which might well find a place in the report just men- tioned. The best public library is that which most successfully leads its patrons to want only the best books, and from its own treasures satisfies these wants most completely. The library is a public educator. The library and the school are co-ordinate institutions ; neither is complete in itself, but each is necessary to the success of the other. What more Department] THE LIBRARY MOVEMENT $33 important work can we do in the Library Department of the National Educational Association than to show in the clearest manner possible the interrelation of the forces of the two great educational institutions, the library and the school ? Today they stand face to face in the land, each somewhat jealous of the other's claims, each timidly asking the other's help, but each somewhat fearful of the other's encroachment upon native rights and privileges. These fears must be removed; these jealou- sies must give way to confidence and respect ; these two great educational forces must unite in a common warfare upon ignorance. To this work also your attention is invited. NEED OF A TRAINED ASSISTANT IN EVERY LARGE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND PUBLIC SCHOOL A good public library stands for what is highest and best in a com- munity. An ideal librarian knows and loves books, and he will make any needed sacrifice to assist both young and old in selecting such courses in reading as are most likely to interest, instruct, and healthfully stimulate the reader. But the duties of a librarian are usually so exacting that he has little time to give to the instruction or the entertainment of his patrons. Why may not every large library employ at least one person of prime scholarship, and of excellent judgment and tact, whose sole business it shall be to teach the people what and how to read ? This result may be reached by the free distribution of suggestive leaflets, by familiar talks, and by practical illustrations in the library itself which will show how to find, in the books before the readers, some timely informa- tion respecting matters of common interest. Why may not the people, whose industry and thrift make a library possible, be led to feel that their highest interests and the highest interests of their children may be lov- ingly conserved by one whose education, whose social standing, and whose devotion to literature make him a fit counselor of young and old ? Most of our large graded schools, at least in many of the states, have small but carefully selected libraries. These books, if well chosen, sup- plement the work of the class-room, or they furnish the beginnings of literature for the lower grades, and real literature for the pupils in the grades above. In the grammar schools, history, geography, and nature study lead the pupil at once beyond the limits of an ordinary text-book, and collateral works upon the subject of study are needed to supplement the only books furnished to the pupils. The ordinary reading books serve an excellent purpose by furnishing material for training pupils in the art of reading ; but such material is too scrappy to lay a satisfactory foundation for reading good literature. The child must be led by orderly steps (1) to become a lover of good reading, and (2) to become a somewhat reflective and appreciative reader of the best books in our libraries. Such training will be successful only when the teacher himself is a lover of good books ; a person whose whole 834 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library nature responds to the author's thought, and whose intellectual training makes him appreciative of the beauty of the author's language in which his thought is clothed. With such a teacher the child soon acquires a love for the best literature, and he may be left to follow his own will in the choice of books. But many of our teachers have not had the training that would make them safe guides for children, and it is often better tc designate one from the many teachers in a school to take charge of this work. May we not hope that our school authorities will soon recognize the need of expert training of children in the use of books, and will appoint at least one teacher in every graded school who has special fitness for such work? NEED OF NORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING IN LIBRARY METHODS May we not also hope that all our normal schools will give careful instruction in library methods to be followed in the reading and in the study of books, to the end that all pupils of whatever grade may become intelligent patrons of the public library ? We expect to present to this department during the present session of the association sufficient evidence to show that instruction in library methods is now given in some of our normal schools, and some evidence to show that such instruction is having a salutary influence upon the public schools. If we can clearly demonstrate the need of what, in this paper, we have termed library methods in using books, there is no doubt that the normal schools of the country will heartily respond to our demands. But such demon- stration must not only be clear, it must also reach the people who make public libraries possible. I most respectfully invite your attention to this important matter. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS SHOULD GIVE SUCH TRAINING TO CHILDREN ASJWILL MAKE THEM LOVERS OF GOOD BOOKS While calling upon the libraries for all the help which they are able to give both to the school and to the community, I would not forget the duty which the school owes to the library. Building up large public libraries, filling the shelves with the best and most costly books, employ- ing skillful librarians and assistants to administer the affairs of the insti- tution when completed — all these will fail to make the free public library a great public blessing, unless the schools do their share in preparing children for a wise use of the treasures which the libraries now so freely offer. What boots it to spend time and money upon expensive books and rare pictures, if one-half the patrons of the library want only cheap, sensational literature, have no taste for a work of art, and no use for map, chart, or curious manuscript ? Schools should be furnished generously with good books by the school authorities, and these books should be carefully read by the pupils under the direction of some accomplished instructor. A large saving of Department] THE LIBRARY MOVEMENT 835 time is made when chapters, and even whole books, are read in class, freely commented upon by teacher and pupils, and beautiful passages pointed out, carefully studied, and committed to memory. Much of the reading, however, may be done by the pupils at home, leaving the " read- ing hours" in school for informal discussion, and for asking and answer- ing questions by teacher and pupils. Children thus come to love good books, and to appreciate an author's art in the construction of his story. What better work can a teacher do for his pupils than to lead them on step by step, in their daily reading, until they become lovers of good reading, and then step by step, still forward, until a taste for what is best in literature is surely gained, and becomes the guiding star in all future reading ? To this plan of work with books the attention of teachers is most earnestly directed. Finally, we should heed the criticism which comes to us from, high places that we read too much and think to little. Dryden, in his caustic criticism of men and measures in the time of Charles II., says : But far more numerous was the herd of such Who think too little and who talk too much. Much good will come to the reading public when the best thinkers among our literary men and women work out and publicly declare the principles which should guide us in the reading of books. In this paper I have defined, at least in part, the so-called library move- ment. It is a movement which will be completely successful only when all the forces that have given rise to it work together in harmony. Not only are the library and the school co-ordinate educational institutions, working together for the general welfare, but the people themselves are a mighty force, now fairly aroused, and demanding a share in that training which makes for greater material prosperity, for a higher intellectual growth, and for purer standards in morals and religion. I would again call your attention (1) to the need of information con- cerning the libraries of the country, and to the work which they are trying to do ; (2) to the need of trained assistants in large public libraries and in large public schools, to give help to children and to adults in the selec- tion of books, and in marking out courses of reading ; (3) to the need of training in library methods in the normal schools of the country; (4) to the need of judicious training of pupils, in public schools, in the reading of books, in order that our children at an early period of their lives may become lovers of good literature; and (5) to the criticism, now going the rounds of the public press, that we read too much and think too little. I invoke your best thought to the solution of such problems as are connected with the library movement, and to a consideration of such phases of educational work as will make that movement a blessing to the people of this country. 836 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS JAMES H. CANFIELD, LIBRARIAN OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY [STENOGRAPHIC REPORT] It is well for those engaged in any undertaking to stop occasionally and take stock, to render an account, to make such observations as will enable them to determine exactly where they are and why they are there. We who are present this afternoon are connected with public libraries, and we are to discuss their relations to and with the public schools. It will be proper and wise to determine just why this system of education exists. Undoubtedly the fundamental reasons for maintaining public schools, at public expense, briefly stated, are these : The keynote of American life, political and social, is individual responsibility. In this country we do not recognize any class distinc- tions, in the sense that one class has the right to control and direct other classes, or is directly responsible for the well-being of other classes. The individual citizen is the corner stone of the American political system ; and he is individually responsible for the correct and efficient discharge of his duties as a citizen. Every man in the United States is born a policeman ; and as soon as he reaches his majority — even before that — he is responsible for the preservation of law and order. He is responsible also for intelligent planning and effective working in behalf of the com- mon weal. This individual responsibility necessarily demands individual intelligence — intelligence as complete in its mastery of all public and private affairs as the state can possibly make it. The state maintains a public-school system from absolute necessity rather than thru choice. Of all the elements working political, social, economic, and individual disaster, decay, and final and complete ruin, the most swift and terribly effective is that tool of the partisan and the demagog in all nations and in all ages — an ignorant and turbulent popu- lace. The state must insure itself against such a condition. Just as it protects its archives against fire, its courts against intimidation, its officers against interference in the discharge of their official duties, and its citi- zens generally against loss of life or property, and against restrictions in their choice of right of way, so it must protect itself and all its interests, its citizens and all their interests, against the blighting and devastating effects of ignorance. The state does not give free public education as an act of generosity — as direct and special advantages to certain individuals for their own benefit. The state maintains the public-school system as an act of self-protection ; an act grounded in the highest and most effective selfishness. The structure of government in this country — local, state, and Department! PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 837 national — constantly gives force to public opinion. The ordinances of a municipality, the statutes of a state, the acts of Congress, are little more than expressions of public opinion. Possibly it would be better for all of us if those acts and ordinances expressed public opinion even more clearly and completely than they do. The entire civil life and policy of the country is a reflection of public opinion. This being true, it neces- sarily follows that public opinion must be enlightened, if we are to get on with any safety, with any celerity, with any surety. Certainly we all desire advancement, and that our advancement shall be marked by these three characteristics. It is impossible, however, even to hope for this, unless public opinion is enlightened. The American people are their own masters — in all respects and in every detail of their daily lives. We know of no kings in this country except the American sovereign, who puts a man under his hat every time he leaves his own house, and who rarely uncovers unless he addresses him- self. We do not attach very much importance to the fact that certain well-known American names may appear in some human herd-book, or on the rolls of state or national officials. Pedigree counts with us when it gives a man a brain of finer fiber and eyes that are clearer and hands that are cleaner and feet that are swifter in the service of his fellow-men. Beyond this it counts for little It is doubtful whether there was ever a time in the history of the world, or a country in the history of the world, within which the individual citizen was left so entirely to his own resources as in this country and today. And we are our own masters for good or for ill, and must have this absolute freedom of choice — even to the point of doing harm to ourselves — or there is no real freedom of choice whatever. That this self-mastery may be a mastery for good and not for ill, comes an imperative demand for public intelligence as widespread as the public schools can possibly accomplish. The public school is today the most purely democratic institution in the land. Its doors stand wide open to the children of all classes of citizens : from the children of the great uncommon common people to those of parents who claim a much higher rank. Within the schoolroom there is but one ground of distinction, and that is merit ; and this distinc- tion is possible to all. It is a free-for-all race, in which only the best win recognition and renown. Certainly there can be no better means for preserving republican equality, in a country in which republican equality is the cardinal characteristic of citizen life. The state has no resources at all comparable with its citizens. Rich- ness of soil, vast extent of forest, commerce and trade and manufactures — all these are but the means which minister to the well-being of the industrious and intelligent citizenry. The state believes that great men are better than great cities, and that wisdom and experience put in the service of the state are better than silver and gold. Because the tendency, 838 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library at least, of the work of the public schools is to create these higher con- ditions to develop its citizens, the state favors the public-school system. It sees in that system great constructive power, which may not wisely nor safely be ignored. The conditions of a free and stable government are only to be found in a social life that is free and harmonious. We sometimes forget that society precedes the state, that the state is based upon society, and that civil life finds the excuse for its existence in the service which it renders social life. When social life is marked and marred by narrowness and ignorance and petty divisions and ignoble strife, it is impossible that the government shall long remain either stable or free. General intelligence and general wisdom, not with the few, but among the mass of the people, lie at the very threshold of all effective social harmony. Intelligence is the basis, and the only sound basis, of all industry. Some men are constantly assenting to the contrary and are talking about pupils being educated beyond labor, of the schools which breed a distaste for labor. But the undeniable fact is that an ignorant community is rarely an industrious community; while, on the contrary, industry and effective industry was never as widespread and as universal as it is today, with a schoolhouse with wide-open door standing within easy reach of every home in seventy-five millions of people. An ignorant people stumbling upon the conditions of life in America today could not possibly meet those conditions nor improve those opportunities. Only a highly intelli- gent people can and will be effectively industrious. Last — because of the necessary limits upon the length of this paper, and not because the subject is exhausted — public education is a con- tinual and effective force in uniting society. In countries where educa- tion is left to private enterprise and can be secured only by private expenditure, education is that which withdraws a man from his fellows, which separates him from the mass of men, which takes him out of the world as one who would live apart — a force which divides society. Wherever education is a function of the state, as it is in all democratic countries, there is a continual tendency to bring the results of training to the service of all ; to make culture a thing for the forum and the market- place, rather than for the cloister ; to throw off cap and gown and stand in apron and shirt sleeves ready for work. There is no force today in this country working so powerfully for the unity of all people as the public schools. The maintenance of a public library at public expense can be justified upon precisely the same grounds as those which have been presented for the maintenance of the public schools, and hardly upon any other ground. Certainly these are sufficient grounds, and afford an entirely competent and satisfactory answer to those who may ask us for the reason for our faith. Department] PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 839 The American system of free public education, therefore, consists of the public schools and the public libraries. The entire wisdom of this statement is seen when we remember that the average American child receives but five years' schooling. This is the narrow portal thru which men and women must enter upon life, public and private, in this country. It is absolutely essential, therefore, that the public libraries supplement the work of the public schools — along precisely the lines indicated above. This being true, there is pressing need that the officers and workers in both these sections come into helpful and efficient understanding of this common system, and see what can be accomplished by hearty and intelli- gent co-operation therein. The directors of public schools and the directors of public libraries should be in close touch with each other. It would be exceedingly helpful if in appointments and elections this matter were kept so closely in mind as to insure at least one or two directors common to both the schools and the libraries. It would then be possible to report in the meeting of one board the purposes and plans of the other. The board of directors of every public library should have a sub- committee on the relations of the library to public-school work, and every school board should have a subcommittee on public libraries, charged with the duty of frequent conferences and co-operation with the library authorities. The teachers in the public schools, and the officers and other workers in public libraries, should confer frequently concerning their common work. Those in charge of public libraries ought to make large and generous provision for (r) the teachers as expert workmen on special lines. The school authorities will, of course, supply standard reference-books such as are needed daily by both teacher and pupil ; but the public library should undertake to supply the teacher with many books which she cannot be expected to purchase for herself. Some of these willj be selected on the request of the teacher, some on request of the school board, many because of the interest and intelligence and expertness of the librarian. (2) For the immediate work of the child. There is much — not too much — col- lateral reading that can be carried by the children of the schools with profit and without overstraining. The administration of a public library will keep in close and constant touch with the work and grades and classes of the public schools, and will see that books which are tempting and helpful are within easy reach of the children. (3) Provision will be made for the work of the child after leaving school — projected along much the same lines as those set forth in the curriculum itself. As an illustration: it ought not to be difficult to maintain the interest and direct the reading of a child who has left the public schools just as he begins to take an interest in the history of his own country or in that of other lands, or has secured a smattering of the three fundamental sciences, or 840 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library has learned to read with pleasure a few masterpieces. If there has been practical and efficient co-operation between the teacher and the library up to the time of the withdrawal of the child from the school, such pupil will turn readily and eagerly to the library as furnishing incentive and opportunity to continue this work. School authorities and teachers should give especial attention to the library work of children, and should endeavor to interest them in the public library as an institution which can minister very effectively to their later growth and enjoyment. This may be accomplished in several ways : 1. Reference libraries should be established by the school authorities in the school buildings, and pupils should be taught how to use these readily and efficiently. 2. For supplemental or other reading the child should always be directed to the public library. It is a mistake to create special or branch libraries within the school buildings. These are only convenient while the pupil is attending school, and they tend constantly to withdraw the pupil from what we know as " the library atmosphere." It was Lowell who said the foundation of his literary life was laid in his father's library — "the smell of the leather," as he called it. It is of great value to a child to be daily impressed by the size of the library, even tho at first this leaves him with confused ideas ; to feel "the magnitude of literature and the vastness of its extent, by the number of books which he sees on every hand. The branch library gives the pupil little, if any, acquaintance with the public library as such, and leaves him practically a stranger in the place where he ought to feel most entirely at home. Every public school ought to have in a prominent place a bulletin board, giving the location and the name of the nearest public library, its hours, and a brief statement of its privileges, and the way to secure these, and the name of the librarian. Beneath this there should be room for notices from the library, special lists of books, and other information which will be tempting and helpful to both teacher and pupil. 3. Teachers should urge those children who must drop out of school to continue reading on different lines, the teacher herself continuing per- sonal and helpful relations as long as possible. I have heard of one teacher who maintained these relations with quite a number of more than willing pupils for more than ten years after the pupils had necessarily withdrawn from the school, in each case finding ample reward in the larger and happier and more intelligent life, and in the warm affection which sprang from a recognition of this unusual thoughtfulness and consideration. Much that has been suggested is not new to either teachers or libra- rians. Yet it is unquestionably true that of thoughtful, intelligent, and effective co-operation we have had all too little thus far. In a certain sense the public libraries are of even more recent growth than the public Department] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND PUB LLC LIBRARLES 841 schools. Of the possibilities of each, and especially of the two combined, we have as yet but slight realization. Yet we are all beginning to under- stand that they constitute the two most potent factors in the future of this country. Of this we are assured — given, a generation of children who understand the place and value of the public library, and there will be no question as to intelligent and effective citizenship. DISCUSSION F. M. Crunden, St. Louis, Mo. — While it will not be possible for some time to come to have branch libraries as numerous as is desirable thru the different parts of a large city, they are the final solution of public-library work for the great mass of the people. It is not possible to render the best service with all the books housed in one central build- ing, nor do I think that a branch library in a schoolhouse solves the problem. This makes the library savor too much of the school library, and its benefits will not be sought by the people who have finished, what we are accustomed to call, school life. Children should be early taught to look on the public library as not only a source of helpfulness open to them in their school days, but also an advantage of which they may avail them- selves in after-life. This they will do, if the library be placed in the school buildings. Mr. Buck, St. Louis, Mo. — It seems to me that the reading of the school children, particularly in the upper grades, should receive more careful oversight than is now given. I make it a rule to choose books of different classes of authors, and put them in the hands of my students to teach them to read, and to read intelligently. We meet once a week to review the contents of the book under discussion, and try to make an interesting exercise that will be helpful, without giving marks for the work. The second-year class in English literature should read Thackeray, Scott, Kingsley, and Dickens intelligently and enjoyably. This they will do, if they have been started properly in the first place, and the love of good literature installed. WHAI THE NORMAI SCHOOLS CAN DO FOR TEACHERS ON THE LIBRARY SIDE MISS IRENE WARREN, LIBRARIAN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO One who studies the history of schools and libraries will find much that is analogous. Educators call this the age of the child, in contrast with the early efforts to reach only the mature student. The youngest gen- eration of librarians can plainly recall glaring signs posted on more than one library door : " Children unaccompanied by parents not allowed in this building." Our fathers tell us of the days when a town of considerable size was con- sidered quite fortunate to have one school building, while today a town of the same size believes five or six schools, at least, a necessity. The public libraries, only a half-century old, are beginning to feel a similar 842 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library need of expanding, and are establishing delivery stations and branch reading-rooms in various parts of our cities. The public library, like the public school, has come to believe that the hope of the future lies in the education of the child. The modern pro- gressive public library has dedicated a room to the children. Nor is it a room in some dark basement corner, but a large, bright room, with plenty of light and air, attractive pictures on the walls, low bookshelves filled with carefully selected and beautifully illustrated books, and an attendant specially trained for work with the children. This year the American Library Association held the first meeting of a section formed for the purpose of studying the child's needs. A careful examination of the many papers and discussions on the co-operation between libraries and schools, from both teachers and libra- rians, would lead to the conclusion that the majority in both professions believe that a closer relationship is to be desired. Those who have thoughtfully considered the experiments of the teachers and librarians in furnishing literature to the children have drawn one general inference : that the teachers seem to be much better acquainted with the children and the librarians with the books. Each, feeling the need, has set to work, often without the aid of the other, and the result is that we find work attempted by the teachers which could be done much more economically by the librarians, and vice versa. Has not suffi- cient interest been aroused and preliminary experimental work been done to enable us now to consider some systematic division of labor ? There are two institutions around which community life naturally groups itself : the public school and the public library. A very large per cent, of the children leave school before the age of twelve. It is, there- fore, of the greatest importance that they should know where to obtain reading and guidance after their school period is ended. No one outside of the home ever enters as intimately into the life of the child as does the teacher. The child is compelled to go to school a certain number of hours a day for a given number of years. He goes to the library when he chooses. Therefore we look' to the teacher to inspire in him a taste for good reading, and to train him in an economical use of books. It is the librarian's duty and privilege to prepare the material for the teacher's use, and to be ready to take up the work with the child when he leaves the school for the day, the vacation, or for all time. If the preceding propositions be accepted, it is obvious that the teacher should receive training in the use of books and libraries. Two years ago this section, in a pamphlet sent broadcast to librarians and educators, recommended that every normal school and school having to do with the training of teachers offer such a course. It seems logical to suppose that the best appreciation of such work, from both the teacher's and the librarian's standpoint, is to be found in Department] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND PUB LLC LLBRARLES. 843 the normal-school librarian. His position gives him the opportunity of working with those from kindergarten age to the experienced teachers, who are all bent on one thing — finding the best for the child. His faculty is composed of specialists, who can give judgment as to the char- acter of the books ; the critic teacher, who can advise as to their adapta- tion ; and the child himself, who, with proper guidance, becomes the best of all critics and judges. It is to the normal school, then, that we may expectantly turn for the most thoughtfully selected and carefully tested lists of books for children. Several normal-school librarians are now giving courses to the peda- gogic classes with the aim of presenting enough of the principles of library economy to enable the students to organize and administer the average school library, use books and libraries more economically, and more intelligently advise the children as to their reading. The following is a brief outline of a twelve-weeks' course which was given by the libra- rian to the pedagogic class at the Chicago Institute last year. It could have been carried thru a second quarter with much better results. 1. The construction of the book, followed by practical work in the making of books, thruout the course. 2. Organization of a library. Preparation of the books for the shelves. Cataloging. Classification. 3. Use of reference-books. Dictionaries. Cyclopaedias. Handbooks. Indexes. Bibliographies. 4. Present relation of libraries to schools. 5. Children's literature. Many teachers do not know where and how to obtain books for their own and their pupils' use. When we come to sum them up, there is a surprisingly large number of institutions that are attempting to supply literature, which, if not helpful to the teacher in the schoolroom, certainly would be in the community from which his pupils are drawn. But it is only by chance the teachers find these. The normal-school curriculum should offer a course so that its students would know the present organi- zations to which they can look for help. They should know that many states have provided laws regulating the establishment and maintenance of public libraries and public-school libraries. A discussion and com- parison of these will bring out their virtues and likewise their weaknesses. The normal-school graduate who may work in the country districts should know that the state library commissions in those states fortunate enough to have such have undertaken to send carefully selected collections of books to the rural districts, and an application for a library from the teacher of the district will obtain one at practically no expense to the community. In some states the women's clubs are undertaking a similar work. The New York State Library loans to the schools, in addition to books, large and beautiful pictures. 844 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library The normal-school student who is assigned to the slum district of any city should know that the Carnegie Public Library of Pittsburg sends neat little cases containing about twenty books to the home of a child in the poor quarter of the city. The child is made the librarian of the collec- tion, and he and ten of his friends form a home-library club. A volun- teer visitor meets the children once a week, reads to them, tells them stories, and teaches them wholesome games. Each child is allowed to take one book home every week. In other cities this home-library work has been carried on by the library clubs, the Associated Bureau of Chari- ties, the Children's Aid Society, and various other similar organizations. For many years to come there will be a legitimate place in the educa- tional scheme of every large city for the home-library work. The furnish- ing of the books and their care can be done with the least expense of labor and money by the public library. The teachers can much more effectively name the homes in which they should be placed. This move- ment is at present a puzzling problem, since it is as yet hard to convince many library or school boards that money put into home libraries will reduce the number of truant officers and lessen the number of boys sent to the reform schools. Every normal-school student should know that our government is one of the largest publishers in the country. Its authors are men who are authorities in their subjects. A list of its publications is issued every month. Many of these would be the most valuable reference-books for the school, and are furnished at the cost of printing and in some cases free. The states are likewise publishers of books on local subjects. Some cities have published the results of interesting civic undertakings. Such sources of information should be known to all teachers. Every school in our country has a library, or is planning to have one. In most cases heretofore the school library has been formed with no thought of making it co-operate with the public library of the town, and an unfortunate duplication of material, efforts, and aims is the result. The normal-school student should be led to see that one of the first con- siderations in establishing a public library or a school library in any town is the possible correlation of the two for the good of the whole com- munity. There are certain reference-books which are in continual demand in the schoolroom. Such books and those used in sets for supplementary reading are a necessary part of the school equipment, and as such should be owned by the schools. On the other hand, if the student carefully examines as many school libraries as he can, and accounts of others, as they are administered at present, he will perhaps be led to the conclusion that the public library can more economically furnish the general collec- tion of books, keep them in better condition, and make them more accessible to a larger number of people, with less expense of time, energy, Department] NORMAL SCHOOLS AND PUBLIC libraries £45 and material, than can the school. From his study of school manage- ment and experience in the model school he will agree that the average teacher is already overburdened with her duties. The librarian has reduced the care and use of books to a science, which the world has been pleased to recognize as library science. In order to keep his library up to date the librarian must carefully study the lists of new books published every week, and be a constant reader of books and book reviews. He is therefore able to select the latest and, with the help of experts and bib- liographies, the best books on any given subject. If our normal-school students talk with experienced teachers, they will find there is hardly one but feels the need of a larger and a more care- fully selected collection of books than her school library is now able to furnish, in order to carry on her work successfully. They will find that many libraries are attempting to meet this problem. In Milwaukee they send a box of books from the public library to every room in every school. The books are selected by either the teacher or the librarian. In Buffalo they do the same, and have employed two attendants whose duty it is to look after the interests of the schools. At the Cleveland Public Library and the Pratt Institute Free Library they have fitted up rooms as attractively as possible for the sole use of the children. Some libraries have invited the teachers to come to the libraries and bring their classes for consultation of books. At the Carnegie Free Library in Pitts- burg the children's librarian has inaugurated a story hour, when she tells the children stories. She has also made beautiful large poster bul- letins, which are hung in conspicuous places, indicating good books on various subjects. All over the country we find similar plans, but all with the one aim — to raise the standard of the children's reading. A class discussion of the relationship between libraries and schools usually brings out the impossibility of using the library as much as is desired, because of the great distance between the library and the school buildings. An appreciation of this on the part of the teachers of the country might lead to a public realization of the economy in material and administration, were these two institutions housed near each other. The students are usually quick to see that there are certain principles in the schemes of classification and cataloging now used in libraries that they could have used advantageously thruout their entire course. They are at once interested in finding a way to help the child so to classify, arrange, and index material and references collected that they can be used with little waste of time and energy. A well-known sociologist and writer recently said that such a training as has been outlined in this paper would have been invaluable to him ; that he had destroyed material and often hunted days for articles which were practically lost in the great quantity of unclassified material he had collected. The card-catalog sys- tem has not stopped at the public and private libraries, but is rapidly 846 NA7V0NAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library invading the banks, railroad and insurance offices, and various other com- mercial houses. But perhaps most important of all is it that the normal school should train the teacher to to use the book itself, and teach methods of training the children to use books economically while they are still young. This may be begun by distributing one copy of the same book to each member of the pedagogic class. With this one book for an example, the title- page, with its information and the value of it, may be discussed ; the arrangement of the table of contents ; the use of chapter and page head- ings ; the value of marginal and foot notes ; the difference between the index and the contents — all of which would save the student much time, if we are to judge from our experiences with the students who are using our libraries. After the examination of one book the student may be led on to groups of books on various subjects. The comparison of the standard dictionaries, handbooks, cyclopaedias, bibliographies, and indexes will bring out the fact that each aims to cover a certain field. All cyclopaedias are not alike, and the teacher who has once compared them will not send a seventh-grade child to the treatises found in the Britannica, nor will she tell him to look there for the lives of living persons. There is no way so effective of impressing the student with these points as to give him practical problems drawn from his daily lessons, which shall be looked up in these books. Unless the questions given the pupils are drawn from their lives, they may have the interest of a puzzle to them, but rarely the permanent practical application to be desired. Instructors can be very helpful by encouraging their pupils to make annotated reading lists on the various subjects studied. The making of books is an art and a craft quite possible to the child in his constructive work. The tools and materials are inexpensive enough to make it practical in the average school. It is not the province of this paper to treat of the educative value of bookbinding as constructive work, tho much could be said for it from that standpoint. Its possible correla- tion with art and other subjects is doubtless plain to many. It serves to stimulate the child's interest in books in general. The making of one table of contents and one index will often convert him to their use as an economic device. A few examples of the best-made books exhibited to the pupils while they are working will raise their standard of workman- ship and tend to counteract an unfortunate overestimation of their own work, which some manual-training pupils have developed. In brief, the normal schools should — 1. Furnish carefully tested lists of books for children. 2. See that the teachers they send out know the best books on the various subjects to be found in the average school curriculum. 3. Offer instruction in enough of the principles of library economy to enable the teachers to organize and administer the ordinary school library in an economical way. DepartmentJ THE A B C OF REFERENCE WORK 847 4. Teach their students the book resources of the country, so that they may know where to apply for help, whether they be assigned to a city or country school. 5. Bring before their students the facts of library legislation so that they may be intelligent advisors to the people of the community to which they are sent. 6. Teach the students to be intelligent, economic users of books and libraries, and how in turn they may teach their pupils. 7. Teach those they send out to look to the public library as a public educational institution in the community, and as such to use it. THE ABC OF REFERENCE WORK W. I. FLETCHER, LIBRARIAN OF AMHERST COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. [an abstract] I am here as the representative of the American Library Association, which has just closed a delightful session at Waukesha, Wis., and my first duty, a very pleasant one, is to bring you the greetings of that body. Both associations are working together in sympathy, and now in co-operation, to advance a common cause, the promotion of intelligence and general culture. But I wish to say that I do not quite hold, with Dr. Canfield, that the public library as maintained at public expense is justi- fied (and only so justified) on precisely the same grounds as is the public school. I suppose we are all inclined to magnify our calling, and it has always seemed to me that there is good reason why a man who has occu- pied the highest positions in the educational world should accept, as if it were a promotion, a librarian's position. For the library's chief office is to minister to that which is highest in man, the aesthetic and the spiritual ; and its justification as a claimant for public support is, from this point of view, to be found in placing it in the same category as the public park, the art museum, or music provided for the public enjoyment and cultiva- tion. I believe it was Senator Hawley of Connecticut who said at the dedication of the soldiers' memorial arch in Hartford that he rejoiced that there had been this large expense for something that was " absolutely useless." One relation of the library to the school is in its helping to lift the school work by means of good literature and art into the higher region of the aesthetic and the spiritual. When Horace Mann entered so enthu- siastically, sixty years ago, into the establishment of district-school libra- ries, his argument was that the schools might thus be enabled to make, not only the minister, the doctor, the lawyer, the artisan, but the man, with all his higher powers cultivated, and not merely his ability to do certain work. Most of what we hear about the library's contribution to school work has regard to the distribution of books for reading. But there is the 848 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library other important department, which we call reference work, where teachers go, or teach their pupils to go, to the library to look up information on some subject, and this department of library work should be taught in the normal school by the laboratory method. I am to speak of its ABC. Only after I had arranged the three heads indicated by these letters in the order of what I regard as their relative importance did I perceive that it was this suggestive order. "A" stands for Attendant; for it is one of the accepted ideas of the modern library that there must be an attendant ready and competent to meet the reader's questions, and that the reader should go directly to such an attendant rather than be sent to the catalog. People often go into a library and say : " May I see your catalog ? " That is not the way to begin. Go first to the attendant and ask directly for what you want. If neither the librarian nor any other attendant is at hand and at your service, the library is not managed as it should be. But a compe- tent attendant must have certain apparatus by means of which your questions may be answered, and with which you may become familiar, so that you may often help yourself when this busy attendant is helping someone else; and this training of readers to help themselves is one of the chief ends of the attendant's work. My "B" refers to the apparatus which we call Bibliography. It may seem strange that I should put this before the catalog, if I had in mind anything but mere alphabetical order. But it is my conviction that bibliography belongs first. By this I mean that nothing can be so helpful in looking up reading on a subject as a well-made list of books and papers relating to it. For example, if you were wishing to read up the subject of Joan of Arc, you could be shown a long list of titles of books and articles on her, and perhaps a well-digested list which would show that some referred particularly to her visions, others to her trial for witchcraft, etc., and you could select just what you wanted. Of course, there are a great many subjects on which such lists cannot be found, but the number of cases in which they do exist is greater than even many librarians suppose. They may be found in encyclopaedias, indexes to periodicals and to general literature, and in many special books. As to encyclopaedias, a word of caution should be given. One is better for one purpose, another for another, and there are many special cyclopaedias and dictionaries. For example, I remember, some years ago, a teacher came to our library to see what she could find on mosaics. I was surprised to find that we had no book on the subject. Looking in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, however, I found a long illus- trated article on the subject, and at the end of it references to authorities, some of them being in our library. For another example : one of our professors came to me one day and said ; " I thought I knew how to use your^catalog, but I fear I do not ; Department] THE A B C OF REFERENCE WORK 849 I cannot find anything about Phalaris and his letters." Well, we have no book on the subject, but on turning to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography there was a good article on it, with several references to other books, one of them being Berington's Literary History of the Middle Ages, which gave just what the professor wanted. Our catalog could not show this; and it is just such cases as these continually occur- ring that show how necessary it is to have recourse to bibliography. In order to make good use of a library, a teacher or an advanced pupil should get at all these keys to literature at first thru the direct aid of the attendant, but should soon come to do without the attendant's services in most cases. My "C" is a double-header; it stands for two things, Classification and Catalog. I put classification first, altho alphabetical order would be the reverse. I do this because, as libraries are being more thoroly classified and readers are now often given free access to the shelves, the classification comes in as a better guide than the catalog. For example, one wishing to look up works on Napoleon in our library would better be shown the shelves, six or eight in number, where we have placed all the works on Napoleon and his time together. The wise attendant will "come to think in a moment, with regard to any particular subject, whether the first recourse in its pursuit should be to encyclopaedia ; to special diction- ary, as of music, antiquities, biography, fine arts ; to special bibliography, meaning that someone else has looked up this subject and left a record of the references he found (what a pity to grope around after those refer- ences, if one can find such a record already made !); or to the books them- selves on a particular subject, as on Napoleon, London, the steam engine, electricity, etc., using the classification in this latter case as the most ready and useful means. As to the catalog, which I have thus pushed into the background (it might be called directory, so I could make it my "D"), I have but a few words to say. My experience gives me an increasing disrespect for the library catalog as a means of doing the kind of work of which we are speaking. The author catalog, from which we can learn whether a given book is in the library and where it may be found, is certainly the one essential piece of apparatus. But I have long felt, and often publicly so expressed myself, that our subject catalogs, do the best we may with them, are of little value compared with bibliographies (using this term in the broad sense in which I have interpreted it); and I think we shall do wisely if we slight them and bend our energies to the development of the biblio- graphical apparatus, and to its intelligent use by readers, with the help and guidance of the well-equipped and conscientious and devoted attend- ant, whom I thus make the Omega, as I made him (or her) the Alpha, of this little talk. 850 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library HOW SHALL CHLLDREN BE LED TO LOVE GOOD BOOKS? MISS ISABEL LAWRENCE, SUPERINTENDENT OF TRAINING DEPARTMENT, NORMAL SCHOOL, ST. CLOUD, MINN. You know the fascination there is in watching a bonfire of grass and twigs and leaves ; how every little while, in the slow-burning mass, some point bursts into flame because the material there is ready. In a certain psychology class there has been a similar charm in watching minds take fire, first a flame here and then there, from reading Binet, Ribot, Romanes, or even Kant. As with the bonfire, the places which are about to catch can never be determined beforehand ; hence the interest of the watching. But there are members of this same class who borrow the same books and return them, expressing great enthusiasm, and yet they never catch fire at any point. There is nothing to do but to warn such pupils to let the books alone, not to read, but to live and think for a while, stirring up the damp mass Of material which is unfit for burning. They may lose every possible chance of illumination, should the warning pass unheeded. Books may bury a mind, and there is no more pitiful sight than the child of tender years, an infant Casaubon, pointed out with pride by parents or teachers as a reader of philosophy or what not. In leading a child to love good books, the first crime to be avoided is that of consider- ing the books first and the child second. The child is greater than the book, and the book must wait upon his needs. Considering the child first will save us from false methods of develop- ing interest. "Big books" read from a childish delight in praise for reading big books can only smother the poor little soul, if they do not actually induce the blight of intellectual dishonesty and conceit. Another wrong method is to force the child prematurely into a certain line of reading, as the historical, while the taste for every other form of literature is neglected. This illustrates the danger of over-direction. A healthy child-mind, brought in contact with a good, broad library of real literature, may often be trusted to select the best material for its growth, just as a healthy ani- mal gets from its environment only the food it can digest. The task of choosing for the child is ever a difficult one, as difficult as Holmes found the preparation of a list of books for the young westerner. "And he never sent his mental measure. It was as if he had ordered a suit of a Boston tailor, with never a hint of his length, breadth, and thickness." Alas, there is no tailor skillful enough to measure a child's mind, and we are apt to insist on outgrown baby clothes, or else on garments large enough for his elders, and fashioned in true grandfatherly style. This accounts for the misfits in our most approved book lists. Department] LEADING CHILDREN TO LOVE GOOD BOOKS 851 There is one general chart, however, which may save from gross mis- takes, a chart of the instinctive interests which culminate at different periods of child life. As the human body passes thru certain definitely known changes to its mature form, so the mind has characteristics which may be definitely determined at each stage of growth from infancy to maturity. There are other parallels between mental and biological development.1 "All growth is lopsided, accented now here and now there." If an instinctive impulse has no chance to gratify itself, it dies out, instead of being transformed into higher faculty. These impulses are transitory, and if they are not furnished with material at the right time, the opportunity may be lost forever, and full development of the individual may become impossible.2 The philosophy of education must be based on this genetic psychology, and scientists are today busy with its problems. The references which accompany this paper are for those who wish to examine authorities on the subject. The problem of leading children to love good books can rest securely on no other basis than this, for the native interests of the child at any age are his only means of reaching out and appropriating anything whatsoever in life or literature. This little psychological digression will account for the handling of my subject under an outline of predominating interests of three periods of child life.3 The age limit given is not a fixed one, as some children pass out of one period into the next higher earlier than the limit given, while others remain in the lower stage longer than the average time. Moreover, girls mature sooner than boys. CHILDREN BEFORE EIGHT4 These little folks have a natural appetite for the marvelous. With the rapid development of the sense-cells in the brain, there is intense satisfaction in image-making, and a great lack of comprehension of the relation between the images. Stories repeat themselves in vivid kaleido- scopic pictures, and impossibilities are welcomed. This is the time for 1 H. H. Donaldson, Growth of the Brain (Scribner's, 1895), p. 374. 3 A. Caswell Ellis, " Suggestions for a Philosophy of Education," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. V, No. 2, pp. 158-201 ; E. B. Bryan, " Nascent Stages and Their Pedagogical Significance," ibid., Vol. VII, No. 3, pp. 357-97; Nicholas Murray Butler, " Status of Education at the Close of the Century," Pro- ceedings of the National Educational Association, 1900, pp. 138-96. 3 Earl Barnes, "A Study of Children's Interests," Studies in Education, Leland Stanford Univer- sity, No. 6, pp. 203-12 ; Edward Shaw, " A Comparative Study of Children's Interests," Child Study Monthly, Vol. II, No. 3, pp. 152-68; Estelle Darrah, "Children's Ideals," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LIII, pp. 88-98; Earl Barnes, "Children's Ideals," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. VII, No. 1, pp. 3-12. 4 Mary Sheldon Barnes, " Studies in Historical Method" (D. C. Heath & Co., 1896), p. 144; Clara Vostrovsky, " Study of Children's Own Stories," Studies in Education, Leland Stanford University, No. 1, pp. 15-18; Agnes Sinclair Holbrook, " Fear in Children," StuSies in Education, Leland Stan- ford University, No. 1, pp. 18-22; G. Stanley Hall, " A Study of Fears," American Journal of Psychol- ogy, Vol. VIII, No. 2, pp. 147-250; A. B. Clark, "The Child's Attitude toward Perspective Problems," Studies in Education, Leland Stanford University, No. 8, pp. 283-95; Julia Gardiner Gayley, "The Classics for Children," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. Ill, No. 2, pp. 342-7; E. D. Starbuck, Psychology of Religion (London: W. Scott, 1899), p. 423. 852 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library myth and fairy tale, just what delighted men when the earth was young. Flexibility and vividness are secured by this unrestrained play of the imagination. Smother the impulse now, give no chance for fancy, and the realm of literature and art is rarely entered later. If the child does not live in the story now, words henceforth to him are " mists through which to see less clear." Three women past middle age who, in the unwonted leisure of later years, are studying hard for self-improvement, asked me to help them with Mallory's King Arthur. The son of one had been advised to buy the book by the professor of literature at his college, with the remark that every young man should own a copy; and these three women were studying desperately to find out in heaven's name why. It was like a chapter of Cranston. Of course, there was no helping them. If they had only ridden with Sir Launcelot and Sir Tristram in quest of adventure when the impulse was strong within them as children ; at the time when the greenwood, yea even the city lot, was full of damsels to be rescued and dragons to disembowel; when the front yard shook with conflict, as swords fell on grape-basket helmets and wooden spears dealt deadly blows! They would assuredly have played all this, had the story come to them then. They would, indeed, have lived it almost as vividly, while they listened to the words ; and so today they might have penetrated to the heart of old romance forever shut to those not admitted as little children. In telling stories to these children, one must take a lesson from the gloomy scene in the Shepperton workhouse when Amos Barton's "geo- graphical, chronological, exegetical mind " tried to present truth to the paupers who had not geographical, chronological, or exegetical minds. Children are like the paupers. They care little for place, know and care nothing about time, and all explanation and preaching is lost on them. A child's brain-cells once stirred by vivid images have no chance of having their energy called off by thought, so they respond instantly in a reflex arc of action. Action must follow action in a satisfying story with no stupid explanations of moral or motive or connection. Stevenson says of himself, even at a later period of boyhood, that "eloquence and thought, character and conversation, were but obstacles to brush aside, as we dug blithely for a certain sort of incident like a pig for truffles." Emphatic color, intense sound, either the whisper or the thunder tone, giant or pygmy size, any strong sense-impression, is delightful now. The fears which are characteristic of these little children need light to prevent them from lasting and becoming morbid. They add a wonder- ful interest to the tale you tell ; and if they are properly surmounted in the story, the child is helped to get rid of them in the most healthy way. The bears and wolves and tigers become very friendly beasts, and dragons and many-headed giants are so easily demolished in the story that it is a real pleasure to meet them. Some kindergartner must have gotten hold Department] LEADING CHILDREN TO LOVE GOOD BOOKS 853 of the baby of two who told me about a "kind and good and generous gorilla." The child is animistic and anthropomorphic. Inanimate things are endowed with life and walk off with a gait only properly pictured by Gellett Burgess' pianos and chairs in the Wonderful City of Ligg. Animals are loved for the human quality in them ; loved even more than people, for the child is nearer to these elder brothers of ours ; so nothing interests more than The Jungle Books, Wild Animals I Have Known, Black Beauty, and that dear little "Grizzly " biography. The nature- study book, no matter how beautifully illustrated, receives scant attention unless these sensible children wish to find out something about a bird or animal they have already observed. The child's interests center in the family. Books about children of his own and other lands are attractive. Primitive man interests him much, above all the Indian. Modern man lives too complex a life to be understood. The zeal for teaching patriotism often forces a country upon the little one who is still in the nomadic stage and as incapable of form- ing any idea of a state as a Zulu savage. You may remember an amusing article on the " Star-Spangled Banner " in last year's McClure. The obser- vation is remarkably good, but the author fails to see that a child under eight may as well sing My country tissuf the Sweet land of libaet tea, and think of " Hail" as Columbia's first name ; for an understanding of these apostrophes is utterly beyond his range. I suspect that the sole impression left of patriotic songs is an association with joy and noise, by no means valueless. Books about children are often selected for children's reading, with a total disregard of the child's inability to enter into the point of view of the adult. I notice that Kenneth Grahame's delightful Golden Age and Dream Days are advertised as good books for children. The tone of criticism of the treatment of children by their elders which pervades these and other admirable books for grown-ups is most unhealthy read- ing for the little child, whose instinctive trust in those around him is the root of his future faith in heaven. Beware, then, of the books which write about children, rather than for them. Even Field often does this, but Stevenson may be trusted to give the child -heart true expression : The shadow of the baluster, the shadow of the lamp, The shadow of the child going to bed, All the wicked shadows coming tramp, tramp, tramp, And the great black night overhead. It is well that someone can voice the child's feeling in the poem, for the love of rhythm is one of his strongest instincts. Ballads and story poems delight him as they delighted the simple audiences of the ancient 854 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library bards. Even a prose story "should run in the ears like the noise of breakers." This little child is not aesthetic. His taste is rude and barbaric. This does not mean that he should be surrounded by chromos, or read or listen to sentences that are not literature even in his primer or first reader. The effect of an environment full of masterpieces of painting, music, and literature will assuredly show itself at the right time, tho at present it is absorbed unconsciously. All attempts to call attention to it will fail, or else result in the moral blight which is propagated in a child's intellect when he is trained at this early age to say, " I love Whit- tier ; he writes so beautifully," or, " Mr. Longfellow has a very clear style." As for morals, our little child under eight is a veritable pagan in the concreteness of his theology. Abstractions, sermons of any kind, touch not him. He gathers his ideas of goodness and his impulse to be good in life from his associates ; in literature, from allegories and stories so simple that you need never mention the moral. CHILDREN FROM EIGHT TO FOURTEEN1 This is the transition period so puzzling to the keenest child observer, sometimes called the dark age. The brain, and indeed the body, is com- paratively sluggish, storing up material for the great and sudden demand made upon it in early adolescence. This boy is intensely practical. He has no use for beautiful fancies or sentimental tales. His muscles are aching to be trained to skilled work, and his interests turn toward details. He reads invention and travel and stories of industry greedily, to find out how things should be done. This interest greatly increases if he is given opportunity to work out the ideas he gets, tho you may find him a little dangerous if he must needs scalp the small sister or lasso the baby. The books read with such interest are books of invention and travel, books of information rather than literature ; but if it should ever be your lot to read Poe's Gold Bug to a group of these fellows and answer all their questions, you will dis- cover in these interests a possible avenue to literature-loving. But the boy has another instinct which leads directly to literature, the love of fighting and adventure. He wants a tale full of grim death and plenty of bloodshed. "Give me a highwayman," says Stevenson, "and I was full to the brim." This child is as far from comprehending church or state as was the child under eight, but biographies of men who have done concrete things are his favorite dish. Robin Hood, Richard the Lion-Heart, and the long list of heroes who did something the boy would care to do — these make literature which the boy loves. There is a nice distinction here which must not be overlooked. When Philip Wakem told Tom Tulliver stories, Tom liked some, but rejected others. " He had i Frederick Burk, " From Fundamental to Accessory in the Development of the Nervous System," Pedagogical Seminary \ Vol. VI, No. i, pp. 5-64. Department] LEADING CHILDREN TO LOVE GOOD BOOKS 855 small opinion of Saladin whose cimeter would cut a cushion in two in an instant ; who wanted to cut cushions ? That was a stupid story, and he didn't care to hear it again. But when Robert Bruce, on the black pony, rose in his stirrups and, lifting his good battleaxe, cracked at once the helmet and the skull of a too hasty knight at Bannockburn, then Tom felt all the exaltation of sympathy, and if he had had a cocoanut at hand, he would have cracked it at once with the poker." In the book good for the boy at this period there should be embodied in the incident which so stirs his blood, character, thought, and emotion — the vital truth of life capable of indefinite transformation in the boy's soul. But this is precisely the difference which marks off literature from sensational trash, distinguishing the epic poem from the dime novel, the Merchant of Venice from Dick the Highwayman. The boy will swallow either at first, as a child seeks a stimulating diet with no thought of nutri- tion. But a diet of the sound literature, with the unconscious digestion of good sense and truth, will soon produce the taste which will lead the boy to reject the poorer stuff of his own accord. It will bear repetition, however, that the literature you offer this boy will never compete with the trash, unless it has in it this element of vivid portrayal of the sort of inci- dent he craves. So much for the boy of this period ; the girl is a much harder problem, for she usually reads a more dangerous class of books. She keeps her love of fairy tale and fancy, and this should be developed into the modern poetry and literature which have grown out of it. She seeks the love story earlier than the boy, and will delight in Evangeline and Miles Standish, which the boy at this age rejects. Her danger lies in the vast body of sentimental, false, religious novels whose weakening touch on character often accompanies the woman thru life, rendering her foolish and melodramatic, and desirous of posing as a saint where she should be strong and sensible. E. P. Roe's novels will serve for a type ; Mrs. Wiggin's Polly Oliver is not to be trusted ; and many of Miss Alcott's are not literature. The only remedy to be suggested is to let the girl read her brother's books at this period, and when the love story can no longer be ignored, give Scott and Dickens and the highest class of novels. EARLY ADOLESCENCE FROM FOURTEEN TO EIGHTEEN1 This period is a critical one. Emotions develop suddenly far ahead of judgment and intellect. Art, therefore, whether music or painting or literature, is a necessity in bringing youth into its full heritage. Now, for the first time, the thoughts and passions, the realities of the great world • E. G. Lancaster, " Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. V, No 1, pp. 61-128; George A. Coe, "The Morbid Conscience of Adolescence," Transactions of the Illinois Society of Child Study, Vol. Ill, No. 2; G. Stanley Hall, " Moral and Religious Training of Children and Adolescents," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 196-210; G. E. Partridge, "Reverie," Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. V, No. 4, pp. 445-75. 856 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library without, begin to penetrate to the young soul. Very important now are adolescent day-dreams. In them are practiced beforehand the acts of future life, and they serve the same purpose as a preparation for emer- gencies that play does in its development of the child's conception of life's duties. The whole breadth and fullness of after-life depend upon the range of these dreams ; and the dreams are often widely influenced by the literature read. The craze for reading is a most legitimate tend- ency now; and such reading! Did you ever read as you read at that period, hungrily searching, searching for something greater than you had yet found, some answer to the problems that stirred you ; in breathless hurry, details skipped, description skipped ; generalizations, sentimental or religious, sometimes catching and copied in notebooks, sometimes skipped with the rest; worshiping now this character and now that; sure today that this book had solved everything, but finding life much the same to your great surprise — up and at the hunt again tomorrow; thru and thru the library, at a rate that horrified the elders, who could never see that reading is the main business of life, and all school lessons and home duties ought to be suspended, for the ship must "find itself" before it can be of much use in the carrying service ? , There are three fates which may befall the young girl or boy at this period, which are all to be deprecated. Most pitiful of all is that of the ignorant boy or girl, arriving at this age with no books for help, with ideas of love and marriage gained only from street and a low environment. The form work, the arithmetic, geography, and grammar of our public schools may well give way before the need of presenting these young people with noble ideas of the life they are to live, of love and marriage; for early associations in these mat- ters cling for life. Even if results are not bad, a narrow life without horizon or atmosphere is often compelled. Our public-school teachers, our librarians, must reach this class if possible. The second class have gotten trash, possibly vile trash, full of false ideas of life. They are the ones to be won by better books. The third are held in by some geographical, chronological, exegetical Amos Barton who considers it a crime to read a book for what you want from it, and wicked to skip or ignore obscure allusions. These instruc- tions carefully followed, and one classic read in this thoro manner will effectually kill all aspirations toward literature. People so trained always respect the classics, advise you to read them, buy them for their book- shelves, and are deterred from ever peeping between the covers by the associations of that aforetime drudgery. All this comes from a lack of knowledge of the early adolescent's growing points. He is just opening his eyes on the world and should be allowed opportunity to become familiar with it. The wider the range of his reading, the broader basis laid for detailed study hereafter. The more Department] LEADING CHILDREN TO LOVE GOOD BOOKS 857 he lives out the life of the race in varying experience, the larger the horizon he will command when he settles down for the close logical study that should follow. Only let it be wholesome literature. Let his mind catch fire at many points so that it be from a divine spark. Novels are for him that he may understand his own social life. Poetry is his now, if ever. Philosophy and religion dipped into, and the newborn sense of responsibility and the question Why? will respond to touch. He will not study history or science with delight in each detail, as did the younger boy. He wants to try his newborn powers of interpretation and learn only what it all means. He'll get back to accurate observation and detail later, when he finds a necessity of proof of theory or of new dis- covery. Let him try his new-found wings. If they are clipped or bound now, he will never soar far. PRESENTATION IN GENERAL If the interests of children at different periods are consulted and the right literature is at hand, the problem of making children love good literature is largely solved.1 But the presentation needs a word of sug- gestion. Man's power to get images from printed characters is a late acquisition. The human voice is a much older means of firing the imagination. Undoubtedly children may be best introduced to good literature by the story-teller or the good reader. There should be more reading aloud in home and library and school. The much-edited literature with its critical notes is often so handled as to produce disgust. If the publishers only appreciated how many children in our schools have been compelled to learn the lives of the authors and where they graduated and what they wrote, before they have been allowed to laugh over Ichabod Crane or enjoy Snowbound, I believe they would omit the preface on the authors in their admirable master- pieces of British and American literature. For inducing a love for litera- ture such preparation is as absurd as it would be to send a young man to study the family records as a means of getting him to fall in love with the daughter of the house. " I liked Ivanhoe after I got into it," says the boy. Begin in the middle of the book, if you can so lure the boy to read it. If he falls in love with that, he can be trusted to go back to the stupid preface. The abbot in Richard Yea and Nay did not like "to have his periods truncated," but everyone who tells or reads stories to children must learn to truncate his own periods, and to judge when to do it by the faces of his audience. * A little three-year-old sits beside me at every meal, allowed to come to the same table with her elders. She demands a pickle because others seem to enjoy them. The small mouth puckers and the tears come, » Reuben Post Hallbck, The Central Nervous System (Macmillan, 1897), p. 258. 858 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library for the sourness and pepperiness are against all her natural taste; but she moans bravely, "I like them ;" and soon, too soon, she will like them. No child in an environment of those who love good literature, if allowed to come to the table, will fail to acquire the taste. Probably the teacher should sing and should draw, but before we legislate in this respect, let us see that no teacher who knows not literature, and loves it not, is appointed to the charge of children of any age. A knowledge of children's interests and a love of literature in the teacher, and our problem is easily solved. THE PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN EDUCATION BY MELVIL DEWEY, DIRECTOR NEW YORK STATE LIBRARY, ALBANY, N. Y. New conditions bring forth new problems and demand new solutions. Libraries in some form are almost as old as the race. It was steam when the bobbing cover of the teakettle suggested confinement of the vapor, but how different from what the word " steam " means today ! The lightning on Franklin's kite hardly gave promise of the telephone, phonograph, cable, and wireless telegraphy, and other modern miracles. The chief factor in our new conditions is quick and cheap transportation. Rail- roads, trolleys, express, mail, rural free delivery, telegraphs, cables, tele- phones compel us to readjust our ideas in the light of new conditions and possibilities. One result is the modern library. The old education was completely revolutionized by the invention of printing, the real beginning of university extension. Once students walked hundreds of miles, perhaps begging their way, to sit within sound of the voice of some chosen teacher or to read some book securely chained to a pillar. But the volume which cost as much as a village has by the new process become as cheap as a lunch. The wisdom and learning, which had to be sought out with infinite labor, are printed and made accessible to the poorest. The world thus solved one of its greatest problems when it brought forth the traveling book, the precursor of the traveling library. We know from our own experience and observation that the eye rather than the ear is the great gate to the human soul. Most ideas and ideals are chiefly drawn from reading. Books, magazines, and papers more than sermons, addresses, or conversation set in motion the effective cur- rents. A recent careful investigation by educational experts as to what most influenced the lives of children showed that it was not the father, nor the mother, nor the school, but, as might have been predicted, the reading. By common consent the supreme thing in education is the building of character ; but character grows out of habits, habits are based on Department] PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN EDUCATION 859 actions, actions on motives, and motives on reflection. What makes most people reflect ? It is usually reading that begets reflection, reflection begets motive, motive begets action, action repeated begets habits, and habits beget that supreme thing, character. With every generation the comparative importance of reading seems to increase. It is well known that many of the delegates to meetings and conventions in which they are deeply interested seldom listen to papers and addresses, because they find they can get the ideas so much more quickly and clearly from the printed page. The eye can sweep rapidly over matters of little interest, can dwell on points of importance, can go back to verify preceding statements ; with the result that in much less time the mind has gained much more. The pre-eminent influence of the printed page is thus increased by wider appreciation of its power. On the material side the evidence is just as conclusive. The book is the chief factor in the marvelous evolution of the race. The brute has not the divine gift of speech. We admire the wonderful instincts of bird, or fox, or squirrel, but with minor variations they are the same that their ancestors have had for one thousand generations. The savage with speech and without books passes on something of his acquired knowledge from father to son, but the development is slow. Civilized man has become as a god in what he dares and does, because he stands on the shoulders of all his predecessors and utilizes the work of millions of men in thousands of years. " For a dwarf on the dead giant's shoulders sees more Than the live giant's eyesight availed to explore." The Indian stripped the birch and built his bark canoe in a day. He felled a tree across the stream and his bridge was done. But our sons have taken the skill and knowledge of their fathers and increased it, each beginning where the other left off. They build a Brooklyn bridge or a ship, either of which costs as much as the land, houses, and furniture of fifty country villages. The papers tell us that the " Celtic" built this season could in her vast hull accommodate more than the whole army of guests of that other modern marvel, the Waldorf-Astoria hotel. If there were a derrick large enough, the great city hall of New York could be lowered into this marvelous evolution of the dugout and bark canoe in the natu- ral growth of transportation. All this has been possible because the accumulated skill and knowledge has been preserved in print and passed on from generation to generation, so that we may fairly say we stand today on our lofty pedestal built up of printed sheets of paper. No thoughtful man can question that it is a supreme concern to pro- vide for our people the best of the literature of power which inspires and builds character, and of the literature of knowledge which informs and builds prosperity. This can be done effectively and economically only thru free public libraries. A limited number can buy or hire their books, 86o NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library but experience has proved that knowledge must be as free as air or water, or it is fearfully handicapped ; and the state cannot afford to allow even the smallest obstacle to remain between any of its citizens and the desire for either inspiration or information. Even more important than the economy is the question of selec- tion and supervision of reading. A half-dozen nations are producing 60,000 to 70,000 new volumes each year, besides the millions already published. In a great library, with trained bibliographers and careful study and organization, we find it possible only to approximate in our effort to supply each reader with what is best out of our resources. The New York State Library has 450,000 volumes, 150,000 pamphlets, 250,000 manuscripts, and a countless number of articles and periodicals and transactions of societies and independent chapters in books. Yet we have fallen short of our ideal unless we can give to each reader from this immense variety what is then and there and to him most valuable. It is a problem of almost infinite difficulty even with all our bibliographies, catalogs, indexes, lists, and trained specialists. Without such help, how often in a thousand times is there a chance that a reader would really get the thing which would best serve his wants! One who has not studied these problems carefully is dazed by the difficulties and overpowered by the importance of finding at least an approximate solution. The whole civilized world has accepted the fact that the public-library system is a necessity, with hardly enough intelligent dissent to prove the rule. Seldom in human history has a great movement received so cordial and universal support. Historians already tell us that-in the future this will be known as the library age, just as that period when the great churches of Europe were built will always be known as the cathedral age. Even tho the library is almost as old as the race, it is just now passing thru that rapid and marvelous development in public conception of its proper functions which will make our time the real birth-time of that modern institution which, bearing the old name " library," yet includes so much that hereafter it will take full rank in usefulness with our syster of schools. . A glance at the development of the library idea will enable us better to predict its future, as the astronomer computes an orbit, not by study of where a body stands today, but of the track over which it has just come. The original library was a storehouse in which the books could be preserved and passed on to posterity. To get and to keep were the chief functions, while to use was subordinate. A favored few only had access to the books. Then a broadening process began. Those who could pay a certain fee might use the library. Then came the broad thought of making it free to all, but only for use in the building, as th( present museum is used. The old librarian would have been as much shocked at the suggestion of lending a book as would the modern Department] PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN EDUCATION 86l curator of a museum if an interested child should ask to carry home the bird of paradise. Then came lending to a favored few, then to all who could pay the fee, and finally the great thought of lending free to all. But this was by no means the end. When I began work for public-library interests in New York, we had forty free public libraries and forty thousand saloons, so that, by the law of averages, a boy leaving his home in the even- ing would pass nine hundred and ninety-nine open doors, with a cordial welcome to the worst influences, before he passed one within which he could find the best reading at his disposal. Librarians realized that if they were to do their best work they must have the aggressive spirit and adopt the aggressive methods of those who make other enterprises most success- ful. Then came the branch in the larger cities, in order to reduce the difficulties of inaccessibility, and to get within reasonable distance of each home a collection of books and an inviting reading-room. The more widely scattered delivery station followed, so that the workman could readily return his book in the morning and get a new one on the way back without going much out of his usual course. Then books were sent on for a trifling fee to those who could not conveniently come after them, utilizing telegraph, telephone, and local express or special delivery. And yet all this did not meet the demand, and we realized that the new con- ditions brought about by cheap and quick transportation demanded new methods in solving our problem of "the best reading, for the largest number, at the least cost." Traveling libraries were sent out, and when we proved that a given amount of money would accomplish more practi- cal good in this way than in any other, new applications were constantly found, and the few years of active work have established the traveling system as an essential part of the modern library movement. New conditions made this new system imperative. The immense flood of new books and growing demands of readers for the latest and best in every field showed that it was impracticable to undertake to make adequate libraries at all points needed. It is cheaper to transport than to store and handle books only occasionally used, even if they were given outright to the local library. Libraries must be mobilized. Books must travel more. Of some books extra copies cannot now be had. Of most they cannot be afforded with the money available. If there were build- ings and books, the immense cost of proper cataloging, classification, indexing, and reference librarians would be prohibitive. For reference purposes economy and efficiency demand a few great central libraries available by telephone and mail for consultation, and by express and mail for lending books to the entire surrounding section. The nation and each state should of course maintain one great cyclopaedic library. Besides these, there will be a few more in the great universities and cities, and here and there one supported by large private endowments. For ordinary circulation a different reason points to the traveling 862 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library principle. The number of books required is small compared with those needed for reference in studying all conceivable subjects, but there is even greater need of careful supervision in guiding this reading in a way to get the best results. Competent assistants can be found and afforded only in a few central points, but can do the work for a large territory. Beginning with 1837, New York spent $55,000 a year in .establishing public libraries in the 11,000 school districts of the state. More than twenty other states followed the example, and all had the same experience. The novelty wore off, the books were less used, and in most cases became scattered, so that, instead of a steady increase, after the first fifteen years there has been steady diminution in the number of volumes. For a library is like a reservoir of drinking water. It must have a constant fresh stream running in, or it becomes stagnant and unusable. This freshness is not dependent on the date of a book's publication, but on the time when it is first seen by that community. This is the great secret of the traveling library. Fifty or one hundred books go to a community and, being a new broom, sweep clean. There is a zest in looking them over and seeing what is available that stimulates interest and makes readers. After three or six months this wears off, but is renewed when this library is moved on to the next station and another takes its place. Thus interest is kept alive at every point, and books which used to become mere lumber after a few readings are now promptly worn out in actual service, so that we are getting better returns for each dollar than by any other method. RELATIONS TO SCHOOLS A total readjustment of point of view is necessary for most peopk I object when one says that the library is a valuable and useful adjunct to the school, putting it on the same plane as a laboratory or gymnasium. In a broad conception of education the library and school are no longer to be driven tandem, but abreast. The library is to be recognized, not as something desirable, but as an absolutely necessary complement to the schools in any satisfactory educational system. What we call school education is carried on by elementary and high schools, colleges, professional and technical schools, and universities, all assuming that attendance on their course is the main business of the stu- dents. What we term " home education " involves no change of residence or interruption of regular vacations, but centers around the library and includes libraries, museums, study clubs, extension teaching, tests, and credentials. Using these words in their broad senses, libraries furnish the education that comes from reading, museums what comes from seeing, clubs what comes from mutual help. The work of the school is for those in attendance. The library works with those at home. The school is chiefly for the young. The library is for adults as well, including all from cradle to grave. School work is for a limited course. The library Department] PLACE OF THE LIBRARY IN EDUCATION 863 is for all of life. School work is compulsory, at least in the lower grades, and is a duty under a master. Library work is optional, and is pleasure under a friend. It calls for joyous exercise of the intellectual powers, which always gives most rapid and satisfactory development. Because of these differences and the freedom from the disciplinary work of the school, libraries with longer hours and shorter vacations are less likely to be worn out than teachers. Each has his proper field of work, and librarians have no more right to expect teachers to carry their own burdens and also take on new ones, than that teachers should ask librarians to perform some of the school functions. Better results are uniformly secured where the library is not under the same board as the schools. Naturally, almost inevitably, school trustees and boards of edu- cation feel that the greatest concern of life is the school, and they will consider themselves as singularly broad-minded if they recognize the library as an unobjectionable, or perhaps a very useful, bob to the school kite. The best results can come only when the board of trustees gives its whole thought and energy to library interests, and believes them as second in importance to none. Library and school should work in the greatest harmony, but under independent boards. The great function of the teacher, to which he should bend every energy, is to give pupils under his care a taste for reading. With this, much of the rest will follow. I should vastly prefer my own child to leave school with a strong taste for good books and a record of comparative failure in his studies, than to have him take all the honors in his examina- tions and begin life with no genuine liking for reading. Huxley has wisely said that to teach our boys and girls to read without provision for what that reading shall be is as senseless as it would be to teach them the expert use of the knife, fork, and spoon with no provision as to their physical food. The old library was a reservoir concerned chiefly with gathering mate- rial. In our generation the reservoir has been changed into a fountain. The library has been an aggressive force concerned chiefly with giving out. In this work we have forgotten that reading is not necessarily good. It is a mighty engine exerting the most powerful influence for good or for evil on the human mind. Many a mother is at perfect peace thinking that her boy is on the highroad to heaven if only she finds him with his nose in a book, and yet we all know that the reading of bad books is the surest and quickest road to the pit. Our recent library work has had to do too much with quantity, too little with quality. We have made the reservoir into a fountain, but we must give more attention to filtration. The most hopeful efforts are in the direction of careful, unprejudiced, brief notes, following book titles in catalogs, so as to help both reader and librarian to know what purpose each book can best serve. The great problem before thoughtful students 864 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library of librarianship today is not so much how to increase the number of vol- umes circulated, but how to improve the quality, excluding the worst, decreasing the use of the poor, encouraging the good, and aiming con- stantly to lead every reader to the best. THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL AS CO-ORDINATE FORCES IN EDUCATION LIVINGSTONE MCCARTNEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOPKINSVILLE, KY. We have to consider a twofold question : How can the library be made most serviceable to the child in the daily performance of his work in the school ; and, how can the school life of the child be so ordered as to give him the greatest possible command of the contents of good books in his subsequent career ? This double question lays open before us the whole subject of the co-operation of school and library in the training of the child. - The library is to serve as an assistant to the school in educating the child. To serve this purpose properly it must contain many hundreds of books that have been chosen because of their direct connection with the sub- jects upon which the child is working. One who selects these books must have a knowledge, not only of books, but of children, and of the aims and methods of school education. It is to be doubted whether even the best librarians are capable of making the selection wisely. Their view is too largely one of the books, supplemented by a more of less definite knowl- edge of child nature, and with but little, if any, study of present-day educational methods as pursued in the best schools. What they know of the school life of today is derived from books and from conversation, instead of being the result of personal experience. Nor can the teachers do much better than the librarians. The trained and experienced teacher no doubt understands child-life and child-likes better than the librarian does ; but she is inferior to the librarian in a knowledge of what literature offers to the child, and her estimate of the real value of books often gives preference to that which is not of great worth. Besides, her view of education itself is liable to be distorted by the too great prominence she gives to her own special subject or depart- ment. The principals and superintendents of schools also have their limitations which disqualify them to act alone in selecting the books for a school library. It is only by the united efforts of librarian, teacher, and superintendent that a wise choice can be made. But granting that the books have been properly selected and that the library shelves are burdened with all that can be made helpful in the school work, how can these books be best used ? They must be accessible Department] LIBRARY AND SCHOOL AS CO-ORDINATE FORCES 865 to the children. One distinguished educator of my acquaintance advo- cates breaking up the library into small collections and giving to each schoolroom its appropriate share. This recommendation is open to the very serious objection that it deprives the child of the great advantage of spending many hours in a large library. More will be said on this point in the discussion of the second part of our subject. Many schools secure all of the substantial benefits to be derived from the small collection of books in each room by permitting each teacher to draw a large number of books and keep them in her schoolroom for several weeks. In our own schools we follow this plan, with the limiting provision that any teacher who has had a book for two weeks or more must return it if it is called for by another teacher. If the library owns several copies of the books most in demand, the needs of all teachers will be well met, and but few books will be called in before they are returned voluntarily. The teacher who has on her shelves from ten to fifty such books care- fully selected with reference to her class work for the succeeding few weeks will find constant occasion to use them in class and will be able to induce many of her pupils to carry them home to read. This will lead by the easiest transition to the regular use of the main library by her pupils. In addition to the books that are intended to be read thruout, there must be provided a large number and a great variety of works of reference to which the children may come for aid on special points or topics. Many of these works of reference should be permanently placed in the schoolrooms, but others can be given to the teachers for use in the same manner as the books from the circulating department. It is important for the library to own at least two copies of each of these books, so that one may always be found in the reference room of the general library. But this is only one side of our question. Not only must the library be so used as to assist in the education of the child, but the school in its turn must recognize its duty to equip the child for the future enjoyment of the library. Two worlds offer their riches to every youth who steps out from the threshold of the school — a world of affairs and a world of books. Happy he who is well prepared to participate in both ! There is a kind of education that addresses itself to preparing the youth for the world of affairs. So clamorous for quick success is the everyday business world that its spirit has not only invaded scholastic halls, but has in some quarters set about ejecting the time-honored occupants. We cannot digress here to discuss the right extent to which this spirit should pre- vail in education. It is the purpose of this paper only to note its insistent claim to increasing recognition, and to protest against any form of educa- tion that undervalues the riches of the world of books. But there is a kind of education more reprehensible even than this ; for, while it is based upon the use of books, it does not prepare for the 866 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Library enjoyment of the riches of the library. It sets down its deluded votary between the two worlds that we have mentioned. He is not fitted to make his way in the world of affairs; neither has he entered into the deeps of literature, history, and philosophy. He has been taught to worship form ; for his training began with words, continued in words, and ended in empty words. Of such a character is too much of the formal training of the schools. In contrast with these one-sided forms of education, how much more to be desired is that complete training which not only familiarizes the youth with the world of affairs and enables him to command success in any chosen line of effort, but also prepares him for a full enjoyment of the wider, deeper life of letters! How can school life be so ordered as to contribute to this result ? Personal contact with a large, central library is essential. Even a good library in each school building does not fully serve this purpose. The growing student must be able to drink in the love of books and to become fully imbued with the library spirit by hours and days spent delving in a large collection of books. The place has, perhaps, more to do with this development than we are aware. No amount of discus- sion about books, their contents and their authors, can take the place of actual familiarity with the books themselves. The student's school life, then, must be so planned as to call for frequent visits to the library — not mere calls at the circulation window, but periods of systematic research in the books on the shelves. Even quite young children, those not more than twelve years of age, can have their work so planned as to call for this library research. The subjects of geography, history, and literature alone afford ample opportunity for such work; but we as teachers must bear in mind that we are just now discussing the preparation of the child for the future use and enjoyment of libraries, and we must not base our library research work upon the school studies as they now stand. We must inquire along what lines of library research the pupils should become interested, and then we must make provision for those lines of effort in our school life. This may disarrange some of our nicely adjusted outlines. It may make waste paper of some fine-spun courses of study which have not been revised to meet new educational ideals and conditions, and it may cause a world of annoyance to those teachers who have the routine of their annual work so habituated that they need no thought for new work or new methods, but find that a look at the calen- dar will bring up the appropriate lessons, words, gestures, and facial expression for the day. But if this change is based upon a careful study of the true needs of the children, it will fully justify its iconoclastic tend- encies. The student should gain complete mastery of a limited number of representative books. The contents of these books should become his Department] LIBRARY AND SCHOOL AS CO-ORDLNATE FORCES 867 mental possession absolutely. And he should know, not only what they say, but how they say it. All of their illustrative examples and allusions should be familiar to him ; and he must especially be trained to see what these examples and allusions are used to illustrate and enforce. Our knowledge of books is too often weak at this point. We are familiar with the anecdotes, the scenes, the parables, without troubling ourselves greatly with the context. The very point of view of the book, in so far as it is good, must become the student's point of view. Such an absorption of a book into one's life is safe only in the case of comparatively few books; but it is the duty of the school to select these and to secure their com- plete assimilation in the lives of the children. Besides this intense study and complete mastery of a few books, the school must plan to give the child a wide knowledge of the character and contents of the books that he has not read. This cannot be done by catalogs and tables of contents. The child must handle and examine the books themselves, gleaning a little here and a little there by his own personal efforts. Lists prepared by librarians, lectures delivered by teachers, and short-cut manuals by short-cut authors will give him only the belief that he knows what in reality he does not know. The young farmer must learn of soils and crops by holding the plow and by gather- ing the grain; he who would succeed in business must feel the touch of checks and drafts between his fingers; and he who would have a working knowledge of books must handle books. It is the duty of the school, not only to give him this opportunity, but so to arrange his work that he cannot evade it. In this connection it should be said that children should be taught the intelligent use of the index of every book in which they work, and that they should know all of the great reference works and their plan of arrangement, so as to be able to use these works economically. The child must also be given a knowledge of the writers of books both past and present, and this can be done in a large library much more quickly, easily, and thoroly than in any other place. Here he is sur- rounded by the works themselves that came from the authors' hands ; and on the walls are portraits ; in the hallways and rooms are statues, busts, and tablets; and even the exterior of the building is so ornamented as to do honor to the great names of literature. Those who come and go, as he loiters, all seem to have a wholesome respect for the place and for all who have- contributed to its enrichment. Shall he alone go from its portal uninfluenced by all of its appeals ? Shall his school hold him to such a grind of routine, or be so grossly commercial, that he has neither time nor inclination left for this beautiful and hallowed society of books ? DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE DEAF, BLIND, AND FEEBLE-MINDED SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION. — Wednesday, July io, 1901 The department was called to order at 3:30 P. M. in the Woodward Avenue Congre- gational Church, Detroit, with Miss Mary McCowen, Chicago, 111., president, in the chair. A cornet solo by Mr. Van Amberg introduced the regular program of the department. W. C. Martindale, superintendent of public schools, Detroit, made an address of welcome, which was responded to by Miss Mary McCowen and Dr. J. C. Gordon, Jackson- ville, 111., who gave a brief history of the beginning and development of the department. The president appointed the following Committee on Nominations : Mr. E. E. Allen, Philadelphia, Pa., chairman. Miss Bessie N. Leonard, Northampton, Mass. Dr. Francis Burke Brandt, Philadelphia, Pa. Hon. John Hitz, Washington, D. C. Dr. J. C. Gordon, Jacksonville, 111. Music — vocal solo, "Spring," Tosti — by Mrs. R. R. Hayne. Miss Elizabeth Van Adestine, principal Detroit Day School for the Deaf, gave illustrations of work of the pupils of the Detroit day schools. Miss Margaret Sullivan, principal Grand Rapids Day School for the Deaf, gave an exhibition of rapid speech-reading in a conversation with a ten-year-old deaf girl upon a recent trip to the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, N. Y. A paper was read by Hon. S. Wesselius, Grand Rapids, Mich., upon " The Day- School Law," followed by a discussion of the paper by E. E. Allen, superintendent of the Pennsylvania School for the Blind, Overbrooke, Pa. "The State in Relation to the Defective Child" was the subject of a paper by Dr. Francis Burke Brandt, professor of pedagogy, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. BUSINESS MEETING The department met in business session in the Woodward Avenue Congregational Church, Wednesday afternoon, July 10, at 5 130 o'clock. The Committee on Nominations presented the following report : For President — Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C. For Vice-President— E. E. Allen, Philadelphia, Pa. For Secretary — E. A. Gruver, New York city. Upon motion, the report was accepted and the secretary instructed to cast the ballot of the department for the persons nominated. Mr. E. E. Allen, chairman of the Reorganization Committee, appointed at Charleston, S. C, to draw up by-laws by which the future meetings of the department should be guided, made a report. After a lengthy discussion, in which nearly every member of the department joined, Dr. J. C. Gordon, Jacksonville, 111., made the following motion, which was carried : Resolved, That the report of the Committee on Reorganization be referred to the Executive Committee, consisting of the officers-elect for the ensuing year, to report at the next meeting of the department, and that the same committee prepare a program for the next meeting. 868 Defectives] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 869 SECOND SESSION. — Friday, July 12 The department convened at 3 : 30 P.M., Miss McCowen, president, in the chair. Music — vocal solo, "Hear Me, O Israel," Millard — by Miss Alice Sacks. A paper was presented by Dr. O. P. MacMillan, department of child study, Chicago public schools, on " Sensory Defects in Chicago School Children." Music — vocal solo. A paper on "The School as a Social Center" was read by Mrs. Cora Stanton Brown, chairman educational department, Illinois Mothers' Congress, Indianapolis, Ind., followed by a paper on the same subject by Mrs. Marguerite Beaubien, vice-president Michigan Mothers' Congress, Detroit, Mich., and a discussion of the subject by Mr. F. W. Booth, editor American Association Review, Philadelphia, Pa.; Miss Mary McCowen, Chicago, 111.; Miss Elizabeth Van Adestine, Detroit, Mich.; Dr. Amberg, Detroit, Mich.; and Hon. John Hitz, Washington, D. C. Dr. J. C. Gordon, Jacksonville, 111., offered the following resolution : Resolved, That the thanks of the department be extended to the Detroit local committee for the excellent accommodations and the delightful entertainment afforded Department XVI of the NationaJ Educational Association ; to those who arranged an inspiring and helpful program for the meeting ; and to the trustees of the Woodward Avenue Congregational Church, for the use of its building. The resolution was unanimously adopted by a rising vote. With a closing address by the president, Miss Mary McCowen, the meeting adjourned. A pleasing feature of the sessions of the department was the exhibits of class-room work in the mornings, from 9 to 12 o'clock, in the Central High School, Cass avenue Detroit. On Wednesday, Miss Elizabeth Van Adestine, principal of the Detroit Day School for the Deaf, and her assistants gave the following exhibit : 1. Beginners' class in speech- and sense-reading, May L. Guthrie, teacher. 2. First-year speech- and lip-readiag, Blanche E. Smith, teacher. 3. Third-year language, M. Lizzie Donohoe, teacher. 4. Rhythm work and gymnastic drills. On Thursday and Friday very interesting exhibitions were given of kindergarten and primary-school work with children from the McCowen School for Young Deaf Children, Chicago, 111., conducted by Miss Cornelia Bingham, head teacher, and assistants. These exhibits embraced the work from the kindergarten to the eighth-grade public- school work, illustrating the language, composition, drawing, water-color work, design- ing, cardboard construction, and sewing; also kindergarten work as adapted to the teach- ing of young deaf children ; expression and construction work of " connecting class ;" and art expression showing the methods employed from the first to the eighth grade. Other exhibits were from the Grand Rapids Day School for the Deaf ; the Yale Oral School, Chicago, 111.; the Volta Bureau, under the direction of Hon. John Hitz, Wash- ington, D. C. The akoulalion, the recently invented electrical instrument for the amelioration of deafness, was on exhibition at the Central High School, by Mr. Van Tassell, of the New York Institution for the Deaf. Tests of hearing were made daily. Two very pleasant informal receptions were given the members of the department. On Wednesday evening, July 10, in the parlors of the Woodward Avenue Congregational Church, the first one was given by the Detroit Association of Parents and Friends of Deaf Children. On Thursday evening, at the Hotel Cadillac, the Chicago Oral Teach- ers' Club entertained the department. E. A. Gruver, Secretary. 870 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE LA W AND THE DA Y SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF HON. S. WESSELIUS, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. By a potent recommendation, thru an executive message to the legis- lature of 1899, the late Governor Pingree inaugurated a movement favor- able to the instruction of the deaf by the oral method, so called, thru the medium of day schools. The beneficiaries of this education, including the families and friends of the pupils, will ever hold him in grateful remembrance for this successful effort to restore the deaf in Michigan to the society of the hearing and to a better citizenship. Without first creat- ing an organization adapted to educating the public at large up to a point of accepting new methods, it is difficult to add a new department of instruction to the state's educational system. It is not, however, impossible of accomplishment, if, as in this state, the movement is fortunate in obtaining first the indorsement of the chief executive, the press, and a few of the leading members of the legis- lature. Thru all of these means both the necessity and the desirability of the instruction of the deaf by the oral method in day schools were estab- lished. Much assistance was rendered the cause by Mr. A. W. Smith, of Cleveland, O.; Mr. Robert C. Spencer, of Milwaukee; and Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, of Washington. No assistance was received from the state institution. Deaf children cannot be educated in institutions as economi- cally as in day schools, and this fact appealed strongly to such members of the legislature as did not have the inclination to examine the merits of the methods employed and the results obtained. It will not be difficult to pro- cure the passage of a similar law in other states when a like environment is thrown about the attempt that procured its passage in Michigan as well as in Wisconsin. The Michigan law, after a trial of nearly two years, has proven to be very satisfactory, easy of construction and application, devoid, of intricate machinery for the establishment of schools, and easily harmonized with the school laws of the state. It may be found in the Pub- lic Acts of Michigan for 1899, on p. 266, and can be safely followed as a mode in other states, subject to such modifications as the state constitu- tion and school laws may require. Briefly, its provisions are as follows : The local school board, generally acting upon the petition of the parents of deaf children, makes application to the superintendent of public instruction for permission to establish and maintain a school for the deaf. It is mandatory upon the superintendent of public instruction to grant permission Defectives] THE LAW AND THE DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF 87i where there is an average attendance of not less than three children over the age of three years, whose parents or guardians reside within the state. The local board, after the establishment of the school, is required to report its con- dition, and such other facts as may be required, to the state superintendent. The state treasurer is directed to pay the local board, out of the general funds of the state, the sum of $150 for each deaf pupil instructed in the school for nine months during the school year, and a part of such sum apportioned to the actual attendance of such pupil. The funds received from the state must be kept separate from the other funds of the local board, and can be expended only for the payment of salaries of teachers and for school appliances, all other sums unexpended being returned to the state treasurer. All teachers in such schools are appointed and employed as all other teachers in the public schools are appointed and employed. All applicants for positions must be qualified by having special training for teaching and also special training in the teaching of the deaf, including at least one year's experi- ence as a teacher in a school for the deaf. The oral system shall be used exclusively, but if, after nine months' trial, any child shall be unable to learn by the oral method, no further expense shall be incurred in the attempt to educate it. Any person of sound mind who, by reason of defective hearing, cannot profitably be educated in the public school as other children are taught, shall be considered eligible to enter any of these schools. It will be noticed that the law is general in its terms, leaving the details to be worked out by the different authorities charged with the duty of executing it. There is danger always of conflict of opinion upon a subject of this nature. It was deemed wise, therefore, to close by law the matter of the advisability of the establishment of these schools, and to prevent a disagreement with the superintendent of public instruction by making it mandatory upon him to issue the permit when the local school board had decided it necessary to establish one of the schools. It was deemed expedient also to eliminate all questions as to methods of instruction by requiring the oral system exclusively, leaving no room for the disagreements existing between teachers of the deaf. It secures, therefore, uniformity in methods of instruction, so that a child may go from one school to another, and its education continue as it was begun. It fixes the expense to the state at a like sum for each pupil, leaving no discretion upon this subject to any authority except the legislature, trusting the local board, however, to represent it in making the expense reasonable. The salaries of the teachers are fixed by the local board, and range from a minimum salary of $800 upward. The law was flexible upon this point, in view of the lack of uniformity in the qualifications of teachers of the deaf, and by reason of the difficulty in obtaining a suffi- cient number of teachers to take charge of all the schools who used similar methods of instruction. The provision relative to the qualification of teachers was made just strong enough to prevent persons wholly inexperienced in this branch of education from obtaining positions, and this must continue to be the 872 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of condition of the law upon this subject in this and other states until the services of expert teachers of the deaf can be more easily obtained, or until the training given them at the institutions and training schools is more nearly uniform than at present. I trust I may be pardoned if, as a layman, I suggest the necessity of a closer union between institutions graduating teachers of the deaf, with a view to requiring all their gradu- ates to attain something like equal degrees of proficiency. If this is not done, it may be necessary to fix the qualifications in the organic law of the school, altho there are many reasons why this is not desirable, chief among which is that the growth of the work in new fields will be retarded. The discussion of methods to be employed, when coupled with an attempt to determine the qualifications of a teacher, is quite likely to confuse the patron of a school, and result in the child's return to the institution. The law makes it mandatory upon the local board to furnish all necessary appliances, which make it possible for partially deaf children, and especially those who are indigent, to have the advantage of all new appliances and devices which may be invented for their benefit. This provision has been found very beneficial, especially in view of the com- petition between the institution having ample funds for this purpose and the day school. It was deemed advisable at first by the proponents of the law to make a provision for the partial maintenance and care of indigent children attending day schools, but this was finally dropped in response to the general plan of the law, which is to place deaf children in all respects upon an equality with others in obtaining an education. It is this general underlying principle to which its success can be mainly attributed. It cannot be denied that a deaf child should have the right to an education and continue to be a member of the family, enjoying the comforts and experiencing the sorrows of home. Its deaf- ness should not be an excuse for depriving it of the care and nurture of the family during the most tender years of its existence. To compel a child to become separated from the family, and to be educated at a state institution, with all the suffering attendant upon the process, both to the parent and the child, savors of barbarism, however well-meaning the state may be in so doing. There was a time when the deaf were con- fined in the same institution with the insane. There will be a time when only two classes of deaf children will attend state institutions : first, those who belong to indigent parents or are orphans, and must therefore become wards of the state in order that their physical wants may be administered to, that is, those who belong to the same class as hearing children that now find their way to state homes for children who are abandoned or neglected ; second, those who desire a higher educa- tion than can be obtained at the local high schools and academies, or who seek to obtain a technical education, which the institution for the deaf can alone provide. Defectives] THE LAW AND THE DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF 873 It seems to me, from observation during Ae last two years, that there should be provided by the state, in addition to day schools, opportunity for the special instruction of the deaf in certain trades and professions at the state institutions, and that special privileges should be extended to the deaf child studying the higher branches, to the extent of provid- ing for its entire maintenance, if necessary, during this course of instruc- tion. To carry out the plan of fully restoring the deaf child to the society of the hearing, the higher education should not be undertaken until it has reached the age where all danger of its tendency to seek the exclusive society of the deaf has passed. I will not attempt to go into a detailed study of the subject at this time, but this subject of the relation of the state school to the day school is a fruitful field of inquiry and study for the friends of the deaf. When the state institution appreciates the opportunities that are before it in this regard, it will no longer maintain an unfriendly attitude toward the day schools, because it will have the same interest in them that the college and university now have in the public schools and academies, and will be concerned chiefly in encouraging them, and in insisting upon a higher degree of proficiency on the part of teachers and pupils all the time. The time when harmony and unity of purpose shall exist between the state institution and the day school can be fixed only when it is known to what extent the day school will be the principal means of giving an education to the deaf. In one or two of the states this can be determined now, but unless better facilities for organizing schools than now exist in many of the states are found, it will be delayed many years. The friends of the law have discovered that the existence of the law itself results in the establishment of but few schools, and that, notwith- standing the efforts made to give to the law the widest publication pos- sible thru the press, and notwithstanding that established schools and the methods of instruction have been widely advertised thru the daily press, yet the establishment of other schools does not result without special effort. A large percentage of the deaf are in indigent circumstances ; many of them are the children of parents only partially acquainted with the English language ; while others are either indifferent or discouraged by reason of the child's condition, and thus make no effort to better its educational advantages. I believe this fact to be well established that, without the special work of an expert instructor of the deaf, who at the same time has the ability of an organizer, day schools for the deaf will not grow in number very rapidly, and, indeed, in many communities will never be established. The schools now established in Michigan and Wisconsin, so far as I know, have all required the services of an organizer having special fitness 874 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of for the work. We are ju^t learning that all teachers of the deaf> how- ever proficient they may be, are not well equipped to organize schools. The work of organizing seems to require an ability that but few expert teachers of the deaf possess. Great care should be used in selecting the organizer, because, if the field is once canvassed and the effort has failed, new difficulties are added to further work in the same direction. The work of organization should be directed from some central authority, and in accordance with some well-defined plan, adopted by either the state or an interstate organization of the friends of the deaf, unless it is undertaken by the state itself. This latter plan seems to me to be the most feasible, especially where a number of day schools are already established and the methods of instruction have been thoroly tested. There should be connected with the department of public instruction a superintendent or supervisor of day schools for the deaf, whose duty it would be to pass upon the qualifications of teachers, to have general supervisory control of the schools, with power to regulate the curriculum of studies, books, and appliances to be used therein, and who should be charged with the duty of organizing schools and enforcing the laws compelling the attend- ance of pupils. It is said upon good authority that there are between three and four hundred deaf persons of school age in the state of Michigan who do not attend any school, and that a like proportion obtains in other states. Wherever a day school has been established, the compulsory educational law applicable to hearing children can be enforced, but their attendance cannot be compelled at the state institutions, involving, as it does, the removal of the child from the possession and immediate control of the parent. This condition alone should warrant the employment of a super- visor or superintendent of schools for the deaf. In some of the smaller states, where there would be but few of the day schools, the time of such superintendent or supervisor could be divided between other duties con- nected with the office of superintendent of public instruction and the interests of the deaf. The creation of such a position, with its duties, in each of the several states will require time and much labor preliminary to its accomplishment, and must of necessity follow the passage of a law creating the schools and the establishment of one or more schools under it. In the meantime, I may be pardoned perhaps if I suggest that all work done in the future for the deaf should be under the supervision of one general organization, managed as work of this character is generally done, and constituted of a membership composed of leading educators and friends of the deaf in the different states. Such an organization should be under the control of the friends of the oral methods, who favor the day school in preference to the institution, but who, of course, are at the same time willing to aid all efforts to promote the teaching of speech to the deaf in institutions. Defectives] THE LAW AND THE DAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF 875 By means of such an organization the progress of the work in the different states, its needs and requirements, could always be determined. The influential friends of the deaf who would be willing to aid in the pas- sage of proper laws for the establishment of schools would be known, and a state organization perfected to further the work. Thru the excel- lent work done by Dr. Bell, the Census Bureau has obtained a more or less complete list of the deaf children and their parents thruout the whole country. Thru such an organization, communication with the parent would be established, literature distributed, and a general awakening of interest accomplished. While it is true that a state organization might accomplish all this, the history of the movement seems to teach us that state organizations rarely or ever precede the passage of a state law and the establishment of schools. Such an organization would supplement the great work already done for the deaf by giving to it a tangible form, by way of a more detailed effort to pass a law in the several states. Valuable as its services might be in this direction, it seems to the writer that it would render an equally valuable service in other directions, to a few of which I take the liberty of referring. First, it seems to me, as a layman only, not as an expert teacher of the deaf, that so-called training schools for teachers of the deaf should be under the control, as to the degree of proficiency of its graduates, of some national organization. As a general rule, the parent of the deaf child is wholly unacquainted with the methods of instruction, and a local school board does not find itself much better qualified to pass upon them. Both are wholly unac- quainted, as a rule, with the training required to make an expert teacher of the deaf, and therefore persons who have had some experience in the teaching of the deaf, whether by the sign method or otherwise, are quite as likely to be employed as those who have had special training in a proper school. The state institutions are constantly sending out into the world persons who have had the care of their children, all seemingly well equipped, so far as the public knows, to continue the work. If a general organization — which would, of course, be recognized as authority on the subject — would undertake to recommend graduates of schools fully equipped to produce expert teachers, and deny recommendations to graduates of other schools, it seems to me that great good would be accomplished. Persons selected as organizers should also be recom- mended by it. The work to be done with legislative bodies should be under its immediate direction and control, or of its agents authorized to speak for it. It should aid in procuring teachers for schools and aid graduates of training schools to obtain positions. It should aid local boards in procuring the establishment of schools ; furnish legal opinions when necessary upon the law creating them. I might multiply many times the list of services which such an organization could render to the cause of the deaf, if time did not fail me; but, briefly, it should render 876 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of such services as the State Phonological Society of Wisconsin and the friends of the deaf in Michigan have rendered in their respective states, with such other and further services as its more extensive juris- diction would require. In this paper I have given you the views of a layman for what they are worth, conscious only that they are given with the hope that to some extent they may aid the cause in which we are all so deeply interested. THE STATE IN ITS RELATION TO THE DEFECTIVE CHILD DR. FRANCIS BURKE BRANDT, PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA The education of the defective child, so far as the state is concerned, cannot be considered without regard to the education of the normal child. I have been in some institutions for unfortunate children — deaf, blind, or feeble-minded — so ably managed and splendidly equipped as to almost make one wish he had been born unfortunate. I have been in some public schools intended for normal children that could make one wish he had never been born. Three years ago a police census in New York city showed that there were 702,162 children of school age in that city, but of these only 468,229 were enrolled in either public or private schools. The average daily attendance was indeed only 338,184. We are doubtless properly shocked when we learn this about New York city, but, like jesting Pilate, we stay not for answer when the same question arises concerning our own community. This is a nation of 76,295,220 souls. Of this vast number approximately 21,830,774 persons are between the ages of five and eighteen years. Yet the official figures for the closing days of the nineteenth century show that of this total num- ber of boys and girls of the age just stated but 16,511,597 were enrolled in schools, public and private, elementary and secondary. Nor are the needs of the normal child within the school fully met by the state. Over- crowded classes are criminally chronic and common in most American school systems ; the evil of half-time classes equally abounds ; adequate school buildings and adequate equipment are lacking everywhere. "There are thirty thousand children in Chicago," said the educational commission which a few years ago investigated the educational condi- tions of that city, "for whom full and fair provision is not made. Thirteen thousand are in rented buildings, which are in many particulars entirely unsuited for school purposes."1 The state has not yet solved its problem touching the education of the normal child, whether we consider the child who is within or the child who is without the school. In its efforts to meet the needs of the normal child, however, the state * Report of the Educational Commission of the City of Chicago, 1899, p. 172. Defectives] THE STATE AND THE DEFECTIVE CHILD 877 is brought face to face with its duty toward the defective. Awakening to the frightful sacrifice of child-life which is resulting from a combina- tion of causes — individual inertness, the ignorance or rapaciousness of parents, the unethical and ruthless organization of industrial life, and the uninstructed indifference of the church — the state, in its effort to pre- serve itself and to protect the individual, is slowly but steadily extending its compulsory school laws, and forcing all children up to thirteen or fourteen years of age into, particularly, the public schools. The imme- diate result of this, however, is to force more and more on public atten- tion the demonstrated fact that the school as an institution of civilization is conditioned in its existence and for its proper functioning, not simply by the presence of the normal child, but also by the absence of the child physically, mentally, or morally defective. Neither the public nor the private school can do its work properly and successfully when hampered by the presence of children widely divergent from the normal. How intensely must one be diseased — physically, mentally, or morally — to be educationally quarantined? How extensively must one be defective — physically, mentally, or morally — to be thrust from the school? How completely must one be degenerate — physically, mentally, or morally — to be excluded properly from the training primarily designed for normal children ? Under the operation of compulsory school laws these are becoming burning questions. With the crowding today of heterogeneous masses into our public schools, there arises the imperative need of some authoritative method of detecting and weeding out those that are widely divergent from the normal. Aside from the question of the danger to society of dependent, defective, and delinquent classes — aside from the positive disadvantages to these classes themselves, in not being taught by methods that meet their specific needs — the school cannot do its whole duty to the normal child when handicapped by the presence of those who are abnormal. The first proposition which I wish to lay down, therefore, is that the primary duty of the state, so far as defective children are concerned, is to pass such legislation as shall render their presence impossible in classes primarily designed for the normal child. The importance and necessity of such legislation are not to be underestimated. So far as the public- school system is concerned, what we need first is an adequate investi- gation of the facts and an adequate method of ascertaining them. A superintendent of one of the largest cities in the United States informs me that his efforts to ascertain the number of exceptional, backward, and defective children in the public schools were practically unavailing, because of the impossibility of relying on the judgment of teachers and principals as to who were mentally deficient and who not. The system of voluntary medical inspection being adopted in many cities may ulti- mately lead to the opportunity of making use of trained physicians for 878 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of this purpose. Even with the ordinary methods of common-sense inspec- tion, however, it has developed that in large school systems there is a considerable number of children, whose specific needs are not only failing to be met, but whose presence is a constant menace and handicap to normal pupils. In Providence, Boston, Chicago, New York, Phila- delphia, and other cities, the "special school" is making its appearance in connection with the public-school system, and I am glad to be able to say that the special schools started in Philadelphia two years ago, under the initiative of voluntary associations and individual contributions and enterprise, have in the last month been taken fully and formally under the control and support of the municipal authorities. But the attitude of the state toward the defective child is not and should not be wholly negative. A second proposition I wish to lay down, touching the relation of the state to the defective child, concerns the necessity of a clearer conception and a stronger conviction of the needs, powers, and possibilities of the so-called defective : the state should distinctly recognize the defective as a subnormal rather than as an abnormal class, to be carefully distinguished, on the one hand, from the diseased, and, on the other hand, from the degenerate, and liberally provide with the specific training necessary to make these individuals useful members of society and capable of some measure of individual perfection and pleasure. If, under a wise system of school organization, no child who falls into any of the abnormal, or even subnormal, classes should find a place in schools organized for the normal child, the determination of what con- stitutes abnormality becomes a scientific question of more than academic importance. In another connection I have ventured to suggest that the most complete type of the abnormal individual is characterized by disordered body, disordered consciousness, and disordered conduct ; and that within each of these types we may distinguish classes which may be scientifically distinguished as diseased, defective, and degenerate. The physically diseased, the physically defective, and the physically degen- erate are types clearly made out. The mentally diseased, the mentally defective, and the mentally degenerate, as well as the morally diseased, the morally defective, and the morally degenerate, are only beginning to receive clear recognition. This classification suggests that society has yet failed to observe the desirability and importance of distinguishing between the abnormal and what, to borrow a term from Professor Cattell, may be called the subnormal. The blind and the deaf should not be placed under the same ban as the degenerate, the idiotic, and the criminal. On the other hand, the operation of compulsory school laws, and increasing psychological intelligence in the management of private institutions, are forcing upon public attention the question whether we do not grossly abuse the terms "idiotic," "imbecile," and "feeble-minded." Defectives] THE STATE AND THE DEFECTIVE CHILD 879 It is an open question whether there is not a class or classes of subnormal children, previously carelessly classified as feeble-minded, idiotic, or imbecile, who are simply defective in more or less definite brain centers in the same way in which the blind and the deaf are defective, and who, therefore, under proper psychological and pathological diagnosis, might have their cases met pedagogically as effectively as we now meet those of the blind and the deaf. The practical elimination of the adjective "dumb" in connection with the deaf, which as a consequence of higher scientific intelligence has now been accomplished, suggests similar possibilities in connection with other unfortunate children whose defect may be chiefly physical and local. The movement for special schools for backward children is one of the most hopeful and wholesome in connection with our educational system. The development of day schools for the deaf in connection with public schools, and of books especially adapted for the blind in connection with public libraries, are among the most encour- aging phenomena in the organization of modern society. We may only ask that the enthusiastic promoters of these movements shall preserve a proper sense of proportion, and not become oblivious to the primary and pressing importance of meeting the urgent needs of the normal child. It is to be hoped that we shall always have enthusiasts for every cause. It is sufficient if we remember with Hobbes that it is not those who carve the images, but those who worship them, that really create false gods. Concomitant with the need of legislation which shall free our schools from the hampering influence of both the absolutely abnormal and the subnormal, and concomitant with the development under state supervi- sion and state support of adequate, sufficiently diverse, and intelligently organized and administered institutions for subnormal individuals, we have a right to expect stronger state measures for the prevention of dependent, defective, and delinquent classes. So far as these classes are caused by hereditary rather than by social conditions, the duty of the state is plain. The physically diseased can only beget the physically diseased ; the idiot and the imbecile can only procreate and perpetuate the idiot and the imbecile ; from criminals only criminals can come. These are beginning to be recognized as sociological laws which have as sound a scientific basis as the law of gravitation or that of multiple pro- portion. Again and again has the state been advised of the remedy which lies within easy reach. It must do more than acknowledge the dictates of science and of experience; it must act upon them. In the sterilization of the sexes it has a remedy as simple as vaccination — easy, harmless, sure, and benevolent. My last proposition, therefore, is that the state in its treatment of the abnormal individual must combine with its policy of protecting benevolence a policy of progressive elimination and annihilation. If the principles which I have set down are correct — and I believe 880 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of they are — the program of progress for this section of the National Educa- tional Association seems to me to be plain. The first need of educational science is facts, accurately observed and recorded. With these we may proceed to interpretations upon which future educational policies may be based. I believe this section would render great service to the cause of education if it were to promote (i) a compilation of the constitutional, statute, and municipal legislation of the United States which makes pro- vision for subnormal and defective classes, classified on some scientific principle and with some regard to the types of defect for which provision is made; (2) an investigation of the actual number of subnormal and abnormal children who are daily attending public schools ; and (3) a compilation of marriage laws in their bearing on the prevention of pau- perism, insanity, and crime, and of other legislation the purpose of which is the prevention of the procreation and perpetuation of diseased, defective, and degenerate members of society. I believe, further, that this department would do perhaps much in promoting a better public understanding of the cause which it represents if it were to change its name to the Department for the Education of the Subnormal. In these days, when we no longer confound state and government, we are frightened by no cries of "paternalism," nor have we any misgiv- ings as to what the state may not undertake in preserving life and liberty and in promoting equality of opportunity in the pursuit of happiness. It only remains for the educator, therefore, to arouse public opinion and to guide those in immediate charge of the affairs of state, that they may act intelligently in dealing with the least among God's creatures, the defective child. SOME RESULTS OF HEARING TESTS OF CHICAGO SCHOOL CHILDREN D. P. MacMILLAN, PH.D., DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY AND PEDAGOGIC INVESTIGATION, CHICAGO PUBLIC SCHOOLS In this age of books and laboratories it still remains true that wher- ever instruction is imparted the unimpaired use of the sense of hearing is an almost indispensable necessity. I need only remind you of this to be assured you will agree with me that the ability to hear well is inti- mately connected with the pupil's power to make satisfactory progress in ordinary school work. The department of child study and pedagogic investigation of the Chicago public schools, since its inception in Sep- tember, 1899, nas made, merely as part of its work, careful tests of the pupils' hearing in every school it has visited. The data obtained are all the more valuable as those schools were chosen which were as free as pos- sible from the disturbing noises of the city, and which would represent, as far as could be expected, normal, healthy Chicago children. Defectives] SOME RESULTS OF HEARING TESTS 88 1 The tests were made with the use of the audiometer invented by Pro- fessor C. E. Seashore, of the Iowa State University, and which is described in detail by him in Vol. II of Studies in Psychology, issued from that university. Of course, before anything like a comparison of hearing tests of children can be made by investigators, some standard or basis must be decided upon. So far the problem of making a universal standard has not been solved. Results given in terms of the investiga- tor's watch or voice certainly cannot be compared, nor satisfactory con- clusions deduced from them. It is believed that the audiometer has merits never before seen in an instrument used for the purposes of testing hearing. The apparatus consists of an induction coil, a battery, a gal- vanometer, a resistance coil, switches, and a telephone receiver, all done up in a convenient and portable hand-box. By turning a switch the dry battery can be thrown into the primary circuit of the induction coil. Another switch turns the galvanometer into the circuit. Then, by vary- ing the resistance by means of plugs, the fall of potential over the pri- mary coil can be made constant as indicated by the galvanometer. The primary circuit can be opened and closed rapidly by means of a key, and, as no stimulus can be produced save when the current is closed, the making and breaking of the current makes sharp clicks, which serve as a stimulus whose intensity can be varied at will by means of the secondary coil. This secondary coil is wound in forty sections, arranged in a series on the basis of the number of turns of wire that each contains. Each of these sections is connected with the surface terminals in such a way that the number of sections indicated on the scale can be thrown into the circuit by a spring contact, and by moving the carriage along the scale to the proper terminal one can vary the energy communicated to the receiver in this circuit. In determining the relation of stimulus to sensa- tion the inventor has followed the psycho-physical law, so that the ratio of the increments in the sound is such that the forty grades in the series are as far as possible psychologically equal. A tentative norm was taken by testing the hearing of intelligent, active, healthy persons of all ages. This served merely as a guide for the work, and not as an absolute crite- rion. The work with the seven thousand pairs of ears, each taken indi- vidually, served to make its own standard. In the early thousands the position of the norm began naturally to appear. Thus, if 85 or 90 per cent, of the pupils tested, and who were found by the other tests to be normal, healthy Chicago children, were marked at a certain number, the position of the norm could be determined with reasonable accuracy. The test was made in the following manner : As the pupil entered the quiet room, he was seated at one end of a table, at the other end of which the operator sat. With the receiver at one ear and the other ear closed to exclude possible disturbances, by slightly pressing the tragus of the ear backward, the pupil awaited the signal for the test to begin. At first 882 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of the register was set at such a part of the scale that a distinct clicking sound could be heard. The sound was then made to decrease in inten- sity until the point was reached where it could no longer be sensed. This descending threshold was then marked. In order to rid the test of the errors of expectation and the trace of after-images, care was taken that the responses were not uniformly in the affirmative. As the limen of hearing was approached, the current was alternately turned off and on, while all the movements of the experimenter remained uniform ; and these blanks in the sensation series served as a guide for the subject as the experiment progressed, and as a check upon the accuracy of the responses for the operator. The experiment was further checked by proceeding in the opposite direction, i. e., from below the threshold of hearing to a point where the sound was distinctly sensed. The results secured in these two ways were averaged and the pupils' record obtained. In considering such an important subject as the hearing of school children, the number of problems that emerge is almost illimitable. I am reminded, however, that there is time only for a brief consideration of a few of them. The first that naturally appears is the relation between hearing and school life, or a comparison of the number of defects found at the different ages. In the study of this problem the pupils were grouped as to age by years, and at each age the per cent, of pupils hav- ing defective hearing was calculated. A pupil is classed as " defective " when it is found from his audiometer record that he would be seriously inconvenienced in detecting sounds of medium intensity, i. e., four or more points below the norm. TABLE I school Life and hearing Defective in one Ear Defective in both Defective in Number of or both Ears Ears Right or Left Ear Age Pupils Tested No. Per Cent. No. Per Cent. No. Per Cent. 6 341 52 15.2 22 6.45 30 8-79 7 - 473 76 l6.0 32 6.97 44 9-30 8 545 123 22.56 47 8.62 76 13-94 9 555 96 17.29 39 7.02 57 10.27 10 598 88 14.71 38 6-35 50 8.36 ii 558 88 15-77 39 6.98 49 8.79 12 608 86 14-13 31 5-09 55 9.04 13 599 82 13.69 35 5-94 47 7-75 14 664 103 I5-5I 38 5-72 65 9-79 IS 664 108 16.26 39 5-87 69 10.39 16 555 84 15-13 40 7.20 44 7-93 17 377 56 14.85 29 7.69 27 7.16 18 192 38 14-59 8 4. 16 30 10.43 Totals. . . . 6,729 1,080 16.05 437 6.64 643 9-55 Defectives] SOME RESULTS OF HEARING TESTS 883 It will be seen that on their entrance to grade work in school at the age of six years, 15^ per cent, of the pupils are found defective in aural acuity. One has only to reflect for an instant upon this fact to recognize its significance. In following the movement of this curve thruout the school years one can readily observe the general trend of these defects. The per cent, of children having defective hearing increases rather rapidly in early school life, reaching its highest point at the early age of eight years. After all allowance is made for the fortuitous character of making tests not entirely objective with children under ten years of age, and for the climatic conditions of Chicago, the rise of the curve is very remarkable. It CHART I Age 5Q 40 30 20 10 9 10 U 12 13 u 15 16 17 18 19 Dpppr - Defei 1)Ve In Oi IE Or Both juts — m ***" -» ~— - [fl-Boi 'H EM is, - - — V V. probably means that catarrhal affections and children's diseases are begin- ning to make inroads into the young lives, and indicates quite clearly the inability of the organism to adapt itself readily to this sedentary life. From the age of eight the curve gradually descends, until between the years of twelve and a half and thirteen and a half the per cent, of defects is at a minimum. At thirteen years of age it is found that only l$yi Per cent, of the children have defective hearing. This in itself is very important, but doubly significant when one considers that it is the period in which an exaltation of all the powers takes place, a time of greatest growth and development, when not only increased power in all directions is found, but, according to many reliable statisticians, the lowest mortality. Practically the same story is told when one considers the number of children found defective in both ears. The maximum and minimum 884 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of number of defects are found about the same ages, with a general coinci- dence from point to point to the curve (shown above) obtained by tracing the number found defective in one or both ears. In general, of the 6,729 school children between the ages of six and eighteen, tested for aural acuity, 1,080 of this number, i. e., 16 per cent., were found defective in hearing in one or both ears, and are liable to be at a great disadvantage unless the presence of such defects is known in each case. Again, 6% per cent, of the total number are found defective in both ears. Further, 9^ per cent, of the total number of children have either the right or left ear defective, and need especially to be cared for and seated on the proper side of the teacher, in order to be able to utilize the unimpaired ear to the best advantage. Even if one limits oneself to the sense of hearing, one could scarcely advance a more telling argument for the individual care of the children. This large number of defects will not surprise one when one bears in mind the prevalence of acute catarrhal inflammation of the middle ear which follows in the wake of pharyngitis, or any of the acute infectious diseases. It is a rare parent that has not had experience with the com- mon diseases of measles, scarlatina, whooping cough, pneumonia, and bronchitis. And the cases of tuberculosis, meningitis, and syphilis are by no means uncommon. Further, the presence of adenoid growths, enlarged tonsils, together with nasopharyngeal catarrhs in not a few cases, helps swell the number of after-effects that destroy or mar the delicate mechan- ism of hearing. In reviewing these changes of the hearing power thruout school life, one naturally inquires if there is any causal connection between defective hearing and the pupil's ability to advance in the prescribed school courses. This problem presented itself to the department of child study in its investigation of the wider problem of the physical basis of dullness. It is found that the conclusions advanced by Gratsianoff, of Russia, and W. Townsend Porter, formerly of St. Louis, are substantially correct for the limited range of the tests made by them. The dull and backward pupils were not only smaller and lighter than the brighter and more advanced, but the children who are mentally superior on the average showed physi- cal superiority in every test and measurement.1 This does not mean, in the case of hearing, that no child inflicted with dull hearing can be bright enough to be at or above grade, but it does mean that on the average defective hearing hinders the progress of the child in school work. In investigating this problem of hearing and school standing, the pupils were divided into two groups. Those in or above the proper grade for the respective ages were placed in one group, while those below grade formed the second. The per cent, of pupils subnormal in hearing, in at least one ear, was calculated for each age in both groups. 1 See Report No. 2, Department of Child Study and Pedagogic Investigation, Chicago Public Schools. Defectives] SOME RESULTS OF HEARING TESTS 885 TABLE II HEARING AND SCHOOL STANDING School Standing Number Tested Pupils Defective in Agk One Ear Both Ears Number Per Cent. Number Per Cent. 8 ( Below grade 460 85 370 185 6 373 225 25 317 241 5i 306 302 99 339 260 114 421 243 144 465 199 in 280 275 37 190 187 14 88 104 101 22 52 44 3 42 46 6 36 52 10 33 53 20 46 36 27 60 43 49 70 38 25 42 42 8 26 30 2 13 25 21.95 25-8 I4.0 23-7 50. 11 .2 20.4 24. 11.03 21-57 19.6 10.78 17-55 20 13-56 13.84 23.6 14-25 17.69 34-3 15-05 19.09 22.5 15- 15-27 21.6 13-68 16.04 14-3 14-77 24.04 36 II 21 18 I 14 24 4 10 29 1 9 22 6 M 21 8 20 18 16 27 12 7 23 17 4 12 17 I 4 4 7.82 12.84 5-67 9-73 16.66 3-75 10. 66 9 10 11 16.00 3-15 12.03 1.96 2.94 7.02 6.06 4.10 8.08 12 •] Below grade. 13 14 7.01 4-75 7.40 11. 11 5-54 6.03 6.30 8.21 6.19 10.81 6.32 9.09 7.14 4-54 3-8i 15 16 17 18 ( Below grade By glancing at Chart II one can trace the relative position of these curves thruout. Before the age of eight years a large majority of the pupils are in the first grade, and there is no below-grade group. In the early years of school life a great many adventitious circumstances other than positive defects may combine to place a child below grade, but in the middle and upper grades of the course the great majority of those marked below grade are there because of inability to secure regular pro- motion. Now, it will be seen that at every year of school life the children below grade have a larger per cent, of hearing defects than those at or above grade. This relative position of the two curves is maintained thruout the years of school life with surprising uniformity. It seems to draw attention to the symptomatic character of hearing defects; for, besides delimiting the field of sense-impression, defective hearing may be an indication of lack of growth, of improper growth, of injury, or of diseased 886 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of condition of the child. This means that defective hearing parallels other defects, sensory, motor, or of growth.1 This was strikingly evidenced in the examination made by the depart- ment of the six hundred boys found in the John Worthy School, a school which is supported by the board of education for the benefit of the juve- niles in the city prison. The per cent, of defects by ages of these boys may be seen on the upper curve (Chart II), the seemingly great variabil- ity in portions being due to the comparatively small numbers tested. It is rather remarkable that they show a greater number of hearing defects than the so-called normal pupils who are found below grade. Further, in marking defects of growth and movement, the department of child study has always made note of defects of speech. This is a Age 3 5d£ 10 CHART II 12 13 L4 15 16 17 18 general term on the examination card of each child, and is used to cover such palpable defects as lisping, stammering, hesitation, and imperfect pronunciation of elementary sounds. The number of those having such speech defects in the John Worthy School was counted. Out of 6oi there were 90 pronounced cases of such defects, and of this latter number 56 were markedly subnormal in hearing, i. e., 61 per cent, of those having speech defects were defective in hearing. This may not surprise those who have as their concern the education of mutes, for it is very probable that in many cases the child who is subnormal in hearing is backward in using vocal organs, for the same reason that the deaf child does not exercise the power of speech. 1 See article by C. C. Krauskopf, "Some Results of Sight Tests of Chicago School Children," Pro- ceedings of Illinois State Teachers' Association, iqoo-iqoi. Defectives] SOME RESULTS OF HEARING TESTS 887 TABLE III HEARING AND SPEECH DEFECTS Age Number Tested Number Having Speech Defects Number Having Speech and Hearing Defects Per Cent, of Those Defective in Speech who are Subnormal in Hearing 9 * 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 6 25 51 99 114 144 in 37 14 3 5 6 20 13 17 19 4 3 I 4 5 11 9 10 9 4 3 33-3 80. 83-3 55- 69.2 58.8 47-4 100. 100. Totals 601 90 56 61. 11 When one calls to mind the great complexity of mechanism involved in the acquirement and use of the power of speech, and the relatively large area of brain exercised, one can the better understand this inability of the child who is defective in hearing to utilize vocal organs. It is not a matter of the sensori-motor arc becoming atrophied, but of not being developed, so that in this case the proper co-ordination between the hear- ing area of the brain and those motor areas governing speech has not been set up, nor made flexible and responsive. I am sure that this Department of Education for the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded children needs no urging to broaden its interests to take into consideration the well-being of those children who are neither deaf nor blind nor feeble-minded, but who are the so-called normal children, and nevertheless, limiting oneself to the sense of hearing, present the large number of 16 per cent, as subnormal. It means that the children who come under your immediate charge have such pronounced defects that they become at once the objects of individual attention, and the powers and capacities which are available are appealed to, while the chil- dren who are subnormal in sensory power are often branded as stupid and wayward because of their apparent inability to keep pace with their more fortunate companions. Facility and ease in sense-perception can- not fail to induce pleasure in further mental activity. On the other hand, the failure to remove difficulty in sensing is poor economy of mental energy. The department of child study of the public schools of Chicago is interested in every feature of your work. Your problems we appre- ciate and your achievements we praise. Time forbids any presentation of the immensely important problems before our department further than the facts relative to the sense of hearing, to which I have limited NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Education of myself. I can think of no other department of school work than yours that can so readily appreciate the significance of these facts, and I have taken pleasure in presenting them. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER CORA STANTON BROWN, ASSOCIATE EDITOR OF EDUCATION" SCHOOL AND HOME The home, the church, and the school reflect and embody the ideals of the race. The two latter are founded upon the idea of fitting man for his destiny. Formerly church and school were divided by a line between the sacred and the secular, which is fast being obliterated, because we are coming to see sacredness in all things. The new education recognizes as its end the development of character, self-realization of a spiritual being of infinite possibilities. The foundation of church and school is recognized as one. Both institutions take note of economic, industrial, and social conditions. One holds up the ideal life to which man must attain somewhere, some time; the other tries to unfold to the child the actual world and his rela- tion to it. Both deal with race questions, with the child as one of many, recognizing the social whole rather than the individual. The home is the place where the individual is born and nourished. Its education is egoistic rather than altruistic, its spirit private rather than public, exclusive rather than inclusive. The public school originated in the limitations of the home. The hardships incident to the settlement of a new country resulted in co-operation between the" New England families in the matter of schools and teachers for their children. The state, the first one to recognize the right of all men to freedom, has taken these schools under its protection and offers equal opportunity to all its children. The public schools of the United States thus stand upon the highest ideal of man and his destiny yet conceived. Altho the school was founded on a need in the home, it has become a great institution, and with this growth has crept in formalism in teach- ing and supervision, until there began to be a separation between the home and the school. Industrial and economic conditions have so changed that the home no longer offers the same educational opportu- nity it did when many industries were carried on under its roof, and the changes have come so rapidly that we have not wholly adjusted our thinking to the new order. Yet the school still supplements the home, exists for the sake of the individual, and the two need to be in sym- pathetic and intelligent relation. Defectives] PUBLIC SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER 889 My experience is that the school is asking for help, for interest, for knowledge of its ideals and methods from its patrons. Methods have changed since the parents of the present generation were in school. Needs are different. The public school will be a more effective social center, that is, a place where the individual learns to live in the whole, to recognize his responsibility and power in society, when the people for whom it exists hold certain ideals and work for their realization : first, that teaching is a profession and demands professional training; second, that it must be remunerated on the basis of a profession, not of a trade ; third, the necessity for culture which comes from a command of one's time and a measure of freedom from petty cares. Only life can produce life. Education is bringing the child into a richer, fuller life than he has known. The teacher cannot share what he does not have. But the school cannot do the work of regenerating the world alone. I believe the school will reflect the moral and spiritual standards of the families represented there by children as well as the standards of the teachers. The teachers themselves come out of like homes. If the study of their profession gives them higher ideals of life and of man's possibilities, it is their privilege to carry the blessed message back to those who have heard it not. One element in the effectiveness of the kindergarten is the education of the mother thru her child. Teacher, mother, and child are in close sympathy. One kindergarten has been known to revolutionize a whole neighborhood physically and morally, because one little child has led a whole family into physical and moral cleanliness. In this city (Detroit) the work instigated by one woman has improved a whole school district. I refer to the work of Miss Harriet Marsh and her co-operation with the patrons of her school. After all, this work of regeneration is an individual matter. The man or woman of great soul makes his or her home, school, church, or social settlement a social center, from which radiate good thought, good will, and good deed. The best men and women are ready to join hands in work for the children, and the time will come when more cities will join New York in its magnificent public-school extension work for which public-school money is appropriated; when public schools will be endowed as private schools now are; when the power of the only institution in this country where all people really meet on an equal footing, and where the sublime ideals on which our government is based have the best chance of being embodied, will be recognized. DEPARTMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST SESSION.— Monday Morning, July 8, 1901 The department met in the Central M. E. Church, Detroit, Mich., at 9 : 30 o'clock. The session was opened with prayer. Music — organ solo, "Fugue," Bach — by Mr. Pomeroy. Addresses of welcome were delivered by Hon. W. C. Mabury, mayor; Hon. Delos Fall, superintendent of public instruction; Wales C. Martindale, city superintendent of schools ; and Hon. Ed. F. Marschner, president of board of education of Detroit. Music — song, "The Violet," Mildenberg — by Miss Edyth Lott. Responses were made by the president of the department, Dr. H. B. Frissell, prin- cipal of Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute; W. M. Beardshear, president of State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, la.; Dr. A. E. Winship, Boston, Mass.; E. C. Nardin, superintendent of Mount Pleasant Indian School ; H. B. Peairs, superintendent, Haskell Institute, Kansas; Miss Estelle Reel, superintendent of Indian schools, Washington, D. C. SECOND SESSION. — Monday Afternoon The department was called to order by the president at 2 : 30 o'clock. After music by the Mount Pleasant Indian Band, President Frissell delivered an address on " Learn- ing by Doing," which was followed by an address by Superintendent N. C. Dougherty, city schools, Peoria, 111. The remaining exercises were as follows : 1. " What Constitutes Eligibility for Enrollment in a Government School ?" Discussion led by Super- intendent H. B. Peairs, Haskell Institute, Lawrence, Kan. 2. " How Can We Secure the Systematic Transfer of Pupils from Day to Reservation Schools and from Reservation to Non -Reservation Schools ?" Discussion led by Superintendent J. C. Hart, Indian School, Oneida, Wis. 3. "The Essentials of Indian Education," Superintendent T. G. Lemmon, Indian School, Grand Junc- tion, Colo. 4. " Better Facilities for Industrial Training and Competent Teachers Needed." Discussion led by Superintendent DeWitt Harris, Pipestone, Minn. 5. "The Advisability of More Ail-Around Training for the Indian, Rather than an Attempt to Make of Him a Skilled Mechanic," Professor Frank K. Rogers, Hampton Institute, Va. 6. Physicians' Conference; leader, Dr. J. G. Bulloch, Indian School, Cherokee, N. C. THIRD SESSION. — Tuesday Morning, July 9 The session was opened with prayer, at 9 : 30 o'clock. Music — organ solo, " Sonata in G," Dudley Buck — by Mr. Pomeroy. President Frissell announced the following program : 1. Opening address, Dr. A. E. Winship, editor of the Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. 2. Address, Hon. H. C. Smith, M.C., Adrian, Mich. 3. " The Need of Compulsory Education." Discussion led by Superintendent H. B. Peairs, Haskell Institute, Kansas; Superintendent George W. Nellis, Sac and Fox, la.; and Superintendent E. C. Nardin, Indian School, Mount Pleasant, Mich. 890 Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 89I 4. Paper, " Introspection," Superintendent E. A. Allen, Seneca Indian School, Wyandotte, I. T. Music — vocal solo, " IeWltt JBeale This distinguished educator was born in the village of Greene, Chenango county, N. Y., January 10, 1826. He died at Omaha, Neb., April 27, 1900. Altho subject to delicate health during his entire life, he lived and labored intellectually to the ripe age of seventy-four years. His education began in the schools of his native village and was carried forward in a private school at Coventry, and in Oxford and Norwich Academies, New York. He began active life as a farmer in 1848, but bodily health failed, and ten years later he turned to teaching, the work which occupied the remainder of this long life, forty-two years. Mr. Beals moved with his family to Omaha in 1861. He at once opened a private school in the old state house, and for six years this was known as the Omaha High School. This school was well patronized, and pupils came from long distances, but, owing to local circumstances, the institution proved an unprofitable financial enterprise. 925 926 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION In 1869 he was appointed state superintendent of public instruction by the governc of Nebraska. His work in this office was largely that of a pioneer, and his duties wer difficult and arduous. He secured the first equitable distribution of the school funds of the state. He made a thoro visitation of the schools thruout the state, held teachers' insti- tutes, counseled with county superintendents and boards of education on district organi- zation, made addresses, and promoted the building of schoolhouses wherever needed. He designated the text-books to be used thruout the state, despite opposition and regardless of private interests. He regarded a public office as a public trust, and no man could make him swerve from faithfully performing every duty, without regard to partisan or private interests. To his supervision and wise administration of the schools Nebraska owes much of her educational prosperity. At the close of his term in 1871-72 he classified the schools of Omaha in accordance with a course of study previously prepared by himself, assisted by Lyman Hutchinson. During 1872-73 he was principal of one of the Omaha schools. He was elected county superintendent of Douglas county in the fall of 1873, but resigned this office in July, 1874, to take the superintendency of the Omaha city schools, which position he held for six years, successfully conducting these schools to a condition entitling them to rank among the best in the country. He ended his educational career as a teacher in the Omaha High School. Toward the end of his life, his health failing, he was largely relieved from teaching and served as librarian until his death. Mr. Beals became a life member of the National Educational Association at the meet- ing in Baltimore in 1876. (Scoxqc Gbompson 3fa(rcbtU> Dr. Fairchild was born at Brownholm, O., October 6, 1838; he graduated from Oberlin College in 1862, and from the Oberlin Theological Seminary in 1865, receiving from his alma mater the degree of A.M. in 1865 and of LL.D. in 1893. He was the youngest of three brothers, all of whom became presidents of colleges — all distinguished, rising to the first rank in the calling — men of commanding ability and beneficent influ- ence. The family was of the great race of pioneers of Ohio. The parents, but a few years married, moved to the northern part of the state while it was yet a wilderness. A clear- ing was made and a log-cabin built, and thus the typical American home began, with its peculiarly rugged but soundly informing life. George T. Fairchild was tenth in a family of eleven children, and was a pupil and student at Oberlin from childhood until he graduated from the Theological Seminary in 1865. Farm life and school life together during the same years of growth combined to educate the man, producing a sound mind in a sound body. During his college course he taught school at intervals in Michigan, and near its close was tutor in the preparatory departments of Oberlin College. On November 25, 1863, the day of his parents' golden wedding, he was married to his classmate, Charlotte Halstead. Two years later he was chosen to the professorship of English literature in the State Agricultural College of Michigan, where he remained fifteen years, and for a portion of the time was acting president. His talent and success commanded wide recognition, and in 1879 he was invited to the presidency of Kansas State Agricultural College. Under his administration of this institution the number of its students increased from three hundred to eight hundred, and its organization was carried to a high degree of efficiency. His great ability and usefulness, long continued in unsparing and unselfish devotion, did not protect him from the worst enemy of public educational service — political REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY 927 intrigue. But the scandalous attacks upon him by unscrupulous partisans were not able to cause any measure of resentment on his part. He left Kansas disappointed, but with no loss of character or prestige. A revolution soon came in Kansas political affairs. He was invited to return, but declined. In 1898 he went to Berea, Ky., and was made vice- president of Berea College, with which institution, its history, its character, and its aims, he was in full sympathy. He possessed in an eminent degree the rare qualities of an executive manager, and was also a fine disciplinarian as well as a great teacher. He was everywhere popular and influential, and his relations with students and associates were those of a loved master and a genial gentleman. He was made a life director of the association at the meeting at Topeka, Kan., in 1886. Jficnjamin IRea <3ass Benjamin Rea Gass was born on a farm near Mansfield, Richland county, O., January 27, 1837. His father was a Disciple minister. He served for a short time in the Civil War, in the One Hundred and Fifty-fourth Ohio Volunteers. He was a student at Antioch College while Horace Mann was president, but did not graduate until 1866. He received the degree of A.M. from Antioch College in 1869. He taught school in Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, and Colorado — most of the time as superintendent of city schools. From the fall of 1888 until the time of his death, March 25, 1 90 1, he was engaged in school work in Denver — first as principal of Ebert School and afterward of Hyde Park School. Mr. Gass belonged to a well-known Ohio family, members of which were prominent in public affairs. He became an active member of the National Educational Association at the Los Angeles meeting, 1899. Caleb (5. Dall Mr. Hall was born in the town of Pittsfield, N. Y., July 22, 1824. Here, in his birth- place, he lived and worked during his entire life. He died March 4, 1901, on the same farm where he was born. His vocation was farming, in which he was very successful. He received a good schooling at the New Berlin and Gilbertville Academies. He was an influential free mason and a member of the Patriotic Order of the Sons of America. An enthusiastic admirer of Washington, he erected two fine monuments in the cemetery at New Berlin commemorative of George and Mary Washington. He was a liberal giver to public enterprises, and generously aided many young people to obtain an education. The life and deeds of Caleb G. Hall are sufficient testimony that he was eminently qualified to be made a life director of the National Educational Association, which was done at its meeting at Saratoga in 1885. JBurfte aaron "Dfns&ale A full sketch of the life and character of Dr. Hinsdale, by President Angell of the University of Michigan, may be found on p. 387 of this volume. 928 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 5obn Brnolfc f?leinsorse John Arnold Kleinsorge was born at Maquoketa, la, in 1867. He graduatec from the State Normal School at Cedar Falls, la., in 1890 ; after which he taught in the public schools of Iowa for five years, filling the principalship of Crocker School, Des Moines, for three years. He then went to Europe, spending four years in the German universities, and in traveling. He obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy from Jena in 1899. While in London, in 1897, he was married to Miss Eliza George, a former teacher in the West Des Moines High School. Upon returning to America, he held the chair of pedagogy in the State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y., for a term. The following year he became the principal of the training school in the State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., which position he held till the time of his death, which occurred in Denver, in March, 1901. He became an active member of the National Educational Association in January, 1901. Sosepb %e Conte Professor Joseph Le Conte was born in Liberty county, Georgia, February 26, 1823. His career began with the study of law, which soon became distasteful to him. Medi- cine next attracted him, and he took a course in the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons. Finally he went to Cambridge, Mass., where he became a student of zoology and geology, under the great master Agassiz, and this determined his life-work. He also gave some attention to chemistry and held professorships of this science in Georgia and South Carolina. During the Civil War he had charge of the Confederacy's laboratory for the preparation of niter to be made into gunpowder. In 1869 he was chosen professor of geology and natural history in the University of California, where he remained thirty-two years, until the end of his life, closing his eyes in death while pursuing his favorite vacation pastime — the study of mountain forma- tions and sculpture amid the familiar scenes of the Yosemite valley. A student of nature always, he was also a great teacher in the class-room and by his publications. His works embraced a wide range of observation and thought. The chief ones were : Religion and Science (1874), Elements of Geology (1878), Sight, An Exposition of the Prin- ciples of Monocular and Binocular Vision (1881), Compend of Geology (1884), Evolution in its Relation to Religious Thought (1888), and fugitive papers for magazines. While yet a college student his insight into biology fitted him to appreciate the force of Darwin's theories. Doubtless the teachings of Agassiz exerted a powerful influence upon his mind. He had strong religious convictions. His thought was distinguished by its originality and versatility ; his manners were genial and courteous ; these qualities made his personality very attractive, especially to his pupils and associates. He was widely known at home and abroad. Some of his works were used as text-books in Oxford University. President Benjamin Ide Wheeler of the State University of California voiced the feelings of Professor Le Conte's associates in the faculty of that institution in saying : " His soul was as clear and as pure as crystal. Even thru the pages of his books shone out the warmth of his personality. For thirty-two years he has been a great, vital power in the University of California. No man can estimate the value of the influence he has exerted." Professor Le Conte became an active member of the National Educational Asso- ciation in 1895, at the meeting in Denver. REPOR T OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY 9 2 9 B. 3B. flbcBlroB Professor McElroy was born in Washington county, Pennsylvania, September 17, 1842. He died at Eugene, Ore., May 4, 1901. He attended the common schools of his native county and afterward the State Normal School of Pennsylvania. He became a teacher in 1861, but in the fall of that year enlisted in the Union army, Company B, First Regi- ment, West Virginia Volunteers. In 1863 he re-enlisted in the One Hundredth Penn- sylvania Volunteers, continuing in the service until the close of the Civil War, in 1865. He fought in the battles of Cheat Mountain, Romney, and Winchester; also in the battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and others, under General Grant, and was at the assault on Petersburg and the surrender of Lee. He then spent two years more in college, when he began his life-work as a teacher, eight years of which were given to the public schools of West Virginia and Penn- sylvania. In 1873, with his family (having been married to Miss Agnes McFadden in 1869), he moved to Oregon, and settled at Corvallis, where he taught two years. In 1875 he was elected professor in the State Agricultural College. While serving in this institu- tion he was chosen superintendent of the schools of Benton county, and was twice re-elected. He received the degree of Ph.D. from Willamette University in 1884. In 1882 he was chosen superintendent of public instruction for Oregon, and was twice re-elected, his last term ending January 14, 1895. Soon after, he was appointed to a professorship in the Oregon State University, at Eugene, where he resided until his death. May 4, 1901. Professor McElroy became an active member of the National Educational Associa- tion in 1895. He was already a leader in educational affairs in his adopted state, having attained a paramount influence in giving shape and character to its system of public schools. Professor McElroy added to his fame as a schoolmaster renown as a citizen. He served his country well as soldier, teacher, and citizen, and his life at the end was crowned with the honors that belong to such services. 3obn lt>. rtfceban John M. Mehan was born in Bath, Va., October 6, 1845. He" was left an orphan at an early age, and made his home with a merchant at Vandalia, 111., where he got some schooling and learned the wheelright trade. At the age of twenty he took the trail to Montana, driving a yoke of oxen, and spent ten years prospecting and mining. Return- ing to Iowa in 1872, he taught school in Story county. While thus engaged, he was com- pelled to study hard to keep ahead of his pupils, but succeeded finally in gaining time to take private lessons in penmanship, and soon attained the skill of an expert in the art. He taught at Nevada and Ames, serving as principal of the high school of the latter place. Afterward he accepted a situation as special teacher of penmanship, drawing, and bookkeeping at Creston. For a time he was engaged with the New York Life Insurance Co., in which position he acquired great versatility in every form of practical knowledge bearing upon his work. In 1884, together with others, he established, at Des Moines, the Capital City Com- mercial College. Mr. Mehan was president of the institution and chief owner. Professor Mehan was known as a hard and intelligent worker, especially on the educational lines for which he had a special gift. This spirit made him an active and well-known figure at educational conventions. He became a member of the National Educational Association in 1892, with which he continued in active relations until his death, March 9, 1901. 93° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Mr. Mehan was also a teacher in Sunday schools for years, and was a member of the Presbyterian church. To his many useful intellectual activities he added that of editing and publishing The Accountant, a journal for bookkeepers, and later The Iowa Schools, a journal for teachers. He was also a writer for a syndicate of western news- papers. Had this lifelong busy worker in intellectual fields been less energetic, less con- scientious, less sensitive to his own fancied shortcomings, he might have lived longer in the body. But he was withal so earnest, so lovable, so genial, so modest and unpreten- tious, that in the daily losing of this life he found another and a better. Jacob Z. dfcerrtll The subject of this sketch, born April It, 1839, at Granville, O., was left motherless at two years of age. At seven he left home and began to make his own way in the world. He soon found a good home on a farm among strangers. His book education began in a country school, and he was happy in the necessity for working his way thru Otterbein University, Ohio, for a self-secured education is a reliable dependence for such a career as lay before him. In 1 861 he was teaching a boys' school in Illinois, when the call to arms came. Leaving his school, he enlisted for the war, but was not called into active service. After the close of the war he taught a country school for a while, and then went to the village of Lafayette, Ind., where he served as principal of the high school for two years, and was then chosen superintendent. In this office he remained for twenty-seven years. In 1898 he was chosen superintendent of the city schools of Cedar Rapids, la., where his educational career ended in the midst of his devotion to the highest interests of the city of his adoption. In Iowa he was twice offered the state superintendency, but declined to be a can- didate. Professor Merrill was active in the wider educational movements of his time ; was a regular attendant upon, and an enthusiastic worker in, teachers' meetings and conven- tions; was president of the Indiana State Association in 1878 ; became an active mem- ber of the National Educational Association in 1893, and was vice-president of the association at Asbury Park in 1894. He died June 22, 1901, at the home of his sister in Ligonier, Ind., where he was then visiting. Xewts /iTMller Lewis Miller was born at Greentown, O., of Holland ancestry. After obtaining the rudiments of an English education in country schools, he graduated from an Illinois academy and taught country schools for a time. By the age of twenty-five he was an inventor of mowing and reaping machinery, and soon established himself in a machine shop at Canton, O. A few years later he removed to Akron, O., where he established a large agri- cultural implement factory, and where he lived until the time of his death. He also became the president of two other large manufacturing companies, one at Canton, O., the other at Mansfield, O. His life was given mainly to the invention and manufacture of harvesters and thresh- ing machines, in which he amassed considerable wealth. He was also largely interested and very active in church and Sunday-school work, as REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY 931 well as in general education. He is perhaps most widely known as the joint founder, with Bishop John H. Vincent, and president of the Chautauqua Assembly. He was a stanch friend and supporter of the public schools, as well as the benefactor of sev- eral colleges. He became a life member of the National Educational Association in 1880. Mr. Miller was the father of eleven children. His wife and eight children survive him. One of his daughters is the wife of Thomas A. Edison. His youngest son was one of Roosevelt's Rough Riders, and was killed in the battle of San Juan Hill. Mr. Miller died in New York city, February 17, 1899. 2>r. 1R. \D. 1?. dftontfort Dr. Montfort became a member of the National Educational Association in 1892. Altho a physician by profession and many years' practice, he was, in some capacity, connected with the schools of Newburgh the greater part of his life. His education was obtained by a series of severe struggles, but his untiring and ambi- tious efforts gained for him a position as teacher in a district school at fifteen years of age. He taught for several years in the counties of Dutchess and Putnam, New York, and improved his scholarship by private study in leisure hours. For a few months he taught in a private academy at Newburgh. He then gave up teaching for the study of medicine, and prepared himself for entrance to Albany Medical College, where he gradu- ated in 1856. He at once began the practice of medicine in Newburgh. In 1859 he was elected clerk of the board of education and superintendent of the public schools of that city. In 1862, resigning his office in the schools, he accepted a commission as assistant sur- geon in the One Hundred and Twenty-fourth New York Volunteer Infantry, and was with the army of the Potomac in every battle from Chancellorsville to the end of the war. He was promoted for worthy service and qualifications in 1865, and mustered out of service in June of the same year. Dr. Montfort was a member of the Episcopal church and one of the founders and prominent officials of the Y. M. C. A. Doubtless the most important and influential service given to the public by this able and typical American citizen was that of supervision in the common schools of Newburgh for nearly thirty years. He died December 29, 1900, in his sixty-sixth year. fjenrvj IRaab Henry Raab was born at Wetzlar, Rhenish Prussia, June 20, 1837. He died at his home in Belleville, 111., March 13, 1901. He was a currier by trade, but had received a liberal education in Prussia. He came to America in 1853, locating at Cincinnati, where he pursued his trade for a short time. Later he went to St. Louis, near which city he managed a farm; but soon settled near Belleville, St. Clair county, 111., and in 1857 became an assistant teacher in the public schools of that city. His success led to his appointment as city superintendent in 1873- In 1882 he was elected state superintendent of public instruction. At the end of his term he declined renomination, but accepted a second nomination in 1890. In 1894 he was again a candidate, but was defeated. He was connected with the public schools of Illinois for nearly half a century. He 932 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION was large-minded as an educator, and especially distinguished for liberality and impar- tiality in his administration of the office of state superintendent of public instruction. Professor Raab became a life member of the National Educational Association in 1884, at the meeting in Madison. 3obn Cgrus IRi&ge John Cyrus Ridge was born April 6, 1841, on his father's farm near Waynesville, O., where his boyhood was spent. He obtained his early education in the same country school in which he began teaching at the age of nineteen. For a time he attended the Ohio Wesleyan University, and later accepted a position with the publishing firm of Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., of Cincinnati, with whom and their successors, the American Book Co., he remained for more than a quarter of a century. He died at his home at Mount Auburn, Cincinnati, O., on January 31, 1901. Mr. Ridge was one of a famous company of Ohio teachers who had their birth in Clermont county, Ohio, where General Grant was born. He too possessed the marked characteristic that distinguished them all — Rickoff, Hancock, Parker, Page — great executive ability. Several of these men, at the breaking out of the Civil War, enlisted and served in the Union army with the same eminent ability and devotion which they all showed in the great army of peace in which they also mustered and trained. Mr. Ridge's labors as the agent of a great schoolbook 'publishing house were char- acterized by forceful ability and high-minded integrity, and were always beneficent for the cause of education, whose highest interests he never failed to serve. He became an active member of the National Educational Association in 1897, at the meeting in Mil- waukee. lUilliam 3. Williams William J. Williams was born June 4, 1845, in Licking county, Ohio, of Welsh parents. At the age of twelve he began to contribute to his own support, and in 1862 commenced a regular classical course at Denison University, Granville, O. Working between times in the harvest field or teaching school, he finished a seven-years' course and graduated in 187 1. He at once took up the profession of teaching and secured the principalship of the schools at Winamac, Ind., remaining there two years, and then going to Rochester, Ind., where he was county superintendent for two terms and city superintendent for nine years. From Rochester he went to Franklin, Ind., in 1886, to take the chair of pedagogy in Franklin College. He held this position for one year and then became superin- tendent of the Franklin schools. On account of the failing health of his wife, he resigned at Franklin in 1893 and traveled. After the death of Mrs. Williams in November of that year he accepted the principalship of the Marion, Ind., High School for the remainder of the term, and in 1894 became superintendent at Columbus, Neb. This position he held at the time of his death, December 6, 1900. He took a prominent part in the educational work of Nebraska, being a member of the state reading circle board and also president of the Northern Nebraska Teachers' Association one year. Mr. Williams became a member of the National Educational Association at the Denver meeting, in 1895. LIST OF LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS ARRANGED BY STATES, CLASSES, AND YEARS OF CONTINUOUS MEMBERSHIP REVISED TO NOVEMBER I, igoi The marginal figures indicate the year of the commencement of continuous annual membership for those whose names immediately follow. The indented figures indicate year of appointment to present educational position. The value of this list as an educa- tional directory depends upon its accuracy and completeness ; all members are invited to contribute to this end by furnishing corrections of errors, however slight, and by supply- ing omitted data. Extra copies of this list may be obtained by remitting twenty-five cents to the Secre- tary, Winona, Minn. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS1 ENGLAND 1898 Miss Dorothea Beale, Associate of Queen's Coll., London. First Lady Mathematical Tutor, 1850-57; also Latin Tutor; Principal of the Cheltenham Ladies' College since 1858 ; Officier d'Academie of Paris, 1889 ; President of the Association of Head Mistresses, 1895 ; Tutor in Letters of the University of Durham, 1896; Author of various Reports, Essays, and Text- Books. Address: Ladies' Col- lege, Cheltenham, London. Sir Joshua Fitch, A.M., '52; Fellow, '75, of the Univ. of London ; LL.D., St. Andrew's Univ. Formerly Principal of the Training College of the British and Foreign School Society; Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools and Chief Inspector of Training Colleges, 1863 ; Knighted for Public Services on his Retirement from Office, 1896 ; some time Examiner in Cambridge and London Universities and for the Civil Service ; Author of Lectures on Teaching delivered before the University of Cambridge, 1880, and other Books and Essays. Address: 13 Leinster Sq., Bayswater, W., London. Michael Ernest Sadler, A.M., Trinity Coll. and Christ Church, Oxford. Secretary of the Oxford University Extension Delegacy, 1885-95 > Student and Steward of Christ Church, Oxford, 1890-95 ; Member of the Royal Commission on Second- ary Education, 1893-95; Director of Special Inquiries and Reports to the Board of Education (England and Wales) since 1895. Address: Whitehall, S. W., London. Hon. E. Lyulph Stanley. Member of Board of Education of London. Address: London. 1901 Cloudesley S. Henry Brereton, A.B., '96, A.M., '90, St. John's Coll., Cambridge; B. es L., L. es L., Univ. of Paris. Examiner in Modem Languages to the Joint Scholarship Board, i89g-r9or ; Examiner in French to the Cambridge University Local Syndicate, 1898-1901 ; Examiner in Modern Languages to the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board, 1899-1901 ; Vice- President of the International Jury for Primary Education at the Paris Exposition, 1900 ; Appointed to Inquire into the Teaching of Modern Languages in Ireland, 1901 ; Writer on Education in " Fortnightly Review," " The Times, " Saturday Review," etc.; Author of various Reports; Addressed the National Educational Association of the United States at Detroit, Mich., 1901, on "The Educational Crisis in England." Address: Briningham House, Melton Constable, England. Fabian Ware. Inspector of Secondary Schools for the Board of Education of London ; Assistant Director of Education for the Transvaal. Address: 54 Goldhurst Terrace, Hampstead, N. W., London ; colonial address: Pretoria, S. A. 1 Several names appear in this list without full description because the data. had not been received at the time of going to press, 933 934 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Corresponding SCOTLAND 1898 Simon Somerville Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Univ. of Edinburgh, F.R.S.E. ; Hon. Fellow of the Edu- cational Institute of Scotland, and of the Comenius Society, Germany. Professor of the Institutes und History of Education, Edinburgh University, since 1876; Visitor and Examiner to Dick Bequest (educational) Trust since 1,856; Secretary to the Endowed Schools (Scotland) Commission, 1872; Secretary to Association for Promoting Secondary Education in Scotland, founded 1876 ; at one time President of Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland; Member of Edinburgh University Court; Author oi various Philosophical and Educational Books and Articles. Address: 22 George Sq., Edinburgh. FRANCE 1898 Ferdinand Buisson. Professor of Education at the Sorbonne. Address: Paris. J. J. Gabriel Compayr£, Ph.D., 1873. Professor of Philosophy, Lycees de Pau, 1865 — de Poitiers, 1868 — de Toulouse, 1871 ; Professor of Philosophy, Faculty of Letters of Toulouse, 1874 ; Professor of History of Education, Normal School of Fontenay aux Roses, 1880 — Normal School of St. Cloud, 1881 ; Member of Chambre des Deputes, 1881-89; Rector of the Academy of Poitiers, 1890-05; Rector of the Academy and University of Lyons, 1895; Cor- responding Member of the Institut de France, 1901 ; Rector at the University of Lyons. Address: Lyons, France. Pierre Emile Levasseur, Doctor (ad Honories),Univ. of Columbia and Univ. of Budapest; Litt. D., '56. Professor of Letters and Rhetoric, and of History, at several Lyceums, 1868 ; Professor at the College of France since 1868 ; Professor at the Institute of Arts and Trades, 1871- 96; President of the Association for the Secondary Instruction of Young Girls at the Sorbonne since 1881 ; President of the Statistical Commission of Primary Instructors since 1876; Corresponding Member of the Academies of Prussia, Sweden, Hungary, and of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Address: 26, rue Monsieur-le-Prince, Paris. 1901 Charles Bavet. Director of Primary Instruction in the Ministry of Public Instruction of France. Address: 27, rue Gay-Lussac, Paris. L£on Bourgeois. Formerly Minister of Public Instruction; Member of the Chamber of Deputies. Address: rue Palatine, Paris. Elie Rabier. Director of Secondary Education in the Ministry of Public Instruction. Address: 24, rue de Fleury, Paris. Camille See. Counsellor of State. Address: 65, avenue des Champs- Ely sees, Paris. GERMANY 1898 Friedrich Paulsen, Ph.D., '71. Berlin. Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogics, University of Berlin, since 1877. Address: Steglitz Fichtestrasse 31, Berlin. 1898 Luigi Bodio ITALY Member of the Council of State and President of the Superior Council of Statistics. Address: Roma, Italia. . RUSSIA igOI E. P. KOVALEVSKI. Officer of the Imperial Ministry of Public Instruction, Address: St. Petersburg. HUNGARY 1901 B£la de Tormav. Chief of Bureau in the Royal Ministry of Agriculture. Address: Budapest. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 1901 Joseph Benjamin Zubiaur, LL.D., '84, Univ. of Buenos Ayres. Professor and Assistant Supervisor of Normal Schools and National Colleges, 1881-84 ; Inspector of the Normal Schools and National Colleges, 1885-91 ; Delegate sent by the Minister of Public Instruction to the World's Exposition at Paris in 1889; Principal of the National College of Concepcion del Uruguay, 1892-98 ; Director of the Section of Education, 1899; Member of the National Board of Education, 1899; Delegate to the Pan-American Exposition from the Province of Entre Rios and General Board of Education of the Province of Corrientes, also Commissioner to Study the Elementary Schools and Adult Evening Schools of the United States, 1901. Address: Buenos Ayres, Argentine Republic; address until January, 1902, 512 Delavan Ave., Buffalo, N. Y. UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL 1 90 1 Alcides Medrado. Address: Care of Legation of the United States of Brazil, Washington, D. C. A. FONTOURA XAVIER. In Consular Service (various appointments), 1885-97; Consul General from Brazil to the United States, 1897; Plenipotentiary to Universal Postal Congress at Washington, 1901 ; Delegate to Second Pan-American Congress, Mexico, 1901. Address: Rio Janeiro, Brazil ; consular address: 17 State St., New York, N. Y. Alabama] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 935 REPUBLIC OF CHILE 1901 Julio Pkres Canto, LL.B., 'go. Secretary of the Society for the Industrial Development of Chile, Santiago, 1891-96 ; Com- missioner of Chile at the Central American Exposition, 1896 ; Consul General of Chile to the Central American Republics, Guatemala, 1898; Delegate Secretary to the Pan-American Exposition of Buffalo (special commission), 1901. Consular address: Guatemala City, Guatemala, C. A. Carlos Silva Cruz. Address: Care of Legation of the Republic of Chile, Washington, D. C, Giullbrmo Freudenburg Cristi, Ph.B., '97, B.L., '00, Univ. of Santiago, Chile. Director and Chief of the School Department, Patronato Santa Filomena, 1896; Commis- sioner Assistant of Chile to the Pan-American Exposition (educational department) ; Special Commissioner to Study the Educational Systems in the United States and Europe, 1901. Address: Casilla 841, Santiago, Chile; United States address: Castle Inn, Niagara Sq., Buffalo, N, Y. REPUBLIC OF GUATEMALA 1901 Dr. Joaquin Yela. Physician and Surgeon of the Faculties of Guatemala and San Francisco, Cal. ; Founder and ex-Dean af the Guatemalan College of Pharmacy and Medicine; Guatemalan Commissioner to the Paris (1878) and Buffalo Expositions; Delegate to the Second and Third Pan-American Medical Congresses; Member of the Caballeros Hospita- larios Espanoles of Madrid, Spain ; Member of the Academie Nationale of Paris, France. Address: Guatemala City, Guatemala, C. A.; consular address: 4 Stone St., New York, N. Y. REPUBLIC OF NICARAGUA 1901 Don Alejandro Bermudez, M.T., T.E., A.M., '92, Inst, of Granada, Nicaragua. Professor of Literature, National Institute, Guatemala, 1893; Member Pedagogical Con- gress of Guatemala; Inspector General of Finance of Nicaragua, 1898 ; Assistant Secretary of Promotion and Public Works of Nicaragua, 1899 ; Secretary of Legation of Nicaragua in Washington and Special Commissioner to Pan-American Exposi- tion, 1901. Address: Care of Legation of Nicaragua, Washington, D, C. Don Ramiro Gamez. Address: Care of Legation of Nicaragua, Washington, D. C. REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA 1901 Don Joaquin Bernando Calve. Address: Care of Legation of Costa Rica, Washington, D. C. LIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS ALABAMA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1883 Julia S. Tutwiler. Principal of Alabama Normal College for Girls, Livingston. 1888 John Herbert Phillips, A.M., Marietta Coll., O. ; Ph.D., Southern Univ., Ala. 1883, Superintendent of Schools, 2231, 7th Ave., Birmingham. 189a Francis Morton Roof. 1897, President of Howard College, East Lake. 1894 Lucien V. La Taste. General Agent, University Publishing Co. of New York; Box 564, Montgomery. John Massev, A.M., '75, LL.D., '79, Univ. of Ala. 1876, President of Alabama Conference Female College, Tuskegee, 1895 Mary A. Cahalan. 1884, Principal of the Powell School, 2311, 4th Ave., Birmingham. J.B.Cunningham. 1898, Principal of High School, 1030 S. 21st St., Birmingham. Robert Alexander Mickle, A.B., '86, Davidson Coll., N. C. Principal, Jefferson St. Primary and Grammar Schools, 101 Georgia Ave., Mobile. James K. Powers, A.M., '73, LL.D., '97, Univ. of Ala. 1901, Representative, B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., Florence. John D. Yerbv, A.B., '79, Southern Univ. ; A.M., '96, Univ. of Ala. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 996 Government St., Mobile. 1897 Alabama Polytechnic Institute. President, William Le Roy Broun; Librarian, Charles C. Thach, Auburn. 1898 Robert Venable Allgood, B.Sc, '90, So. Univ., Greensboro; A.M., '93, Univ. of Nashville. 1894, Superintendent of Public Schools, 3d Ave. E., Avondale, Birmingham. Charles A. Brown, C.E., A. & M. Coll. of Ala. 1897, Principal of Henley School, 2130, 6th Ave., Birmingham. J. F. Elliott. 1900, Superintendent of Schools at Brookwood and Searles, Brookwood, Tuscaloosa Co. J. D. Matlock. Representative of American Book Co., 2112 N. 7th Ave., Birmingham. 1899 State Normal School at Jacksonville. President, William Clarence Daugette, Jacksonville. 1900 John W. Abercrombie, A.B., '86, Oxford Coll. ; LL.B., '88, Univ. of Ala. 1898, Superintendent of Education of Alabama, Department of Education, Montgomery. Lucien P. Giddens. Greensboro. 936 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCLATION [Arkansas ALABAMA— Continued 1900 Charles B. Glenn, M.Sc, '92, Ala. Polytechnic Inst. ; A.B., '96, Harvard. 1899, Principal, Paul Hayne School, 709 S. 20th St., Birmingham. Willard J. Wheeler. 1896, President, Birmingham Business College, 1909^-1917}^, 1st Aye., Birmingham. M. C. Wilson, C.E., '76, Univ. of Va. President, State Normal College, Florence. 1901 J. Alex. Moore. Secretary, Alabama Girls' Industrial School, Montevallo. H. O. Murfek, B.Sc, '92, Marion Mil. Inst. ; A.B., A.M., '97, Univ. of Va. Assistant Superintendent and Professor of Physics, Marion Military Institute, Marion. John Lake Parker. 1900, Member, Board of Education, 1913, 1st Ave., Birmingham. Mrs. J. H. Phillips. President, Free Kindergarten Association, Birmingham. ARIZONA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1898 R. L. Long. 1899, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol Building, Phoenix. Blanche Torrence Thomas. 1901, Kindergarten Teacher, San Carlos. 1899 Frank Yale Adams, A.B., '88, A.M., '94, St. Lawrence Univ. 1897, Professor of History and Pedagogy, University of Arizona, Tucson. William J. Anderson, B.Sc, '97, National Univ., Chicago. 1899, Territorial Normal School, Tempe; res., S. 12th Ave., Phoenix. Edward J. Berringer. 1901, Principal Teacher, Indian School, Fort Mojave. Mrs. Sidney C. Botkin. Matron of Indian School, Mohave City. William B. Creager, A.B., '95, Ind. State Univ. 1895, Superintendent of City Schools, California Ave., Phoenix. A. J. Matthews. 1900, President, Territorial Normal School, Tempe. James R. Meskimons. 1900, Director of Manual Training, Phoenix Indian Schools, Phoenix. M. M. Parker, A.M., '78, Wesleyan Univ. 1897, President of University of Arizona, Tucson. 1900 Milton J. Needham. Principal, Blue Canon School, Algert. 1901 W. W. Ewing. Principal Teacher, Moqui Indian Training School, Keams Canon. S. M. McCowan. 1889, Superintendent of Indian School, Phoenix. University of Arizona. Acting President, F. Yale Adams; Librarian, Howard J. Hall, Tucson. Horace G. Wilson. 1901, Superintendent of Havasupai Indian School, Supai. ARKANSAS ACTIVE MEMBERS 1887 Thomas A. Futrall, A.M., West Tenn. Coll.; LL.D., 'oo, Univ. of Ark. 1895, Examiner Public-School Teachers for Lee Co., Marianna. 1895 George B. Cook, A.M. Superintendent of City Schools, 200 Garden St., Hot Springs. J. L. Holloway, A.M., Mo. St. Nor. Sch. 1889, Superintendent of Schools, 1203 N. 12th St., Fort Smith. W. W. Rivers, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Univ. of Miss. 1901, President of Central College, Conway. 1896 Howard Gates. 1891, Principal of Kramer School, Little Rock. J. H. Hinemon, A.M. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 618 W. 6th Ave., Pine Bluff. Alfred Lee Peacher, A.M., '92, Wooster Univ., O. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 806 Broadway, Van Buren. 1897 Hendrix College. President, A. C. Millar, Conway. J. W. Parker. Principal of Schools, 8th and B Sts., Fort Smith. John Hugh Reynolds, A.B., '93, Hendrix Coll.; A.M., '97, Univ. of Chicago. Professor of Education and History, Hendrix College, Conway. 1898 Joseph Carter Corbin, A.M., '60, Ph.D., '99, Ohio Univ. 1873, President of Branch Normal College, Pine Bluff. Frances Owen Hogg. Teacher in Public Schools, 630 Chestnut St., Pine Bluff. Emma Mann, M.E.L., '91, Memphis Con. Female Inst., Jackson, Tenn. 1898, Vice- Principal of 6th Ave. School, 627 Pine St., Pine Bluff. T. P. Murrey. Representative of American Book Co., Little Rock. J. R. Rightsell. Superintendent of City Schools, Little Rock. 1899 J. J. Doyne. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock. California] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 937 ARKANSAS— Continued 1899 James H. Witherspoon, A.B., '92, Univ. of Tenn. 1895, Principal of High School, 302 \V. 17th Ave., Pine Bluff. 1900 T.L. Cox. Manager, Educational Dept., Woodward and Tiernan, 1600 Arch St., Little Rock. J. D. Van Winkle. District Manager, B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., 1023 N. 14th St., Fort Smith. 1901 Christopher Columbus Black. 1901, Principal of Schools, Mulberry. B. H. Caldwell. 1901, President, Normal College, Pea Ridge. J. H. Caldwell. Superintendent of City Schools, Harrison. A. H. Carter, B.Sc, '77, McKendree Coll., Lebanon, 111. 1889, Principa' of Du Val School, 213 N. 15th St., Fort Smith. I. T. Gillam, A.B., '98, Howard Univ., Washington, D. C Principal of 21st St. School, 1023 Arch St., Little Rock. J. Wilson Pettus, A.B., '97, Fisk Univ. Assistant Principal of Howard High School, 606 N. 10th St., Fort Smith. E. O. Trent. Principal of Howard High School, 901 N. 9th St., Fort Smith. CALIFORNIA life members 1877 Mrs. Anna Kalfus Spero. Berkeley. 1879 James Harmon Hoose, A.M., '64, Ph.D., '73, Syracuse Univ. 1896, Department of Philosophy and History, University of Southern Cal., 255 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena. 1882 Harriet N. Morris, A.M., '86, Nat. Nor. Univ. 2346, 2d St., San Diego. 1886 C. Y. Roop, A.B., V7, Univ. of 111. Editor " Co-operative Journal," 634, 18th St., Oakland. 1888 Rebecca F. English. 1891, Critic Teacher, State Normal School, 141 S. 10th St., San Jos6. Joseph O'Connor. 1898. Principal of Mission High School, 105 Ellis St., San Francisco. 1889 Mrs. Augusta W. Classen. 1633 Hyde St., San Francisco. active members 1888 J. P. Greeley. 1889, County Superintendent of Schools, Courthouse, Santa Ana. 1889 Sanford A. Hooper, A.B., '72, A.M., '82, Beloit Coll. 1899, Head Master of Los Angeles Military Academy, Los Angeles. Edward T. Pierce, LL.B., '77, Union Univ. ; Pd.D., '94, N. Y. Nor. Coll. 1893, President of State Normal School, 631 W. 5th St., Los Angeles. 1891 Elmer Ellsworth Brown, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D., '90, Halle. 1898, Professor of Theory and Practice of Education, Univ. of Cal., 2341 Channing Way, Berkeley. 1892 Frederic L. Burk, B.L., '83, Univ. of Cal. , A.M., '92, Stanford Univ. ; Ph.D., '98, Clark Univ. 1899, President of State Normal School, Powell St., near Clay, San Francisco. 1893 James A. Foshay, A.M., Univ. of So. Cal. ; Pd.D., '98, N. Y. Nor. Coll. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 2341 Scarff St., Los Angeles. 1894 Ellwood P. Cubberley, A.B., '91, Ind. Univ. 1899, Associate Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ., Stanford University. Joseph C Templeton, A.B., Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 611 Hickey St., Santa Ana. Charles C. Van Liew, Ph.D., '93, Jena. 1899, President of State Normal School, Chico. 1895 D. R. Augsburg, B.P., '84, Syracuse Univ. 1898, Director of Drawing, Public Schools, 1261, 6th Ave., East Oakland. Lewis B. Avery, B.Sc, '83, Tabor Coll., la. 1895, Principal of Union High School, Redlands. Walter J. Bailey, A.M., '00, Bates Coll. 1901, Principal, Los Angeles Military Academy, Commonwealth Ave., Los Angeles. Samuel T. Black. 1898, President of State Normal School, San Diego. Theodore B. Comstock, B.Ag., '68, Pa. State Coll.; B.Sc, '70, D.Sc, '86, Cornell Univ. Director of School of Mines, 534 Stimson Block, Los Angeles. Melville Dozier, Ph.B., '67, B.Pd., Furman Univ., S. C. 1895, Vice-President of State Normal School. 825 W. nth St., Los Angeles. Charles Edward Hutton, A.B., '53, A.M., '61, St. John's Coll., Md. 1890, Instructor in State Normal School, 1007 W. 21st St., Los Angeles. Thomas J. Kirk. 1899, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento. J. fi. Monlux, A.M., '81, Iowa State Univ. 1896, Principal of 28th St. School, 250 E. 30th St., Los Angeles. University of California. President, Benjamin Ide Wheeler; Librarian, J. C Rowell, Berkeley. 1896 E. Morris Cox, A.B., Haverford Coll., Pa. 1897, Principal of Public Schools, Ross St., Santa Rosa. Harriet M. Scott. 22 W. California St., Pasadena. 1897 Frank H. Ball. 1900, Director of Manual Training, Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena. 938 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [California 1897 'Christine Benson. 1898, Teacher of Primary Grade, Hotel Gray Gables, Los Angeles. Arthur H. Chamberlain, 1896, Professor of Pedagogy and Principal of Normal Department, Throop Polytechnic Institute, 377 N. Los Robles Ave., Pasadena. Free Public Library of San Francisco. Secretary, George A. Mullin, San Francisco. Florence Lawson. Director of Kindergarten Department, State Normal School, Los Angeles. Fernando Sanford. 1891, Professor of Physics, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. Leland Stanford Junior University. President, David Starr Jordan; Librarian, H. C. Nash, Stanford University. State Normal School at Chico. President, C. C. Van Liew; Librarian, Susan T. Smith, Chico. State Normal School at Los Angeles. President, Edward T. Pierce; Librarian, Elizabeth H. Fargo. 1898 James A. Barr. 1891, Superintendent of City Schools, 1407 E. Channel St., Stockton. Morris Elmer Dailey, A.M., Ind. Univ. 1900, President of State Normal School, San Jose. David Starr Jordan, M.Sc, Ph.D., M.D., LL.D. 1891, President of Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. Anna E. Lemon. 1894, Teacher in First Primary, Lincoln Building, 50 S. Euclid Ave., Pasadena. Albert Lyser. Principal of John Swett Grammar School, 417 Larkin St., San Francisco. Cecil Wirt Mark, B.Sc, '88, Univ. of Pacific, Cal. 1900, President of Board of Education, 1007 Dolores St., San Francisco. Carl H. Nielsen. 1899, Principal, Union High School, Vacaville. Julius Irving Read, A.B., '94, Dartmouth Coll. 1901, Principal of High School, P. O. Box 60, Madera. State Normal School Library, San Jose. President, Morris Elmer Dailey; Librarian, Ruth Royce, San Jose'. 1899 Osmer Abbott, A.B., '90, Oberlin Coll. ; Ph.D., '98, Jena. 1899, Principal of Washington Union High School, Rural Route 2, Fresno. James E. Addicott. 1891, Teacher of Manual Training and Mathematics, 55 George St., San Jos6. Lulu Claire Bahr. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 223, 7th St., San Bernardino. William Howard Baker, A.M., P.T., St. Nor. Sch., Kirksville, Mo. 1900, Instructor of Mathematics, State Normal School, 322 S. 7th St., San Jose. Hugh J. Baldwin. 1899, County Superintendent of Schools, Courthouse, San Diego. Katherine M. Ball. 1894, Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, 1260 California St., San Francisco. Miss Lew A. Ball. 1898, Teacher in Garfield School, 558, 13th St., Oakland. Louis A. Buchanan, M.E., '93, Stanford Univ. Director of Manual Training, 221 W. Magnolia St., Stockton. Minnie L. Catey. 1895, Teacher in Grammar Department, Compton. Frederick H. Clark, A.M., '86, Univ. of Cal. 1889, History Department, Lowell High School, San Francisco; res., 1418 Myrtle St Oakland. F. A. Cooley, A.B., '92, Stanford Univ. 1901, Principal of Union High School, Clovis. Minnie Coulter, A.B., '98, Stanford Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools of Sonoma County, Santa Rosa. Henry G. Crocker, M.L., '92, Yale. 1900, Instructor in High School, 316 N. Hill St., Los Angeles. Jesse George Cross, A.M., '68, McKendree Coll. 1900, Professor in Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena; res., Monrovia. Frank P. Davidson, A.B., '78, A.M., '80, Wittenberg. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Sefton Block, San Diego. Anna E. Edwards. 1890, Teacher of Eighth Grade, City Schools, 1837, 3d St., San Diego. Walter A. Edwards, A.M., '86, Knox Coll. 1897, President of Throop Polytechnic Institute, Pasadena. W. S. Edwards, A.M., Alfred Univ. 1899, County Superintendent of Schools, Santa Barbara Co., Santa Barbara. Richard Douglas Faulkner, B.L., '77, Univ. of 111. 1895, Principal of Franklin Grammar School, 809 Castro St., San Francisco. J. H. Francis. Head of Commercial Dept., High School, 1701 New England St., Los Angeles. E. F. Goodyear, A.B., '92, Univ. of Cal. 1896, Pacific Coast Agent of The Macmillan Co., 325 Sansome St., San Francisco. Hattie F. Gower, 1896, Assistant Teacher of Sloyd, 1027 Manitou St., Los Angeles. James D. Graham, A.B., '88, A.M., '92, Toronto Univ. Superintendent of Schools, 51° Ellis St., Pasadena. Lyman Gregory, M.D., '87, Chicago Horn. Med. Coll. 1899, Teacher of Physiology in High School, 400 W. 30th St., Los Angeles. A. F. Gunn. Representative of American Book Co., 204 Pine St., San Francisco. Julius C. Hammel, A.B., '94, Stanford Univ. Principal of George Dewey School, Fruitvale. California] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 939 1899 Lillian D. Hazen. 1899, Principal of Vernon School, 544 Ruth Ave., Los Angeles. T. L. Heaton. 1897, Teacher of Pedagogy, University of California, Berkeley. W. H. Housh. 1895, Principal of High School, 1534 Ingraham St., Los Angeles. Agnes E. Howe, A.B., '97, Stanford Univ. 1897, Instructor in History, State Normal School, San Jose. A. D. Hunter. 1873, Director of Music, Public Schools, 582 N. Ellen St., Pomona. Frank H. Hyatt. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Pomona. / O. P. Jenkins, A.B., A.M., Moore^ Hill Coll.; M.Sc, Ph.D., Ind. Univ. 1891, Professor of Physiology, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. Burt Ornon Kinney, A.B., '97, Stanford Univ. 1901, Head of Department of History and Economics, High School, 2802 Menlo Ave., Los Angeles. T. H. Kirk, B.L., '82, M.L., '87, Univ. of Wis. 1899, Principal of High School and Supervising Principal of Grades, Monrovia. C. A. Kunou. Supervisor of Manual Training, 422 So. Ave. 19, Los Angeles. J. W. McClymonds, A.B., '71, Westminster, Pa. 1888, Superintendent of City Schools- 447, 34th St., Oakland. F. H. Meyer. Instructor in Drawing and Manual Training, 530 N. Commerce St., Stockton. Ernest Carroll Moore, A.B., '92, LL.B., '94, Ohio Nor. Univ.; A.M., '96, Columbia Univ.; Ph.D., '98, Univ. of Chicago. 1899, Instructor in Philosophy, University of California, Berkeley. Frank Morton, A.B., '80, Dartmouth. 1888, Principal of Lowell High School, 3331 Washington St., San Francisco. Ernest H. Mosher. 1897, Principal of Schools, Benicia. F. O. Mower, A.B., '78, Bates Coll., Lewiston, Me. 1897, Principal of High School, 715, 3d St., Napa. Pomona College, The. Dean, E. C. Norton; Acting Librarian, F. A. Bissell, Claremont. Minnie E. Rees. Teacher in City Schools, 632 Britannia St., Los Angeles. Mrs. Julia Cole Sherwood. 1898, Teacher, Spruce Grove District, Lower Lake. Mrs. Hattie Burdick Shorkley. Teacher in First Grade, Public Schools, 578, 17th St., Oakland. David S. Snedden, A.B., '97, Stanford Univ. ; A.M., '01, Columbia Univ. 1901, Instructor in Education, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Stanford University. State Library of California. Librarian, J. L. Gillis, Sacramento. F. W. Stein, Jr. 1899, Principal of Harper School, 1350 Newton St., Los Angeles. Anna M. Stovall. 1891, Principal of Free Normal Training School of Golden Gate Kindergarten Association, 221, 9th St., San Francisco. John Harvey Strine. 1898, County Superintendent of Schools, Room 47, Courthouse, Los Angeles; permanent address, Monrovia. Francis A. Swanger, M.S.D., '92, Mo. State Nor., Kirksville; A.M., '98, Willamette Univ., Ore. 1899, Principal of High School, Woodland. John Swett, A.M. (honorary), Dartmouth Coll. Martinez. G. S. Trowbridge, B.Sc, '8o, A.M., '82, Iowa State Univ. Principal of San Fernando Union High School, Fernando. Harr Wagner, A.B., '81, A.M., '8s, Wittenberg Coll. Editor " Western Journal of Education," 723 Market St., San Francisco. Louis K. Webb, B.Sc, '78, Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., '98, Stanford Univ. 1899, Principal of John Swett Union High School, Crockett. R. H. Webster, A.B., '77, A.M., '82, Univ. of Cal. 1896, Superintendent of Schools in and for the City and County of San Francisco, City Hall, San Francisco. Daniel H. White. Superintendent of Schools, Solano County, Fairfield. Warring Wilkinson, A.B., '58, Union Coll.; L.H.D., Gallaudet Coll., D. C. 1865, Principal of Institute for Deaf and Blind, Berkeley. Anna L. Williams. 1898, Superintendent of Schools of Modoc County, Alturas. M. Ida Williams, A.B., '99, Stanford Univ. 1899, Teacher in Public Schools, 172 N. Orange Grove Ave., Pasadena. 1900 Arthur W. Gray, A.B., '96, Univ. of Cal. 1900, Teacher of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics, Merced County High School; P. O. Box 183, Merced. George Arthur Merrill, B.Sc, *88, Univ. of Cal. 1894, Principal of California School of Mechanical Arts, and (1901) Director Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, 16th and Utah Sts., San Francisco. Public Library, Los Angeles. • Librarian, Mary L. Jones, Los Angeles. igoi Estelle Carpenter. Supervisor of Music, City Schools, r626 O'Farrell St., San Francisco. W. F, CONOVER Supervising Principal, B St. School, 1434, 2d St., San Diego. 94Q NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Colorado CALIFORNIA— Continued igoi B. M. Davis, B.Sc, M.Sc, Butler Univ. 1897, Department of Biology and Nature Study, State Normal School, Los Angeles. George F. James, A.B., '86, A.M., '87, Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D., '94. Halle. . Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, Los Angeles. Mary A. Lang. " The Aldine," Los Angeles. Irving E. Outcalt, A.B., '96, A.M., '97, Stanford Univ. 1901, Principal of Merced County High School, Merced. P. S. Woolsey, B.L., Univ. of Cal. Representative of American Book Co., 204 Pine St., San Francisco. George Harold Burwell Wright, A.B., Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Teacher of English and Latin, Los Banos. COLORADO LIFE DIRECTOR 1888 Aaron Gove, A.M., '78, Dartmouth Coll. ; LL.D., '88, Univ. of Colo. 1874, Superintendei.. of Schools, District No. i, High School, Denver. life member 1886 Frank Howard Clark, B.Didac, '83, Univ of Kan. ; A.M., 1901, Univ. of Colo. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Spruce St., Central City. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1884 James H. Baker, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, LL.D., '92, Bates Coll. 1892, President of University of Colorado, Boulder. Robert H. Beggs, B.Sc, '68, 111. Coll. ; M.Sc, '00, Fort Worth Univ. ; A.M., '00, Denver Univ. 1880, Principal of Grammar School, 2427 Odgen St., Denver. 1887 Charles V. Parker, B.Sc, '97, Denver Univ. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 601 Baca St., Trinidad. Z. X. Snyder, B.Sc, '76, A.B., '78, Ph.D., '85, Waynesburg Coll., Pa. 1891, President of State Normal School of Colorado, Greeley. 1891 Lewis C. Greenlee, Grad., State Nor. Sch., '78, Edinboro, Pa. ; A.M., '95, Waynesburg Coll., Pa. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. 2, 549 S. Tremont St., Denver. William Henry Smiley, A.B., '77, Harvard Univ. 1892, Principal of High School, Dist. No. 1, 2112 Lincoln Ave., Denver. 1893 Charles A. Bradley, Grad., '77, U. S. Military Acad. 1894, Principal of Manual Training High School, 1341 Corona St., Denver. James W. Scott, A.B., Duquesne Coll. 1899, Principal of Garfield School, 219 E. Columbia St., Colorado Springs. 1894 Edgar Rollin Downs, A. B., '76, A.M., '81, Williams Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 822, 3d Ave., Durango. S. Arthur Johnson, B.Sc, '91, M.Sc, '95, Rutgers Coll. 1896, Instructor in Science, High School, Dist. No. 2, 55 S. Washington Ave., Denver. 1895 H. M. Barrett, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Allegheny Coll. Teacher of Latin and English, High School; Editor " Colorado School Journal;" 526 Charles Building, Denver. A. E. Beardsley, B.Sc, '78, Cornell Univ. ; M.Sc, '98, Univ. of Colo. 1892, Professor of Biology, State Normal School, 1412, 10th St., Greeley. George Lyman Cannon, A.M., '00, Denver Univ. 1887, Instructor in Geology and Astronomy, High School No. 1, Denver. William V. Casey. r893, Superintendent of Schools, 820 Pine St., Boulder. Charles Ernest Chadsey, A.B., 'g2, A.M., '93, Stanford; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '97, Columbia. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, N. S., Denver. Fred Dick, A.M., Hamilton Coll., N. Y. Principal of Normal and Preparatory School, 1543-45 Glenarm St., Denver. John Dietrich. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, 922 N. Weber St., Colorado Springs. E. Waite Elder, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, Princeton. 1900, Instructor in Physics, High School, Dist. No. 1, Denver. John B. Garvin, B.Sc, '86, Univ. of Illinois. 1892, Instructor in Chemistry, High School, Dist. No. 1, 2536 W. 34th Ave., Denver. Edward F. Hermanns. 1891, Principal of High School, Dist. No. 2, Denver. John Francis Keating, A.B., '92, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, South Side, 1102 Lake Ave., Pueblo. Charles Joseph Ling, B.Sc, '90, Cornell Univ. ; A.M., 'oo, Univ. of Denver. 1894, Instructor in Physics, Manual Training High School, Denver. Clara Louise Little. 1891, Teacher in Public Schools, Delgany School, Denver. J. S. McClung. 1879, Superintendent of Schools, Dist. No. i, 423, nth St., Pueblo. Dora M. Moore. 1893, Principal of Corona School, 1031 Emerson St., Denver. Charles Skeele Palmer, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Amherst ; Ph.D., '86, Johns Hopkins. 1887, Professor of Chemistry, University of Colorado, 1224 Pine St., Boulder. Emanuel Stuver, B.Sc, '77, M.Sc, '85, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. ; M.D., '80, Ohio Med, Coll. ; Ph.D., '95, Wyo. Normal and Scientific Coll. • Rohling Block, Fort Collins. 1896 O. J. Blakesley, B.Sc, Pd.D. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, La Junta. Mrs. Z. X. Snyder. Greeley. Connecticut] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 941 COLORADO— Continued 1897 Izora Scott, A.B., '87, Kan. Nor. Coll. 1899, Principal of High School, 1119 S. Unoin Ave., Pueblo. State Normal School at Greeley. President, Z. X. Snyder; Secretary, Vernon McKelvey, Greeley. 1898 Cecelia Adams, '88, Chicago Froebel Assoc. Supervisor of Kindergartens, Dist. No. 1, High School, Denver. Emily H. Miles. 1893, Supervisor of Drawing, Dist. No. 1, 2432 Lincoln Ave., Denver. H. W. Zirkle, A.B., '83, Polytechnic Inst., Va. ; A.M., 'oo, Univ. of Colo. 1892, Principal of Elmwood School, 357 Lincoln Ave., Denver. 1899 A. B. Copeland. 1882, Superintendent of City Schools, 1228 Main St., Greeley. Edward C. Elliott, B.Sc, '95, A.M., '97, Univ. of Neb. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 309 Harrison Ave., Leadville. Mrs. Helen L. Grenfell. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1452 Elizabeth St., Denver. Herbert Griggs. 1S84, Director of Music, Box 765, Denver. Ellsworth Gage Lancaster, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Amherst; Ph.D., '97, Clark Univ. 1897, Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, Colorado College, 1511 N. Nevada Ave., Colorado Springs. Ezra W. Palmer, A.B., '94, Univ. of Kan. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, Box 308, Cripple Creek. H. S. Philips, Ph.B., '83, Oskaloosa Coll. 1890, Principal of Logan School, Dist. No. 2, 57 S. Washington Ave., Denver. Elizabeth Skinner. 1900, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2500 Boulevard, Denver. Henry B. Smith, A.B., '94, Harvard; A.M., '96, Moore's Hill Coll. 1897, Instructor in Latin, High School, District No. 2, 521, 18th Ave., Denver. 1900 Robert Armstrong, M.D., Jefferson Coll., Philadelphia, Pa. Author and Publisher of " Glossography,"etc, 1032 Pine St., Boulder. Edwin F. Dyer, A.B., '91, LL.B., '92, Ind. Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Gunnison, Daniel E. Phillips, A.B., '03, A.M., '94, Univ. of Nashville; Ph.D., '98, Clark Univ. 1898, Professor of Philosophy and Education, University of Denver, University Park. 1901 Emma M. Herey. 1900, Superintendent of Schools of Arapahoe County, 1305 S. 13th St., Denver. Martha Hyde. 1901, Teacher of First Grade, Public Schools, 223 E. 8th St., Leadville. Carena M. Lee, Ph.B., '96, Ph.M., '99, Univ. of Wooster. 1900, Teacher of Literature, High School, 1310, 9th St., Greeley. Flora McCrimmon. 1893, Teacher in Sherman School, 144 W. 3d Ave., Denver. Walter H. Nichols, B.Sc, '91, Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., '01, Columbia Univ. Department of History, University of Colorado, Boulder. Mrs. Mary S. Smiley. Private Teacher, 2112 Lincoln Ave., Denver. William Triplet. 1887, Superintendent City Schools, Golden. CONNECTICUT ACTIVE MEMBERS. 889 Ch arles W. Deane, A.M., '84, Ph.D., '92, Allegheny Coll. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 355 Noble Ave., Bridgeport, 1892 David N. Camp, A.M., '53, Yale. 1855, Manager of New Britain Library, 9 Camp St., New Britain. 1894 Frederick A. Curtiss. 1892, Principal of Old Saybrook High School, Saybrook. 1895 Nathan L. Bishop. 1877, Superintendent of Schools, Central District, 7 Huntington PI., Norwich. Charles H. Keyes, A.B., '78, St. Johns Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, South District, 21 Annawan St., Hartford. 1896 E. Hermann Arnold, M.D., '94, Yale. 1895, Director of New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, 46 York Sq., New Haven. Francis E. Howard. 1890, Supervisor of Music, 322 John St., Bridgeport. 1897 Berlin Wright Tinker, A.B., '88, A.M., '89, Bates ColT. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 30 Fairview St., Waterbury. 1898 Wilbur Fisk Gordy. 1884, Supervising Principal of North School District, 104 Gillett St., Hartford. Stuart H. Rowe, A.B., '90, Yale ; Ph.D., '95, Jena Univ., Germany. 1898, Supervising Principal, City Schools, and (1901) Lecturer in Pedagogy, Yale Univer- sity, 285 Willow St., New Haven. Sarah J. Walter. 1895, Principal of Training Department, State Normal School, Willimantic. 1899 Isaac M. Agard, A.B., '79, A.M., '84, Amherst Coll. 1888, Principal of Rockville High School; Superintendent of East District Graded School, Vernon ; res., Rockville. Waterman Rufus Burnham. a 362 Main St.. Norwich. Connecticut Agricultural College. President, George W. Flint, Storrs. Watson Nicholson, A.B., '92, Stanford Univ. ; A.M., '95, Harvard. 1901, Graduate Student of English, Yale University, 341 Crown St., New Haven. 94* NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Dist. of Coi. CONNECTICUT— Continued 1899 William North Rice, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Wesleyan; Pfc.D., '67, Yale; LL.D., '86, Syracuse. 1867, Professor of Geology, Wesleyan University, 31 College PI., Middletown. Giles Alfred Stuart, A.B., '77, A.M., '80, Bates Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 31 Emmons PI., New Britain. 1901 Hans Ballin. 94 Park St., Hartford. Free Public Library, New Haven. Librarian, W. K. Stetson, New Haven. Frederick S. Hitchcock. 1900, Supervisor of Manual Training, Connecticut School for Boys, Meriden. Harry Houston. 1896, Supervisor of Penmanship, Public Schools, 403 Edgewood Ave., New Haven. Mrs. Helen Brown Keyes. 21 Annawan St., Hartford. Ernest L. Meritt, A.B., '91, Wesleyan Univ. 1897, Principal of Lewis High School, Southington. Willis I. Twitchell, A.B., Middlebury Coll., Vt. Principal of West Middle School, 31 Atwood St., Hartford. DELAWARE active members 1890 George W. Twitmyer, A.M., '83, Franklin and Marshall Coll. ; M.Sc, '90, St. Nor. Sch., Mans- field, Pa. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 1023 Adams St., Wilmington. 1891 Edwina B. Kruse. 1876, Principal of Howard High School, 206 E. 10th St., Wilmington. 1892 Albert N. Raub, A.M., '67, Princeton; Ph.D., '79, Lafayette; LL.D., '95, Ursinus Coll. Author and Publisher, Newark. 1896 A. H. Berlin, A.M., '88, Hamilton Coll. 1888, Principal of High School, 906 Adams St., Wilmington. 1901 Principals' Round Table, Wilmington. Librarian, Mary I. C. Williams, Wilmington. Wilmington Institute Free Library. Librarian, George F. Bowerman, Wilmington. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA life directors 1876 William Torrey Harris, A.M., '69, Vale; LL.D., '70, Univ. of Mo. ; '94, Univ. of Pa. ; '95, Yale; '96, Princeton; A.M., Ph.D., '93, Brown Univ.; Ph.D., '99, Univ. of Jena, Germany. 1889, Commissioner of Education of the United States, 1303 P St., N. W., Washington. 1880 James Ormond Wilson, A.M., '74, Dartmouth Coll. 1892, Secretary of American Colonization Society ; Custodian of National Educational Association, 450 Pennsylvania Ave., N. W., Washington. life members 1870 John Wesley Hoyt, A.M., Ohio Wes. Univ.; M.D., Eclectic Med. Coll., Cincinnati, O.; LL.D., Univ. of Mo. Chairman, National University Committee of 400, The Victoria, Wash. 1880 John Hitz. 1887, Superintendent of Volta Bureau, 1601, 35th St., Washington. 1884 Alex. Graham Bell. 1331 Connecticut Ave., Washington. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1889 W. F. Powell. Minister to Haiti, American Legation; address, State Dept., Washington. 1892 Mrs. Sara A. Spencer. 1891, President of Spencerian Business College, Academy of Music Building, 403, 9th St., N. W., Wash. 1893 John Eaton, Ph.D., Rutgers Coll. ; LL.D., Dartmouth Coll. Ex-U. S. Commissioner of Education, The Concord, Washington. 1894 Susan Plessner Pollock, Grad. of Kg. Nor. Inst., Berlin. Principal, Normal Kindergarten Institute, 1426 Q St., N. W., Washington. 1895 Allan Davis, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, '96, Columbian Univ. ; LL.M, '93, Nat. Law School, Washington. 1890, Principal of Business High School, 1st St., between B and C Sts., N. W., Washington. Anna Tolman Smith. Bureau of Education, Washington. Sidney Fuller Smith, Grad., '84, U. S. Naval Acad. ; M.Sc, '01, Columbian Univ. 1724 Oregon Ave., Washington. 1896 Powhatan W. Robertson, M.Accts., '82, Eastman Nat. Bus. Coll. 1894, Columbian University, 2232 Q St., N. W., Washington. Rebecca Stoneroad, Grad., Oswego Nor. Sch. 1889, Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, Webster School, 10th and H Sts., Washington. 1897 Court Foster Wood, LL.B., '84, LL.M., '85, Columbian Univ. 1885, Principal of Wood's Commercial College, 311 E. Capitol St., Washington. 1898 Zue Hunter Brockett. Teacher of Physical Training is Public Schools, 3425 Holmead Ave., N. W.. Washington. Elias Brown. 1895, Teacher, Deanewood. Florida] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 943 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA— Continued 1898 Elizabeth V. Brown. Method and Training Teacher, Normal School, 1357 Roanoke St., Washington. Ellis W. Brown. 1896, Supervisor of Public Schools, 924, 24th St., N. W., Washington. John T. Freeman, B.Sc, '83, M.Sc, '87, Dartmouth Coll. 1890, Supervisor, Washington Public Schools, Wallack School, S. E., Washington. Nathaniel P. Gage, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Dartmouth Coll. 1874, Supervising Principal of Schools, 1126, 5th St., N. W., Washington. Amanda Leaman Grant. 1887, Principal of Brent School, 507 E. Capitol St., Washington. William Hamilton, A. B., '84, Moravian Coll., Bethlehem, Pa.; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '01, Columbian Univ. 1890, Agent, Bureau of Education for Alaska, Bureau of Education, Washington. David H. Hazen, M.D. Trustee of Public Schools, 407, 6th St., S. W., Washington. Mrs. Nora Lindenberg Hoegelsberger. 1887, Teacher of German, Central High School, 924 Mass. Ave., N. W., Washington. Hosmer M. Johnson. 1900, Supervising Principal, Public Schools, Chestnut St., Anacostia. Artemas Martin, A.M., '87, Ph.D., '82, Rutgers; LL.D., '85, Hillsdale; Fellow of the A. A. A. S., Member of the London, Edinburgh, and N. Y. Mathematical Societies. Librarian, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1534 Columbian St., N.W., Washington. E. E. McCaslin, A.B., '92, A.M., '95, Antioch Coll. Superintendent of Industrial Home School, Wisconsin Ave., Station A, Washington. Kelly Miller, A.B., '86, Howard Univ. 1890, Professor of Mathematics, Howard University, Washington. Winfield Scott Montgomery, A.B., '78, Dartmouth; M.D., 90, Howard Univ., Med. Dept. 1900, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 1912, nth St., N. W., Washington. Sophie S. E. Nussbaum, Grad., Teacher's Sem., Rostock, Meckl. Schwerin, and Conservatory of Music, Dresden, Germany, and Library Science Class, Columbia Univ. rgoo, Cataloguer in Library, Bureau of Education, Washington. Alice N. Parker. 1899, Director of Kindergarten, Toner School, The Cdncord, New Hampshire Ave. and S St., Washington. Warren W. Phelan, A.B., '94, A.M., '96, Columbia Univ. ; Ph.D., 'oo, Columbian Univ. 1896, Principal of National Capitol University School for Boys, Washington; temporary address, 3237 Chestnut St., New Orleans. Lovick Pierce, A.B., '60, Emory Coll. 1893, Chief Clerk in Bureau of Education, 1409 Rhode Island Ave., N. W., Washington. Alex. Summers, B.Sc, '76, A.M., '93, Univ. of Tenn. 1894, Statistician in U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington. Robert H. Terrell, A.B., '84, Harvard Univ. ; LL.M., '93, A.M., '00, Howard Univ. 1899, Principal of High School, 326 T St., N. W„ Washington. J. H. N. Waring, A.M., Howard Univ., M.D. 1900, Supervising Principal, Tenth Division Public Schools, Cook School, Washington. Edith C. Westcott. 1890, Principal of Western High School, 1718 Corcoran St., Washington. 1899 Victor S. Clark, A.B., '90, Univ. of Minn. 1804, 17th St.. N. W., Washington. Arthur U. Craig, B.Sc, '95, Univ. of Kan. 1901, Teacher of Mechanical Drawing and Manual Training, High School No 2, 2302, 6th St , N. W„ Washington. Rev. James P. Fagan, S.J. 1899, Vice-President and Secretary of Georgetown University, W., Washington. Edward Allen Fay, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D., '81, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1866, Professor and Vice-President, Gallaudet College, 3 Kendall Green, Washington. Merrill Edwards Gates, Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D., Princet9n, Univ. of Rochester, Columbia Coll., WillamsColl. 1899, Secretary of U. S. Board of Indian Commissioners, 1429 New York Ave., Wash- ington. Charles D. Rakestraw, A.M., Univ. of Va. Supervisor of U. S. Indian Schools, Indian Office, Washington. 1900 Louis L. Hooper, A. B., '89, A.M., '98, Harvard Univ. 1900, Head Master, Washington School for Boys, 4401 Wisconsin Ave., Washington. Alexander T. Stuart, Ph.B.. '69, Columbian Univ., D. C. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 16, 4th St., S. E., Washington. 1901 Miss M. E. Given. 1898, Principal of Chevy Chase School, 1429 Q St., Washington. Ida Gilbert Myers. 1900, Assistant Superintendent, Public Schools, 1001 New Hampshire Ave., N. W., Wash- ington. FLORIDA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1893 William N. Sheats, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Emory Coll., Ga. 1892, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tallahassee. 1894 Mrs. W. Schleppegrell-Keppler. 1893, Principal of Froebel Academy, Main and Monroe Sts., Jacksonville. 1895 J. L. Hollingsworth, A.B., '88, Emory Coll., Oxford, Ga. 1893, County Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bartow. 1896 Nathan Benjamin Young, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Oberlin Coll. i9or, President, State Normal and Industrial College, Tallahassee. 1897 David Williams. Principal of School, Brandon. 944 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Georgia FLORIDA— Continued 1898 Ludwig Wilhelm Buchholz, Nor. Sch., Pr. Friedland. Germany. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Hillsboro Co., 106 Park Ave., Tampa. 1899 H. Elmer Bierly, A.B., '92, Princeton Univ. 1898, Professor of Experimental Psychology and Child Study, Florida State College, Tallahassee. John B. Stetson University. President John F. Forbes, DeLand. 1900 Benella Davenport. 1900, Department of Latin and Literature, State Normal School, De Funiak Springs. W. L. Floyd, Major, U. S. A., B.Sc, '86, S. Car. Mil. Inst. Commandant and Professor of Science, East Florida Seminary, Gainesville. William Wilson Fry. 1897, Director of the Business College, John B. Stetson University, DeLand. B. C. Graham, A.B., '68, Hampden -Sidney Coll.. Va. Superintendent of Education, Hillsborough County, 1706 Highland Ave., Tampa. Miss Clem Hampton. 1901, Principal of High School, Gainesville. Jeptha V. Harris, A.B., '59, Univ. of Wis. ; M.D., '61. Tulane Univ., La. 1900, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Monroe Co., 217 Duval St., Key West. Cleburne L. Hayes, Grad., '90, Peabody Nor. Coll. ; A.B., '91, Univ. of Nashville. 1897, Principal of State Normal School, De Funiak Springs. Mrs. Lena B. Mathes. 1899, Principal of Washington School, 341 Hyde Park Ave., Tampa. 1901 William B. Hare. 1900, Superintendent of Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, St. Augustine. Nathan McCullough, A.B., Presbyterian Coll., Belfast, Ireland. Abbott School, Pasco Co., Dade City. GEORGIA r8go W. H. Baker. LIFE MEMBER 1868, Superintendent of Schools, Chatham Academy, Savannah. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1887 Euler B. Smith, A.M., '82, Emory Coll., Oxford, Ga. 1895, Department of English, State Normal School, 1232 Prince Ave., Athens. 1894 Otis Ashmore, A.M., Univ. of Ga. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Savannah. George Glenn Bond, A.M., '95, Univ. of Ga. 1891, Superintendent of City Schools, Dearing St., Athens. Lawton B. Evans, A.M., Univ. of Ga. Superintendent of Schools, 415 Mcintosh St., Augusta. William Martin Slaton, A.M.. '91. Univ. of Ga. 1892, Principal of Boys' High School, 142 Jackson St., Atlanta. 1895 Atlanta University. President, Rev. Horace Bumstead ; Librarian, Miss E. J. Stenabaugh, Atlanta, Gustavus R. Glenn, LL.D., '98, Univ. of Nashville, and '98, Peabody Nor. Coll. 1894, State School Commissioner, Capitol, Atlanta. Joseph S. Stewart, A.B., '83, Emory Coll. ; A.M., '97, Univ. of Ga. 1897, President of North Georgia Agricultural College, Dahlonega. University of Georgia. Chancellor, Walter B. .Hill: Secretary, J. D. Campbell, Athens. 1896 Nicholas E. Ware. 1890, Superintendent of Public Schools, Hawkinsville. H. C. White, B.Sc, C. & M.F., '70, Ph.D., '87, Univ. of Va., F. C. S. 1898, President of National Agricultural College and Experiment Station ; 207 Milledge Ave., Athens. 1897 J. M. Guilliams, A.B., Central Nor. Coll. ; A.M., '98. 1900, Principal of Southern Normal Institute, Douglas. L. M. Landrum, A.B., '76, Univ. of Ga. 1897, Assistant Superintendent of Schools and Secretary of Board of Education, 105 Smith St., Atlanta. John N. Rogers. County School Commissioner, Sandersville. William F. Slaton, A.M., '51, Emory Coll., and '94, Univ. of Ga. 1879, Superintendent of Public Schools, 336 Courtland St., Atlanta. Jessie May Snyder. 1898, Assistant Training Teacher, State Normal and Industrial College, Milledgeville. John Charles Woodward, A.B., '88, N. Ga. Agri. Coll. ; A.M., '99, Univ. of Ga. 1901, President, Georgia Military Academy, College Park (near Atlanta). 1898 Alice Dugged Cary. 1901, English Department, Morris Brown College, 47 Bradley St., Atlanta. Carleton B. Gibson, A.M., '85, Univ. of Ala. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 318, nth St., Columbus. Henry Pearson, A.B., '88, A.M., '92, Claflin Univ., Orangeburg, S. C. 1895, Instructor in English Language and Literature, State Industrial College, College. 1899 James C. Harris. A.M., '85, Univ. of Ga. 1892, Superintendent of Public Schools, 313, 2d Ave., Rome. Walter B. Hill, A.B., '70, B.L. and A.M., '71, Univ. of Ga. ; LL.D., 'oo, Emory Coll. and S. W, Presbyterian Univ., Clarksville, Tenn. 1899, Chancellor of University of Georgia, University Campus, Athens. Mercer University Library. President, P. D. Pollock, Macon. Illinois] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 945 GEORGIA— Continued igoo B. K. Benson. Agent for D. C. Heath & Co., 115 Crew St., Atlanta. M. L. Brittain, A.B., '86, Emory Coll. Superintendent of Fulton County Schools, 133 Capitol Ave., Atlanta. O. F. McRae. 1895, Vice-President, South Georgia College, McRae. Hiram Harold Thweatt. 1896, Principal of Clay Street Normal aud Industrial Institute, 422 W. Clay St., Thomasville. Mrs Walton H. Wiggs. 160 W. North Ave., Atlanta. Richard R. Wright, A.B., A.M., Atlanta Univ. ; LL.D., Wilberforce Univ. 1891, President, State Industrial College, College. * 1901 E. A. Pound, A.B., Emory Coll., Oxford, Ga. 1895, Superintendent of Public Schools, Waycross. Jere M. Pound. Superintendent of Schools, Office of Board of Education, Macon. Theodore Toepel, M.D., '99, Coll. of Physicians and Surgeons, Atlanta. 1899, Physical Director, Public Schools, English- American Bldg., Atlanta. IDAHO active- members 1888 James C. Black, Pd.M., '94, Pd.D., '95, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of New York. 1897, President of State Normal School, Albion. 1898 John W. Daniels, A.B., '76, A.M., '80, Bates College, Lewiston, Me, 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, 238 Jefferson St., Boise. George E. Knepper, A.M. 1895, President of State Normal School, Lewiston. 1899 Permeal French. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise. 1901 H. Moreland Cook, Ph.B., '01, Taylor Univ., Upland, Ind. 1901, Principal of Whittier School, 420 S. 5th St., Boise. Arthur E. Farmer, Pd.B., '9s, Mich. St. Coll. ; B.Sc, '97, Mt. Hope Coll., O. t 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Silver City. J. Walter Johnson. Superintendent of Public Schools, Caldwell. James A. MacLean, A.B., '92, Univ. of Toronto; A.M., '93, Ph.D., '94, Columbia Univ. 1900, President of the University of Idaho, Moscow. Walter R. Siders, B.Sc, '91, Fremont Nor. Sch. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Pocatello. ILLINOIS LIFE DIRECTORS 1884 Albert G. Lane, A.M., '96, Dartmouth Coll. 1898, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 430 W. Adams St., Chicago. 1886 A. R. Taylor, Ph.D., '83, Lincoln Univ., III. 1882, President of The James Millikin University, Millikin Bank Building, Decatur. 1887 Newton Charles Dougherty, A.M., Ph.D. Superintendent of Schools, Peoria. Charles I. Parker. Principal of South Chicago High School, 893, 71st PL, Chicago. 1890 State Teachers' Association of Illinois. President, A. V. Greenman, West Aurora; Sec'y, Joel M. Bowlby, Carbondale. 1891 Joshua Pike, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Univ. of Chicago. 1874, Superintendent of City Schools, Jerseyville. life members 1870 Ira Wilder Allen, A.B., '50, Hamilton Coll., N. Y. ; A.M., '52, Antioch Coll., O. ; LL.B., '63. Albany Law Sch. ; LL.D., '74, Union Christian Coll., Ind. 612 W. 60th PL, Station O, Chicago. 1876 Alexander Forbes, A.M., Ph.D. Manager for Butler, Sheldon & Co., 315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago. 1880 George P. Brown. Editor " School and Home Education," Bloomington. 1884 Augustus J. Cheney, B.Sc, '57, Dartmouth Coll. Western Agent for G. & C. Merriam Co., 316 N. Grove Ave., Oak Park. Emily A. Hayward, A.M., Antioch Coll. Teacher, 1233 W. Irving Park BouL, Irving Park, Chicago. Edwin C. Hewett, LL.D., *77. Shurtleff Coll. Associate Editor " Public School Journal," Box 42, Normal. Nathan Crook Twining, A.B., '61, A.M., '65, Milton Coll., Wis. 1901, President, Mendota College, Mendota. active members 1880 Francis W. Parker, A.M., Dartmouth Coll. ; LL.D., Lawrence Univ. 1901, Director of School of Education, University of Chicago, 5801 Washington Ave., Chicago. 1884 Albert R. Sabin. 1887, District Superintendent of Schools, 2509 N. 44th Court, Chicago. 1886 Louis Milton Dillman. Educational Publisher, 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago. . , 946 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Illinois 1886 David S. Geer. 1886, Attorney and Counselor at Law, Suite 511, Ashland Block, Chicago. Augustus F. Nightingale, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Wes. Univ., Conn. ; Ph.D., '91, Upper Iowa Univ. ; LL.D., '01, Simpson Coll.. la. 1892, Superintendent of High Schools, 1997 Sheridan Road, Station X, Chicago. 1887 John C. Ellis. Educational Publisher, 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago. 1888 Andrew S. Draper, LL.B., '71, Union Univ. ; LL.D., '89, Colgate Univ. 1894, President of University of Illinois, President's House, Champaign. 1889 O. F. Barbour. 1866, Principal of Kent School, 512 N. Court St., Rockford. 1890 John Williston Cook, A.M., '86, Knox Coll. ; LL.D., '92, Blackburn Univ. 1899, President of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb. Henry R. Corbett, B.Sc, '89, Hastings Coll. ; Ph.M., '00, Univ. of Chicago, Ex-State Superintendent of Schools of Nebraska; 108 La Salle St., Chicago. Charles Alexander McMurrv, Ph.D., '88, Halle. 1899, Director of Practice School, State Normal School, De Kalb. William Lucas Steele, A.M., '80, Monmouth Coll., 111. ; Ph.D., '00, Knox Coll. 1885, Superintendent of Schools, 462 N. Cherry St., Galesburg. Peleg R. Walker. 1884, Superintendent of Schools, 716 N. Church St., Rockford. 1891 F. J. Albrecht, F.R.G.S. Educational Publisher, 35 Randolph St., Chicago. Herbert F. Fisk, A.B., '60, A.M., '63, D.D., '88, Wes. Univ., Conn. ; LL.D., '99, Allegheny Coll. 1888. Prin. Academy and Prof, of Ped., Northwestern Univ., 1625 Judson Ave., Evanston. Dana Warren Hall, A.M., '93, Colby Univ., Me. 1894, High School and College Department, Ginn & Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. M. A. Whitney, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Colby Univ. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 118 Hinsdale PI., Elgin. 1892 C. M. Bardwell. 1896, Superintendent of East Side Schools, 60 S. Lincoln Ave., Aurora. Albert W. Clancy, Grad. National Normal School. 1880, American Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave. ; res., 4300 Ellis Ave., Chicago. Mrs. M. E. Ferris Gettemy, M.L., '97, Knox Coll. 246 N. Academy St., Galesburg. Henry Talbot. r899, Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, 804 Summit Ave., East St. Louis. 1893 John J. Allison. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 329 Jefferson St., Joliet. O. T. Bright. County Superintendent of Schools, 907 The Temple, Chicago. Archibald O. Coddington, M.L., '83, Univ. of 111. Principal of Knickerbocker School, 938 Summerdale Ave., Chicago. Mrs. J. N. Crouse. 1890, Principal of Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St., Chicago. Lincoln P. Goodhue. 1900, District Superintendent of Schools, 7029 Yale Ave, Chicago. William O. Krohn, A.B., Western Coll.; A.M., Ph.D., '89, Yale. Lecturer and Publisher, 540 Fine Arts Building, Chicago. Fred R. Nichols. 1891, Instructor in Physics, English High and Manual Training School, 128 S. Jefferson St., Chicago. Mrs. Alice H. Putnam. 1881, Superintendent, Chicago Froebel Asso., 4815 Kenwood Ave., Chicago. Lucy S. Silke. 1890, Assistant Special Teacher in Drawing, Public Schools, 3307 Rhodes Ave., Chicago. Alice E. Sollitt. 1890, Principal of Kenwood School, 4020 Prairie Ave., Chicago. Volney Underhill, Ph.B., '71, LL.B., '75, Univ. of Wis. 1875, Principal of Carpenter School, 296 S. Paulina St., Chicago. 1894 C. H. Congdon. 1901, Music Department, Silver, Burdett & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Ira T. Eaton. Publisher, Eaton & Co., 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago. Richard Hardy, B.Sc, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Representative of Prang Educational Co., 5326 Calumet Ave., Chicago. Joseph C. Hisey. 1898, Representative of Ginn & Co., 644 School St., Chicago. Mrs. Frances Smallwood Lane, B.Sc, '65, Genesee Coll. ; M.Sc, '80, Syracuse Univ 430 W. Adams St., Chicago. Livingston C. Lord, Pd.D., '00, Univ. of 111. 1898, President of Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston. 1895 John Nichols Adee, Ph.B., '91, Northwestern Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Sycamore. B. D. Berry. Educational Publisher, 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Julia E. Bulkley, Ph.D., Zurich. 1892, Associate Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago, Chicago. Fremont Luman Calkins, B.Sc, '81, N. Ind. Nor.'Sch. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, Delavan. William H. Campbell. 1899, Principal of D. S. Wentworth School, 6147 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago. Joseph H. Collins, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, La Grange Coll., Mo. 1888, Superintendent of City Public Schools, 715 S. 7th St., Springfield. Mrs. Julia H. Collins. 715 S. 7th St., Springfield. Henry C. Cox, A.M., '73, Abingdon Coll. 1884, Principal of Garfield School, 14th PI. and Johnson St., Chicago. Illinois] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 947 1895 May M. Crockett, 1891, Principal of Irving School, 403 S. 12th St., Quincy. Edward C. Delano. 1877, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 172 Ashland Boul., Chicago. W. H. Ducker. Educational Publisher (Sibley & Ducker), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Joseph Hewett Freeman, A.M., '88, Bates Coll. 1900, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 629 S. 2d St., Springfield. Enoch A. Gastman. 1862, Superintendent of City Schools, 464 W. North St., Decatur. William M. Giffin, A.M., '82, Lawrence Univ., Wis.; Pd.D., '94, State Nor. Coll., N. Y. 1889, Principal of Chicago Normal Practice School, 7710 Emerald Ave., Chicago. Newell D. Gilbert, A.B., '79. A.M., '82, 111. Wes. Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools and Department of School Organization and Management, Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb. J. L. Goodknight, A.B., '71, Cumberland Univ.; B.D., '79, Union Theol. Sem., N. Y. ; D.D., '90, Waynesburg Coll. 1900, President of Lincoln University, 112 Hudson St., Lincoln, 111. Robert A. Haight, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Shurtleff Coll., 111. 1881, Superintendent of Schools, 1129 Warren St., Alton. William R.Harper, AB., '70, Muskingum Coll.; Ph.D., '75, Yale; D.D., '91. Colby Univ.; LL.D., Univ. of Neb. 1890, President of University of Chicago, 59th St. and Lexington Ave., Chicago. Elizabeth Harrison. Principal of Kindergarten College, 10 Van Buren St., Chicago. Mary S. L. Hartigan. 1893, Principal of Hoerner School, 7409 Morgan St., Chicago. Mary Hartmann, A.M., '88, Lombard Univ. 1882, Instructor in Mathematics, Illinois State Normal School, 109 Normal Ave., Normal. William H. Hatch. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, Oak Park. Harry Helmer. Agent for Publishing House, 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Charles Hertel, M.Sc, Cent. Wes. Coll., Warrenton, Mo. 1894, Superintendent of Schools of St. Clair County, Courthouse, Belleville. Amalie Hofer. 1893, Editor of "Kindergarten Magazine;" 1894, Director of Chicago Kindergarten Insti- tute, Fine Arts Building, Chicago. J. A. Hornberger, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Bucknell Univ., Pa. ; Ph.D., '89, Bellevue Coll. 1899, Educational Department, Rand, McNally & Co., 166 Adams St., Chicago; res., Naperville. Wilbur Samuel Jackman, A.B., '84, Harvard. 1899, Professor of the Teaching of Natural Science and Dean of the School of Education, University of Chicago, 4916 Washington Ave., Station O, Chicago. Francis Austin Kendall. 1888, Superintendent of Schools (East Side) ; 1894, Secy, and Mgr., 111. Pupils' Reading Circle, 25 Jefferson Ave., Naperville. EFFIE J. KlLBOURNE. 1891, Head Assistant in Kenwood School, 5313 Washington Ave., Chicago. Vashti A. Lambert. 1886, Teacher in Jefferson Park School, 4280 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago; res., Palatine. Leslie Lewis, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Yale. 1890, District Superintendent of Schools, 5605 Madison Ave., Chicago. William S. Mack. Western Manager, The Prang Ed. Co., Room 813, Fine Arts Building, Chicago. J. J. McGlynn. 1888, Teacher of Science, High School, Hotel Diehl, East St. Louis. A. L. McLaughlin. Agent for Butler, Sheldon & Co., 315-321 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Kate S. O'Leary. % t882, Teacher in Public Schools, 208 S. Hickory St., Joliet. C. M. Parker. Editor and Publisher of " The School News," Taylorville. C. F. Philbrook. 1893, Superintendent of Public Schools, 205 Stiles St., Rochelle. Albert R. Robinson, A.M., Northwestern Univ. 1891, Principal of English High and Manual Training School, 126 S, Jefferson St. Chicago; res., Hinsdale. Erastus H. Scott. Publisher, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Orion C. Scott, Ph.B., '78, B.D., '80, A.M., '8r, State Univ. of Iowa. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 34th St. and Home Ave., Berwyn, Cook Co. Winfield S. Smyth, A.M., '66, Wesleyan Univ., Conn. ; Ph.D., '76, Syracuse Univ. Ed. Publisher (Vice-President D. C. Heath & Co.), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Lillie S. Stephenson. 1898, Teacher in 6th Grade, Park Ridge School, 1028 Dempster St., Evanston. Frank D. Thomson, A.B., '92, A.M., '95, Knox Coll. 1895, Principal 01 High School, 529 N. Cherry St., Galesburg. J. E. Turner, A.B., '94, A.M., '95, Lincoln Univ. 1896, Principal of High School, 710 Clement PL, Alton. Edwin O. Vaile. Editor of " Intelligence," Oak Park. J. W. Warr. Editor of "The Practical Age,'' 1723, 3d Ave., Moline. William Edward Watt, Ph.D., '00, Taylor Univ., Ind. 1885, Principal of Graham School, 4453 Emerald Ave., Chicago. • Oliver S. Westcott, A.M., '56, D.S., '92, Brown Univ. 1883, Principal of North Division High School, Center and Orchard Sts., Chicago. 948 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Illinois 1895 Daniel A. White, A.B., '83, Harvard Univ. ; LL.B., '92, Lake Forest Univ. 1896, Principal of Everett School, 3501 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Harry G. Wilson. 1879, Representative of The American Book Co., 521 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Jeremiah Simeon Young, A.M., '98, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Professor of Political Science, Lake Forest University, Lake Forest. 1896 Mary Eileen Ahern. Editor of " Public Libraries," Library Bureau, 215 Madison St., Chicago. C. J. Albert, B.Sc and A.M., '78, Baldwin Univ. Manager of the Albert Teachers' Agency, Fine Arts Building, 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago. Benjamin F. Armitage, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Dartmouth Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 224 S. 8th St., Monmouth. Alfred Bayliss, M.Sc, '73, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. 1899, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield. Charles A. Bennett, B.Sc, '86, Worcester Polytechnic Inst. Head of Department of Manual Arts, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 211 S. Garfield Ave., Peoria. R. W. Burton, A.M., '85, Beloit Coll. 1894, Superintendent of Schools of Stephenson Co., 209 Pleasant St., Freeport. William J. Button. President of the Werner Schoolbook Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Annice E. Bradford Butts. A.M. Principal of Kenwood Institute, 40 E. 47th St., Chicago. Mrs. Elizabeth Blanchard Cook, B.L., '65, A.M., '72. Wheaton Coll. 1890, President of Woman's Educational Union, 316 Washington Boul., Chicago. George W. Davis. 1892, Principal of Hawthorne School, 1430 Montrose Ave., Chicago. William T. Dix. Secretary, Thomas Charles Co., 195 Wabash Ave., Chicago. William C. Dodge. 1887, District Superintendent of Schools, 2268 Kenmore Ave., Station X, Chicago. Mabel Edwards Dougherty. 906 E. Bluff St., Peoria. H. A. Foresman, A.M., '90, Lafayette Coll. Educational Publisher (Scott, Foresman & Co.), 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Robert Foresman. Educational Publisher (Silver, Burdett & Co.), 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. G. Charles Griffiths. 1893, Principal of Robert Emmet School, 5737 Ontario St., Austin Station, Chicago. Charles W. Groves, '80, Univ. of 111. 1897, Superintendent of Schools. 815 Peoria Ave., Dixon. John W. Henninger, B.Sc, '81, M.Sc, '84, LL.B., '91, McKendree Coll. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, 1127 W. Lafayette Ave., Jacksonville. Margaret MacDonald. 1886, Teacher in Public Schools, 6440 Ellis Ave., Chicago. J. F. McCullough. Agent for Silver, Burdett & Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Mrs. Lida B. McMurry. 1900, Training Teacher, Primary Department, N. Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb. O. L. Miller, A.B., '90, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Principal of Township High School, Sterling. Mrs. Sarah J. O'Keefe. 1885, Principal of Jefferson Park School, Chicago; res., Arlington Heights. F. B. Ormsby. 1895, Principal of Perkins Bass School, 6550 Lafayette Ave., Englewood Station, Chicago. W. B. Owen. Agent, Publishing House, Ginn & Co., Chicago; res., 851 Grove St., Jacksonville. R. S. Page, A.M. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Brewster House, Freeport. William C. Payne. 1890, Principal of District School No. to, 4953 Prairie Ave., Chicago. Mary I. Purer. 1893, Principal of La Fayette School, 1902 Barry Ave., Chicago. W. F. Rocheleau. 1899, Editor, Educational Publications, 2838 N. Hermitage Ave., Ravenswood, Chicago. Mabel E. Smallwood. 1892, Teacher of Biology, Medill High School, 430 W. Adams St., Chicago. E. E. Smith, A.B., B.Sc. 1900, Editor for Literary and Text-Book Publications, 6010 Jefferson Ave., Chicago. W. W. Speer. 1895, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, The Yale, Station O, Chicago. Arnold Tompkins, A.M., '91, Univ. of Ind. ; Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Ohio, Athens. 1900, Principal of Chicago Normal School, 6640 Parnell Ave., Chicago. Franklin N. Tracy. 1881, Superintendent of City Schools, 316 Harrison Ave., Kankakee. Richard Waterman, B.Sc, '92, Mass. Inst, of Tech. 1000, Teacher of Ryerson School, Chicago; res., Wilmette. J. J. Wilkinson, Grad., '85, 111. Nor. Univ. ; Ph.D., '98, Univ. of Leipzig. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 1616 Prairie Ave., Mattoon. James Douglas Williams, A.M., '72, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. Manager, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 203 Michigan Ave., Chicago. Francis Marion Woods, A.B. and A.M., Northwestern Univ. Manager and Treasurer, Educational Aid Asso., 1278 Washington Boul., Chicago. 1897 L. H. Allen, A.B.. '87, E. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1896, Traveling Agent, National Educational Co., 523 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Richard H. Allin, B.D., '62, Univ. of Iowa. Manager, Educational Map and Globe Department, Rand, McNally & Co., 6037 Jefferson Ave., Chicago. Illinois] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 949 1897 Carl E. Bacon, A.B., Harvard. Allyn & Bacon, Publishers, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Paul V. Bacon, A.B., '98, Harvard Agent for Allyn & Bacon, Publishers, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Emma V. Bailey. 1895, Teacher in City Schools, 1232 Monroe St., Chicago. William J. Bartholf, A.B. , Univ. of III.; B.Sc, Ind. Nor. Sch. 1888, Principal of Von Humboldt School, n Roslyn PI., Chicago. Homer Bevans. 1884, La Salle School, 353 W. 60th PI., Station O, Chicago. J. Stanley Brown, A.B., '89, Denison Univ.; A.M., '91, Arlington Coll. 1893, Superintendent and Principal of Township High School, 115 Dewey Ave., Joliet. Delos Buzzell, M.Sc, '77> Univ. of Mich. 1890, Principal of Irving Park Schools, 2406 N. 42d Court, Chicago. Taylor C. Clendenen. 1886, Superintendent of City Schools, 722 Center St., Cairo. Edwin Gilbert Cooley, Ph.B., '95, Univ. of Chicago. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Schiller Building, Chicago. Emma Coy. Principal of Hall School, 615 Oak St., Rockford. Mrs. Charles R. Crane. President of Chicago Asso., Parents of Deaf Children, 2559 Michigan Ave., Chicago John Dewey, A.B., '79. Univ. of Vt. ; Ph.D., '84, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1894, Head of Departments of Philosophy and Education, University of Chicago, 6036 Jefferson Ave., Chicago.) Letitia L. Doane. 1898, Teacher in Public Day Schools for the Deaf, 701 W. Monroe St., Chicago. M. Luella Dodge. 1898, Teacher, Jefferson Park School, 3463 Forest Glen Ave., Chicago. j M. Elizabrth Farson. 1889, District Superintendent of Schools, 134 Warren Ave., Chicago. Mary C. Foote. 1891, Principal of School, 124 Auburn PI., Rockford. J. M. Frost, A.M., Hobart Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Hinsdale. Mary Gillespie. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, Winnetka. Joseph Claybaugh Gordon, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ph.D., '92, Monmouth Coll. 1897, Superintendent of State School for the Deaf, Jacksonville. A. V. Greenman. Superintendent of Schools, 248 Galena St., Aurora. Frank H. Hall. 1897, Superintendent of Institution for the Blind, Jacksonville. N. A. Harvey, Ph.D. 1900, Head Critic and Vice-Principal, Chicago Normal School, 631 W. 65th PI., Engle- wood Station, Chicago. Herbert B. Hayden, A.M., '99, Mt. Hope Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 923, 20th St., Rock Island. Dudley Grant Hays, Grad., State Normal Univ. 1900, Principal of Arnold School, 550 W. 60th PI., Chicago. Samuel H. Heidler. Springfield. Mrs. Kate Alpine Henderson. Librarian, Joliet Public Library, 307 Webster St., Joliet. Mrs. E. A. Hubbard. 1898, Supervisor of Primary Schools, 104 Second Ave., Joliet. Arthur Worley Hussey, B.Sc, '78, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Geneseo. The John Crerar Library, Chicago. Librarian, Clement W. Andrews, Chicago. Emma Frances Jones. 1878, Assistant in High School, 1131 S. 6th St., Springfield. C. H. Kammann, B.L., Univ. of 111. 1894, Head of German Department, High School, 810, 6th Ave., Peoria. CarlJ.Kroh. 1899, Head of Physical Training Department, School of Education, University of Chicago, 5453 Drexel Ave., Chicago. Cephas H. Leach. 1889, Principal of A. H. Burley School, 523 Greenleaf Ave., [Rogers Park Station, Chi- cago. Lincoln College of The James Millikin University. President, J. L. Goodknight; Librarian, Kate L. Brown, Lincoln. Charles D. Lowry. 1900, District Superintendent of Schools, 807 Touhy Ave., Chicago. Mary McCowen. Principal of Day Schools for the Deaf, 6550 Yale Ave., Chicago. Anna McKillop. . 1886, Head Assistant in Graham School, 740 W. 47th PI., Chicago. Eudora Montgomery. 1894, Head Teacher, Oral Class for the Deaf, Public Schools, 4319 Drexel Boul. , Chicago. Montgomery Moore, A.M., Ph.D. Superintendent of Schools of South Belvidere, 501 Logan Ave., Belvidere. Royal T. Morgan, A.B., '74. A.M., '77, Wheaton Coll. 1886, County Superintendent of Schools, 710 College Ave., Wheaton. Frank L. Morse, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Brown Univ. Principal of Burr School, 536 Greenleaf Ave., Chicago. Daniel Baldwin Parkinson, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '98, McKendree Coll. 1898 President of Southern Illinois Normal University, 335 W. Walnut St., Carbondale. 95° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Illinois 1897 Mary Reid Piercb. 1898, Agent American Book Co., 521-531 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Frederick William Plapp, A.B., '85, A.M., '91, Dartmouth Coll. 1890, Assistant in Jefferson High School, 2549 N. 42c! Ave., Irving Park Station, Chicago. Mrs. Andrea Hofer Proudfoot. Editor " Child Garden," 9333 Prospect Ave., Chicago. Louise D. Rennick. 1886, Teacher in Pullman School, 7142 Evans Ave., Station R, Chicago. Robert H. Rennie. r88g, Principal of Gresham School, 817 W. 87th St., Chicago. John Richeson, M.Sc, '80, A.M. (honorary), '84, Ewing Coll. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, District No. 1, 819 Ohio Ave., East St. Louis. George A. Robbins. , 1901, Supervisor of Manual Training, Public Schools, 2444 Broadway, Quincy. H. L. Roberts. 1896, Superintendent of Public Schools, Farmington. Joseph L. Robertson. 1894, County Superintendent of Schools, Courthouse, Peoria. Edward 0. Sisson, B.Sc, '86, State Agr. Coll., A.B., '93, Univ. of Chicago. 1897, Director of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria. Eva A. Smedlev. 1898, Principal of Noyes St. School, Evanston; res., 138 Wells St., Chicago. E. R. Smith. General Agent for D. C. Heath & Co., 378 Wabash Ave. ; Victoria Hotel, Chicago. Arthur John Snyder. 1897, Superintendent of North Belvidere Schools, 903 Van Buren St., Belvidere. John H. Stehman. 1881, Principal of Avondale School, 1571 Kimbell Ave., Logan Sq., Chicago. Albert LeRoy Stevenson, B.Sc, '82, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1885, Principal of Oakland Grammar School, Luzerne Hotel, Lincoln Park, Chicago. Henry L. Tolman, A.M., '69, Rochester Univ. Professor of Medical Jurisprudence, School of Medicine, Univ. of 111., 929 Chicago Opera House Building, Chicago; res., 919 Hinman Ave., Evanston, Frank H. Wescott, A.B., Univ. of Chicago. 1900, Student, University of Chicago; res., Lacon. John F. Wicks. 1890, Principal of School, Blue Mound; res., Decatur. , 1898 The Chicago Public Library. Librarian, Frederick H. Hild, Chicago. Edwin G. Dexter, B.Pd., '91, A.M., '92, Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., '99, Columbia Univ. 1900, Professor of Education, University of Illinois, 903 W. Green St., Urbana. John A. Forbes. With Butler, Sheldon & Co., Publishers, 315 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Catharine Goggin. Teacher in City Schools, 437 Unity Building, 79 Dearborn St., Chicago. John Calvin Hanna, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Univ. of Wooster. 1898, Principal of Oak Park-River Forest Tp. High School, 220 Clinton Ave., Oak Park. George Henry Howe, Ph.B., '86, A.M., '89, 111. Wes. Univ. 1901, Professor of Mathematics, State Normal University, Normal. J. L. Hughes, M.Sc. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 308 S. Poplar St., Centralia. Illinois State Normal University. President, David Felmley ; Librarian, Ange V. Milner, Normal. L. E. Loveridge. Western Manager of the Morse Company, 195 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Anna Murray. Director, Chicago Sloyd -School, 147-153, 5th Ave., Chicago. Newberry Library. Librarian, J. V. Cheney, Chicago. Chauncey F. Newkirk. Manager, Educational Dept., Rand, McNally & Co., 166-168 Adams St. ; res., 237 Montrose Ave., Chicago. J. H. Pugh. Agent, Werner Schoolbook Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Clyde Sloane, A.B., '88, Univ. of Mich. Principal of Schools, Carroll ton. Mrs. Constance Barlow Smith. 1895, Supervisor of Music in Public Schools, 1039 W. College Ave., Jacksonville. 1899 J. W. Asbury, A.B., '97, and B.Pd., '98, Nor. Sch., Valparaiso, Ind. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Marion. Thomas Pearce Bailey, Jr., A.B., '87, A.M., '89, Ph.D., '91, Univ. of So. Cal. 1900, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago. J. Edward Bangs. 1894, Principal of Township High School, 1097 N. Main St., Pontiac. Francis G. Blair, B.Scv '97, Swarthmore Coll. 1899, Supervisor of Training Department, Eastern Illinois Normal School, Charleston. Louis J. Block, A.B., ]68, A.M., Ph.D., Washington Univ. Principal of Marshall High School, 363 Warren Ave., Chicago. Henry L. Boltwood, A.M., '56^ Amherst. 1883, Principal of High School, 1218 Benson Ave., Evanston. Isaac B. Burgess, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Brown Univ. 1892, Professor of Latin in the Academy of the University of Chicago, Morgan Park. Joseph Carter. Superintendent of City Schools, 291 S. Elm St., Champaign. Francis B. Cassilly. 1898, Vice-President of St. Ignatius College, Chicago. Henry L. Chaplin. . 1894, Superintendent of the Union Schools, Sterling. • Illinois] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 951 1899 Wayland J. Chase, A.B., '87, A.M., '89, Brown Univ. 1898, Assistant Professor of History and, 1899, Dean of the Academy of the University of Chicago, Morgan Park. George Victor Clum, A.B., '93, Ohio State Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Earlville. Ida M. Cook. 1886, Principal of Nathaniel Greene School, 3207 Prairie Ave., Chicago. William J. M. Cox, A.M., '93, Univ. of Wooster. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 1614, 8th Ave., Moline. Department of Public Instruction, State of Illinois. Superintendent, Alfred Bayliss, Springfield. Eastern Illinois State Normal School. President, Livingston C. Lord; Librarian, Florence M. Beck, Charleston. Mrs. Mary E. Gilbert. Principal of Brighton School, 3207 Prairie Ave., Chicago. M. H. Haertel, B.Sc, '95, St. Charles Coll., Mo. ; Ph.B., '01, Univ. of Chicago. 1901, Instructor in German and French, Illinois College, 1127 Mound Ave., Jackson- ville. William Gardner Hale, A.B.,'70, Harvard; LL.D., '95, Union and, '96, Princeton. 1892, Professor of Latin, University of Chicago, 5757 Lexington Ave., Chicago. Winfield Scott Hall, Ph.D., M.D., Leipzig, Germany. 1895, Professor of Physiology in Northwestern University Medical School, 2431-2437 Dearborn St., Chicago. Ira W. Howerth, A.B., '93, Harvard; A.M., '94, Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Chicago. 1898, Registrar, College for Teachers, University of Chicago, 228, 53d St., Chicago. Henry Johnson, B.L., '89, Univ. of Minn. 1899, Department of History, Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston. Alfred Kirk. 1892, District Superintendent of Schools, 1209 Schiller Building, Chicago. C. P. Lamar, B.Sc, '93, A.B., '97, Nor. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1901, Instructor in Manual Training, 900 Seminary Ave., Chicago. J. E. Lemon, A.B., '83, Univ. of Mich. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 528 Maple Ave., Blue Island. William P. McKee, A.M., Univ. of Mjnn. ; B.D., Univ. of Chicago. 1897, Dean, the Frances Shimer Academy of the University of Chicago, Mt. Carroll. Edward McLoughlin,_M.D„ '90, Rush Med. Coll. 1899, Principal, George Dewey School, 6916 Perry Ave., Chicago. Mrs. Edward McLoughlin. 6916 Perry Ave., Chicago. Anthony Middleton. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta. Isaac Mitchell, B.Sc, '80, A.B., '81, Nat. Nor. Sch. ; A.M., '97, Hanover Coll. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Pontiac. Burton E. Nelson, M.Sc, Western Nor. Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 455, 8th St., Lincoln. Northern Illinois State Normal School. President, John W. Cook, De Kalb. Percy Pickrell. Agent for Ginn & Co., 610 S. 7th St., Springfield. Public Library, Rockford. Librarian, Jennie P. Hubbell, Rockford. R. Keable Row, A.B., '97, Queen's Univ., Kingston, Can. With D. C. Heath & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. W. P. Russell, A.B., '85. Cumberland Univ. 1889, Professor of Mathematics, Lincoln University, 627 N. Union St., Lincoln. John J. Schobinger. 1876, Principal of Harvard Preparatory School, 4670 Lake Ave., Chicago. School of Education, University of Chicago. President, Francis W. Parker; Librarian, Irene Warren, Chicago. James B. Scott, A.M., 'gr, Harvard; J.U.D., '94, Heidelberg. 1899, Professor of Law and Dean of College of Law, University of Illinois, Champaign. D. H. Smalley. Representative of Ginn & Co., 378-388 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Alexander Smith, B.Sc, '86, Edinburgh; Ph.D., '89, Munich. 1894, Associate Professor of General Chemistry, University of Chicago, Quadrangle Club, Chicago. George W. Smith, A.M., '93, Blackburn Univ. 1897, Department of History and Geography, State Normal School, 351 Walnut St., Carbondale, Southern Illinois Normal University. President, Daniel B. Parkinson; Librarian, Bessie M. Thompson, Carbondale.^ Ella C. Sullivan. District Superintendent of Schools, 1726 Diversey Boul., Chicago. University of Chicago. President, William R. Harper; Librarian, Zella Allen Dixson, Chicago. University of Illinois, Library. President, Andrew S. Draper; Head Librarian, Katharine L. Sharp, Champaign. Ransom E. Walker, L.L.B., Chicago Law School. Teacher in Richard Yates School, 589 W. Congress St., Chicago. George W. Webster, M.D., '82, N. W. Univ. Med. Sch. Professor of Physical Diagnosis, Northwestern University Medical School, 70 State • St., Chicago. Wheaton College. President, Charles A. Blanchard, Wheaton. 1900 L. R. Abbott, B.Sc, El. Eng„ '94, B.Sc, Mech. Eng., '95, Worcester Polytechnic Inst., Mass. 1899, Director of Manual Training, City Schools, 828, 16th St., Moline. Charles S. Aldrich, A.B., '93, Northwestern Univ., Evanston, 111. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, 602 N. 2d Ave., Canton. 952 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Illinois 1 901 William Edward Andrews, A.B., '84, A.M., '88, Blackburn Univ. ; Ph.D., '00, 111. Wesleyan Univ. 1894, Principal of Township High School, Taylorville. Armour Institute of Technology. President, F. W. Gunsaulus; Librarian, E. G. Severn, Chicago. Cornelia D. Bingham. 1897, Head Teacher, McCowen Oral School for the Deaf, 6550 Yale Ave., Chicago. W. S. Bixler, Litt.B., Lincoln Univ. 1901, Graduate Student, University of Chicago, 5737 Drexel Ave., Chicago. Claude Brown. 1898, County Superintendent of Schools, South Church St., Princeton. George N. Carman, A.B. 1885, Director of Lewis Institute, 610 Jackson Boul., Chicago. Jehiel K. Davis. 1898, Principal of Audubon School, 1033 Sherwin Ave., Rogers Park, Chicago. Joseph W. Errant. Ex- Member of Board of Education, Educational Author, 346 E. 54th St., Chicago. David Felmley, A.B., '81, Univ. of Mich. President of Illinois State Normal University, Normal. Edwin Osgood Grover, B.L., '94, Dartmouth Coll. 1900, General Editor, Educational Department, Rand, McNally & Co., 160-174 Adams St., Chicago. Samuel E. Harwood, A.M., '92, Ind. Univ. 1893, Professor of Mathematics, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. Manfred J. Holmes, B.L., '91, Cornell Univ. 1897, Department of General Method and Psychology, State Normal University, 603 S. Broadway, Normal. Samuel B. Hursh. Principal of Township High School, 201 W. Wilson St., Streator. Earl J. Kelsey, A.B., '89, Cornell Univ. 1899, Principal of High School, 366 North St., Elgin. O. J. Kern. County Superintendent of Schools, 216 Paris Ave., Rockford. Gertrude Longenecker. 1899, Instructor in Kindergarten Training Department, Chicago Normal School, 7334 Stewart Ave., Chicago. Charles E. Mann, M.Sc, '70, Albion Coll. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, St. Charles. Edward Carlton Page, A.B., '88, Northwestern Univ. 1899, Professor of History and Geography, Northern Illinois State Normal School, 322 Augusta Ave., De Kalb. George H. Rockwood, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Dartmouth Coll. 1900, Principal of Austin High School, Q29 Jackson Boul., Chicago. E. C. Rosseter, A.M., '75, Marietta Coll. Principal, Medill High School, 939 S. Spaulding Ave., Chicago. Scoville Institute. Vice-President, C. S. Pellet; Librarian, Miss E. L. Moore, Oak Park. Randolph Blodgett Seymour, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Hamilton Coll., N. Y. 1900, Director, Commercial Department, High School, 215 W. Adams St., Springfield. John D. Shoop. 1901, Principal of McAllister School, 6427 Stewart Ave., Chicago. Jesse Lowe Smith. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Park Ridge. J. K. Stableton, B.Sc, '82, A.M., '87, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, Bloomington. Benjamin A. Sweet, M.Sc, '93, Westfield Coll. ; Ph.B., '94, 111. Wes. Univ. 1900, Principal of High School, 824 Hazel St., Danville. Henry S. Tibbits, A.B., Univ. of Mich. , Principal of John Spry School, 915 S. Sawyer Ave., Chicago. Frederick L. Turner, A.B., '97, A.M., '98, Ohio State Univ. 1900, Teacher of Latin, High School, 103 N. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park. Mary E. Vaughan. 1900, District Superintendent of Schools, 425 Warren Ave., Chicago. Marion Foster Washburne. 1900, Teacher in Chicago Institute, 553 Jackson Boul., Chicago. Ella Flagg Young, Ph.D., '00, Univ. of Chicago. Professor of Education, University of Chicago, 5342 Cornell Ave., Chicago. Milem J. Alkire. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, Virginia. James E. Armstrong, A.B., Univ. of 111. Principal of Englewood High School, 529 W. 62d St., Chicago. Willard Streeter Bass, A.B., '96, Bowdoin Coll. ; A.M., '99, Harvard Univ. 1900, Teacher in Chicago Institute, 690 Wells St., Chicago. Stratton D. Brooks, A.B., '96, Univ. of Mich. ; Pd.B., '90, Pd.M., '99, Mich. St. Nor. Coll. 1899, High School Visitor, and Assistant Professor of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana. Henry E. Brown, Ph.B., "99, Iowa Coll. 1900, Teacher of Commercial Branches, High School, 719, 22d St., Rock Island. Ellen W. Carpenter, 1890, Principal of Andrew Jackson School, 544 Washington Boul., Chicago. Mrs. Diana H. Clock. 1882, Teacher in City Schools, 2250 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago. Mary T. Collins. _ , Teacher in City Schools, 163 S. Center St., Chicago. Ambrose C. Dearborn, A.B., '93, Harvard Univ. Representing Henry Holt & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Frances Dickinson, M.D., '83, Woman's Med. Coll. President of Harvey Medical College, 169 S. Clark St., Chicago. Indiana] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 953 ILLINOIS— Continued 1901 Amanda R. Eberlein. 1898, Teacher in Public Schools, Carrollton. J. M. Eppstein. Educational Agent, American Book Co., 743 Hinman Ave., Evanston. Caroline Grote. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Pike County, Pittsfield. Eliza A. Haley. 1888, Teacher in City Schools, 6524 Carpenter St., Chicago. Margaret A. Haley. Teacher of Sixth Grade, Elementary Schools, 3402 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Thomas C. Ham, B.L., '96. Dartmouth Coll. Western Manager, Educational Department, Charles Scribner's Sons, 240 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Hermann Hanstein. 1877, Supervisor of Drawing, High Schools, 361 Mohawk St., Chicago. Celia Hefter. 1886, Teacher in City Schools, 4347 Champlain Ave., Chicago. Florence Holbrook, A.B., Univ. of Chicago. 1889, Principal of Forestville School, 4441 Champlain Ave., Chicago. M. Edwin Johnson. Supervisor of Music, City Schools, 815 Ohio Ave., East St. Louis. Robert M. King. Representing Henry Holt & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Rosa A. Lang. 1883, Teacher in City Schools, 21 Lincoln PL, Chicago. George Herbert Locke, A.B., '93, A.M., '96, Univ. of Toronto. Assistant Professor of Education, and Editor " The School Review," University of Chicago, Chicago. Charles L. Manners, LL.B., '88, McKendree Coll. Principal of High School, 615 N. 8th St., East St. Louis. I. Adelia Marsh. 107 E. Lake St., Chicago. Anna L. Mayer. Teacher in City Schools, 759 W. 13th St., Chicago. James R. Meek, A.B., '97, Ind. Univ. Graduate Student, University of Chicago, Hyde Park Station, Chicago. Anna Mary Murphy. 1892, Teacher in City Schools, 1020 W. Adams St., Chicago. Kathryn A. O'Brien. Teacher in City Schools, 1140 Washington Boul., Chicago. Theresa O'Brien. Teacher in Public Schools, 1140 Washington Boul., Chicago. Julia O'Grady. 1898, Teacher in City Schools, 1102 W. Polk St., Chicago. Harvey N. Ott, Ph.B., '89, Albion Coll. ; Ph.M., '91, Univ. of Mich. 1896, Representative of Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., 1612 Garfield Boul., Chicago. Grace T. Potter, A.B., '98, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Teacher of Latin and Greek, 804, 3d Ave., Rockford. S. E. Raines, A.B., '97, Ind. Univ. 1897, Principal of High School, 242 Walnut St., Freeport. Anna T. Rochford. 1889, Teacher in City Schools, 3556 Marshfield Ave., Chicago. Ella A. Rowe. 1894, Teacher in City Schools, 636 E. 42d St., Chicago. Fred W. Rust, A.B., '98, Williams Coll. Agent in Illinois for Ginn & Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Edward S. Smith. Manager of Educational Publishing Co., 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago. Margaret Stuart. 1882, Teacher in City Schools, 920 W. Adams St., Chicago. E. A. Thornhill, A.B., '99, Harvard Univ. Principal of High School, Carrollton. John A. Wadhams. Principal of Tilton School, 2453 Lowell Ave., Chicago. Adda P. Wbrtz, A.M. Critic Teacher, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale. Flora Wilbur. 1895, Principal of City Training School, 1722, 6th Ave., Moline. INDIANA life members 1876 Moses Cobb Stevens, A.M., '83, Earlham Coll. 1883, Professor of Higher Mathematics, Purdue University, 103 Waldron St., W. Lafayette. 1880 *John S. Irwin, A.B., '42, Western Univ. of Pa. ; M.D., '47, Univ. of Pa. ; LL.D., '75, Univ. of Ind. 1203 E. Main St., Lafayette. active members 1885 Mary E. Nicholson. Principal of Normal School, 1222 Broadway, Indianapolis. 1890 Anna Suter. 5903 E. Washington St., Irvington. 1891 Miss N. Cropsey. 1894, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1219 College Ave., Indianapolis. ♦Died August 19, 1901. 954 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Indiana 1893 Edward Avers, A.B., '78, A.M., '85, Amherst Coll. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 625 Ferry St., Lafayette. 1893 William Lowe Bryan, Ph.D., '92. Clark Univ. 1887, Professor of Philosophy, Indiana University, 812 N. College Ave., Bloomington . Albert E. Humke. 1891, Superintendent of Public Schools, Vincennes. Joseph Swain, B.L., '83, M.Sc, '85, Ind. Univ. ; LL.D., 93, Wabash Coll. 1893, President of Indiana University, Beechwood Ave., Bloomington. H. G. Woody, B.Sc., Nat. Nor. Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Greencastle. 1894 George W. Benton, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Wabash Coll. 1888, Instructor in Chemistry, High School, 318 E. 19th St., Indianapolis. Arthur C. Fleshman, B.Sc, '84, M.Sc, '92, Nat. Nor. Univ., O. 1901, Psychology and Pedagogy, Central Normal College, Danville. George W. Hufford, A.M., '67, Antioch Coll. 1892, Principal of High School, 1209 Park Ave., Indianapolis. 1895 W. C. Bblman. 1883, Superintendent of Schools, 130 Ogden St., Hammond. H. B. Brown, A.M. President of Northern Indiana Normal School, 53 Jefferson St., Valparaiso. John A. Carnagey, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Hanover Coll., Ind. 1890, Superintendent of City Schools, 1039 Franklin St., Columbus. Thomas F. Fitzgibbons, Grad., '00, Ind. St. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '97, Ind. Univ. 1890, Superintendent of Public Schools, 1113 Franklin St., Columbus. D. M. Geeting. 1895, Editor of " Inland Educator " and " Indiana School Journal," Indianapolis. William A. Hester, A.M., '83, De Pauw Univ. 1894, Superintendent of City Public Schools, 7th and Vine Sts., Evansville. Cyrus W. Hodgin, A.M., '88, Earlham Coll. 1887, Professorof History and Political Science, Earlham College, 30 Central Ave., Richmond. Frank L. Jones, B.Sc, '90, N. Ind. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., '98, Ind. Univ. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Room 27, State House, Indianapolis. George Franklin Kenaston, A.B., '78, Dartmouth; A.M., '81, Univ. of Mich. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 511 S. Washington St., Crawfordsville. Calvin N. Kendall, A.B., '82, Hamilton Coll. ; A.M., '00, Yale. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, 1709 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis. Mary E. Rowe. 1900, Teacherjin Knickerbocker Hall, 2307 Talbot Ave., Indianapolis. William S. Rowe, A.B.,J'o.2, De Pauw Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 803 Grand Ave., Connersville. James F. Scull. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, Room u, Central Building, Rochester. W. R. Snyder, A.M., '98, Pennsylvania Coll. 1887, Superintendent of City Schools, 319 W. Adams St., Muncie. Wabash Collegf. President, William P. Kane; Librarian, H. S. Wedding, Crawfordsville. 1896 George F. Bass. Manager " Indiana Young People's Reading Circle," Commercial Club Building, Indianapolis. Mrs. Eliza A. Blaker. 1882, Superintendent, Indianapolis Free Kindergartens, Normal and Domestic Training School, 2320 N. Meridian St, Indianapolis. Henry Willard Bowers, A.B., '77, A.M., '81, De Pauw Univ. 1901, Principal of High School, Portland. Isaac Vinton Busby, A.B., '91, Indiana Univ. 1894, Superintendenrof City Schools, 202 E. Garfield St., Alexandria. Robert I. Hamilton. 1887, Superintendent of City Schools, 53 Poplar St., Huntington. Miles W. Harrison, A. B., '79, Oberlin. 1886, Superintendent of City Schools, 127 W. Maple St., Wabash. William Handford Hershman, A.B., '98, Ind. Univ. iqoi, Superintendent of City Schools, Central Building, Hammond. J. R. Houston, M.Sc, '93, Moore's Hill Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Public Schools/Aurora. John O. Lbwellen, B.Sc, N. Ind. Nor. School. Principal of Lincoln School, 301 North St., Muncie. C. M. McDaniel, B.Sc, '85, A.M., '93. Superintendent of Schools, 505 W. Main St., Madison. William A. Millis, A.M., Ind. Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 407 E. Wabash Ave., Crawfordsville. Benjamin F. Moore. 1899, Superintendent of!City Schools, 618 W. 5th St., Marion. Thomas Abbott Mott, A.M., '98, Earlham Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Garfield School, Richmond. Charles N. Peak, A.B., '84, Moore's Hill Coll.; Ph.B., '86, Ind. Univ. 1891, Superintendent of City Schools, 301 S. Prince St., Princeton. Flora Roberts, B.Sc, '87, M.Sc, '98, Purdue Univ. 1894, Teacher in West Lafayette High School, 331 Northwestern Ave., Lafayette. Howard Sandison, A.M., '89, Ind. Univ. 1890, Vice-President, Indiana State Normal School, 404 N. Center St., Terre Haute. David W.Thomas, A.B., '72, A.M., '75, De Pauw Univ. 1886, Superintendent of City Schools, 506 Lexington Ave., Elkhart. William H. Wiley, A.B., '64, A.M., '67, Butler Univ. 1869, Superintendent of Schools, 451 N. 7th St., Terre Haute. 1897 Adelaide Steele Baylor, Ph.B., '97, Univ. of Chicago. 1888, Principal of High School, 108 E. Hill St., Wabash. John W. Carr, A.B., '85, A.M., '90, Ind. Univ. 1890, Superintendent of City Schools, 439 W. nth St., Anderson. Indiana] LIFE, A CTlVE, AND ■ CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 955 1897 Indiana State Library. State Librarian, W. E. Henry, State House, Indianapolis. Indiana State Normal School. President, William W. Parsons, Terre Haute. W. D. Kerlin, Grad., '81, Ind. Nor. Sch. 1895, Superintendent of City Schools, 289 E. Washington St., Martinsville. Irwin F. Mather, A.B., A.M., Iowa Coll. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, East Chicago. Edwin S. Monroe, Ph.B., '96, 111. Wesleyan Univ. ; A.M., '97, Hanover Coll. 1895, Superintendent of City Schools, 603 Mulberry St., Mt. Vernon. H. C. Montgomery, A.B., '8o, Hanover Coll.; A.M., '91, Univ. of Mich. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, Seymour. Will A. Myers, A.B., '96, A.M., '99, Indiana Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Fortville. Robert Alexander Ogg, B.Sc. , '72, A.M., '92, Ind. Univ. Superintendent of City Schools, 216 W. Sycamore St., Kokomo. Justin N. Study, A.M., '73, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1896, Superintendent of Public Schools, Fort Wayne. Valparaiso College and Northern Indiana Normal School. President, H. B. Brown; Librarian, O. P. Kinsey, Valparaiso. 1898 Edward G. Bauman, Grad., '90. Ind. State Nor. Sch. ; Ph.B., '96, 111. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '98, Cent. Wes., '99, 111. Wes. Univ. 1899, Principal of High School, 829 Main St., Mount Vernon. Fassett A. Cotton. 1895, Deputy State Supt. of Public Instruction, 1413 N. New Jersey St., Indianapolis. Paul A. Cowgill, B.Sc, Univ. of Mich. ; B.Pd., Mich. State Nor. Coll. Superintendent of City Schools, Michigan City. Mrs. Laura Dale Floyd. 1900, Principal of McKinley Building, Magoun Ave. and 145th St., East Chicago. Winfield Scott Hiser. Director of Manual Training Laboratory and Supervisor of Manual Training, Public Schools, 33 S. 13th St., Richmond. Alfred E. Malsbary, Grad., '89, Ind. State Nor.; A.B., '96, Ind. State Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Peru. John F. Rieman, B.Sc, '97, Univ. of Mich. ; B.Pd., '99, Mich. Nor. Coll. Superintendent of Public Schools, Goshen. John Anderson Wood, A.B., Ind. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 1210 Clay St., La Porte. 1899 Anna M. Baker, B.L., '98, M.L., '99, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Instructor in English and History, Box 406, Mount Vernon. C. Bunnell. Principal of High School, Wanatah. Charles H. Copeland, A.B., '96, A.M., '97, Indiana Univ. Superintendent of Public Schools, Fairmount. Clara Funk, B.Sc, '84, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. 1891, Teacher of English in High School, Jeffersonville ; res., 208 Cherry St., New Albany. Joseph P. Funk, A.M., Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, O. 1887, Principal of High School, 208 Cherry St., New Albany. William H. Glascock, A.B., '98, Ind. Univ. ; Ph.M., '99, Univ. of Chicago. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 408 College Ave., Bloomington. Alexander Campbell Goodwin, A.M., Ph.D., Hanover Coll. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Jeffersonville. James R. Hart, A.B., Ind. Univ. 1894, Superintendent of Public Schools, 223 E. Pearl St., Lebanon. Frank F. Heighway, B.S.C., '88, No. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Crown Point. John A. Hill, B.Sc, '96, Franklin Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Portland. Indiana University Library. President, Joseph Swain ; Librarian, George F. Danforth, Bloomington. Ezra Elliott Lollar, A.B., '93, Otterbein Univ., O. ; '96, St. Nor. Sch., Terre Haute, Ind. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Garrett. 1900 Butler College. President, Scott Butler, Irvington. W. S. Ellis. 1898, President, Board of Education, 335 W. 5th St., Anderson. Frank D. Gray, A.B., Tri-State Nor. Coll., Angola, Ind. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, Dunkirk. J. W. Hamilton. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, Monticello. R. C. Hillis. 1899, County Superintendent of Schools, Courthouse, Logansport. Robert W. Himelick. Superintendent of Schools, Jonesboro. Robert Lee Hughes, A.B., '95, A.M., '99, Univ.of Chicago. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Whiting. Lucien B. O'Dell. Superintendent of Schools, Thorntown. J. F. Spaunhurst, D.O., '00, American School of Osteopathy, Kirksville, Mo. 9th Floor, Stevenson Building, Indianapolis. H. B. Wilson. 1897, Superintendent of Public Schools, Salem. William A. Wirt, Ph.B., '98, De Pauw Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, 524 W. Washington St., Bluffton. 1901 Elbert Bradner, B.Sc, '93, Tri-State Nor. Coll., Angola, Ind. 1901, Special Teacher, Public Schools, near cor. Webster St. and Union Ave., Ashley. 956 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Iowa INDIANA— Continued Cora Stanton Brown. Associate Editor, "School and Home Education," Bloomington, 111. ; res., 1504 N. Pennsylvania St., Indianapolis. A. A. Campbell, A.B.,'97, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 372 E. 5th St., Peru. Mrs. Esse Bissell Dakin, B.Sc, '80, Cornell Univ. 1892, Head of Department of Mathematics, High School. 410 W. Washington St., South Bend. M. W. Deputy, B.Sc. 1897, County Superintendent of Schools, Vernon. Hal L. Hall, A.B., '99, Ind. Univ. 1900, Principal of High School, Peru. O. V. Huntley. 1901, Principal of School, 50 Garfield Ave., Hammond. J. H. Jeffrey, A.B., '98, Ind. Univ. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools. Gas City. A. E. Martin, B.Sc, Nor. Ind. Nor. Sch. ; A.B., Ind. Univ. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, Columbia Hotel, Greenfield. S. B. McCracken, A.B., '92, Ind. Univ. Principal of High School, 508 Pigeon St., Elkhart. A. G. McGregor, A.B., '00, Harvard Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 942 N. Harrison St., Rushville. L. A. McKnight." 1899, Superintendent of Benton County Schools, Fowler. Mary S. Mulligan. Supervisor of Instruction, 306 W. 12th St., Anderson. James B. Pearcy, Ph.B., '88, Butler Univ. Principal of High School, 208 W. 13th St., Anderson. Oscar Morton Pittenger, A.B., '96, Ind. Univ. 1898, Teacher of History, High School, 225 E. 13th St., Anderson. George F. Quick. Treasurer of School Board, 233 W. nth St., Anderson. Emily Ricketts. Supervisor of Primary Schools, 117 N. 5th St., Goshen. George L. Roberts, A.B., '94, Ind. St. Univ. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 259 W. Washington St., Frankfort. Rhoda E. Selleck. Instructor in Art Department, High School, 727 N. New Jersey St., Indianapolis. Francis M. Stalker, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Princeton Univ. 1892, Associate Professor of Psychology, Indiana State Normal School, 666 Swan St., Terre Haute. Otis G. Stanton, A.B., '96, Ind. Univ. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 356 S. Central Ave., Irvington. Alexander B. Thompson. 1897, County Superintendent of Schools, 822 W. 5th St., Marion. Charles H. Wood, B.Sc, '83, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1894, Superintendent of City Schools, 65 E. Jefferson St., Valparaiso. G. W. Worley. County Superintendent of Schools, 316 S. High St., Warsaw. INDIAN TERRITORY LIFE MEMBER George Beck, M.Sc, '63, Univ. of Mich. 1901, School Supervisor, Chipkasaw Nation, Tishomingo. active members 1900 Elihu B. Hinshaw, A.B., '86, A.M., '90, Hiwassee Coll. 1897, Superintendent of Bloomfield Seminary, Kemp. 1901 E. A. Allen, B.Sc, '87, Kan. Agri. Coll. Superintendent of Indian School, Acting Indian Agent, Wyandotte. IOWA LIFE MEMBERS 1884 Henry J. Taylor, A.B., '78, LL.B., '80, A.M., '84, Univ. of Wis. Lawyer, 1639 Douglas St., Sioux City. William A. Willis, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Beloit Coll. Proprietor and Principal of Iowa City Academy, 308 Church St., Iowa City. 1889 Rt. Rev. John J. Keane, D.D., Laval; LL.D., Harvard. 1900, Archbishop of Dubuque, Dubuque. active members 1884 Hamline H. Freer, B.Sc, '69, M.Sc, '78, A.B.. '80, A.M., '83, Cornell Coll., Iowa. 1872, Professor of Science and Art of Teaching and Pol. Econ., Cornell Coll., Mt. Vernon. William Fletcher King, A.B., '57, A.M., '60, Ohio Wesleyan Univ.; D.D., '70, 111. Wesleyan Univ. ; LL.D., '87, State Univ. of Iowa, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. 1863, President of Cornell College, Mt. Vernon. 1889 William Miller Bbardshear, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, LL.D., '85. 1891, President of Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Ames. Henry Sabin, A.M., Amherst Coll.; LL.D., '93, Drake Univ.; '94, Cornell Coll.; '95, State Univ. of Iowa. Ex- State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 210 Manhattan Block, Des Moines. Homer H. Seerley, Ph.B., '73, B.D., '75, A.M., '76, State Univ. of Iowa; LL.D., '98, Penn Coll. 1886, President, State Normal School, 2403 Normal St., Cedar Falls. 1884 Iowal LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 957 1890 Ozro Patterson Bostwick, A.B., '78, Lombard Coll., 111. 1889, Superintendent of Schools, 313, 8th Ave., Clinton. Henry Elton Kratz, A.M., '77, Ph.D., '90, Univ. of Wooster, Ohio. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, 805 Douglas St., Sioux City. 1894 Ashley Van Storm, Ph.B., '98, 111. Wesleyan Univ. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, Cherokee. A. B. Warner. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Missouri Valley, 1895 James Johnson Billingsly, B.Sc, '92, N. Ind. Nor. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Sanborn. M. E. Crosier, 1892, Superintendent of Schools, Walnut. E. D. Y. Culbertson, B.D., '89, State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la. 512 Crocker Building, Des Moines.r ,,er !*»»*»* O. E. French. 189s, Superintendent of City Schools, 602 N. Maple St., Creston. P. C. Hayden. 1900, Teacher of Music, Public Schools, 729 Franklin St., Keokuk. Joseph Jasper McConnell, A.B., '76; B.Didac.,'78, A.M., '80, State Univ. of Iowa. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, 1724 B Ave., Cedat Rapids. W. A. McCord. 1898, General Agent, Rand, McNally & Co., Educational Department, Des Moines. J. J. Nagel, Ph.B., '98, Wesleyan Univ., Bloomington, 111. 1870, Principal Grammar School No. 4, 906 W. Locust St., Davenport. A. A. Reed, A.B.. Univ. of Neb. 1900, Principal of High School, Keokuk. Etta Suplee. Supervisor of Primary Training, State Normal School, Cedar Falls. Fannie Suplee. 1894, Principal of Public School, 1045, 9th St., Des Moines. , James E. Williamson, A.M., '82, Wabash Coll. 1892, Superintendent of City Schools, Fairfield. 1896 A. H. Avery. 1894, Principal of High School, Spencer. Richard C. Barrett, A.M., '94, Cornell Coll. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 913, 8th St.. Des Moines. John Franklin Brown, Ph.B., '89, A.M., '95, EarlhamColl. ; Ph.D., '96, Cornell. 1901, Assistant Professor of Pedagogy and Inspector of High Schools, University of Iowa, Iowa City. George I. Miller, B.Sc, '77, M.Sc, '97, Iowa State Coll. 1886, Superintendent of Public Schools, 427 Story St., Boone. Franklin T. Oldt. A.M. 1895, Superintendent of City Schools, 1240 Locust St., Dubuque. Austin Norman Palmer. President of Cedar Rapids Business College and Editor of " Western Penman," Cedar Rapids. Hattie Adelia Phillips. 1894, Supervisor of Kindergartens, 1159, 26th St., Des Moines. James L. Thatcher, B.L., '93, Univ. of Wis. 1900, Principal of School, 514 Brady St., Davenport. F. E. Willard, B.Sc, '89, A.M., '92, Iowa Coll. ■ 1896. Superintendent of Schools, 206 W. Grant St., Marshalltown. J.B. Young, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, Middlebury Coll. 1878, Superintendent of Schools, 422 E. 14th St., Davenport. 1897 Eugene Brown, B.Sc, '92, Iowa State Coll. 1900, President of Midland Normal School, 505-507 W. State St., Mason City. Jacob Leonard Buechele, Ph.B., '86, Cornell Coll., Iowa. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, Independence. Horace T. Bushnell._ 1873, Principal of Grammar School No. 8, Farnam St. and South Ave., Davenport. C. P. Colgrove, A.M., '96, Univ. of Chicago. 1896, Professor of Psychology and Didactics, State Normal School, 2422 Normal St., Cedar Falls. Mrs. E. Dudley, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Cornell Coll. 1890, Assistant Principal in High School, Paullina. Lyman H. Ford, A.B., '92, A.M., '93, Univ. of Wooster. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 821 Boone St., Webster City. Irene Garrette. Principal of Jefferson School, 708, 3d Ave., Cedar Rapids. B. J. Horchem. 1898, Principal of Audubon School, 315 Bluff St., Dubuque. F. E. Lark. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Monona County, Onawa. George Edwin MacLean, Ph.D., '83, Leipzig; LL.D., '95, Williams. 1899, President of the State University of Iowa, Iowa City. A. R. Sale. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, 326 S. Superior Ave., Mason City. William S. Shearer. _ . Agent for American Book Co., 2718 University Ave., Des Moines. State Normal School, Cedar Falls. President, H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls. State University of Iowa, ^ President, George Edwin MacLean; Librarian, Mrs. Bertha G. Ridgeway, Iowa City. V. L. Wilson. Agent for American Book Co., Ottumwa. Finley M. Witter, B.Sc, A.M., '76, University of Iowa. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Muscatine County, 1314 Mulberry St., Muscatine. 958 NA 7 ZONAL ■ ED UCA TIONAL ASSOCIA 7 ION [Kansas IOWA— Continued 1898 Edson N. Coleman, A.M., '89, Bellevue Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 15th St. and 4th Ave. S., Fort Dodge. J. D. Stout, B.Sc, '83, Valparaiso Coll. 1899, President of Ellsworth College, 600 N. College Ave., Iowa Falls. Mary Zikk. 1899, Principal of Madison School, 417, 1st St. W., Cedar Rapids. 1900 Henry L. Adams, B.Sc, '97, Upper Iowa Univ. 1900, County Superintendent of Schools, West Union. Frederick E. Bolton, B.Sc, '93, M.Sc, '96. Univ. of Wis. ; Ph.D., '98, Clark Univ. 1900, Professor of Science and Art of Education, State University of Iowa, 1019 College St., Iowa City- '—■■' William Bayard Craig, A.M., '85, Sv. Jmv'. of Iowa; D.D., '93, Univ. of Colo. ; LL.D., '97, Drake Univ. 1897, Chancellor of Drake University, 2702 University Ave., Des Moines. I. C. Hise. 1898, County Superintendent of Schools, Le Mars. Thomas B. Hutton, B.Sc, '91, Iowa St. Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Odebolt. Iowa College. Acting President, J. H. T. Main; Librarian, M. H. Douglass, Grinnell. L. E. A. Ling. 1891, Superintendent of City Schools, Cresco. Samuel H. Sheakley, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Thiel Coll., Pa. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 1418 Pleasant St., Des Moines. Arthur V. Sunderlin, B.E., '75, M.E., '78, St. Nor. Sch., Edinboro, Pa. 1900, Principal of Lyons High School; res., 103 Miami Ave., Clinton. 1901 Hill M. Bell, A.B., '90, A.M., '91, Drake Univ. Vice-Chancellor and Professor of Pedagogy, Drake University, 1091, 26th St., Des Moines. Anson H. Bigelow, B.Sc, '87, Univ. of Neb. Superintendent of City Schools, Le Mars. Herbert E. Crosby, B.Sc, Iowa St. Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 431 E. 5th St., Spencer. Nellie L. Elliott. Teacher in 7th Grade, City Schools, 2106 Cottage Grove Ave., Des Moines. Francis M. Fultz, Ph.B., '86, A.M., '89, St. Univ. of Iowa. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 313 S. Gunnison St., Burlington. Amos Hiatt, A.B., '70, A.M., '76, Univ. of Iowa. 1885, Superintendent of East Side Schools, 1003 E. 12th St., Des Moines. J. M. Hussey, M.Sc, Chillicothe Nor. Sch. ; Ped.B., Western Nor. Coll. 1893, President of the Western Normal College, Shenandoah. Iowa State College, Library. President, W. M. Beardshear; Librarian, VinaE. Clark, Ames. George A. Moore, A.B., '95, Denison Univ., O. Instructor in Mathematics, Cedar Valley Seminary, Osage. George W. Nellis. 1891, Superintendent of Indian Training School, Toledo. A. C. Newell, B.Sc in E.E., '92, Univ. of Mich. 1894, Superintendent of Manual Training, High School, West Des Moines. W. H. Norton. Professor of Geology, Cornell College, Mt. Vernon. Malcolm W. O'dell. 1901, Superintendent of Indian School, Toledo. Eugene C. Peirce, A.B., '90, Albion Coll. 1899, Principal of High School, 303 W. 4th St., Ottumwa. W. A. Pratt, A.M., O. Wes. Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Washington. H. J. Schwietert. 1899, County Superintendent of Schools, Franklin Courthouse, Manchester. KANSAS life director 1886 A. V. Jewett, A.B., '57, Middlebury Coll., Vt. Abilene. life members 1886 Board of Education, Abilene. President, Mrs. Mary Hamilton ; Secretary, W. P. Gulick. Board of Education, Dodge City. President, W. J. Fitzgerald; Clerk, W. T. Coolidge. Board of Education, City of Ottawa. President, A. W. Benson ; Clerk, Miss Hattie Muzzy. Board of Education, Sedgwick. Superintendent, R. A. Hampshire; Clerk, G. P. Schouten. Anderson Griffeth Campbell. Council Grove. Nathaniel Coover. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, Wilson. Edward T. Fairchild. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, Ellsworth. Henry G. Larimer, LL.B., '81, Univ. of Mich. Lawyer, 535 Kansas Ave., Topeka. A. N. Limerick. Principal of Public Schools, South Haven. Kansas] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 959 1886 John MacDonald. Editor " Western School Journal," Topeka. Peter Mc Vicar, A.B.,'56, A.M., '71, D.D., '71, Beloit Coll., Wis. 1895, President Emeritus of Washburn College, College Ave., Topeka. Riley County Educational Association. Vice-President, C. M. Coirell; Secretary, Miss Reppie Carey, Manhattan. Thomas Watson Roach, A.B., '70. M.Sc, '90, Mt. Union Coll., Alliance, O. 1892, Superintendent of Kansas Wesleyan Business College, Salina. George E. Rose, B.D., '83, Univ. of Kan.; M.Sc, '98, Kan. St. Agri. Coll. 1893, Principal of High School, 846 Burnett St., Kansas City. Thomas A. Sawhill, A.B., '741 Amherst Coll. Publisher of " Concordia Empire," Concordia. Aaron Schuyler, A.M., '60, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; LL.D., '73, Otterbein ; Ph.D., '98, Kan. Wes. Univ. Professor of Philosophy and Higher Mathematics, Kansas Wesleyan University, 1316 S. Santa Fe St., Salina. Edmund Stanley, A.M., '91, Penn Coll., Oskaloosa, la. 1898, President of Friends' University, 1203 University Ave., Wichita. Teachers' Association of Cowley County. President, Julia B, King ; Secretary, Edna M. Glass, Winfield. D. C. Tillotson. 621 Filmore St., Topeka. Philo Jesse Williams, A.M., '57, Madison Univ. ; D.D., '76, Univ. of Kan. Baldwin. active members 1884 J. N. Wilkinson. 1901, President, State Normal School, 832 Merchant St., Emporia. 1890 William M. Davidson. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, 1105 Tyler St., Topeka. Arvin S. Olin, A.B., '92, Ottawa Univ. ; A.M., '94, Univ. of Kan. 1899, Professor of Education, University of Kansas, 1134 Louisiana St., Lawrence. Lloyd E. Wolfe. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, 921 Minnesota Ave., Kansas City. 1891 Frank R. Dyer, A.M., '88, M.Pd., '93, Ohio Nor. Univ. : A.M., '92, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 609 N. Topeka Ave., Wichita. *J. D. Orr. 1901, Principal of Seventh St. School, 91s Orville Ave., Kansas City. 1893 Francis Huntington Snow, Ph.D., '81, Williams Coll. ; LL.D., '90, Princeton. 1890, Chancellor of University of Kansas, Lawrence. 1894 Elva Enola Clarke. 1893, Librarian of State Normal School, 1025 Constitution St., Emporia. O. P. M. McClintock. 1897, Principal of Clay School, 1259 Buchanan St., Topeka. 1895 O. P. Barnes. Western Agent, Ginn & Co., Leavenworth. Jessie L. Clark. 1892, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita. Fbnella Dana. 1889, Principal of Ward School, 1017 Tyler St., Topeka. Miss M. E. Dolphin. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, Leavenworth. Leida H. Mills. 1895, Assistant in High School, 1203 N. Market St., Wichita. Maggie S. Mitchell, B.Sc, Geneva Coll., Pa. 1879, Teacher in Public Schools, 509 W. 6th St., Topeka. L. H. Murlin, A.B., '91, S.T.B., '92, De PauwUniv.; D.D., '97, Cornell Coll.; S.T.D, '97, Denver Univ. ; B.D., '99, Garrett Biblical Inst. 1894, President of Baker University, Baldwin. Miss C. S. Newell. 1890, Teacher in Public Schools, 917 W. 14th St., Topeka. David F. Shirk. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, Cottonwood Falls. Edward A. Simerwkll. 1892, Principal of Grant School, 1209 N. Western Ave., Topeka. Nathan T. Veatch. i9or, Superintendent of City Schools, 523 Mound St., Atchison. 1897 Mrs. Gaston Boyd. Teacher of Voice and Physical Culture, Main St., Newton. Charles A. Boyle. 1893, Director of Departmentof Music, State Normal School, 831 Constitution St., Emporia. Kansas State Agricultural College. President, Ernest R. Nichols ; Librarian, Mrs. Henrietta Calvin, Manhattan. L. A. Lowther, A.B., '94, State Univ. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, 617 Exchange St., Emporia. H. B. Peairs. Superintendent of Haskell Institute, Indian Industrial Training School, Lawrence. Walter G. Riste. 1896, Principal of Thomas County High School, Colby. Frank P. Smith, A.B., '78, Ind. Univ.; A.M., '90, Baker Univ. 1894, Superintendent of City Schools, 900 Tennessee St., Lawrence. 1899 Frederick B. Abbott, Ph.D., '98, Martyn Coll. Teacher of Manual Training, State Normal School, 1101 Mechanic St., Emporia. John H. Glotfelter. 1901, Principal of Training Department, State Normal School, 832 Merchant St., Emporia. T. S. Johnson. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, McPherson. * Died November 2, 1901. g6o NATIONAL. EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Kentucky KANSAS— Continued 1899 Midland College. President, Rev. Jacob A. Clutz; Librarian, Granville H. Meixell, Atchison. Frank Nelson, Ph.B.. '92, Iowa St. Univ. 1809, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 213 Topeka Ave., Topeka. John W. Spindler, A.B., '76, A.M., '95, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; B.L., '82, Cincinnati Law School. 1891, Superintendent of City Schools, Winfield. 1900 Free Public Library, Topeka. President, Edward Wilder; Librarian, Mrs. E. S. Lewis, Topeka. Thomas B. Henry, A.B., '98, Univ. of Kan. 1899, Instructor in Mathematics, Montgomery County High School, Independence^ John W. Wilson, A.B. Principal of Atchison County High School, Effingham. Lizzie E. Wooster. Educational Author, care of Crane & Co., Topeka. 1901 Carrie Goddard. Principal of Garfield School, 1009 Topeka Ave., Topeka, Nora B. Haight. 1899, Teacher in North Windy School, R. F. D. No. 3, Paola. E. H. Heacock, B.Sc, '94, M.Sc, '95. Vice-Principal, Department of Chemistry and Physics, High School, 720 Harrison St., Topeka. William Redmond, A.B., '96, Ind. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Hiawatha. KENTUCKY life members 1877 William Henry Bartholomew. 1881, Principal of Girls' High School, 426 E. Gray St., Louisville. Mrs. Laura L. Monsarrat. Principal of Seventh Ward Public School, 208 W. Walnut St., Louisville. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1891 McHenry Rhoads, A.M., West Ky. Coll. ; Ph.M., Hartford Coll. ' 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 420 White Ave., Owensboro. 1893 Edgar H. Mark. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, Center and Walnut Sts., Louisville. 1894 Susie M. Bartholomew. 426 E. Gray St., Louisville. 1895 Livingstone McCartney. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Hopkinsville. 1896 Frank S. Alley, A.M., Moore's Hill Coll., Ind. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, 132 Taylor Ave., Bellevue. W. J. McConathy. 1895, Principal of Normal School, 1454, 2d St., Louisville. John Morris. 1895, Superintendent of Public Schools, 829 Scott St., Covington. Ida Rudolf. 1895, Principal of the Monsarrat School. 2427 W. Chestnut St., Louisville. Edward Taylor, A.M., '78, Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 1109 College St., Bowling Green. Louise A. Wiard. Teacher in Eighth Grade, Public Schools, Frankfort. 1897 J. G. Crabbe, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wes. Univ. ; M.Pd., Ohio Univ. 1890, Superintendent of City Schools, 721 E. Winchester Ave., Ashland. Reuben Post Halleck, A.M., Yale. Principal of Boys' High School, 1240, 3d Ave., Louisville. Anna C. Roth. 1887, Teacher in Sixth Grade, Duncan Street School, 2441 W. Chestnut St., Louisville. 1898 W. Thomas Berry. Principal of Third District School, 221 Wood St., Maysville. John Wirt Dinsmore. 1900, Dean of Normal Department, Berea College, Berea. A. C. Kuykendall, A.B., '91, Burrett Coll. 1898, Teacher of Mathematics, South Kentucky College, Hopkinsville. Miles Eugene Marsh, A.B., '93, Oberlin Coll. Principal of Academy of Berea College, Berea. William H. Perry, A.M., '92, Ky. St. Univ. Principal, Public Schools, 2909 W. Walnut St., Louisville. 1900 Harry G. Brownell, B.Sc, '86, Rose Polytechnic Inst., Ind. 1895, Principal of Manual Training High School, 106 W. Oak St., Louisville. S. L. Frogge, A.M., '80, Bethel Coll. Superintendent of City Schools, 317, 3d St., Frankfort. Charles B. Hatfield. 1900, Superintendent of City Public Schools, 232 N. 7th St., Paducah. Elizabeth B. Walsh. 1900, Supervisor of Primary Schools, 1036, 5th St., Louisville. 1901 J. W. Bradner, B.Sc, '94, A.B., 96, Tri-State Nor. Coll. Principal of High School, Caster St., Ashland. A. H. Hill. 1897, County Superintendent of Schools, 10 Cedar St., Franklin. John D. Kelly, LL.B.,'93, Univ. of Louisville. 1899, Principal of City School, 716 Mildred St., Owensboro. H. V. McChesney. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Frankfort. Maine] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 96 1 KENTUCKY— Continued 1901 J. H. Patterson, A.M., '87, Liberty Coll., Miss. ; Ph.D., '96, Blount Coll. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, Lancaster. W. T. St. Clair, A.B., '80, A.M., '94, Centre Coll.. Ky. 1886, Professor of Latin, Male High School, 418 W. Oak St., Louisville. F. F. Thwing, A.B., '89, Oberlin Coll. 1892, Instructor in Mathematics, Manual Tr. High School, 2219 Brook St., Louisville. Callie King Walls. 1893, Teacher of Mathematics, English, and History, The Lawrence, 18th , St., west of Madison Ave., Covington. LOUISIANA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1889 Miss Marion Brown. _ 1895, Principal of New Orleans Normal School, 1303, 3d St., New Orleans. 1892 George Soule. President of Soule Commercial College and Literary Institute, 603 St. Charles St., New Orleans. 1894 Edwin A. Alderman, Ph.B., Univ. of N. C. ; D.C.L., '96, Univ. of the South; LL.D., '99, Tulane Univ., La. 1900, President of Tulane University of Louisiana, New Orleans. Miss H. A. Suter. 1878, Principal of McDonogh High School No. 2, 1426 St. Andrew St., New Orleans. 1895 Warren Easton, A.B., '71, St. Univ. of La. 1888, Superintendent of Schools, 610 Camp St., New Orleans. 1896 B. C. Caldwell. 1896, President of State Normal School, Natchitoches. J. G. Haott. Lake Charles. 1897 Clara G. Baer, Grad., '91, Posse Gymnasium, Boston. 1891, Professor of Physical Education, Newcomb Coll., Tulane University, 1532 Washing- ton Ave., New Orleans. Brandt V. B. Dixon, A.M., LL.D. President of H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College, 1220 Washington Ave., New Orleans. Eveline A. Waldo. 1901, Principal, St. Mary's Parish Kindergarten Training School, 6106 St. Charles Ave., New Orleans. 1899 Augustine Aurianne, L.I., Peabody Nor. Sch., Univ. of Nashville. 1898, Professor in Academic Department, New Orleans Normal School, 615 Conti St., New Orleans. 1900 C. H. Carson, Jr., A.B., '83, Emory Coll., Oxford, Ga. 1898, Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Louisiana Industrial Institute, Ruston. 1901 Nicholas L. A. Bauer, B.Sc, '97, A.M., '99, Tulane Univ. 1001, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 331 Chartres St., New Orleans. John R. Conniff, A.B., '94, Tulane Univ. 1901, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 1416 Marengo St., New Orleans. MAINE LIFE DIRECTOR 1886 Josiah Little Pickard, LL.D., '70, Chicago Univ. and Beloit Coll. ; '94, Bowdoin Coll. Ex-President, State University of Iowa; res. with Dr. George T. Little, Bowdoin College, Brunswick. life member 1889 Edmund Wentworth Wright, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Harvard Coll. 190T, Principal of High School, Old Orchard. active members 1890 M. C. Fbrnald, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, Ph.D., '81, Bowdoin Coll. Professor of Philosophy, Emeritus, University of Maine, 12 Bennock St., Orono. 1892 W. J. Corthell, A.B., '57, A.M., '60, Waterville Coll. ; LL.D., '88, Colby Univ. 1879, Principal of State Normal School, Gorham. 1895 John S. Locke. 1893, Superintendent of Schools; President of York Institute, 42 Middle St., Saco. William Wallace Stetson. 1895, State Superintendent of Public Schools, Augusta. 1898 Charles F. Cook, A.B., '91, St. Lawrence Univ. 1896, Principal of Cony High School, 52 State St., Augusta. Abram W. Harris, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Wesleyan Univ.; ScD., '94, Bowdoin; LL.D., '00, Univ. of N. Brunswick. 1893, President of the University of Maine, Orono. Franklin W. Johnson, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, Colby Univ. 1894, Principal of Coburn Classical Institute, 6 Dalton St., Waterville. 1901 Myron E. Bennett. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Sanford. Bertram C. Richardson, A.B., '98, Colby Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 142 Hampshire St., Auburn. Charles L. White, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Brown Univ. 1900, President of Colby College, 33 College Ave., Waterville. 962 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIOA [Massachusetts MARYLAND LIFE MEMBER 1876 Sarah E. Richmond. 1875, Vice-Principal of State Normal School, 2508 Madison Ave., Baltimore. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1885 Henrv A. Wise, Grad. of Virginia Military Inst. 1883, Ex- Superintendent of Schools, 409 St. Paul St., Baltimore. 1890 William C. Stevenson. 1900, Head of Commercial Department, Jacob Tome Institute, Port Deposit. 1891 John E. McCahan, A.M., '69, Dickinson Coll., Pa. 1884, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 1719 Hollins St., Baltimore. 189a Elijah Barrett Prettvman, A.B., '48, A.M., '52, LL.D., '97, Dickinson Coll., Pa. 1900, Principal of State Normal School and Secretary of State Board of Education, 1200 W. Lafayette Ave., Baltimore. James H. Van Sickle, A.B., '96, A.M., '98, Univ. of Colo. 1891, Superintendent of Instruction, School Administration Building, Baltimore. 1894 Eli M. Lamb. 1864, Associate Principal of Friends' Elementary and High School, 1432 McCulIoh St., Baltimore. Rachel E. Lamb. English Instructor in Friends' Elementary and High School, 1516 Linden Ave., Baltimore. 1896 Daniel C. Gilman, A.B., A.M., LL.D., Yale and Harvard. Ex -President of Johns Hopkins University, 614 Park Ave., Baltimore. Harry Marc Rowe, Ph.D. Secretary and Treasurer, Sadler, Rowe & Co., 9 W. German St., Baltimore. 1897 Zachariah C. Ebaugh. 1900, Principal of Franklin High School, Reisterstown. 1898 E. E. Cates, A.B., '83, A.M., '88, Colby Univ. 1897, President of Frederick College, Frederick. John E. Edwards, A.M. 1898, County Examiner, 157 Washington St., Cumberland. Thomas Fell, Ph.D., LL.D. 1886, President of St. John's College, Annapolis. Elmer Gates. Director of Laboratory of Psychology and Psychurgy, Chevy Chase Circle, Chevy Chase. A. J. Gminder. 1896, Principal in English-German Public School No. 7, iin Barclay St., Baltimore. Jacob Tome Institute. Director, A. W. Harris; Librarian, Mary R. Caldwell, Port Deposit. M.Bates Stephens, A.M., '89, Dickinson Coll.; Ph.D., 'ot, Washington Coll., Chestertown, Md. State Superintendent of Public Education, 1200 Lafayette Ave., Baltimore. John Thomas White, Grad., '78, Mercersburg Coll.; A.B., '78, A.M., '84, Franklin and Marshall Coll., Lancaster, Pa. 1900, Secretary, Treasurer, and Examiner, Board of School Commissioners, 24 S. George St., Cumberland. 1899 A. Marshall Elliott, A.B., '66, A.M., '78, Haverford Coll.; A.B., '68, Harvard; Ph.D., '77, Princeton; LL.D., '91. _ 1876, Professor in Johns Hopkins University, 935 Calvert St., N. Baltimore. Thomas Crawford Galbreath, A.M., '97, W. Md. Coll., Westminster. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools of Harford County, Bel Air. Edward H. Griffin, D.D., Amherst; LL.D., Princeton. 1889, Professor of the History of Philosophy and Dean of the College Faculty, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University. President, Ira Remsen ; Librarian, N. Murray, Baltimore. The Woman's College of Frederick, Md. President, J. H.Apple; Librarian, Susan Garrott, Frederick. 1900 William C. A. Hammel. 1888, Department of Physics and Zoology, State Normal School, and (rcjoi) Director of Manual Training, Bryn Mawr School, 2529 McCulIoh St., Baltimore. Edwin Hebden. Principal, Group" A" Public Schools; res.. Tuxedo Park, Baltimore. Mrs. Elizabeth E. Pippin. Vice -Principal, High School, Denton. 1901 Alexander Chaplain. 1868, County Examiner of Public Schools, Easton. Virgil Mores Hillyer, A.B., '97, Harvard Univ. Head Master, Calvert Primary School, W. Chase St., Baltimore. MASSACHUSETTS life director 1887 Mrs. Mary Hanchett Hunt. 1880, National and, 1888. International Superintendent of Scientific Temperance Instruc- tion, Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 23 Trull St., Boston. life members 1884 John Bascom, LL.D.,'73, Amherst Coll. ; D.D., '75, Iowa Coll. ; LL.D., '97, Williams Coll. 1891, Professor of Political Science, Williams College, Park St., Williamstown. 1886 William Augustus Mowry, A.M., Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., Bates Coll. Writer and Lecturer, 17 Riverside Sq., Hyde Park. Massachusetts] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 963 ACTIVE MEMBERS 1884 Frank A. Fitzpatrick. 93 Summer St., Boston. 1888 George B. Hurd. 1901, Master of Payson Hall, Williston Seminary, Main St., Easthampton. Will S. Monroe, A.B., '94, Stanford Univ. 1896, Department of Pedagogy and Psychology, State Normal School, Westfield. 1890 Albert Gardner Bovden, A.M., '61, Amherst Coll. i860, Principal of State Normal School, Bridgewater. John E. Bradley, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of N. Y. ; LL.D., '93, Williams Coll. 1901, District Superintendent of Schools, Randolph. Arthur P. Smith. 11 High St., Waltham. 1891 G. Stanley Hall. President of Clark University, 94 Woodland St., Worcester. Daniel C. Heath, A.B., '68, A.M.. '71, Amherst Coll. 1876, Educational Publisher, no Boylston St., Boston. Amy Morris Homans. 1889, Director of Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, 97 Huntington Ave., Boston. Ray Greene Huling, A.B., '69, A.M., '72, D.Sc, '94, Brown Univ. 1893, Head Master of English High School, 101 Trowbridge St., Cambridge. A. Eugene Nolen, A.B., '67, A.M., '70, Yale. 1881, Teacher of Greek and Latin, High School, 3 Wood PL, Fitchburg. Alvin F. Pease, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Brown Univ. 1898, with N. E. Publishing Co. and Winship's Teachers' Agency, 20 Pemberton Sq., Boston. Elizabeth H. Perry. 1891, Teacher of Drawing, State Normal School, Bridgewater. John Tilden Prince, Ph.D., '89, Leipzig. 1881, Agent for Massachusetts Board of Education, 15 Temple St., West Newton. 189a Orlando Merriam Baker. Publisher, 499 Main St., Springfield. Milton Bradley. Treasurer and Manager, Milton Bradley Co., Springfield. John S. Clark. Treasurer, Prang Educational Co., no Boylston St., Boston. Charles W. Eliot, A.B.,'53. Harvard; LL.D., '69, Williams, Princeton, '70, Yale. 1869, President of Harvard University, 17 Quincy St., Cambridge. Gilman C. Fisher, A.B., '69, A.M., '86, Colby Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Castle St., Great Barrington. Robert C. Metcalf. 1882, Supervisor of Schools, School Committee Rooms, Mason St., Boston; 17 Kenwood St., Dorchester. William Wells Tapley. Manager, Educational Department, Milton Bradley Co., Springfield. George Augustus Walton, A.M., Williams Coll. Agent, State Board of Education from 1869-95, 68 Chestnut St., West Newton. Henry N. Wheeler, A.B., '71, A.M., '75, Harvard. 1882, Supt. of Educational Department, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 4 Park St., Boston. Arthur K. Whitcomb, A.B., '73, Dartmouth. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Lowell. Albert Edward Winship, Lit.D., '98. Editor of "Journal of Education," 211 Pendleton Building, Boston. 1893 Francis Cogswell, A.M., '81, Harvard. 1874, Superintendent of Schools, 257 Prospect St., Cambridge. Frank Irving Cooper. Wayland. Ernest Henry Johnson, A.B., '91, A.M., '92, Brown Univ. i8g6, Master of Williams School, Chelsea; home address, 234 Mauran Ave., East Provi- dence R. I. George H. Martin, A.M., '81, Amherst Coll. 1892, Supervisor of Schools, Boston; res., 388 Summer St., Lynn. Charles Cornell Ramsay, A.B., A.M., '92, Harvard. 1892, Principal of B. M. C. Durfee High School, 335 N. Main St., Fall River. Edwin P. Seaver. A.M., LL.B., Harvard. 1880, Superintendent of Schools, School Committee Rooms, Mason St., Boston. Charles Herbert Thurber, Ph.B., '86, Cornell ; A.M., '90, Haverford Coll. ; Ph.D., '00, Clark Univ. 1900, with Ginn & Co., Publishers, 29 Beacon St., Boston. 1894 Frederick Elmer Chapman. 1890, Director of Music, Cambridge Public Schools, 126 Oxford St., North Cambridge. 1895 Sarah Louise Arnold. 1895, Supervisor of Schools, Boston; res., 21 Institution Ave., Newton Centre. Thomas M. Balliet. 1887, Superintendent of Schools, 47 Vernon St., Springfield, Clarence C. Birchard. 1901, Educational Publisher, 221 Columbus Ave., Boston. Eugene Bouton, A.B., '75, A.M., '80, Yale; Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 60 Elizabeth St., Pittsfield. J. E. Burke, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Colby Univ. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, Lawrence. Clarence F. Carroll, A.B., '81, Yale. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 765 Main St., Worcester. Roland W. Guss, Grad., '8r, State Nor. Sch., Pa. ; A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Wesl. Univ., Conn. 1897, Instructor in Natural Science, State Normal School, 405 Church St., North Adams. Isaac Freeman Hall. 1895, Superintendent of Public Schools, City Hall, North Adams. Paul Henry Hanus, B.Sc, '78, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Education, Harvard University, 15 Phillips PI., Cambridge. 964 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Massachusetts 1895 Albert Bushnell Hart, A.B., '80, Harvard; Ph.D., Freiburg, Baden. 1897, Professor of History, Harvard University, 15 Appian Way, Cambridge. Harvard College Library. President, Charles W. Eliot; Librarian, William C. Lane, Cambridge. Frank A. Hill, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Lit.D., '94, Bowdoin. 1894, Secretary of State Board of Education, 1654 Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge. Austin H. Kenerson, A.B., '76, Dartmouth Coll. Of Ginn & Co., Schoolbooks, 13 Tremont PI., Boston. Alonzo Meserve. 1886, Master of Bowdoin School, 87 Linden St., Allston Station, Boston. Charles H. Morss, A.B., '80, A.M., '82, Harvard. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Medford. James Phinney Munroe, B.Sc, '82, Mass. Inst, of Technology. Author, 179 Devonshire St., Boston. Charles W. Parmenter, A.B., '77, A.M., '86, Ph.D., '95, Tufts Coll. 1894, Head Master of Mechanic Arts High School, Boston ; res., 80 Upland Road, North Cambridge. Baroness Rose Posse. 1892, Editor, and, 1896, Director of Posse Gymnasium, 206 Massachusetts Ave., Boston. Charles A. Sibley, A.B., '87, Amherst. Member of Firm of Sibley & Ducker, no Boylston St., Boston. John Gilbert Thompson, A.B., '86, A.M., '94, Dartmouth Coll. 1895, Principal of State Normal School, n Weymouth St., Fitchburg. Alfred Turner, B.Sc, '93, Amherst Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Prospect St., Turner's Falls. Hattie Twichell. 1896, Kindergarten Training Teacher, Longmeadow, Henry Whittemore, A.B., '66, Dartmouth Coll. 1898, Principal of State Normal School, State St., Framingham. 1896 Charles H. Ames, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Amherst Coll. Educational Publisher, with D. C. Heath & Co., no Boylston St., Boston; res., 300 Highland St., West Newton. George Peters Armstrong. 1896, Superintendent of Schools of Belmont and Manchester, 7 Oak St., Belmont. William C. Bates, A.B., '77, Harvard. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 182 June St., Fall River. Wallace C. Boyden, A. B., '83, A.M., '86. Amherst. 1900, Head Master of Boston Normal School; res., 221 Walnut St., Newtonville. George W. Brown. 1886, Principal of Jackman School, 38 High St., Newburyport. Elmer Hewitt Capen, D.D., '79, St. Lawrence Univ.; LL.D., '99, Buchtel Coll. 1875, President of Tufts College, 8 Professors' Row, Tufts College. Joseph G. Edgerly. 1875, Superintendent of City Schools, 37 Atlantic Ave., Fitchburg. Herbert J. Jones, Ph.B., '94, Cornell Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Central Worcester District, Holden. Lincoln Owen, A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Colby Univ. 1893, Master of Rice Training School, 53 Montview St., West Roxbury. Walter Scott Parker, B.Sc, Dartmouth Coll. 1894, Supervisor, Boston Public Schools, School Com. Rooms, Mason St.. Boston. Myron T. Pritchard, A.B., '78, Boston Univ. Master of Everett School, Boston ; res., 125 School St., Roxbury. Dudley A. Sargent, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, S.D., '94, Bowdoin; M.D., '78, Yale. 1879, Director of Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard Univ., 27 Everett St., Cambridge. Elisa A. Sargent. 1900, Editorial Department, The Prang Educational Co., 89 Mt. Vernon St., Boston. Kirk N. Washburn. One of the Publishers of Webster's International Dictionary, 499 Main St., Spring- field. Charles Branch Wilson, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Colby Univ., Me. 1896, Dept. of Natural Science, State Normal School, 16 Washington St., Westfield. Ida Mortimer Windate, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wesleyan Univ. 1901, Graduate Student, Harvard University, 33 Trowbridge St., Cambridge. 1897 Amherst College. President, George Harris ; Librarian, W. I. Fletcher, Amherst. Boston College. President, W. G. Read Mullan ; Librarian, Thomas I. Gasson, Boston. Arthur C. Boyden, A.B., '76, A.M., '81, Amherst Coll. 1879, Vice-Principal of State Normal School, 5 Park Ave., Bridgewater. J. H. Carfrey, Ph.B., '92, Ph.M., '95, Syracuse Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Dryads Green, Northampton. George H. Conley, A.B., Holy Cross. Supervisor of Schools and, 1893, Member Mass. State Board of Education, Mason St., Boston. Gertrude Edmund, Pd.D., '93, New York Univ. Principal of Normal Training School, 74 Huntington St., Lowell. William E. Hatch, A.B., '75, A.M., '78, Bowdoin. 1888, Superintendent of Schools, 166 William St., New Bedford. E. A. Kirkpatrick, B.Sc, '87, Ph.M., '89, Iowa St. Coll., Ames. 1897, Psychology and Child Study, State Normal School, 6 Highland Ave., Fitchburg, Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind. Director, Michael Anagnos, East Broadway, South Boston. Thomas E. Thompson, 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Leominster. Westfield State Normal School. Principal, Clarence A. Brodeur, Westfield. Williams College Library. Acting President, John Haskell Hewitt; Librarian, Charles H. Burr, Williamstown,. Massachusetts] LIFE, AC'IIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 965 1898 Arthur Deerin Call, Ph.B., '96, Brown Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Medway, Holliston and Sherborn Districts, Holliston. The City Library Association, Springfield. Librarian, J. C. Dana, Springfield. George Wells Fitz, M.D., '91. 483 Beacon St., Boston. • Free Public Library of the City of Worcester. Librarian, Samuel Swett Green, Worcester. Frank Fuller Murdock, A.M., '00, Williams Coll. 1896, Principal of State Normal School, 375 Church St., North Adams. Herbert Myrick, B.Sc., '82, Mass. Agri. Coll. President of Orange Judd Company and Treasurer Good Housekeeping Institute, New York; 27 W. Worthington St., Springfield. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Vassar Coll. ; B.Sc, '73, Mass. Inst, of Tech. 1884, Instructor in Sanitary Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Smith College. President, L. Clark Seelye; Librarian, Miss L. W. Lyon, Northampton. State Library of Massachusetts. State Librarian, C. B. Tillinghast, State House, Boston. 1899 Lyman Richards Allen, B.Sc, '98, Harvard. 1898, Instructor of History, Geography, and Latin, State Normal School, 362 Church St., North Adams. William A. Baldwin, B.Sc, '97, Harvard. 1897, Principal of State Normal School, Hyannis. Frank F. Coburn, A.B., '70, Amherst. Principal of State Normal School, 277 E. Merrimac St., Lowell. William Morris Davis, B.Sc, '69, M.E., '70, Harvard. 1899, Sturgis-Hooper Professor of Geology, HarvardUniversity, 17 Francis Ave., Cambridge. Edwin H. Hall, Ph.D., '80, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1895, Professor of Physics, Harvard University, 37 Gorham St., Cambridge. May E. Murray. " Kindergarten Review," 51 Acushnet Ave., Springfield. Louis Philip Nash, A.M., Amherst Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Morgan St., Holyoke. J. Asbury Pitman. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 62 Greenwood St., Marlborough. William T. Sedgwick, Ph.D., '81, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1883, Professor of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Elmer E. Silver, A.M., '88, Brown Univ. Educational Publisher, 219 Columbus Ave., Boston. Maurice B. Smith, A.B., '95, Amherst Coll. 1896, Principal of High School, Holliston. State Normal School, Fitchburg. Principal, John G. Thompson, Fitchburg. Charles F. Warner, A.B., '79, A.M., '82, Colby Univ. 1898, Principal of Mechanic Arts High School, 837 State St., Springfield. Elizabeth Josephine Woodward. Associate Principal of Private School, 319 Marlborough St., Boston. 1900 Ellor E. Carlisle. 1898, Associate Professor of Pedagogy, Wellesley College, Wellesley. Charles F. A. Currier, A.B., '87, A.M., '88, Harvard Univ. 1891, Professor of History, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Sarah Fuller. 1869, Principal of the Horace Mann School for the Deaf, 178 Newbury St., Boston. Bertram A. Lenfest, B.Sc, '90, Mass. Inst, of Tech. 1898, Principal, Manual Training High School, 15 Floyd St., Waltham. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. President, Henry S. Pritchett; Secretary, H. W. Tyler, 491 Boylston St., Boston. Public Library op the City of Boston. Librarian, James L. Whitney, Copley Sq., Boston. Public Library, Malden. Librarian, Miss L. A. Williams, Maiden. Salem Public Library. Librarian, Gardner M. Jones, Salem. SOMERVILLE PUBLIC LIBRARY. Librarian, S. W. Foss, Somerville. State Normal School, Salem. Principal, W. P. Beckwith, Salem. Sterrie A. Weaver. 1888, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 61 Western Ave., Westfield. Wellesley College, Library. President, Miss Caroline Hazard; Librarian, Lydia B. Godfrey, Wellesley. 1901 J. W. Armington. 1893, Principal of Centre School, 15 Hampshire St., Everett. F. A- Bagnall, A.B., '90, Wesleyan Univ. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Adams. Ralph L. Baldwin. 1899, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 5 Pomeroy Terrace, Northampton. Madge D. Ballou. 1901, Teacher in Public Schools, Quincy ; res., 204 Metropolitan Ave., Hyde Park. Arthur D. Dean, B.Sc, Mass. Inst, of Tech. First Assistant, Mechanic Arts High School, 837 State St., Springfield. Edw. R. Goodwin, A.B., A.M., D.C.L., Bates Coll. 1894, Principal, Classical High School, 22 Boynton St., Worcester. Edwin Arthur Jones, A.B., '76, Dartmouth Coll. 1890, Supervisor of Schools, 9 Pearl St., Stoughton. Henry Lefavour, A.B., '83, Ph.D., '86, Williams Coll., Mass. 1888, Professor of Physics, and, 1897, Dean of Williams College, Williamstown. 966 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Michigan MASSACHUSETTS— Continued 1901 Public Library, Lynn. Librarian, J. C. Houghton, Lynn. Alfred L. Saben, A.B., '93, A.M., '96, Dartmouth Coll. 1899, Principal of High School, Manchester. William H. Snyder, A.M., '88, Harvard Univ. 1890, Master in Science, Worcester Academy, 125 Penn Ave., Worcester, MICHIGAN LIFE DIRECTORS 1895 Hugh A. Graham, A.B., '87, A.M., '92, Albion Coll., A.B., 'qo, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Commissioner of Schools, Isabella Co., Mt. Pleasant. Charles G. White, A.B., '73, A.M., '80, Ph.D., '90. 1884, Superintendent of Schools, Lake Linden. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1884 John A. Stewart, A.B., '75, Univ. of Mich. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 908 Van Buren St., Bay City. 1887 William Austin Ellis, LL.B., '95, Detroit Coll. of Law; Grad., '97, Mich. State Nor. Coll. 1885, Principal of Dufneld Grammar School, 307 Merrick Ave., Detroit. 1889 J. L. Snyder, A. B., '86, Ph.D., '91, Westminster Coll. 1896, President, Michigan State Agricultural College, Agricultural College. Emory M. Wood, A.M., '82, Ph.D., '93, Allegheny Coll. 1901, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Albion College, 1115 E. Cass St., Albion. 1890 Ferris S. Fitch, A.B., '77, Univ. of Mich. Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 49 Williams St., Pontiac. 1891 Albert Leonard, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Ohio Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Hamilton Coll. 1900, President of Normal Schools of Michigan, 217 Washington St., Ypsilanti. 189a Myra Jones. 1883, Supervisor of Drawing, 117 Sheldon Ave., Detroit. John B. Nykirk, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Hope Coll., Mich. 1895, Professor of English Language and Literature, Hope College, 236 Columbia Ave., Holland. Henry R. Pattengill, B.Sc, '74, Univ. of Mich. 1896, Editor and Publisher, 42oTownsend St., Lansing. William H. Payne, LL.D., Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D., Univ. of Nashville. 1901, Professor of Science and Art of Teaching, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Edwin A. Strong, A.B., '58, A.M., '65, Union Coll. 1885, Professor of Physical Sciences, State Normal College, 127 Normal St., Ypsilanti. William R. Wright. 1901, Student, University of Michigan, 332 S. 5th Ave., Ann Arbor. 1893 S. Emory Whitney. 1885, Principal of Cass School, 209 Hancock Ave., E., Detroit. 1894 D. D. Mayne. 1892, Superintendent of City Schools, Ishpeming. E. D. Palmer, A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Hillsdale Coll. ; A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Mason. Herbert M. Slauson, Ph.B., '77, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 433 S. 5th Ave., Ann Arbor. Durand William Springer, B.Sc, '86, Albion Coll. 1893, Director of Business Department, High School, 702 E. University Ave., Ann Arbor. Edwin C. Thompson, A.M., Pd.M. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 435 E. Arch St., Marquette. Allen S. Whitney, A.B., '85, Univ. of Mich. 1809, Junior Professor of Pedagogy, University of Michigan, 620 S. State St., Ann Arbor. 1895 Frederick W. Arbury, A.B., '83, Univ. of Mich. Representative of Silver, Burdett & Co., 515 Brush St., W., Detroit. Frederick Leroy Bliss, A.B., '77, A.M., '01 (honorary), Univ. of Mich. 1899, Principal of Detroit University School, 69 Frederick Ave., Detroit. William Gibson Coburn, A.B., '90. Univ. of Mich. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 92 McCamly St., Battle Creek. Frank W. Cooley, B.Sc, '81, M.Sc, '86, Lawrence Univ. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 27 Mine St., Calumet. William Harris Elson, A.B., Univ. of Ind. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, City Hall, Grand Rapids. Henry H. Frost, A. B., '85, Univ of Mich. 1897, Teacher of Geometry, Central High School, 1302 John R St., Detroit. Austin George, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Kalamazoo Coll.; M.Pd., '93, Mich. State Nor. Sch. Superintendent of Public Schools, in Normal St., Ypsilanti. William C. Skinner. 1899, Director of Detroit University School, 185 Joseph Campau St., Detroit. 1896 Lee Earll Amidon, A.B., '92, Mich. Univ. ; A.M., '98, Harvard Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 406 W. Flesheim St., Iron Mountain. S. Sterrett Beggs, A.B., '88, AM., '95, N. E. Ohio Nor. Coll. ; LL.B., '99, Indianapolis Coll. of Law, 1900, Agent, Werner Schoolbook Co., 207 Lenawee St., Lansing. W. E. Conkling, Grad., Mich. St. Nor. Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 304 Cortland St., Dowagiac Augustus E. Curtis, A.B., '66, A.M., '70, Union Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 113 W. Maumee St., Adrian. Edgar E. Ferguson, B.Pd., '96, Mich. State Nor. Coll.; Ph.B., '99. Superintendent of Schools, 526 Bingham Ave., Sauk Ste. Marie. S. B. Laird, M.Sc, '96, McKendree Coll., 111. 1899, Associate Professorof Psychology, Michigan State Normal College, 318 Forrest Ave., Ypsilanti. William Lightbody, B.Sc, Mich. Agri. Coll.; B.Pd., Mich. Nor. Sch. Principal of Higgins School, Woodmere; 496 Dragoon Ave., Detroit. Michigan] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 967 1896 David MacKenzie, A.M., Univ. of Mich. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, 208 W. Clay Ave., Muskegon. James M. Mandeville, Grad., Mich. State Nor. Sch.; LL.B., '00, Detroit Coll. of Law. 1891, Principal of Amos School, 278, 24th St., Detroit. Lew. D. Remington. 1890, Principal of High School, 1020 Adelaide St., Fenton. W. V. Sage, B.Sc, '84. Mich. Agri. Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Pleasant. J. D. Schiller, A.M., '87, Hillsdale Coll. Superintendent of Schools, Niles. Mrs. Emma A. Thomas. 1886, Supervisor of Music, 91 Watson St., Detroit. Omar D. Thompson. 1876, Superintendent of Village Schools, Romeo. L. L. Wright. Superintendent of Schools, Ironwood. 1897 James H. Beazell. 1899, Principal of Central High School, 94 Horton Ave., Detroit. H. Z. Brock, B.Sc, '85, Univ. of Mich. Superintendent of Schools, Hancock. Francis D. Clarke, C.E., Univ. of Mich. Superintendent of State School for the Deaf, Flint. Delos Fall, B.Sc, '75. M.Sc, '82, Univ. of Mich.; Sc.D.,'98, Albion Coll. 1901, State Superintendent of Public Instruction; res., 1101 Michigan Ave., Albion. William H. Fort. Coldwater. C. O. Hovt, A.M., Albion Coll. 1899, Professor of Science and History of Education, State Normal School, 502 Cross St. Ypsilanti. Warren C. Hull, Ph.M., '94, Albion; M.Pd., '96. Mich. Nor. Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Michigan School for the Blind, Lansing. Henrv C. Lott. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Elk Rapids. William Franklin Lyon. 1886, Supervisor of Penmanship, City Schools, 879 Brooklyn Ave., Detroit. Wales C. Martindale, LL.B., Detroit Coll. of Law. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 50 Miami Ave., Detroit. Fred Newton Scott, Ph.D., '89, Univ. of Mich. Professor of Rhetoric, University of Michigan, 1351 Washtenaw Ave., Ann Arbor. The Public Library of Detroit. Librarian, H. M. Utley, Detroit. Belle M. Tower. 1899, Principal of Baxter Street School, 531 Jefferson Ave., Grand Rapids. Albert J. Volland, A. B., Univ. of Mich. 1896, Principal of Central High School, 145 Madison Ave., Grand Rapids. William Stearns White, Ph.B., '89, Albion Coll. State Agent for the American Book Co.. 35 Alexandrine Ave., E., Detroit. 1898 Hugh Brown, A.B., '84, Univ. of Mich. i960, Editor of " School Record," Ann Arbor. General Library, University of Michigan. President, James B. Angell ; Librarian, Raymond C. Davis, Ann Arbor. James H.Harris, A.B., '91, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Principal of Michigan Military Academy, Orchard Lake. Elmer A. Lyman, A.B., '86, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Principal of State Normal College, 126 N.Washington St., Ypsilanti. Vernon G. Mays, Ph.B., '94, Albion Coll. Superintendent of Public Schools, Newaygo. Dimon H. Roberts, A.B., '92, A.M., '95, Amherst Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Training School, Michigan State Normal College, 318 Forest Ave., Ypsilanti 1899 Anna M. Chandler, Ph.M., '79, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Principal of High School, Escanaba. Richard D. Ewing, B.Sc, '96, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 408 Wolcott St., Escanaba. Joseph B. Estabrook, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, B.Sc, '90, Olivet Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Clemens. W. N. Ferris. President, Ferris Institute, Big Rapids. Elbridge L. Heath. 1898. Principal of Ward School, Calumet. W. J. McKone. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, 1100 E. Porter St., Albion. Northern State Normal School. Principal, Dwight Bryant Waldo, Marquette. Frederick Edward Searle, A.B., '93, Williams Coll. 1901, Director Home Department, Detroit University School, Detroit. Eugene C. Warriner, A.B., '91, Univ. of Mich. Superintendent of Schools, Saginaw. Estees Eugene Webster. 1901, Student, University of Michigan, 445 S. Division St., Ann Arbor. Eugene A. Wilson, A.M., '99, Mt. Hope Coll., O. ; M.Pd., '99, Mich. Nor. Coll. Superintendent of Schools, 141 Washington St., Benton Harbor. 1900 Lewis F. Anderson. A.B., Univ. of Toronto. Professor of Psychology and Education, Northern State Normal School, 724 Pine St. Marquette. Mrs. Ida Hood Clark. 1900, Supervisor of Manual Training, City Schools, 717 S. Warren Ave., Saginaw. Oliver G. Frederick. 1900, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 359 West Boul., Detroit. 968 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Michigan 1900 Walter H. French. 1901, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction, 416 Townsend St., Lansing. Hillsdale College. President, Charles H. Gurney; Librarian, Miss Jean Martin, Hillsdale. Clara W. Mingins. Supervisor of Kindergartens, and Director of Training Department, City Schools, 530 Woodward Ave., Detroit. Lucy Adella Sloan, M.Sc, '85, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. Preceptress and Professor of English Literature, Central State Normal School, Mt. Pleasant. State Normal College Library, Ypsilanti. Principal, E. A. Lyman; Librarian, Miss G. M. Walton, Ypsilanti. Jennie Louise Thomas. Assistant Director of Thomas Normal Training School, 91 Watson St., Detroit. J. H. Trybom, A.B., '96, Harvard Univ. Director of Manual Training, City Schools, 50 Miami Ave., Detroit. George Stockton Waite, 1900, Superintendent of Manual Training School, Grand Rapids, xgoi Margarethe Marie Ascher, A.B., '99, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Special Teacher of German, Whiting, Ind. ; res., 1001 N. Fayette St., Saginaw, W. S. E. T. Austin, B.Sc, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Owosso. F. A Barbour, A.B., '78, Univ. of Mich. Professor of English Language and Literature. Michigan State Normal College, 704 Pearl St., Ypsilanti. William Bellis, Pd.B.,196, Mich. Nor. Coll. Professor of Mathematics, Central State Normal School, Normal Ave., Mt. Pleasant. Henry Benner, M.Sc, '89, Univ. of Mich. ; Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Erlangen. 1897, Professor of Mathematics, Albion College, Albion. George R. Berkaw, Ph.B., '91, Albion Coll. Principal of Harris School, 421 Military Ave., Detroit. Gertrude Bracelin. Supervisor of Music and Drawing, 1003, Main St., St. Joseph. James Irven Bricker, A.B., '94, Pd.B.,'95, A.M., '97, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Burr Oak. R. D. Briggs, Ph.B., '88, Colgate Univ. Superintendent of Public Schools, 109 Washington St., Monroe. Edwin N. Brown, A.B., '83, A.M., '84, LL.B., '87, Univ. of Mich. 426 Thompson St., Ann Arbor. Ernest Burnham, Ph.B., '96, Albion Coll., Mich. Commissioner of Schools of Calhoun County, 118 Mansion St., Marshall. E. A. Carpenter. Principal of Central Grammar School, 3 Portsmouth Terrace, Grand Rapids. Callie M. Cecil. Teacher of Fifth Grade Public Schools, Houghton. E. P. Chapin, M.E., '93, Cornell Univ. 1900, Principal of Hackley Manual Training School, 95 Jefferson St., Muskegon. Ernest P. Clarke, B.Sc. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 1108 State St., St. Joseph. P. R. Cleary. President of Cleary College, Ypsilanti. E. H. Comstock, B.Sc, '97, Univ. of Wis. 1901, Principal of High School, Houghton. Albert P. Cook, A.M., '99. Superintendent of Public Schools, Ithaca. Newell Cook, B.Sc, '94, Albion Coll. 1901, Assistant in Department .of Chemistry, Albion College, Albion. Webster Cook, A.M., '86, Ph.D., '87, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Principal of High School, 409 Sheridan Ave., East Saginaw. Erma Ethel Cooper, A.B., '99, Albion Coll. 1900, Teacher in Public Schools, Little Falls, Minn. ; res., Grass Lake. Elizabeth Courville. 1895, Principal of Van Dyke School, 1883 Jefferson Ave., Detroit. L. O. Davis, B.L., '99, Univ. of Mich. Macomb. R. B. Dean, B.Sc, '98, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 88 Norton Ave., Pontiac John P. Everett, A.B., '01, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Principal of High School, 42 Florence Ave., Pontiac. Dorothy Finch. 1897, Teacher in Public Schools, 2174 River St., Delray. Augusta L. Franck. 1890, Teacher of German, French, and History, Union High School, 232 Turner St., Grand Rapids. E. E. Gallup. Principal of High School, Hanover. Helen R. Gardner. Teacher of Mathematics, Central High School, 11 N. Union St., Grand Rapids. Ralph S. Garwood, A.B., '92, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, 601 E. Mansion St., Marshall. Olga J. Girzi. Supervisor of Music, Public Schools, 108 W. Ridge St., Ishpeming. J. F. Goodrich. 1900, Principal of Schools, Tuscola. Mrs. Josephine Ahnefeldt-Goss. Member of Board of Education, 21 N. Union St., Grand Rapids. Charles T. Grawn, Pd.M., '97, Mich. St. Nor. Coll. Principal of Central State Normal School, Mt. Pleasant. Michigan] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 969 1901 William H. C. Hale. County Commissioner of Schools, Cassopolis. Clark B. Hall. 1897, Principal of Western High School, 612, 14th Ave., Detroit. Alice Louise Harris. 1897, Kindergarten and Primary Supervisor, Calumet. Willis E. Hanson, Ph.B., '97, Albion Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Alma. Schattuck O. Hartwell, A.B., '88, Amherst Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 428 S. Burdick St., Kalamazoo. Regenia R. Heller. Head of Normal Training Department, Washington Normal School, 415 Woodward Ave., Detroit. Lena V. Henderson. Teacher in Public Schools, Mt. Clemens; res., Memphis. B. Smith Hopkins, A.B., '96, A.M., '97, Albion Coll., Mich. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Menominee. Kate A. Hopper, B. es L., '94, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Director of a Public School Kindergarten, 657 Cass Ave., Detroit. Olive Howard. 1897, Teacher in Eighth Grade, Public Schools, Houghton. Arthur Scott Hudson, A.B., '99, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Middleville. Fred A. Jeffers. Superintendent of Schools, Atlantic Mine. G. L. Jenner. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Midland. C. D. Jennings. 1899, Commissioner of Schools, 811 State St., St. Joseph. Fred. L. Keeler, B.Sc, '93, Univ. of Mich. Department of Science, Central Normal School, Mount Pleasant. Public Library, Kalamazoo. Librarian, Miss S. C. Roberts, Kalamazoo. A. J. Ladd, A.M., '00, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Professor of Pedagogy, Hope College, Holland. W. Frank Laughlin. Commissioner of Schools, Lapeer. Eugene La Rowe, A.B., '96, A.M., '98, Univ. of Mich. Principal of High School, Hancock. Heman Burr Leonard, B.Sc, '95, Univ. of Mich. 1900, Teacher in South Side Academy, Chicago, 111. ; res., no W. Canfield Ave., Detroit. W. F. Lewis, B.Sc, '95, Univ. of Mich. Superintendent of Schools, 905 Prospect St., Port Huron. Edward C. McCarthy. 1900, Director of Commercial Department, Western High School, 94 Spruce St., Detroit. Helen W. McKerrow. 1889, Principal of Tappan School, 140 Leverett St., Detroit. George J. Miller. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Colon. Mrs. Florence Milner. 1900, In Charge of Secondary Dept., Detroit University School, 661, 2d Ave., Detroit. W. A. Morse. Head of Science Department, Western High School, 235, 24th St., Detroit. J. A. O'Leary. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, Paw Paw. C. E. Palmerlee. Ex- Commissioner of Schools, Lapeer. Linus S. Parmelee, B.Sc, 'oo, Univ. of Mich. 1901, Instructor in Chemistry and Biology, 212 W. Court St., Flint. Richard R. Putnam, B.Sc, '95, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Department of Physical Science and Mathematics, Eastern High School, 672 Hudson Ave., Detroit. Charles G. Putney. Commissioner of Schools of Sanilac County, Sanilac Center. Martha A. Sherwood, Grad., Mich. St. Nor. Coll., Cook Co. Nor. Sch. 1895, Principal of Training School, 303 Jefferson Ave., Saginaw. Ambrose M. Shotwell. Book Embosser at School for the Blind, Lansing. Charles Lyle Spain, A.B., '93, Univ. of Mich. Principal of Washington Normal School, 153 Smith Ave., Detroit. Elmore B. Sutherland. Memphis. George Robert Swain, A.B., '97, Univ. of Mich. 1900, Principal of High School, 1833, 6th St., Bay City. James H. Thompson. Member of State Board of Education, Evart. Templeton P. Twiggs, LL.B., '96, Detroit Coll. of Law. Head of Commercial Department, Central High School, 517 Lincoln Ave., Detroit. Elizabeth Van Adestine. Supervising Principal, Day School for the Deaf, 114 Winder St., Detroit. Mrs. M. L. Vienfliet. Manager of Business College, Alpena. Royal B. Way, Ph.B., "94, Albion Coll. ; Ph.M., '96, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Principal of High School, W. S., 623 N. Michigan Ave., Saginaw. P. J. Wilson. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 80 Chestnut St., Wyandotte. E. A. Wreidt. Superintendent of Schools, Clinton. 97° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Minnesota MICHIGAN— Continued igoi George S. Wright. Principal of High School, Luther. E. W. Yost. 1899, County Commissioner of Schools, Trenton. MINNESOTA LIFE DIRECTOR 1870 William F. Phelps, A.M , '52, Union Coll., N. Y. Resident Director, State Normal School, 318 Chamber of Commerce Building, Duluth. LIFE members 1864 Calvin Smith Pennell, A.B., '41, A.M., '50, Colby Univ. Ex -Professor of Moral and Mental Philosophy, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., 2245 Knapp St., St. Anthony Park. 1890 Board of Education, Independent School District No. 3, Northfield. President, A. W. Norton; Clerk, S. Finkelson, Northfield. active members 1880 D. L. Kiehle, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, LL.D., '87, Hamilton Coll., N. Y. 1893, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Minnesota, 2801 Portland Ave., Minneapolis. 1883 Irwin Shepard, A.B., '71, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '93, Olivet Coll., Mich. 1893, Secretary of National Educational Association, 118 W. Wabasha St., Winona. 1886 Frederick E. Stratton, A.B., '71, A.M., '74, Williams Coll. ; Ph.D., '91, 111. Wesleyan Univ. 1892, Principal of Academy, Carleton College, Northfield. 1890 Robert Eduard Denfeld, A.B., '76, A.M., '78, Amherst Coll. 1885, Superintendent of Schools, Central High School, Duluth. 1893 Charles M. Jordan, Ph.D., '92, Tufts Coll. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, 615 E. 18th St., Minneapolis. A. W. Rankin, A.B., '80, Univ. of Minn. 1895, State Inspector of Graded Schools, 916, 5th St., S. E., Minneapolis. 1894 Georgr B. Aiton, A.B., '81, A.M., '87, Univ. of Minn. 1893, State Inspector of High Schools, 1601 University Ave., S. E., Minneapolis. Sarah C. Brooks. 1899, Principal of Teachers' Training School, 631 Westminster St., St. Paul. S. A. Farnsworth. 1886, Principal of Cleveland High School, 529 Case St., St. Paul. L. Grace Hopkins. Stenographer, State Normal School, 318 W. King St., Winona. Isabel Lawrence. 1879, Training Teacher in Normal School, 417, 2d Ave., S., St. Cloud. Lucia M. Miller. Principal of Webster School, 631 Westminster St., St. Paul. Mary L. Olds. 1889, Principal of Washington School, Central High School, Duluth. Mrs. Louise Preece. Author of the Preece System of Physical Training and Supervisor of Physical Training, Public Schools, Hotel Clinton, Minneapolis. 1895 John A. Hancock, M.L., '90, Univ. of Wis. ; A.M., '93, Stanford Univ. 1901, Director of Training Department, State Normal School, 125 Cherry St., Mankato. *F. V. Hubbard. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Red Wing. George R. Kleeberger. 1895, President of State Normal School, St. Cloud. Irwen Leviston, A.B., '82, A.M., '88, Dartmouth Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, New York Life Building; res., 481 Dayton Ave., St. Paul. Jesse F. Millspaugh, A.B., '89, Univ. of Mich. ; M.D., '83, Univ. of Pa. 1898, President of State Normal School, 77 E. Fifth St., Winona. Samuel J. Race, B.L., Univ. of Pa. 1886, Superintendent of Redwood Co. Schools, Redwood Falls. Waite A. Shoemaker, Pd.D., '98, N. Y. Univ. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 713, 1st Ave, S., St. Cloud. James W. Strong, A.B., '58, A.M., '61, D.D., '72, Beloit Coll. ; LL.D., '96, 111. Coll. 1870, President of Carleton College, 108 College Ave., Northfield. Adolph C. Tibbetts. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Blue Earth City. Edmund J. Vert, Pd.D., '94, Ph.B., '96, Ph.D., '98. 1901, Instructor in Senior English, Central High School, 2306, 10th Ave., S., Minneapolis. Charles W. Weeks. 307 Masonic Temple, Duluth. Frank A. Weld. 1899, President of State Normal School, Moorhead. 1896 C. A. Ballard, B.Sc, '94, Univ. of Minn. 1899, Department of Biological Science, State Normal School, Moorehead. J. Danford Bond, B.Sc, '72, M.Sc, '73, Milton Coll., Wis. 1872, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, 639 St. Anthony Ave., St. Paul. Clarence M. Boutelle, LL.D., '96, St. Stephen's Coll., Annandale, N. Y. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Marshall. Ralph H. Burns, A.B., '95, Yale. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, St. James. *Died August 27, 1901. Minnesota] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 971 1896 R. W. Cranston. 1898, Agent for Butler, Sheldon & Co., 1025, 3d Ave., S., Minneapolis. James J. Dow, A.B., '74, A.M., '78, L.H.D., '99, Carleton Coll. 1875, Superintendent of School for the Blind, Faribault. H. L. Grant, M.Sc, Lawrence Univ. Principal, High School, 307, 6th St., Marshall. Mrs. C. L. Place. 508-509 New York Life Building, Minneapolis. Bonnie E. Snow. 1896, Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools, Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis. Helen Ford Staples. 1891, Teacher in Primary Department, Public Schools, 127 E. Broadway, Winona. J. A. Vandyke, A.M., V, B.Pd., '89, B.Ph., '87, Univ. of Iowa. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, 511 Union Ave., Fergus Falls. William Franklin Webster, A.B., '86, Univ. of Minn. 1893, Principal of East High School, 1025, 5th St., S. E., Minneapolis. 1897 Isaac I. Bargen. 1886, Superintendent of Schools, Mountain Lake. William A. Bartletx B.Sc, '87, A.M., '90, Iowa Coll. 1896, Principal of High School. 227 W. Sanborn St., Winona. Herbert R. Edwards, Ph.B., '91, Alfred Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, Brown's Valley. Frances A. Elmer. 1886, Teacher of Latin, State Normal School, 264 W. Wabasha St., Winona. George A. Franklin, Grad., '77, Nor. Sch., Normal, 111. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 401 W. 6th St., Faribault. P. P. Kennedy, B.Sc, '90, Univ. of Minn. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Fairmont. Charles L. Sawyer, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Dartmouth; LL.B., '97, Univ. of Minn. Ex-Principal S. High School, 1916 Columbus Ave., Minneapolis. Hiram Worcester Slack. 1876, Principal of School, 735 Olive St., St. Paul. State Normal School at Moorhead. President, Frank A. Weld, Moorhead. State Normal School at St. Cloud. President, George R. Kleeberger; Librarian, Gertrude Campbell, St. Cloud. State Normal School at Winona. President, J. F. Millspaugh; Librarian, Frances A. Elmer, Winona. James Albert Tormey, B.L., '95, Univ. of Wis. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 409 E. 4th St., Winona. 1898 E. T. Critchett, A.B, '85, A.M., '88, Dartmouth. 1894, Superintendent of Public Schools, New Ulm. Fannie P. Farnsworth, B.L., '88, Univ. of Wis. 1898, Principal of High School, 203, 3d St., Red Wing. Diedrich A. Grussendorf, B.Sc, '97, Univ. of Minn. 1899, Principal of High School, New Ulm. John C. Miller, Ph.B., Hamline Univ., Minn. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Lanesboro. Minneapolis Athenaeum. Librarian, Jessie McMillan, Minneapolis. Willard F. F. Selleck, Ph.B., '98, III. Wes. Univ. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 133 Lincoln Ave., Crookston. I. A. Thorson. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Aitkin. G. O. Virtue, A.M., '93, Ph.D.. '97, Harvard. 1897, Instructor in History and Civics, State Normal School, 150 W. Wabasha St., Winona. 1899 D. Lange. 1887, Supervisor of Nature Study, Teacher of Physical Geography and German, Central High School, St. Paul. Edward M. Lehnerts. 1901, Student, University of Pennsylvania, 218 De Kalb Sq., Philadelphia; Director of American Bureau of Geography; home address, 456 E. Sanborn St., Winona. John H. Lewis, A.B. ,'78. 1899, Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Hasting. Arthur C. Rogers, B.Sc, '77, Earlham Coll. ; M.D., '83, Univ. of Iowa. 1885, Superintendent of School for Feeble-Minded, Faribault. Pete Wikofp Ross, B.Sc, A.B., '92, Univ. of Mich. 1897, Superintendent of Public Schools, Morris. Edith A. Scott. 1899, Principal of Model School, Box 182, Moorhead. State Normal School at Mankato. President, C. H. Cooper, Mankato. 1900 P. P. Colgrove, Pd.D., '00, N. Y. Univ. 1900. Department of Psychology and Mathematics, State Normal School, sor, 3d Ave., S., St. Cloud. Henry Clinton Emm, A.B., '98, A.M., '99, Syracuse Univ. 1900, Principal of High School, Faribault. Joseph S. Gaylokd, A.M., '96. Harvard Univ. 1898, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal School, 352 Main St., Winona. Guy E. Maxwell, A.M., '99, Columbia Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Training Department, State Normal School, 4to Winona St., Winona. Charles W. Mickens, B.L., '99, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, Moorhead. John W. Olsen, B.Sc, '97, Valparaiso Coll. 1901, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, St. Paul. Elmer I. Shepard, A.B., '00, Williams Coll. 1901, Teacher of Mathematics and Physics, University School, Chicago; res., 118 W. Wabasha St., Winona. 97 2 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Missouri MINNESOTA— Continued 1900 Darius Steward, A.B., '75. Dartmouth Coll. Superintendent of Schools, High School, Stillwater. University of Minnesota, General Library. President, Cyrus Northrop; Librarian, William W. Folwell, Minneapolis. 1901 Louis Anderson, A.M., '96, Univ. of Minn. Superintendent of Public Schools, Lakefield. Isabella Austin, B.L., Univ. of Minn. 1900, Critic Teacher, State Normal School, Winona. B. J. Buckland, A.B., '97, Carleton Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, Morris. Mrs. Nellie M. Budd. r887, Teacher of Piano and Voice, Windom Institute, Montevideo. Will Grant Chambers, M.Sc, '96, St. Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa. ; A.M., '97, Lafayette Coll. Professor of Psychology, and Philosophy and History of Education, State Normal School, Moorhead. Nellie Louise Drew. 1899, Teacher in Public Schools, Northfield. Fanny G. Gies. igoo, Superintendent of Schools of Mower Co., 207 S. Chatham St., Austin. Katharine Irwin Hutchison, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Monmouth Coll. 1900, Departments of Philosophy and Education, Albert Lea College, Albert Lea. Letha L. McClure. 1901, Teacher of Public School Music Methods, Columbia School of Oratory, 703 Steinway Hall, Chicago; res., 211 W. Broadway, Winona. David H. Painter. 1895, Principal of Adams School, 2401 Aldrich Ave., S., Minneapolis. Edward C. Scovel. Superintendent of Indian Boarding School, Cass Lake. MISSISSIPPI ACTIVE members 1890 James Rhea Preston, A.M. 1899, President of Stanton College, Natchez. •» 1894 Robert B. Fulton, A.B., '69, A.M., '72, Univ. of Miss. : LL.D., '53, Univ. of Nashville. 1892, Chancellor of University of Mississippi, University. 1895 E. E. Bass, B.L., '83, Univ. of Missouri. 1884, Superintendent of City Schools, 509 N. Broadway, Greenville. 1896 Richard M. Leavell, A.B., '59, Uniy. of Miss. ; LL.D., '89, Miss. Coll. 1890, Professor of Philosophy and Political Economy, Univ. of Mississippi, University. 1897 J- G. Deupree, A.B.. A.M., Howard Coll., Ala. : LL.D., S. W. B. Univ., Tenn. 1896, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Mississippi, University. John Clayton Fant, A.M., '92, Emory and Henry Coll. ; Pd.M., '95, N. Y. Univ. 1896, Superintendent of Public Schools, 9th St. and 22d Ave., Meridian. W. I. Thames, Grad., N. Nor. Univ. ; A.B. Principal of High School and Editor of " Mississippi School Journal," Poplarville. 1899 Cyrus Hamlin, D.D., '93, Beloit Coll., Wis. 1896, Dean of Tougaloo University for Colored People, Tougaloo. B. M. Walker, B.Sc, '83, M.Sc, '86, Miss. Agri. and Mech. Coll. 1888, Professor of Mathematics, Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agri- cultural College. 1900 H. L. Whitfield, B.L. State Superintendent of Education, Jackson. 1901 G. F. Boyd, B.Sc. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, Kosciusko. MISSOURI LIFE DIRECTORS 1877 F. Louis Soldan, LL.D., '83, South Carolina Univ. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 3634 Flad Ave., St. Louis. 1886 J. M. Greenwood, A.M., '73. LL.D., Univ. of Missouri. 1874, Superintendent of City Schools, 9th and Locust Sts., Kansas City. LIFE MEMBERS 1871 James B. Merwin. Editor " American School and College Journal," 3609 Palm St., St. Louis. 1886 Charles Henry Evans, A.M., '78, William Jewell Coll., Liberty, Mo. 1877, Editor of "American College and Public School Directory," 915 Locust St., St. Louis. active members 1887 James U. White, M.S.D., Missouri State Ner. Sch. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Brookfield Ave., Brookfield Calvin Milton Woodward, A.B., '6o, Harvard Univ. ; Ph.D., '84, Washington Univ. 1870, Professor of Mathematics and Applied Mechanics ; 1879, Director of Manual Training School, Washington University, 3013 Hawthorne Boul., St. Louis. 1890 Mrs. Matilda Evans Riley. 1887, Director of Drawing, Public Schools, Board of Education Building, St. Louis. 1891 John R. Kirk. 1899, President of State Normal School, Kirksville. George Thomas Murphy. 1890, Assistant Superintendent of City Schools, 4946 Berlin Ave., St. Louis. F. D. Tharpe. 1899, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 9th and Locust Sts., Kansas City, Missouri] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS $73 1892 Richard Henry Jesse, LL.D., '91, Tulane Univ. 1891, President of University of State of Missouri, Columbia. Mary Clifton McCulloch. 1880, Supervisor of Public Kindergartens, 3831 Washington Boul., St. Louis. Florence McNeal. 1896, Teacher in Humboldt School, 1009 McGee St., Kansas City. C. W. Robbins. Principal and Proprietor, Central Business College, Sedalia. 1893 James Underwood Barnard. 1897, City School Principal, 3211 E. 12th St., Kansas City. 1894 George Victor Buchanan, A.M., '94, McKendree Coll., III. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 614 W. 7th St., Sedalia. Edwin D. Luckby, B.S.D., '87, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. 1892, Principal of John Marshall School, 1332 Union Boul., St. Louis. 1895 William H. Black, A.M., '76, Waynesburg Coll. ; D.D., '88, Cumberland Univ. 1889, President of Missouri Valley College, 312 College Ave., Marshall. Ira I. Cammack, B.S., '84, EarlhamColl., Ind. 1897, Principal of Central High School, 528 Chestnut Ave., Kansas City. Sarah Elizabeth Crouch. 1890, Teacher in Longfellow School, 2915 Charlotte St., Kansas City. Arthur A. Dodd, M.S.D., '86, State Nor. Sch., Warrensburg, Mo.; B.Sc., '95, Harvard. 1896, Director of Mathematical Course, Manual Training High School, 29i8jTracy Ave. Kansas City. William Henry Lynch, A.B., '68, A.M., '72, Univ. of Missouri. 1887, Principal of Public Schools, Mountain Grove. Richard C. Norton, A.M., LL.D. Trenton. Josephine Norville. Chair of English, High School, 336 E. Webster St., Chillicothe. Charles B. Reynolds. 1897, Principal of Garfield School, 304 Wabash Ave., Kansas City. Louis Theilmann, B.Sc, '85, M.Sc, '90, Univ. of Missouri. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Breckenridge. Marie L. Turner. 1891, Principal of Public School, Clayton. University of the State of Missouri. President, R. H. Jesse; Secretary, J. G. Babb, Columbia. John A. Whiteford, M.S.D., '93, State Nor. Sch., Kirksville. 1895, Superintendent of City Schools, 835 W. Rollins St., Moberly. 1896 Amelia C. Fruchte. First Assistant, Normal and High School, 4296 Washington Ave., St. Louis. Josephine Heermans. 1891, Principal of Whittier School, 1702 E. 8th St.. Kansas City. Anna Isabel Mulford, A.B., A.M., '8b, Vassar Coll.; Ph.D., '95, Washington Univ., St. Louis. 1898, Teacher of Botany, High School, 3225 Morgan St., St. Louis. 1897 S. M. Barrett. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Rich Hill. R. L. Barton. 1899, Principal of Eliot School, 912a Pendleton Ave., St. Louis. Ben Blewett, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Washington Univ. 1897, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 9th and Locust Sts., St. Louis. John S. Collins, A.B., '72, Univ. of Miss. Principal of Eugene Field School, St. Louis; res., Kirkwood. James M. Cottingham, LL.B., '00, Kans. City Sch. of Law. 1895, Principal of Benton School, 284s Brooklyn Ave., Kansas City. Peter Herzog. 1882, Principal of Blair School, 3219 Bailey Ave., St. Louis. Benjamin F. Hoffman, A.M., '88, Univ. of Mo. 1895, Professor of German, University of Missouri, Columbia. G. B. Longan. 1899, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 1517 Michigan Ave., Kansas City. Sarah J. Milligan. 1887, Principal of Public School, Webster Groves. Alex H. Noel. 1881, Principal of Grant School, 1518 S. Broadway, St. Louis. Henning W. Prentis. 1878, Principal of Hodgen School, 5723 Delmar Boul., St. Louis. Catherine Spencer. Primary Teacher in Jefferson School, 1700 E. 8th St., Kansas City. 1898 G. W. Armstrong, B.Sc, '71, Eureka Coll., 111. 1895, City School Principal, 2304 Lydia Ave., Kansas City. Joseph Doliver Elliff. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, 124 N. Joplin St., Joplin. William Prentice Evans, A.B., '84, Washington Univ. 1893, Principal of Chouteau School, 66r8 S. 6th St., St. Louis. Isaac H. Hughes, LL.B., '89, Cumberland Univ.; B.Sc, '95, A.B., '96, A.M., '97, Nat. Nor. Univ.; Pd.M., '97, Nor. Sch., New Mex. 1901, Principal of High School, De Soto. Thomas P. Jandon, Jr. Principal of Webster School, 710 W. 14th St., Kansas City. George Warren Krall, B.Sc, Millersville Nor. Sch., Pa. 1901, Principal, Manual Training School, St. Louis. William Campbell Ridgeway. 1898, Principal of Scarritt School, 3035 E. 7th St., Kansas City. Oliver Stigall, B.S.D., '91, State Nor. Sch., Kirksville, Mo. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, Chillicothe. C. C. Thudium, A.M., M.Sc, O. Nor. Univ. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, Hermann. 974 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Montana M I SSOURI— Continued 1899 William J. S. Bryan, A.B., '731 Washington Univ., St. Louis, Mo. i8gs, Principal of St. Louis Normal and High School, 3746 Windsor PI., St. Louis. Caroline L. Bryant. Principal of Charless School, 3039 Locust Ave., St. Louis. W. T. Carrington. 1899, State Superintendent of Public Schools, 804 E. High St., Jefferson City. Washington S. Dearmont, A.M., '89, Mo. State Univ. 1899, President of State Normal School, Cape Girardeau. Daniel A. McMillan, A.B.. '68, A.M., '99, Miami Univ. 1882, Superintendent of Public Schools, Mexico. Gilbert B. Morrison. 1896, Principal of Manual Training High School, 2510 Peery Ave., Kansas City. Edward H. Stroeter, A.B., '98. William Jewell Coll., Liberty, Mo. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Carrollton. 1900 J. J. Bowles. 221, 4th St., S. S., Hannibal. Elizabeth Buchanan. 1890, Principal of Primary and Grammar School, 1815 E. 7th St., Kansas City. Free Public Library, St. Joseph. President, J. W. Atwill ; Librarian, Purd B. Wright, St. Joseph. Irene Gilbert. Principal, Jefferson School, Kansas City, G. N. Grisham, A.B., '78, Brown Univ. ; A.M., '86, Roger Williams Univ. 1889, Principal of Lincoln High School, 2426 Flora Ave., Kansas City. Pritchett College. President, Charles C. Hemenway, Glasgow. R. B. D. Simonson, A.B., '75, A.M., '78. 1892, Superintendent of City Schools, 838 Center St., Hannibal. Thomas E. Spencer. 1882, Superintendent of City Schools, 369 Odell Ave., Marshall. St. Louis Public Library. Librarian and Secretary, F. M. Crunden, lothand Locust Sts., St. Louis. 1901 William Chandler Bagley, M.Sc, '98, Univ. of Wis. ; Ph.D., '00, Cornell Univ. Principal of Mount Pleasant Public School, 1766 Mississippi Ave., St. Louis. Mrs-. Grace Dent Davis. Teacher of History and German, High School, and Supervisor of History, Public Schools, 204 E. Calhoun St., Chill icothe. Ella Eberlein. 1901, Substitute Teacher, City Schools, 3655 Cleveland Ave., St. Louis. Charles M. Gill. Principal of Ames Public School, 1721 Longfellow Boul., St. Louis. Mary Edwards Griffin. 1891, Principal of Lowell School, 427 Aldine PL, Kansas City. Carl I. Ingersun, B.Sc, '75, Valparaiso Nor. Sch., Ind. ; LL.B., '80, Cent. Law Sch. of Ind. 1893, Instructor in Physics, Normal and High School, 4906 Fountain Ave., St. Louis. Edward F. Jackson, A.B., M.E., '81, A.M., '00, Washington Univ., St. Louis, Mo. 1895, Latin Master, Smith Academy, 4400 Morgan St., St. Louis. T. A. Johnston. A.M., '75. Univ. of Missouri. 1881, Superintendent of Kemper Military School, Boonville. Isaac N. Judson, A.B., '73, Yale Univ. 1880, High School, 3124 Locust St., St. Louis. Alma E. Loomis. 1901, Principal of Public School, Meadville. E. G. Lyle. Representative of D. C. Heath & Co., 3818 Cleveland Ave., St. Louis. John Henry MacCracken, A.M., '97, New York Univ. ; Ph.D., '99, Halle-Wittenberg. 1899, President of Westminster College, Fulton. George McA. Miller, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Western Coll. ; LL.B., '89, Univ. of Oregon; Ph.D., 1900, Avalon Coll. 1900, President of Ruskin College, Trenton. John Wilson Million, A.B., '89, A.M., '91, William Jewell Coll., Liberty, Mo. 1897, President of Hardin College, Mexico. C. G. Rathman. Principal of Garfield School, Wyoming and Jefferson Ave., St. Louis. William Schuyler, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Washington Univ., St. Louis, Mo. 1895, Assistant Principal in High School, 2820 Locust St., St. Louis. W. B. Shield, A.B., '98, Ohio St. Univ. Instructor in History and Civics, Manual Training High School, 1221 Woodland Ave., Kansas City. William Wade Walters. 1899, Principal of Shepard School, 3308 Shenandoah Ave., St. Louis. MONTANA active members 1889 Robert G. Young, M.Sc, '77, U. I. Univ. ; Ph.M., '00, Cornell Coll. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, Butte. 1892 Oscar J. Craig, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Wooster Univ. President of University of Montana, 301 S. 3d St., Missoula. 1895 James M. Hamilton, M.Sc, '90, Union Christian Coll. 1889, Superintendent of City Schools, Missoula. W. H. Johnson, A.M., '90, Univ. of Kansas. 1896, Principal of High School, 731 Stewart St., Helena. J. A. Koontz, A.B., '01, Leland Stanford, Jr., Univ. 1901^ Superintendent of City Schools, 420 Hickory St., Anaconda. Nebraska] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 975 M ONTAN A— Co ntin u ed 1895 James Reid, A.B., '81, McGill Univ. 1894, President of Montana College of A. and M. Arts, Bozeman. Cynthia Elizabeth Reiley, B.Sc. Professor of Mathematics, University of Montana, Box 774, Missoula. 1896 E. A. Steere, B.Sc, '81, M.Sc, '95, Univ. of Wis. 1900. Principal of Free County High School, Kalispell. 1897 E. A. Carleton. Ex- State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena. Frank C. Patten. 1892, Librarian, Public Library, Helena. 1898 J. P. Hendricks, B.Sc, '86, A.M., '90, Ph.B., Western Univ., Toledo, la. 1899, Member of State Board of Education, 610 W. Mercury St., Butte. 1899 Miss B. P. Downey. Principal of Lincoln School, 617 N. Alaska St., Butte. S. D. Largent. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Great Falls. Montana State College. President, James Reid, Bozeman. Mary Elizabeth Ryan. 1901, Principal of Webster School, 408 W. Quartz St., Butte. M. A. Carroll Stapleton, A.B., '85, Middlehury Coll., Vt. 1900, Teacher, High School, P. O. Box 1001, Helena. 1900 Free Public Library, Butte. Librarian, J. R. Russcl, Butte. 1901 Frank Kyselka, LL.B., LL.M., Columbian Univ., D. C. 1900, Superintendent of Fort Belknap Indian School, Harlem. J. M. Lewis. Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction, ro35, 12th Ave., Helena. Kate Shelley. County Superintendent of Schools, Missoula. W. W. Welch, A.B., '82, St. Nor. Sch., Tex. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena. Adeline R. White, B.L., Univ. of Wis. 1899, Assistant Principal of High School, Hamilton. NEBRASKA life member 1880 Mrs. Grace B. Sudborough. 1898, Teacher in High School, 549 S. 26th Ave., Omaha. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1890 Lizzie L. Banker. 1900, Principal of Leavenworth School, 1707 Center St., Omaha. 1891 C. G. Pearse. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 508 City Hall, Omaha. 1892 W. K. Fowler. 1901, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1707 A St., Lincoln. 1894 D. C. O'Connor. A.B., '89, A.M., '93, Allegheny Coll., Meadville, Pa. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 1307 Norfolk Ave., Norfolk. Anna M. Tibbets. 1892, Principal of Grammar School, 658 S. 17th St., Lincoln. 1895 Charles Edwin Bessey, B.Sc, '69, M.Sc, '72, Mich. Agri. Coll.; Ph.D., '79, Univ. of Iowa; LL.D., '98, Iowa Coll. 1884, Professor of Botany in the University of Nebraska, 1504 S St., Lincoln. Edwin J. Bodwell, B.Sc, '88, Dartmouth Coll. Superintendent of Schools of Douglas County, Courthouse ; res., 4101 Farnam St., Omaha. W. A. Clark, A.B., '72, A.M., '85, Pd.D., '94, Nat. Nor. Univ.; A.M., '99, Harvard; Ph.D., 'oo, Univ. of Chicago. 1900, President of State Normal School, Peru. James W. Crabtree, B.Sc, '00, Bloomfield Sci. Inst. 1897, Inspector of Nebraska High Schools, Lincoln. G. W. A. Luckey, Ph.D., '00, Columbia Univ. 1895, Professor of Education, University of Nebraska, 1433 R St., Lincoln. 1896 Howard Walter Caldwell, Ph.B., '80. A.M., '94, Univ. of Neb. 1892, Professor of American History and Jurisprudence, University of Nebraska, 511 N. 16th St., Lincoln. William R. Jackson. 1901, Scholar in Department of Education, University of Nebraska, 1909 G St., Lincoln. A. H. Waterhouse. 1899. Principal of High School, 416 S. 28th St., Omaha. Harry Kirke Wolfe, A.B., '80, Univ. of Neb. ; A.M., Ph.D., '86, Leipzig. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, Lincoln. 1897 Kate L. Brown. 1896, Principal of Clifton Hill School, 1322 S. 27th St., Omaha. George L. Farley. County Superintendent of Schools, Plattsmouth. Anna Foos. Principal of Schools, The Madison, Omaha A. L. Shaw, B.Sc, '94, Olivet Coll., Mich. 1644 P St., Lincoln. University of Omaha. President, David R. Kerr; Secretary. Mary Wylie Nicholl, Bellevue. Henry Baldwin Ward, A.B., '85, Williams; A.M., Ph.D., '92. Harvard, 1893, Professor of Zoology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 976 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [New Jersey NEBRASKA— Continued 1898 Allen C. Fling, A.B., '94, A.M., '98, Univ. of Neb. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 1102, 1st Ave., Nebraska City. Omaha Public Library. President, Lewis S. Reed; Librarian, Edith Tobitt, Omaha. University of Nebraska. Chancellor, E. Benjamin Andrews; Librarian, J. I. Wyer, Jr., Lincoln. 1899 E. Benjamin Andrews, LL.D., '84, Univ. of Neb. ; D.D., '84, Colby Univ. 1900, Chancellor, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Robert J. Barr. 1882, Superintendent of City Schools, 1015 W. Division St., Grand Island. Ellery W. Davis, B.Sc, Univ. of Wis. ; Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Univ. 1893, Professor of Mathematics, University of Nebraska, 1545 C St., Lincoln, Charles Fordyce, B.Sc, '96, A.M., '98, Ph.D., '00, Univ. of Neb. 1893, Professor of Biology, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln. John D. French. 1899. Superintendent of Schools, Hastings. Albert Ross Hill, A.B., '92, Dalhousie Coll., Halifax, Nova Scotia; Ph.D., '95, Cornell Univ. 1897, Professor of Philosophy, University of Nebraska, 505 N. 25th St., Lincoln. C. W. Turner. With Silver, Burdett & Co., Lincoln. W. H. Wagner, B.L., '88, Univ. of Neb. 1894, Superintendent of City Schools, Hebron. 1900 Nathan Bernstein, B.L., '92, M.L., '96, Dartmouth Coll. 1895, Department of Physics, High School, 2622 Capitol Ave., Omaha C. H. Gordon, B.Sc, '86, M.Sc, '90, Albion Coll. ; Ph.D., '95, Univ. of Chicago. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 910 S. 13th St., Lincoln. George A. Gregory, B.Sc, '82. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, Crete. Mrs. Agnes M. Harrison. Principal of Farnam School, Omaha. George L. Towne, A.B., '95, Univ. of Neb. Editor " Nebraska Teacher," 134 N. nth St., Lincoln. 1901 A. L. Caviness, Ph.B., 111. Wes. Univ. Superintendent of City Schools, Fairbury. Esther A. Clark, A.B., '85, A.M., '90, Nat. Nor. Univ. ; A.B., '97, Univ. of Neb. 1898, Professor of Latin, Nebraska State Normal School, Peru. W. H. Gardner, B.Sc. Superintendent of City Schools, Auburn. David Bennett Gilbert, B.Sc, '90, A.B., '91, Central Nor. Coll., Danville, Ind. President Nebraska Central College, Central City. I. H. Hatfield, B.Sc, '92, S. D. Agri. Coll. ; LL.B., '94, Univ. of Neb. 1898, Instructor in Law School, University of Nebraska, 1327 E St., Lincoln. Charles C. Root. 1900, Principal of High School, Fairbury. NEVADA active members 1895 Walter C. Gayhart, C.E. 1894, Principal of High School and Public Schools, Austin. Joseph Edward Stubbs, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, D.D., '90. 1894, President of Nevada State University, Reno. 1899 James C. Doughty. Principal of Schools, Tuscarora. NEW HAMPSHIRE life member 1886 James E. Klock. 1900, Principal of State Normal School, Plymouth. ' active members 1898 New Hampshire State Library. Librarian, Arthur H. Chase, Concord. 1899 John Augustus Brown, A.B., '79, Harvard. 1886, Member of School Board, and, 1889, Trustee, Robinson Female Seminary, 33 Pine St., Exeter. 1900 Henry C. Morrison, A.B., '95, Dartmouth Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 52 State St.; Portsmouth. Public Library, Dover, N. H. Librarian, C. H. Garland, Dover. NEW JERSEY LIFE DIRECTOR 189a James M. Green, A.M., '84, Dickinson Coll. ; Ph.D., '90, III. Wesleyan Univ. 1889, Principal of State Normal and Model Schools, Trenton. life member 1876 Langdon Shook Thompson, A.M., '84, Marietta Coll., O. ; Pd.D., '91, Univ. of the City of New Nork. 1889, Supervisor of Drawing, Public Schools; 1893, Principal of Metropolitan Normal Art School, 12 Park St., Jersey City. New Jersey J LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS - 977 ACTIVE MEMBERS 1889 A. W. Moon, A.B., '95, Indiana Univ. 1899, Supervising Principal of Schools, Pleasantville. 1890 Levi Seeley, A.M., '83, Williams Coll. ; Ph.D., '86, Leipzig. 1895, Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, 482 W. State St., Trenton. 1891 Augustus Scarlett. 1863, Principal of South 8th St. School, 56 S. nth St., Newark. 1892 Sarah Y. Ely. 1887, Supervisor in High and Grammar Departments of State Model School, 52 Carroll St., Trenton. M. H. Kinsley, B.Sc, '88, St. Lawrence Univ. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Hudson County, 117 Magnolia Ave., Arlington. Jane M. Lewis. 1877, Principal of Primary School No. 8, 99 Mercer St., Jersey City. S. E. Manness, A.M., '96, Univ. of Tenn. 1900, Principal of Waverley Ave. School, 261 Broad St.? Newark. Byron C. Mathews, A.B., '77, A.M., 92, Ph.D., '93, Syracuse Univ. 1885, Instructor in Greek and Economics, High School, 36 Kearney St., Newark. Henry M. Maxson, A.M., '80, Amherst Coll. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, 439 W. 6th St., Plainfield. Addison B. Poland, A.M., '76, Wes. Univ., Conn. ; Ph.D., '90, Univ. of City of N. Y. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 60 Abington Ave., Newark. Emily A. Rice, Pd.D., '92, Albany Nor. Coll. Teacher of Private Classes, 77 Clark Ave., Ocean Grove. Randall Spaulding, A.B., '70, Yale. 1874, Superintendent of Schools, 14 Clinton Ave., Montclair. Jotham Walker Wakeman. 1865, Principal of School No. 6, 550 Summit Ave., Jersey City. H. Brewster Willis. 1886, Superintendent of Schools, Middlesex Co., 185 Livingston Ave., New Brunswick. 1893 Martin Luther Cox, Pd.M., '97, New York Univ. 1900, Principal of Ann St. School, Newark. Henry E. Harris. 1879, Principal of School No. 1, 64 Trask Ave., Bayonne. Miss S. M. Searle. 1893, Principal of Primary Department, Public School No. 23, cor. Romaine and Pavonia Aves., Jersey City. George H. Voorhis. 1881, Principal of Centennial Grammar School, 311 S. Clinton Ave., Trenton. L. C. Wooley.- Principal of James Wood School, 136 E. Front St., Trenton. 1894 William N. Barringer, A.M., Princeton; Pd.D., Univ. of City of N. Y. 1897, Supervisor of Evening and Summer Schools, 1142a Broad St., Newark. Richard Case, A.M., '81, Brown Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Trenton Ave., Point Pleasant. Mary J. Donohoe. 1895, Principal of School No. 4, 33 Dodge St., Bayonne Benjamin C. Gregory, A.B.,CoIl. of City of N. Y. 1888, Supervising Principal of Schools, 54 Chestnut Ave., Trenton. Anna J. Guden. 1892, Assistant, School No. 4, 202 Ave. D, Bayonne. J. F. D. Heineken. 1899, Supervising Principal, Public Schools, East Brunswick Township; res., Milltown. Gaius Hoffman. 1881, Principal of Schools, Bound Brook. Will C. Ingalls, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Brown Univ. 1900, Principal of South Jersey Institute, Bridgeton. James Wilmer Kennedy, A.M., '91, New York Univ. 1889, Principal of Miller Street Grammar School, 3 Emmett St., Newark. Henrietta S. Leslie. 1885, Principal of Public School, Box 26, Blackwood, Camden Co. N. W. Pease. 1867, Principal of Grammar School No. 2, 31 Morrell St., Elizabeth. J.Albert Reinhart, A.M., '77, Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ.; Ph.B., '76, A.M., '77, Ph.D., '81, Delaware Coll. 1882, Principal of City High School, 534 E. 27th St., Paterson. Erwin H. Schuyler, A.M., '92, Princeton Coll. 1884, Professor of Mathematics, Dr. Julius Sachs' Collegiate Institute, 38 W. 59th St., New York City ; res., Haworth. Henry Snyder, A.B., '78, A.M., '88, Lafayette Coll. 1892, Superintendent of Public Schools, City Hall, Jersey City. Margaret I. Wade. Teacher of Mathematics, High School, 507, 3d Ave., Asbury Park. 1895 Wilson Farrand, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Princeton. 1901, Head Master of Newark Academy, 544 High St., Newark. W. J. Shearer, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Dickinson Coll. 1895, Superintendent of Schools of City of Elizabeth and County of Union, Anna St. and Madison Ave., Elizabeth. 1896 Charles J. Baxter. 1896, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 24 Sandford Ave., Plainfield. Mrs. Lydia A, Bennett. 1895, Principal of Leonia Heights Public Schools, Box 103, Leonia, Bergen County. H. B. Boice, M.D., '88, Univ. Med. Sch., N. Y. City. 1891, State Normal School, Box 638, Trenton. Mrs. Millie Ryan Eakins. 609 Belgrove Drive, Arlington. Mrs. Orrell F. Elwell. 1876, Teacher of Grammar School, 152 S. Stockton St., Trenton. 978 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [New Mexico 1896 D. H. Farley. NEW JERSEY— Continued Teacher in State Normal and Model School, 515 E. State St., Trenton. E. R. Johnstone. 1900, Principal of New Jersey Training School for Feeble -Minded, Vineland. Edwin C. Merrill. Publisher, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 29-33 E. 19th St., New York; res., 33 Wash- ington St., East Orange. F. E. Spaulding, A.B., '89, Amherst; Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Leipzig. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, 54 High St., Passaic. 1897 Margaret Bancroft. Principal of Haddonfield Training School, The Lindens, Haddonfield. Miss Jean N. Cox^ 1889, Principal of Haddonfield Training School, The Lindens, Haddonfield. Anna M. Fell, M.E.L., Pennington Sem. 1894, Principal of Cadwalader School No. 21, 304 W. State St., Trenton. Free Public Library of Jersey City. President, L. J. Gordon; Librarian, Esther E. Burdick, Jersey City. E. K. Sexton, Pd.M., '92, New York Univ. 1894, Principal of Central Ave. Grammar School, 99 S. nth St., Newark. State Normal School, Trenton. Principal, J. M. Green, Trenton. Ira Winthrop Travell, A.B., '90, Williams Coll. 1893, Principal of High School, Plainfield. Thyrza C. Williams. 1896, Associate Principal of Haddonfield Training School, The Lindens, Haddonfield. 1898 S. V. Arrowsmith. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 103 Maple Ave., Red Bank. Arthur Grant Balcom. Principal of Franklin Grammar School, 167 Mt. Prospect Ave., Newark. Anna Bodler, M.Sc, '95, State Nor. Sch., Mansfield, Pa. ; Ph.B., '01, Univ. of Chicago. 1901, Vice- Principal and Teacher of Pedagogy, Newark Normal School, Newark. Mrs. Louise E. Hogan. 1900, Editor of Juvenile Literature, Box 37, Fanwood. Phoebus W. Lyon, A.M., Princeton. Principal of West Jersey Academy, Bridgeton. William M. Swingle, Ph.D. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 114 Cleveland St., Orange. 1899 Mrs. Rachel L. Rogers Dresser, Grad., '91, Kraus Sem. for Kgrs. 1899, Principal of Training School for Kindergartners, Kindergarten and Connecting Classes, 226 High St., Burlington. J. Howard Hulsart, A.M., '98, Ph.D., '01, 111. Wes. Univ. 1891, Supervising Principal, 105 Sussex St., Dover. Jerohn Joseph Savitz, Ph.B., '93, 111. Wes. Univ.; A.M., '94, Ursinus Univ.; Pd.M., '99, New York Univ. 1896, Superintendent of Public Schools, Myrtle Ave., Boonton. J. Alfred Wilson, B.Sc, '97, Rutgers Coll. 1901, Principal of Highland Park Public School, 18 Remsen Ave., New Brunswick. 1900 Woodford D. Anderson. A.B., A.M., Ph.D. 1001, Rider-Moore Business College, Trenton. William E. Chancellor, A.B., '89, A.M., '95, Amherst Coll. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 80 Beach St., Bloomfield. Vernon L. Davey, A.B., Cornell Univ. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 32 Munn Ave., East Orange. Bertha Elterich. v 1895, Instructor of Physical Culture, Haddonfield Training School, Haddonfield. James L. Hays. President, State Board of Education, Newark. 1901 Nelson Haas, A.M., Ph.D., Rutgers Coll., N. J. Principal of High School and Supervising Principal of Schools, Central Ave., Hackensack. John Coulter Hockenberry, A.B., '99, Ind. Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Lecturer in Pedagogy, University of Pennsylvania, 114 Walnut St., Haddonfield. H. C. Krebs. 1897, Supervising Principal of Schools, 73 Doughty Ave., Somerville. John C. McLaury, Pd.B., '95, Pd.M., '97, St. Nor. Coll., Albany, N. Y, ; Ph.B., '99, Ph.D., 'oi, 111. Wes. Univ- 1900, Principal of Sussex Avenue School, 78%, 9th Ave., Newark. Charles E. Osborne, Ph.B.. '98, Brown Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Clifton Ave., Lakewood. W. Seymour Twichell. Principal of School No. 6, 479 Ellison St., Paterson. George A. West. 1885, Principal of Public School, Raritan. W. S. Willis. 1898, Principal of Normal and Training School, 56 Park PI., Newark. NEW MEXICO ACTIVE members 1891 Hiram Hadley, A.M., '85, Earlham Coll. 1898, Professor of History and Philosophy, Coll. of Agri. and Mech. Arts, Las Cruces. 1895 Clarence T. Hagerty, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, '95, Notre Dame Univ., Ind. 1891. Professor of Mathematics, Coll. of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Las Cruces. Charles E. Hodgin, Grad., '81, Ind. St. Nor. Sch. ; B.Pd., '93. Univ. of N. Mex. 1897, Principal of Normal Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. New York] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 979 NEW MEXICO— Continued 1895 Mrs. Elizabeth R. Jackson. 1900, Primary Teacher in Public Schools, Silver City. Charles M. Light, Ph.D., Univ. of City of N. Y. and Nor. Sch. of Kan. 1896, Principal of Normal School of New Mexico, Silver City. 1897 George Benjamin Haggett, B.Sc, '75, Grand River Institute. 1899, Principal Teacher, Indian Service, Thornton. Hugh A. Owen, B.Sc. 1900, Instructor of Biology, Physiography, and Manual Training, Nor. School of New Mexico, Silver City. James Alpheus Wood, A.B., '77, A.M., '80. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, Santa Fe. 1899 William H. Decker, B.E., Nor. Sch., Silver City, N. Mex. Principal of Schools, Pinos Altos. Edgar L. Hewett, M.Pd. 1897, President of New Mexico Normal University, Las Vegas. Miss M. R. Koehler. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, Silver City. Miss O. P. Whitehill. Teacher in Public Schools, Silver City. 1901 Jerdina Faber. Teacher in Government Indian School, Albuquerque. D. M. Richards, A.B., '76, Oberlin Coll. Principal of Preparatory Department, College of Agri. and Mech. Arts, Las Cruces. Mrs. L. A. Richards. 1893, Teacher in Indian School, Albuquerque. NEW YORK life directors 1880 Albert Prescott Marble, A.M., '63, Ph.D., '83, Colby Univ., Me. 1896, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York. 1884 James H. Canfield, A.B., '68, A.M., '77. LL.D., '94, Williams Coll. 1899, Librarian of Columbia University, New York. 1885 Nicholas Murray Butler, A.B., '82, Ph.D., '84, Columbia Coll. 1889, Acting President and Professor of Philosophy and Education, Columbia University, 119 E. 30th St., New York. Ezekiel Hanson Cook, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Bowdoin Coll. ; Ph.D., '89, Colgate Univ. 1901, Address, 2429, 12th St., Boulder, Colo. 1890 Charles Rufus Skinner, A.M., '90, Hamilton Coll.; LL.D., '95, Colgate Univ. 1895, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 453 State St., Albany. life members 1857 James Cruikshank, LL.D., '62. 1875, Principal of Grammar School No. 12, and Evening High School; Secretary of Council of Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 206 S. Oxford St., Brooklyn. 1870 Oliver Cromwell Arey, A.M., '65, Union Coll. 1148 Pacific St., Brooklyn. William Edward Crosby. Literary and Educational Writer, 1603 Amsterdam Ave., New York. 1871 John Jacob Anderson, A.M., '67, Rutgers Coll. ; Ph.D., '76. New York Univ. Author of School Histories and Historical Readers, 343 Adelphi St., Brooklyn. 1876 *Charles C. Rounds, B.Sc, '57, M.Sc, '60, Dartmouth Coll.; A.M., Bowdoin Coll. and Waterville Coll.; Ph.D., Bates Coll. 1896, Institute Instructor and Lecturer, 96 Broadway, New York. 1883 Josephine E. Hodgdon, Pd.M., '91, Univ. of City of New York. 1898, Principal of Primary School No. no, 20 Sidney PI., Brooklyn. Menco Stern. 1879, Professor of German Language and Literature, Stern's School of Languages, 27 E. 44th St., New York. 1884 Sarah A. Stewart. 28 W. 94th St., New York. Mrs. Georgiana Van Aken. 1858, Principal of Day School, Ladies' Home Mission, 63 Park St., New York. 1885 Thomas Hunter, A.M., '66, Columbia Coll. ; Ph.D., '77, Williams Coll. ; LL.D., N. Y. Univ. 1869, President of Normal College, 2079, 5th Ave., New York. 1891 Mrs. Mary J. B. Wylie. 46 Essex St., Buffalo. 1893 University of State of New York. Secretary, James Russell Parsons, Jr., Regents' Office, Albany. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1882 Walter S. Goodnough. 1890, Director of Drawing, Public Schools, Borough of Brooklyn, 267a Lewis Ave., Brooklyn. 1884 Edward N. Jones, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Ph.D., '93, Hamilton Coll. 1898, First Assistant, The New York Training School for Teachers; res., 50 Church St., White Plains. 1886 Charles L. Patton. University Publishing Co., 43-47 E. 10th St., New York. 1887 Gussie Power. 1880, Teacher, 535 Warren St., Hudson. 1889 Charles De Garmo, Ph.D., '86, Halle, Germany. 1898, Professor of Science and Art of Education, Cornell University, 809 E. State St., Ithaca. *Died November 8, 1901. 980 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [New York 1889 Thomas Francis Kane, A.B., '92, Cornell Univ. 1899, Teacher of Mathematics, Stapleton High School, Richmond Borough, 5 Wall St., New Brighton, S. I. Gratia L. Rice. 1892, State Director of Drawing, Box 392, Buffalo. 1890 C. W. Bardeen, A.B., '69, Yale. 1874, Editor of " School Bulletin," 406 S. Franklin St., Syracuse. Andrew B. Blodgett. 1889, Superintendent of Schools, 127 Burnet Ave., Syracuse. John T. Buchanan, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Central Coll. 1897, Principal of De Witt Clinton High School, 37 Hamilton Terrace, New York. John W. Chandler, Ph. D., '77, Univ. of State of New York. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, Ellenville. Edward D. Farrell, A.M., '67, Coll. of the City of New York. 1889, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 163 E. 124th St., New York. Amos M. Kellogg, A.M., '57, Hamilton Coll. Editor of " The School Journal," " Educational Foundations," and " Teacher's Insti- tute," 61 E. 9th St., New York. Francis B. Palmer, A.B., '58, A.M., '63, Ph.D., '79, Univ. of Rochester. 1878, Principal of State Normal School, 86 Central Ave., Fredonia. Isaac H. Stout, A.M., '88, Hobart Coll.; LL.D., '01, Alfred Univ. 1887, Supervisor of Teachers' Institutes, State Department of Public Instruction, 21 S. Hawk St., Albany. 1891 Vincent Aldridge. A.M., '8t, Syracuse Univ. 1889, Teacher of Mathematics, Boys' High School, 32 Clarkson St., Brooklyn. Earl Barnes, A.M., '89, Ind. Univ.; M.Sc, '90, Cornell Univ. Educational Lecturer, 232 Greene Ave., Brooklyn. Francis John Cheney, A.B., '72, A.M., '75, Ph.D., '89, Syracuse Univ. i8gr, Principal of State Normal School, 45 Church St., Cortland. Augustus S. Downing, A.M., Pennsylvania Coll. 1898, Principal of New York Training School for Teachers. 119th St., near 2d Ave., New York. Matthew J. Elgas, A.B., '62, A.M., '63, Montreal Coll. ; Ph.D., '69, St. John's Coll. 1896, Associate Superintendent of Public Schools, 121 W. 87th St., New York. Harlan P. French, A.B., '68, A.M., '71, Amherst Coll. 1895, Member of Board of Education, Proprietor of Albany Teachers' Agency, 81 Chapel St., Albany. George D. Hale, A.B., '70, A.M., '73, Univ. of Rochester. 1059 Lake Ave., Rochester. Ossian H. Lang. 1895, Editor of "Educational Foundations" and "The School Journal," New York and Chicago; 61 E. 9th St., New York. Henry M. Leipziger, A.M., Coll. of City of N. Y. ; Ph.D., '88, Columbia Coll. 1891, Supervisor of Lectures, Board of Education, New York city, 229 E. 57th St., New York. John M. Milne, A.M., '79, Rochester Univ. ; Ph.D., '90, Univ. of State of New York. 1889, Principal of State Normal School, Geneseo. Thomas B.Stowell, A.B., '65, Genesee Coll. ; A.M., '68; Ph.D., '81, Syracuse Univ. 1889, Principal of State Normal and Training School, 6 Le Roy St., Potsdam. 1892 Mrs. Ella N. Allen. 43% Eagle St., Utica. Thomas 0. Baker, A.M., '92, Ph.D., Univ. of City of New York. 1901, Principal of School No. 128, Brooklyn. Emmet Belknap, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Marietta Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 206 East Ave., Lockport. W. H. Benedict, A.B.. '75, A.M., '78, Hamilton Coll. 1889, Principal of School No. 8, 508 W. 3d St., Elmira. A. Hall Burdick. 1890, Principal of Public School No. 14, and High School, 4 Harrison St., Stapleton. Charles W. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Hamilton Coll. 1878, Superintendent of Schools, 354 Hudson Ave,, Albany. Melvil Dewey, A.B., '74, A.M., '77, Amherst. 1899, Director of New York State Library, Home Education Department and Library School, 315 Madison Ave., Albany. George Fenton. Agent for American Book Co., Broadalbin, Fulton Co. William B. Friedberg, B.Sc, '73, Coll. of New York; LL.B., '77, Columbia Law School. 1890, Principal of Grammar School No. 95, 21 E. 125th St., New York. William Beverley Harison. Educational Publisher, 5 W. 18th St., New York. ' H. E. Hayes. 1890, Manager of Educational Department, D. Appleton & Co., Publishers, 72, 5th Ave. New York. Mary F. Hyde. Author of " Practical Lessons in Use of English," "Practical English Grammar," and " Two- Book Course in English," 208 Main St., Binghamton. James Lee, M.D., '86, Bellevue Hospital Medical Coll. 1892, Associate Superintendent of Schools, 23s E. 124th St., New York. William H. Maxwell, A.B., '72, A.M., '74, Queen's Univ., Ireland; LL.D., '01, Columbia Univ. Superintendent of Schools, The City of New York, Park Ave. and 59th St.; res., 283 Henry St., Brooklyn. William J. Milne, A.B., '68, A.M., '71, Ph.D., '77, Rochester Univ. ; LL.D., '78, De Pauw Univ. President of New York State Normal College, 94 Willett St., Albany. William Bramwell Powell, A.M., '76, Lombard Univ. 72, 5th Ave., New York. Oscar D. Robinson, Ph.D., '87, Dartmouth Coll. 1886, Principal of High School. 501 State St., Albany.' James Winne, A.B., '77, A.M., '79, Hamilton Coll. 1886, Principal of High School, 30 Hooker Ave., Poughkeepsie. New York] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 98 1 1893 Henry P. Emerson, A.B., '71, A.M., '74, Univ. of Rochester. 1893, Superintendent of Education, 122 College St., Buffalo. C. B. Gilbert. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, Rochester. John Arthur Greene, A.M., '00, Colby Coll., Me. 1896, Manager of American Book Co., 100 Washington Sq., New York. George Griffith, A.B., '77, Hamilton Coll.; Ph.D., '93, 111. Wes. Univ. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, 40 Jewett PI., Utica. Mary F. Hall. Spencer. Lawrence Cameron Hull, A.B., '77, A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich. 1899, Principal of Academic Department, Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, 29 Schermerhom St., Brooklyn. Jenny B. Merrill, Pd.D., '92, New York Univ. 1896, Supervisor of Kindergartens, Boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx, 112 E. 81st St., New York. Josephine E. Rogers. Principal of Public School No. 75, 160 E. 61st St., New York. Edward Richard Shaw, B.L., '78, Del. Coll. ; Ph.B., '81, Lafayette Coll. ; Ph.D., '90* N. Y. Univ. 1894, School of Pedagoy, New York University, Washington Sq., New York. Arthur Merrill Wright, A.B., '72, A.M., '80, Hamilton Coll. Supervisor, Bureau of Compulsory Education, Department of Public Instruction, Albany; res., Waterville. 1894 Frank D. Beattys, A.B., '85, A.M., '88, Wesleyan Univ. Manager, Silver, Burdett & Co., 31 E. 19th St., New York. Mrs. B. Ellen Burke. 1899, Editor of "The Sunday Companion," Akron, 0. ; res., Main St., Malone. Francis R. Clair. 1893, School Commissioner, Queens County, College Point. Charles Newell Cobb, A.B., '77, and A.M., '80, Syracuse Univ. 1893, Inspector of University of State of New York, 26 N. Pine Ave., Albany. Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, Pd.D., '93, New York Univ. 1900, Director of Groszmann School for Exceptional, Nervous, and Defective Children, " Pinehurst," cor. Fort Washington Ave. and Depot Lane, New York. Logan D. Howell, A.B., '89, Univ. of N. C. 1898, Teacher of English, the Peter Cooper High School, 3080, 3d Ave., New York. Cynthia Lagomarsino. 1884, Teacher in Five Points Ladies' Home Mission Day School, 63 Park-St., New York. William A. Mackey. 1899, Principal of Grammar School No. S3> 59 Huntington Ave., Buffalo. Charles E. Merrill. President, Maynard, Merrill & Co., Educational Publishers, 29-31 E. 19th St., New York. Frederick Monteser, Ph.D., '85, Univ. of Vienna, Austria; Pd.D., '93, N. Y. Univ. 1893, Lecturer, School of Pedagogy, New York University; 1897, First Assistant in Boys' High School, New York City; res., Caryl Station, Yonkers. Mrs. Agnes O'Brien. Principal of School No. 151, 61 W. 126th St., New York. W. F. O'Callaghan, A.B., Harvard Univ. 16 Albany St., New York. George A. Plimpton. • Educational Publisher, 70, 5th Ave., New York. Hester A. Roberts. 1886, Principal of Primary Department No. 10, 149 W. 128th St., New York Edgar O. Silver, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Brown Univ. Publisher, President of the Corporation Silver, Burdett & Co., 29-33 E. 19th St., New York. Joseph S. Taylor, Pd.D , '92, New York Univ. 1885, Principal of Public School No. 19, 344 E. 14th St., New York. Martha Van Rensselaer. 1901, Editor, Woman's Reading Course, Cornell University, 809 E. State St., Ithaca. 1895 Samuel Houston Albro, Ph.D., Colgate Univ. Woodside, Central Ave., Fredonia. H. T. Ambrose. President of American Book Co., Publishers, 100 Washington Sq., New York. Middlesex A. Bailey, A.M., '77, Wesleyan Univ. of Conn. 1899, Department of Mathematics, New York Training School for Teachers, 119th St. and 2d Ave., New York. Ida C. Bender, M.D., '90, Univ. of Buffalo (Med. Dept.). 1893, Supervisor of Primary Grades, 731 Ellicott St., Buffalo. *N. L. Benham. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, 539, 4th St., Niagara Falls. William Paxton BuRRis/Ph.B., '91, A.M., '94, De Pauw Univ. 1901, Graduate Student, Columbia University and Scholar Teachers College, 82 Morning- side Ave., New York. Columbia University. Acting President, Nicholas Murray Butler; Librarian, James H. Canfield, New York. Fannie S. Comings. 1893, Principal, Primary Department, Grammar School No. 77, 22 Halsey^St., Brooklyn. Julia E. Crane. Teacher of Vocal Music, State Normal School ; ^1884, Director of Crane Normal Institute of Music, 91 Main St., Potsdam. John W. Davis. 1886, Public School No. 81, Bedford Park, New York. Henry Thomas Dawson, A.B., '82, 111. Wesleyan Univ. Publisher, 424 W. 144th St., New York. ♦Died August'3, 1901. 982 NA TIONAL EDUCA TIONAL ASSOCIA TION [New York 1895 Samuel T. Dutton, A.B., Yale. 1900, Professor of School Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, 814 West End Ave., New York. George W. French, LL.B., '78, Columbia Coll. 1881, Principal of Public Schools, Jamaica Ave., opp. Enfield St., Brooklyn. Mrs. Anna Eggleston Friedman. 1898, Instructor in Primary Work, Teachers' Institutes, 45 Wadsworth St., Buffalo. Ada Van Stone Harris. 1897, Supervisor, Kindergartens and Primary Schools, Rochester. Edward Hay ward, A.M., Ph.D., '92, Union Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 103 Mohawk St., Cohoes. Welland Hendrick, A.B., '8o, A.M., '83. Colgate Univ. 1898, First Assistant, New York Training School for Teachers, 174 St. Nicholas Ave., New York. Walter L. Hervev, A.B., A.M., Ph.D. ,'93, Princeton. 1898, Examiner of Board of Education, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York. Samuel Burnett Howe, A.M., '65, Ph.D., '87, Union Coll. 1868, Superintendent of Schools, 615 Union St., Schenectady. Wilber W. Howe. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, Whitehall. Sara D. Jenkins. 1901, with The Educational Publishing Co., 103 Huestis St., Ithaca. Thomas R. Kneil, A.B., '75. A.M., '78, Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Conn. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, High School Building, Saratoga Springs. Louise M. Lapev. Department Principal of School No. 16,731 Ellicott St., Buffalo. Charles D. Larkins, Ph.B., '81, Alfred Univ. 1893, Principal of Manual Training High School, 76 Court St., Brooklyn. Seth Low, LL.D., '89, Amherst, '90, Univ. of State of N. Y., Univ. of Pa., Harvard, Trinity; '96, Princeton. 1901, Mayor-elect, Greater New York. Kate Palmer Macdona. 1899, Principal, Public School No. 70, 56 W. 83d St., New York. J. Milford McKee, A.M., Ph.D., '01, 111. Wesleyan Univ. 1898, Principal of West Side School, 122 Valentine St., Mt. Vernon. F. M. McMurrv, Ph.D., Jena. 1898, Professor of Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, 26 Hamilton Terrace, New York. Henry Dorsey Newson, A.B., '72, Western Md. Coll. President of Newson & Co., Publishers; res., 160 W. 106th St., New York. Andrew V. V. Raymond, A.B., '75, D.D., '87, Union Coll. ; LL.D., '94, Williams Coll. 1894, President of Union College, College Hill, Schenectady. J. M. Rice, M.D., '81, Coll. of Phys. and Sur., New York. Educational Writer, Editor of the " Forum," 1245 Madison Ave., New York. Rovillus R. Rogers, A.B., Oberlin Coll. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 627 E. 6th St., Jamestown. James Earl Russell, A.B., '87, Cornell ; Ph.D., '94, Leipzig. 1898, Dean of Teachers College, Columbia University, 317 W. 103d St., New York. Henry R. Sanford, A.M., '64, Genesee Coll. ; A.M., '73, Syracuse Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Union Coll. 1885, State Institute Conductor and Chairman State Board of Examiners of New York, Elm St., Penn Yan. Alfred T. Schauffler, A*., '65, A.M., '68, Williams Coll. 1898, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx, New York City; res., 23 Woodland Ave., New Rochelle. Henry G. Schneider, B.Sc, '87, Coll. City of New York. 1888, Second Assistant, Grammar School No. 90, 6ro W. 47th St., New York. 1 Myron Tracy Scudder, A.B., '82, A.M., '86. Rutgers Coll. 1899, Principal of State Normal School, New Paltz. Sylvester R. Shear. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 3 South Broadway, White Plains. Herbert J. Smith, A. B., '88, A.M., '91, Colgate Univ. 1899, Professor of Greek, Latin, and Civics, State Normal School, Oswego. J. Mace Smith, B.Sc, '82, Mich. Agri. Coll. 1900, Student, Cornell University, Ithaca. Plowdon Stevens, Jr., B.Sc, '88, Coll. City of New York. 1898, Assistant, Public School No. 81, 2T26 Washington Ave., New York. John H. Walsh, A.B., '73, A.M., '89, Georgetown Coll., D. C. ; LL.B., '80, Columbia Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Borough of Brooklyn, 8502 Fort Hamilton Parkway, Brooklyn. Frank E. Welles, A.M., '92, 111. Wesleyan Univ. ; Ph.D., '97, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1889, Professor of Latin and Greek, State Normal School, 97 South St., Geneseo. Charles F. Wheelock, B.Sc, '73, Cornell Univ. 1891, Head Inspector, University of State of New York, Regents' Office, Albany. 1896 Mrs. Amelia D. Alden, Grad., '68, State Nor. Sch., Albany, N. X. ' 1895, Vice -Principal of Westerleigh Collegiate Institute, West New Brighton. John Elmendorf Brandegee, A.B., '74, Trinity. 30 Genesee St., Utica. E. N. Bristol. Book Publisher, 29 W. 23d St., New York. Kate G. Broderick. 1881, Principal of Public School No. 76, E. 68th St. and Lexington Ave., New York. Eugene C. Colby. 1885, Principal of Department of Industrial and Fine Arts, Mechanics' Institute, 55 Plymouth Ave., Rochester. Le Roy C. Cooley, A.M., Ph.D. 1874, Professor of Physics, Vassar College, 2 Reservoir Sq., Poughkeepsie. Cornell University Library. President, J. G. Schurman; Librarian, George W. Harris, Ithaca. New York] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 983 1896 Henry M. Crist. Manager of New York Office, Milton Bradley Co., n E. 16th St., New York. Boothe Colwell Davis, A.B., '90, A.M., '03, Alfred Univ.: B.D., '93, Yale: Ph.D., '06, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1895, President of Alfred University, 8 Terrace St , Alfred. George S. Davis. 1888, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York. William Reed Eastman, A.B., '54, Yale ; B.L.S., '92, Univ. of N. Y. 1892, Inspector of Public Libraries, University of State of New York, State Library, Albany. Andrew W. Edson, A.B., '78, A.M., 'Si, Dartmouth Coll. 1897, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York. Ella C. Elder. 1898, Supervisor of Kindergartens, 86 Delaware Ave., Buffalo. Henry W. Ellsworth, Grad., Fredonia Acad., N. Y. Author and Publisher of Schoolbooks, 127 Duane St., New York. James A. Estee, A.M., Alfred Univ. Superintendent of Schools, 17 Marshall Ave., Gloversville. J. P. Gordy, Ph.D., Leipzig Univ., LL.D. 1901, Professor of History of Education, New York University, Washington Sq., New York. Charles Eugene Gorton, Ph.B., '71, Univ. of Mich. 1884, Superintendent of Schools, 55 Hawthorne Ave., Yonkers. Elbert W. Griffith, Ph.B., 111. Wes. Univ.; A.M., Wes. Univ., Conn. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 8 Sherman Ave., Glens Falls. Walter B. Gunnison, A.B., '75,' A.M., '78, Ph.D., '93. 1896, Principal of Erasmus Hall High School, 77 Wilson St., Brooklyn. Caroline T. Haven. 1884, Principal, Kindergarten Dept., Ethical Culture Schools, 109 W. 54th St., New York. Frances C. Hayes. 1898, Supervisor of Kindergartens, Borough of Queens, New York City; res., 319 Amity St., Flushing. William C. Hess, B.Sc, 67, M.Sc., '71, Coll. of City of N. Y. 1885, Principal of Public School No. 30, and, 1896, Principal of East Side Evening High School, 439 E. 118th St., New York. W. D. Hewes. 1893, Principal of High School, Cuba. Alfheus B. Kenyon, B.Sc, '74, M.Sc, '771 Alfred Univ. 1874, Professor of Mathematics and Graphics, and, 1891, Registrar of Alfred Univ., 33 S. Main St., Alfred. Mrs. Maria Kkaus-Boelt£. 1873, Principal of Kraus Seminary for Kindergartners, Hotel San Remo, Central Park West, New York. Charles E. Lawton. 1889, Principal of Central Grammar School, 7 Franklin St., Auburn. Louise A. Lounsbery. 1896, Teacher of Music, Drawing, and German, St. Johnsville. Thomas Bailey Lovell, A.B., '62, A.M., '65, Univ. of Rochester; LL.D., '00, Hobart Coll. 1892, Principal of High School, 740 Chilton Ave., Niagara Falls. 1 Mary A. Magovern. 1876, Principal of Primary Department Public School No. 166, 134 W. 89th St., New York. J. Edman Massee. A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Hamilton Coll. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 981 Broadway, Watervliet. Mark M. Maycock, M.P., Syracuse Univ., '75. Teacher in State Normal School, 220 Jersey St., Buffalo. Clarence E. Meleney, A.B., '76, A.M., '79. Colby Univ. 1896, Associate Superintendent of Schools, Park Ave. and 59th St., New York City; res., 429 Washington Ave., Brooklyn. Gurdan R. Miller, Ph.B., '93 Syracuse Univ. 1893, Principal of High School, Matteawan. Otis Montrose. Principal of Haldane Union School, Coldspring. Howard J. Rogers, A.B., '84, Williams Coll. 1895, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Albany. Charles M. Ryon. 1875, Superintendent of Schools, 130 Elmendorf St., Kingston. Sara A. Saunders, Grad., '73. Cortland St. Nor. Sch. 1895, Teacher of Methods and Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, Brockport. Frank A. Schmidt, Pd.D., '91, New York Univ. 1885, First Assistant, Grammar School No. 49, 4 Van Nest PI. (Charles St.), New York. Mae E. Schreiber. Librarian, State Superintendent's Office, Department of Public Instruction, Albany. Jacob Gould Schurman, A.B., '77* A.M., '78, Univ. of London; D.Sc, '78, Univ. of Edinburg; LL.D., '92, Columbia Univ. 1892, President of Cornell University, Ithaca. Mary V. Squire. Assistant in School No 39, 19 Marigold Ave., Buffalo. Henry Morse Stephens, A.M., '92, Oxford. 1894, Professor of History, Cornell University, Ithaca. Edward Walmsley Stitt, M.Sc.,'87, Coll. of City of New York; Pd.M.,'97, Pd.D., '00, N. Y. Univ. 1896, Principal of Public School No. 89, 613 W. 179th St., New York. Ada Frances Thayer. 1893, Supervisor of Physical Training, Public Schools, Board of Ed. Rooms, Syracuse. Amelia Earle Trant, M.D., '94, Univ. of Buffalo. 1897, Principal of Boys' Department, Instructor of Psychology and Physiology, Masten Park High School, 1268 Main St., Buffalo. M. H. Walrath, A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Syracuse Univ. 1896, Principal of High School, Pawling Ave., Box 544, Troy. Etta Lansing Wentz. 1900, Physical Director, St. Agnes Academy of the Sacred Heart, 99 Eagle St., Albany. 984 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [New York 1896 O. I. Woodley, A.B., '01, Albion Coll. ; M.Pd., '01, St. Nor. Coll., Ypsilanti, Mich. 1901, Student, Columbia University, New York. 1897 Jessie H. Bancroft. 1893, Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, 80 Joralemon St., Brooklyn. C. L. Barstow, A.B., Union Coll. Manager of Educational Dept., Longmans, Green & Co., 93, 5th Ave., New York. Enoch Henry Currier, A.M., '92, Nat. Deaf-Mute Coll., Washington, D. C. 1893, Principal of New York Institute for Deaf and Dumb, Station M, New York. Editors' Library, American Book Co. Librarian, L. H. Peet, Washington Sq., New York. Anne J. Farley. 1896, Principal of Primary Dept., Grammar Sch. No. 82, 1334 Lexington Ave., New York. Henry W. Jameson, A.B., Yale. Associate Superintendent of Schools, 47 W. 119th St., New York. Edward Lord, A.M., '94, Dartmouth Coll. General Manager, Educational Department, Charles Scribner's Sons, 153, 5th Ave., New York. A. L. Peck. 1880, Librarian of Free Library, Gloversville. Gustave Straubenmuller, A.B. Associate Superintendent of Schools, Boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx, 403 W. 147th St., New York. John Henry Thiry. Introducer of the School Savings Bank System, 181 Academy St., Long Island City. Henry H. Vail, A.B., '60, LL.D, '97, Middlebury Coll. Publisher, 322 W. 75th St., New York. E. W. Weaver, B.E., St. Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa. 1901, Professor of Mathematics, Boys' High School, 582 H. Monroe St., New York. Zenas Freeman Westervelt, LL.D., '75, Rochester Univ. 1876, Superintendent of Western N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 945 N.St. Paul St., Rochester. 1898 Bryson Lirrary, Teachers College. Librarian, Miss E. G. Baldwin, Morningside Heights, 120th St., W., New York. Mary Hyde Carroll. Private Teacher, Church St., Kingsbridge. Susan F. Chase, A.B., Wis. Univ. ; A.M., Milton Coll. ; Ph.D., Teachers' Coll., Buffalo Univ. Teacher of Literature, State Normal School, '"The Porter," Porter Ave., Buffalo. W. E. Cochrane, Manager of Prang Educational Co., 5 W. 18th St., New York. I. O. Crissy. 1895, Inspector of Business Education, University of State of New York, 140 S. Swan St., Albany. Richard Elwood Dodge, A.B., '90, A.M., '94, Harvard Univ. 1896, Professor of Geography, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. George B. Germann, A.B., '95, Ph.D., '99, Columbia Univ. 1900, Registrar of Columbia Univ., 90 Normal Ave., Brooklyn. H. W. Gray. Publisher, 2r E. 17th St., New York. Charles L. Harrington, A.B., '70, A.M., '98, Amherst Coll. 1884, Head Master, Dr. J. Sachs' Collegiate Institute, 38 W. 59th St., New York. Edwin S.Harris, A.M., '89, Union Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Nelson House, Poughkeepsie. Charles C. Holden, Pd.M. 1893, First Assistant M.D., Public School No. 39, Manhattan; res., Mamaroneck. John F. Hughes. 1898, Chairman of Board of Commissioners of Common Schools, 35 Charlotte St., Utica. Eugene W. Lyttle, A.B., '78, A.M., '8i., Ph.D., '95, Hamilton Coll. 1897, Inspector of Schools, University of the State of New York, Regents' Office, Albany. Mrs. Louise Maitland, B.A., '98, Stanford Univ. Fiske Hall, Barnard College, New York. Arthur Marvin, A.B., '91, A.M., '96, Yale. 1897, Principal of Union Classical Institute, 6 Nott Terrace, Schenectady. Edward Beverly Nelson, A.B., '73, A.M. (honorary), '94, Harvard Univ. Principal, Central N. Y. Institution for Deaf-Mutes, 711 N. Madison St., Rome. Vinton S. Paessler. Principal of Barlow School of Industrial Arts, 23 Walnut St., Binghamton. C. R. Richards, B.Sc. 1898, Director, Manual Training Department, Teachers College, Columbia University, 230 W. 105th St.. New York. Mary S. Snow, Ph.M., '96, Univ. of Maine. 1901, Instructor in Normal Methods, and Supervisor of Practice Teaching, Department of Domestic Science, Pratt Ihstitute, Brooklyn. Syracuse Central Library. President, John J. Cummins; Librarian, Ezekiel W. Mundy, Syracuse. Edward Lee Thorndike, A.B., '95, Wes. Univ., '96, Harvard; A.M., '97, Harvard; Ph.D., '98, Columbia. 1901, Adjunct Professor of Genetic Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, 530 W. 123d St., New York. Vassar College Library. President, James M. Taylor; Librarian, Frances A. Wood, Poughkeepsie. Sherman Williams, Pd.D., '94, Albany Nor. Coll. 1898, Institute Instructor, State of New York, 10 Grove Ave., Glens Falls. Albertis A. Yates. Principal of Public Schools (Elementary), Borough of Richmond, 56 Cary Ave., West New Brighton. 1899 Danforth E. Ainsworth. 1895, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Albany, Darwin L. Bardwell, A.B., '83, A.M., '88, Amherst. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 41 Riverside Drive, Binghamton. New York] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 98 5 1899 Buffalo Public Library. Superintendent, H. L. Elmendorf ; Assistant Superintendent, W. L. Brown, Buffalo. Jesse D. Burks, Ph.B., '93, Univ. of Chicago; M.L., '94, Univ. of Cal. 1901, Graduate Student, Teachers Coll., Columbia University, 557 W. 124th St., New York. Harry D. Frisbee, A.B., '91, Columbia Univ. 1895, Teacher in City Schools, 1340 Fulton Ave., Borough of The Bronx, New York. Philip M. Hull, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Hamilton Coll., N. Y. 1899, Institute Conductor, Clinton. A. Leroy Jones, A.B., '95, Williams Coll. ; Ph.D., '98, Columbia Univ. 1901, Lecturer in Philosophy, Columbia University, 310 W. 113th St., New York. Grant Karr, Ph.D., Jena. Superintendent of Practice School, Oswego Normal School, 182 W. 3d St., Oswego. John Kennedy. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, Batavia. J. E. NeCollins, B.L., '92, Univ. of Wis. 1901, Head of Music Department, American Book Co., 100 Washington Sq., New York. New York Public Library. Director, John S. Billings, Astor Library Building, 40 Lafayette PL, New York. Charles E. Nichols. 1894, Superintendent of City Schools, 153 Stevens Ave., Mount Vernon. Edward A. Page, LL.B., '73, Columbia Univ. 1884, Principal, Public School No. 77, Borough of Manhattan, 400 E. 86th St., New York Juliet Pearson. i860, Principal of School No. 68, 319 Lenox Ave., New York. Port Jervis Free Library. Librarian, Elizabeth G. Thome, Port Jervis. William E. Pulsifer. Educational Publisher of D. C. Heath & Co., 93, 5th Ave., New York. Frances E. Ransom. Director of Drawing, New York Training School, 702 St. Nicholas Ave., New York. Edward B. Rawson, B.Sc, '81, Mass. Agri. Coll. 1897, Principal of Friends' Seminary, 226 E. 16th St., New York. J. F. Reigart, A.B., Dickinson Coll. Superintendent of Workingman's School, 109 W. 54th St., New York. M. Augusta Requa, M.D., '93, Women's Coll., N. Y. Infirmary; M.Pd., '96, N. Y. Univ. 1896, Supervisor of Physical Education, Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx. 55 W. 52d St., New York. School of Pedagogy, New York University. Chancellor, Henry M. MacCracken, Washington Sq., New York. Irving B. Smith, A.M., '73, Hillsdale Coll., Mich. 1899, Conductor of Teachers' Institutes, Department of Public Instruction, State of New York, Warsaw. State Normal School, New Paltz. Principal, Myron T. Scudder, New Paltz. Edward L. Stevens, A.B., '90, A.M., '93, Hamilton; Ph.D., '96, 111. Wes. Univ. 1898, Borough Superintendent of Schools, Borough of Queens, City of New York; res., Flushing. Ralph Stockman Tarr, B.Sc. '91, Harvard. 1896, Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography, Cornell University, 1 East Ave., Ithaca. Teachers College, Department of Manual Training. Director, C. R. Richards, New York. W. Scott Thomas, A.B., '8o, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1901, Graduate Student in Education, Columbia University, New York. J. A. Townsend, A.B., '94, Dartmouth Coll. With Charles Scribner's Sons, 153, 5th Ave., New York. Harlan Updegraff, A.M., '98, Columbia Univ. 1900, Assistant in Philosophy and Education, Columbia Univ., New York. *Edward G. Ward. 1898, Borough Superintendent of Schools, 276 Decatur St., Brooklyn. Fred Carleton White, A.B., '95, Alfred Univ. 1899, Principal of High School, Cornwall-on-Hudson. John F. Woodhull, A.B., '80, Yale; Ph.D., '99, Columbia. 1888, Professor of Physical Science, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. 1900 S. Dwight Arms, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Hamilton Coll. 1898, Inspector of Secondary Schools, University of State of New York, 146 Main St., Palmyra. Charles W. D. Coffin. 1899, Manager, New York Office, Williams & Rogers, Educational Publishers, 1125 Broadway, New York. James B. T. Demarest, M.Pd., '98, New York Univ. 1899, Principal of Public Evening School No. 16, 140 W. 20th St., New York. William Elkanah Doggett. 1885, Head Teacher and Assistant Principal, Commercial High School Brooklyn; res., 342 E. 12th St., Flatbush. E. A. Gruver, A.B., 02, A.M. '95, Gettysburg Coll. Principal, Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, 904 Lexington Ave., New York. George K. Hawkins, A.M., '94, Union Coll. 1898, Principal of State Normal and Training School, 79 Court St., Plattsburg. Wilfrid Lay, A.B., '93, Ph.D., '98, Columbia Univ. 1899, Assistant Teacher of Latin, Greek, and Mental Science, De Witt Clinton High School, 752 West End Ave., New York. William McAndrew, A.B., '86, Univ. of Mich. 1898, Principal of School No. 44, 72 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn. * Died September 13, 1901. 986 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [North Carolina NEW YORK— Continued 1900 Emma A. Newman. Teacher in First Grade, Teachers' Training School, 80 Bryant St., Buffalo. Oswego Normal and Training School. Principal, I. B. Poucher, Oswego. Elmek S. Redman, A.M., '94, Ph.D., '98, 111. Wesleyan Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Hornellsville. Jacques Wardlaw Redway, F.R.G.S. Educational Lecturer and Geographer, 39 E. 4th St., Mount Vernon. Charles A. Shaver. 1897, Institute Conductor, State of New York, 7 Paddock St., Watertown. State Normal School Library, Brockport. Principal, Charles T. McFarlane; Chairman of Library Committee, Charles D. Seely, Brockport. Albert Henry Wilcox, A.B., '90, A.M., '96, Univ. of Rochester. 1900, Principal of High School, Rochester. 1901 Frank Coe Barnes, A.M., '93, Williams Coll. 1889, Principal of Troy Academy, State and Seventh St., Troy. Franklin W. Barrows. A.B., '85, Amherst Coll. ; M.D., '93, Univ. of Buffalo. 1888, Instructor in Central High School, and, 1895, Instructor in Medical Department, University of Buffalo, 45 Park St., Buffalo. J. C. Benedict, Ph.B. 1896, Superintendent and Principal of Schools, 15 E. Main St., Le Roy. Frank David Boynton, A.B., '91, Middlebury Coll. ; A.M., '94, Hamilton Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, 114 S. Geneva St., Ithaca. Percy I. Bugbee, A.M., D.Sc., St. Lawrence Univ. 1898, Principal of State Normal School, 18 Walnut St., Oneonta. E. H. Castle, A.M., '94, Harvard Univ. 1896, Professor of History, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. George F. Cole. A.B., Syracuse Univ., N. Y. Representative, Werner Schoolbook Co., 78 Fifth Ave., New York. . College of St. Francis Xavier. President, Rev. David W. Hearn, 30 W. 16th St., New York. James M. Edsall. 1901, Associate Borough Superintendent of Schools, 1735, 84th St., Brooklyn. Charles Robert Gaston, Ph.B., '96, Cornell Univ. 1900, Instructor in English, Richmond Hill High School, Borough of Queens, 429, 3d St., Brooklyn. Kathryn I. Hewitt, Grad., St. Nor. Sch., Oswego, N. Y. Training Class Teacher in High School and Academy, " The Huntington," Box 1087, Kingston; res., New Haven. Laura Howe. 1898, Teacher in Government Indian Schools, New York Mills. G. A. Hubbell, B.S., '90, A.M., '91, Antioch Coll. 1899, Teacher of English, Erasmus Hall High School, 132 St. Felix St., Brooklyn. F. P. Keppel, A.B., '98, Columbia Univ. 1900, Assistant Secretary, Columbia University, New York. Theodore F. Lake. 1900, Teacher of Phonography, Commercial High School, 429 Classon Ave., Brooklyn. John Angus MacVannel, A.M., '94, Toronto Univ.; Ph.D., '98, Columbia Univ. 1898, Instructor in Columbia University, and, 1900, Instructor in Pratt and Brooklyn Institutes, 395 Ocean Ave., Brooklyn. Adeline Virginia McKean. 1895, Teacher in Male Grammar Department, 136 E. 94th St., New York. C. Geraldine O'Grady. 1900, Instructor in Kindergarten Department, Teachers College, Columbia University New York. James Russel Parsons, Jr., A.B., '81, A.M., '83, Trinity Univ. Secretary of the University of the State of New York, Capitol, Albany. Pratt Institute Freb Library. Librarian, Mary W. Plummer, Ryerson St., Brooklyn. Queens Borough Library. Librarian, Miss J. F. Hume, 101 East Ave., Long Island City. James P. Sherman. 1900, Teacher in Morris Industrial School, Sandy Hill. David Eugene Smith, Ph.B., '81, Ph.M., '83, Ph.D., "87, Syracuse Univ.; M.Pd., '98, Mich. Nor. Coll. y 1901, Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Thomas Whitney Surette. Staff Lecturer, University Extension Society, Philadelphia ; Lecturer, University of the State of New York, 40 W. 9th St., New York. R. A. Taylor. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, 710, 4th St., Niagara Falls. Margaret E. Tuger. Principal of South Side School, 221 S. Washington St., Herkimer. University of Rochester. President, Rush Rhees ; Librarian, Charles Hoeing, Rochester. Samuel Weir, A.B., Northwestern Univ.; B.D., Garrett Biblical Inst.; Ph.D., Univ. of Jena. 1895, Professor of History of Education and Ethics, New York University, 121 Waverly PI., New York. NORTH CAROLINA LIFE MEMBERS 1880 Emily M. Coe. 1900, Principal of Normal Training School and Kindergarten, Asheville. 1884 Robert Bingham, A.M., '60, LL.D., '90, Univ. of N. C. 1873, Superintendent of the Bingham School, Asheville. North Dakota j LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 987 NORTH CAROLINA— Continued ACTIVE MEMBERS 1895 John Jay Blair, B.Sc, A.B., '85, Haverford Coll., Pa. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington. 1896 Charles D. McIver, A.B., '81, D.L., '93, Univ. of N. C. President of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro. George Tayloe Winston, B.L., '74, Cornell ; A.M., Davidson Coll. ; LL.D., Trinity. 1896, President of North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh. 1898 Philander P. Claxton, A.M., '87, Univ. of Tenn. 1893, Professor of Pedagogy, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro. G. A. Grimsley, A.M., '99, Univ. of Nashville, Tenn. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 313 Forbis St., Greensboro. J. Y. Joyner, Ph.B., Univ. of N. C. Professor of English Literature, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro. The State Normal and Industrial College of North Carolina. President, Charles D. McIver, Greensboro. Hester C. Struthers. 1894, Teacher in Sixth Grade, Public Schools, 418 Market St., Wilmington. D. Matt Thompson, A.M. 1 891, Superintendent of Schools, Box 145, Statesville. Lydia A. Yates. 1898, Teacher in Private School, Princess St., Wilmington. 1899 Collier Cobb, A.B., '89, A.M., '94, Harvard: F.G.S.A., '94. 1892, Professor of Geology, University of Nonh Carolina, Chapel Hill. Scotia Seminary. President, Rev. D. J. Satterfield, Concord. University of North Carolina, Library. President, F. P. Venable; Librarian, Louis R. Wilson, Chapel Hill. 1900 Charles D. Cobb, A.M., Ph.B., '95, N. C. Coll. Principal, Jefferson Academy, McLeansville. Jennie Bentham Gray, Grad., '93, Peabody Nor. Coll. 1898, Principal of Grammar School, 114 Montford Ave., Asheville. Paul J. Long. 1897, County Superintendent of Schools, Jackson. T. Gilbert Pearson, B.Sc, '97, Guilford Coll., and '99, Univ. of N. C. 1899, Professor of Biology, State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro. Richard J. Tighe. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 175 Chestnut St., Asheville. W. T. Whitsktt, Ph.D. President, Whitsett Institute, Whitsett. 1901 Minnie Clayton Johnson. Principal of Bailey St. School, South French Broad St., Asheville. NORTH DAKOTA active members 1894 Walter L. StockwelLj B.Sc, '89, Univ. of Minn. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, Grafton. Mrs. Helen H. Stockwell, B.L., Univ. of Minn. Grafton. 1895 George A. McFarland, B.Sc, '83, M.Sc, '86, Hiram Coll. 1892, Principal of State Normal School, Valley City. Webster Merrifield, A.B., '77, A.M., '92, Yale. 1891, President of State University of North Dakota, University. Lura L. Perrine, A.B., '80, Albion Coll., Mich. 1892, Teacher of Natural Sciences, State Normal School, Valley City. 1896 Mrs. Alice W. Cooley. rooi, Assistant in Department of Pedagogy, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks. Educational Association of North Dakota. President, Miss Ella Stout, Fargo; Secretary, Superintendent George Martin, St. Thomas. Joseph Kennedy, B.Sc, '86. Univ. of Minn. 1893, Professor of Pedagogy, Logic, and Psychology, and Dean of Normal College, Univer- sity of North Dakota, 1100 University Ave.. Grand Forks. 1897 Anna L. Barnum. Primary Critic, State Normal School, Mayville. J. G. Halland, A.M., Luther Coll., la. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck. W. E. Hoover, M.Sc, '87, Ohio Nor. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Park River. 1898 H. W. McArdle, B.Sc, '87. Mich. Agri. Coll. Professor of Mathematics, Noith Dakota Agricultural College, Fargo. 1899 University of North Dakota. President, Webster Merrifield, Grand Forks. 1900 George W. Hanna, B.Didac, '94, M.Didac, '99, Highland Park Coll., Iowa. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Valley City. State Normal School, Mayville. President, Joseph Carhart, Mayville. 1901 W. E. Hicks. President of North Dakota Manual Training School, Ellendale. F. Everett Smith, A.B., '89, Dartmouth Coll. ; LL.B., '91, Union Coll. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 420, 8th Ave. S., Fargo. 988 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ohio OHIO LIFE DIRECTORS 1870 Emerson Elbridge White, A.M., '58,Western Reserve Coll. ; LL.D., '76, Ind. Univ. and Marietta Coll. Author and Lecturer, 387 E. Broad St., Columbus. 1887 Oscar T. Corson, A.M., '87. Editor "Ohio Educational Monthly" and Institute Lecturer, 57 E. Main St., Columbus. life members 1866 Ulysses Thompson Curran, A.B., '56, Miami Univ.; B.L., '72. Cin. Law Coll. Member Board of Examiners. City Teachers, 622 Columbus Ave., Sandusky. 1870 Mrs. Delia Lathrop Williams, Pd.D., '94, N. Y. State Nor. Univ. 1880, Assistant Professor of English, Ohio Wesleyan Univ., 62 S. Liberty St., Delaware. 1876 William Allen Bell, A.B., '60, A.M., '63, Antioch Coll. ; LL.D., '00, Union Christian Coll. 1899, President of Antioch College, Yellow Springs. 1880 J. J. Burns, A.M., Washington and Jefferson Coll. ; Ph.D., '76. Ohio State Univ. 1899, State Secretary of Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle, 628 Holgate Ave., Defiance. Charles C. Davidson, A.M., '87, Ohio Univ. 1891, Trustee of Ohio Univ., 59 W. Ely St., Alliance. Bettie A. Dutton. 1870, Principal of Kentucky Street School, 94 State St., Cleveland. Mrs. Reuben McMillan. 218 Spring St., Youngstown. John Bradley Peaslee, A.B., '63, A.M., '66, Dartmouth; LL.B., '66, Cincinnati Law Coll. ; Ph.D. '79, Ohio State Univ. 809 N. Crescent Ave., Cincinnati. Esther A. Widner. 1231 North Main St., Dayton. 1881 Daniel Fowler De Wolf, A.M., Miami Univ. ; Ph.D., Wooster Univ. Ex-State Commissioner of Public Schools, 202 W. 8th Ave., Columbus. 1882 James A. Robert, A.M., '67, Yale; Ph.D., '83, Denison Univ. Rushsylvania. 1883 E. W. Coy, A.M., '58, Brown Univ. ; Ph.D., '86, Princeton. 1873, Principal of Hughes High School, Cincinnati. 1884 C. W. Bennett, A.B., '66, A.M., '69, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. ; Ph.D., '89, Moore's Hill Coll., Ind. 1874, Superintendent of Schools, 218 W. Ash St., Piqua. 1894 Jacob Albright Shaw an, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Oberlin Coll. ; Ph.D. (honorary), '94, Muskingum Coll. 1889, Superintendent of City Schools, 1122 Bryden Road, Columbus. active members 1879 William Nicholas Hailmann, A.M., '64, Univ. of Louisville; Ph.D., '85, Ohio State Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Instruction, Steele High School, Dayton. 1884 Richard G. Boone, A.M., De Pauw Univ. ; Ph.D., Ohio Univ. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 2153 Grand St., Cincinnati. E.A. Jones, A.B., '65, A.M., '68, Amherst Coll. 1869, Superintendent of Schools, 138 E. Tremont St., Massillon. 1889 Edwin B. Cox, A.B., '74, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1881, Superintendent of Schools, 205 W. Church St., Xenia. Nathan L. Glover. 1872, Teacher of Music, Public Schools, 627 E. Mill St., Akron. Lewis Henry Jones. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 39 Hayward St., Cleveland. 1890 Lewis D. Bonebrake, A.M., Ph.D. 1898, Commissioner of Schools of Ohio, 1315 Forsythe Ave., Columbus. Mrs. Ada E. Laird. 1892, Principal of Waverly School, 840 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. Anna M. Osgood. 1893, Principal of Avondale School, 1348 Oak St., Columbus. J. P. Sharkey. 1898, Superintendent of Schools; 1893, Member of State Board of Examiners, Van Wert. Sophie Vance. 1229 East Ridge Road, Van Wert. William H. Vogel. 1899, Superintendent of Drawing, Public Schools, 1028 Linn St., Cincinnati, 1891 Arthur Owen Jones, B.Sc, '99, Univ. of Cincinnati. 1901, Art Master, Woodward High School. 2315 Highland Ave., Walnut Hills, Cincinnati. Ellen G. Reveley, Pd.D., '94, N. Y. State Nor. Coll. 1892, Supervisor of Public Schools, Rose Building, Cleveland. Charles William Super, A.B., '66, Dickinson Coll.; A.M., '82, Syracuse Univ.; Ph.D., '74, III. Wes. Univ. ; LL.D., '94, Dickinson Coll, 1879, Professor of Greek, Ohio University, no Union St., Athens. Frederick Treudley, A.B., '78, Univ. of Ind. 1886, Superintendent of Schools, 625 Elm St., Youngstown. 1892 Virgil G. Curtis, A.M., Tufts Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Polytechnic School, "The Monticello," Toledo. C. C. Miller, A.B., '83, Ohio State Univ. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 701 W. North St., Lima. N. Coe Stewart, F.C.M. 1867, Director of Music, Public Schools, 71 Jennings Ave., Cleveland. Matilda L. Walke. Teacher in Public Schools, 471 Riddle Road, Cincinnati. 1893 Charles Haupert, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, Heidelberg Univ. ; Ph.D., '00, Wooster Univ. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, and, 1894, Member of State Board of Examiners, 9 Col- lege Ave., Wooster. M. A. Kimmel. 1880, Superintendent of Schools, Poland. Ohio] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 989 1893 Mrs. Caroline Newhall Lathrop. 1901, Teacher of English, Woodward High School, " The Somerset," A vondale, Cincinnati. H. H. Raschig. 1874, Principal of 10th District School, 618 Prospect PI., Avondale, Cincinnati. S. D. Sanor, A.M., '98, LL.B., '99, Western Reserve Univ. 1900, Instructor in English, East High School, 150 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland. William Henrv Scott, A.M., '65, Ohio Univ. ; LL.D., '84, Ohio Univ. and Ohio Wes. Univ. 1883, Professor of Philosophy, Ohio State University, 131, 15th Ave., Columbus. Lucia Stickney, A.M., '95, Oberlin Coll. 1900, Teacher in East High School, 840 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. 1894 James Whitford Bashford, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Univ. of Wis.; S.T.B., '76, Ph.D., '81, Boston Univ.; D.D., '90, Northwestern Univ. 1889, President of Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware. J. Remsen Bishop, A.B., '82, Harvard. Principal of Walnut Hills High School, 117 Huntington PI., Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati. W. W. Boyd, A.B., '84, A.M., '86, Marietta Coll. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, and, 1897, Member of Ohio State Board of Examiners, Mentor Ave., Painesville. Emma C. Davis. 1893, Supervisor of Public Schools, Rose Building, Cleveland. Arnold J. Gantvoort. 1894, Lecturer on Musical History and ^Esthetics, College of Music, Cincinnati. Edward L. Harris, A.B., A.M., Ph.B. 1889, Principal of Central High School, 2211 Euclid Ave., Cleveland. Julia A. Harris. 1873, Teacher in Primary Grade, n, E. Ninth St., Cincinnati. Harriet L. Keeler, A.B., V°> A.M., '00, Oberlin Coll. 1878, Assistant, Central High School, 92 Olive St., Cleveland. Charles P. Lynch, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Ph.D., '97, Allegheny Coll. 1891, Teacher of Latin, Central High School. 146 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland. William O. Thompson, D.D., '91, Muskingum Coll. ; LLD., Western Univ. of Pa. 1899, President of Ohio State University, Columbus. George R. Twiss, B.Sc, '85, Ohio State Univ. 1894, Head Science Teacher, Central High School, 56 Mayfield Road, Cleveland. Anna J. Wright, A.B., '72, Oberlin Coll. 1879, Teacher, West High School, 94 State St., Cleveland. 1895 Charles E. Albright. 1899, Principal of Central High School, 449, 5th Ave., West, Columbus. C. G. Ballou, B.Sc, 0. Wes. Univ. Principal of High School, 2105 Warren St., Toledo. Charles S. Barrett, B.Sc, '85, Hopedale Coll.. O. 1900, Principal of South High School, 78 W. 9th Ave., Columbus. Mary Blakiston, Ph.B., '93, Ohio St. Univ. 1893, Headof Department of Languages, East High School, " The Normandie," Columbus. George Stockton Burroughs, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Ph.D., '84, D.D., '87, Princeton; LL.D., '95, Marietta Coll. 1899, Professor of Old Testament Languages and Literature, Oberlin College, 257 Elm St., Oberlin. Charles E. Carey, Ph.B., Wesleyan Univ. 1897, Superintendent of Public Schools, 306 Park Ave., Warren. William Wallace Chalmers, A.B., '87, Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., '89, Eureka Coll. ; B.Pd., '91, Mich. State Nor. Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Instruction, 331 Floyd St., Toledo. Stephen Trimble Dial, A.B., '80, A.M., '84. Ohio Wes. Univ. ; Ph.D., '94, Syracuse Univ., N. Y. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 116 Hillside Ave., Lockland. Clayton L. Dickey. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, Clinton, Sharon, and Perry Townships, N. Broadway, Clintonville. George A. Howard. With American Book Co., Cincinnati. Herbert T. Kincaid, A.B., '83, Dartmouth Coll. Classical Department, Steele High School, 39 W. McPherson St., Dayton. Anne H. King, B.L., '92, Univ. of Cincinnati. 1894, Teacher in Grammar Grade, Linwood School, 3675 Heekin Ave., Station C, Cin- cinnati. Julia C. Kolbe. 1893, Primary Teacher and Teacher of German in Norwood, 337 Milton St., Cincinnati. Annie Laws. President of Cincinnati Kindergarten Association, 818 Dayton St., Cincinnati. S. Hbrrick Layton, B.Sc, B.L., A.M., Ph.D. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Barnesville. William R. Lazenby, B.Agri., Cornell ; M.Agri., Iowa Agri. Coll. 1881, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Ohio State University, 348 W. 8th Ave., Columbus. Charles L. Loos, Jr., A.B., '69, A.M., '71, Bethany Coll., W. Va. 1900, Principal of High School, 132 Salem St., Dayton. S. H. Maharrv, A.M., '90, Muskingum Coll., New Concord, O. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, E. Jackson St., Millersburg, Holmes Co. S. K. Mardis, Ph.B.. Pd.B., '93, Ohio Univ., Athens. 1901, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy in Scio College, Scio. George C. Maurer, Ph.M., '90. Univ. of Wooster. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 409 W. Ray St., New Philadelphia. W. W. McIntire, Ph.B., Ph.M., Univ. of Wooster. 1900, Agent for American Book Co., 151 Beall Ave., Wooster. Henry N. Mertz, A.B., '70, A.M., '80, Bethany Coll. 1879, Superintendent of Public Schools, La Belle Ave., Steubenville. Miami University. President, David Stantqn Tappan; Librarian, Rev, Win. J. McSmely, Oxford. 99° NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ' [Ohio 1895 Carrie E. Moores. 1896, Teacher in College, College Hill, Hamilton Co. Henry M. Parker, A.B., '59, A.M., '65, Marietta Coll., O. 1874, County School Examiner, Elyria. Ed. H. Prichard. Principal of Third Imtermediate School, Baymiller St., Cincinnati. Robert Edgar Rayman, M.Sc, A.M. 1897, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 194 Avondale St., East Liverpool. William Sherman Robinson, B.Sc, '91, M.Sc, '93, Mt. Union Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, 327 Perry St., Fostoria. Horace A. Stokes, A.B., '87, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '96, Denison Univ. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 70 Lincoln Ave., Delaware. Margaret W. Sutherland. 1889, Principal of Normal School, 694 Neil Ave., Columbus. Charles F. Thwing, D.D., '88, Chicago Theol. Sem. ; LL.D., '94, 111. Coll. and Marietta Coll. 1890, President of Western Reserve University, 55 Bellflower Ave., Cleveland. 1896 J. J. Bliss, A.B., '81, A.M., '86, Oberlin Coll. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 512 Rensselaer St., Bucyrus. G. B. Bolenbaugh. 1901, Principal of Fourth District School, 56s Delta Ave., Cincinnati. Granville Webster Brumbaugh, M.E., '89, Juniata Coll., Pa. 1896, Principal of Seventh District School, 1601 W. 2d St., Dayton. Marie L. Bruot, B. Oratory. 1889, Teacher of Elocution and Oratory, Central High School, Cleveland. .Howard Champlin. * 1892, Superintendent of Writing in Public Schools, Lane Seminary Grounds, Station D, Cincinnati. Frank B. Dyer, A.B. 1901, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Station M, Cincinnati. August Frederic Foerste, A.M., Ph.D., '90, Harvard Univ. 1893, Teacher of Physics, Steele High School, 1017 Grand Ave., Dayton. Warren L. Fulton, B.Sc, '95, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1900, Superintendent of Public Schools, Alvordton. Alfred E. Gladding, A.M., '91, Bethany; Ph.D., '98, Mt. Hope. 1899, Professor of Mathematics and Dean of Mt. Hope College, 5 Eells St., Rogers. M. A. Henson. Superintendent of Schools, McArthur . J. W. Jones, B.Sc, N. Nor. Univ. ; B.P., O. Univ. Superintendent of the Ohio Institute for the Deaf, Columbus. Frederick Alwin King, A.M. Teacher of Latin and Greek, Hughes High School, no Huntington PI., Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati. Mrs. Frances W. Leiter. 1890, Superintendent of Physical Education Department of the National W. C. T. U., 200 W. Park Ave., Mansfield. Anna E. Logan. 1896, Teacher in Intermediate Grade, Westwood, Cincinnati. J. V. McMillan. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 108 N. 4th St., Canal Dover. George M. Plumer. Principal of Ward School, 623, 4th St., Marietta. Samuel Lee Rose. 1895, Superintendent of Public Schools, 219 N. 2d St., Hamilton. JohnH. Rowland, A.M. General Agent, American Book Co., 240 N. Main St., Delaware. Joseph H. Snyder, B.Sc, '74, Ohio Cent. Coll. ; A.M., Heidelberg Coll., O. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 324 Sandusky St., Tiffin. Harriet E. Terrel. 1890, Principal of South Case School, 419 Sibley St., Cleveland. Charles Liggett Van Cleve, A.B., A.M., O. Wes. Univ., Delaware. Superintendent of Public Schools, 323 S. Plum St., Troy. William M. White, A.B., McNeely Nor. Sch. 1868, Superintendent of Union Schools, Mt. Pleasant, "Jefferson Co. 1897 Ella Beistle. 1888, Principal of School, 10th District, 31 E. McOwen St., Dayton. Cleveland Public Library. Librarian, William H. Brett, Cleveland. Rose Morrison. 1894, Kindergartner and Assistant in City Normal School, 550 Sibley St., Cleveland. Ohio State University. President, William O. Thompson ; Librarian, Olive Jones, Columbus. Mabel L. Pray. 1893, Director of Physical Training, Public Schools, " The Monticello," Toledo. Rev. Sylvester F. Scovel, A.B., '53, A.M., '56, Hanover. 1883, Professor of Morals and Sociology, University of Wooster, Wooster. Edward M. Van Cleve, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1892, Superintendent of City Schools, 124 W. Main St., Greenville. Mary-Belle Westfall. 1882, Principal of School, nth District, 219 N. Main St., Dayton. T. Howard Winters, A.B., '96, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1901, Principal of Kingsbury High School, Ironton. 1898 James M. Carr, B.Sc., '01, Muskingum Coll. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, Frazeysburg. H. D. Grindle, A.B., '91, Ohio Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '98, Defiance Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, Columbus Grove. Myra Hamilton Hanson, Mt. Holyoke Coll. "8, Instructor of Latin in Central High School, " The Perry," Toledo. L. J. House. 3, Superintendent of Perkins Public Schools, Lock Box 96, Sandusky, Ohio] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 991 1898 J. Ross Huffman. 1901, Superintendent of Public Schools, Gibsonburg. Jesse S. Johnson, Ph.B., '92, De Pauw Univ., Greencastle, Ind. 1000, Superintendent of Schools, 57 Lincoln Ave., Salem. Edmund D. Lyon, A.B., Ohio Wes. Univ. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 181 W. 1st St., Mansfield. Gillespie K. Lyons. Agent for American Book Co., 2130 Lawrence Ave., Toledo. Harvey V. Merrick, A.B., '8o, A.M., '83, Mt. Union Coll. 1900, Superintendent of The Boys' Industrial School, Lancaster. Normal School, Dayton. Principal, Grace A. Greene, Dayton. James E. Randall. 1892, Superintendent of Schools, Camden. W. C. Reeder. 1893, Teacher of English and History, Steele High School, 1253 W. 1st St., Dayton. William E. Roberts. Supervisor of Manual Training in Public Schools, 371 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. F. J. Roller, A.M., '83, Mt. Union Coll. 1888, Superintendent of Public Schools, 34 Main St., Niles. John M. Sarver, A.M., Ohio Nor. Univ. 1894, Principal of High School, 3136 W. Tuscarawas St., Canton. Leander William Sheppard. 1898, Teacher in High School, 79 E. nth Ave., Columbus. J. F. Smith, A.B.. '85, A.M., '90, Kenyon Coll. 1888, Principal of High School, 130 Hancock St., Findlay. Ralph Richard Upton, A.B., Yale; LL.B.. LL.M., Columbian. 1898, Principal of High School, " Clinton Flats," Chillicothe. . Mary Walter. Primary Teacher, Public Schools, Pomeroy. Miss M. A. Woodmansee 1899, Director of Drawing, City Schools, Hotel Phillips, Dayton. O. A. Wright. 1901, Graduate Student, Western Reserve University, 45 Knox St., Cleveland. 1899 Howard Ayers, B.Sc, '83, Harvard; Ph.D., '86, Freiburg, Germany; LL.D., '99, Mo. State Univ. 1899, President of University of Cincinnati, 3240 Burnet Ave., Avondale, Cincinnati. William I. Crane, A.B., '00, Ohio Univ., Athens. Head of English Department, Steele High School, 1206 W. 5th St., Dayton. C. L. Cronebaugh, B.Sc, '87, Nat. Nor. Univ., Ohio. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 944 Wheeling Ave., Cambridge. Harrison L. Frank, A.M., '79, Otterbein Univ., Ohio. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 328 N. State St., Marion. John A. Heizer, B.Sc. 1893, Assistant Principal in 19th District School, Norwood, Cincinnati. Robert W. Himes. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Covington. W. D. Lash, A.M., '74, Ohio Univ. 1878, Superintendent of Schools, Zanesville. J. J. Maas. Principal, ad District Schools. Sycamore, near 4th St., Cincinnati. T. B. PlNKERTON. Superintendent of Township High School, Monclova. E. A. F. Porter. Representative of American Book Co., 317 Walnut St., Cincinnati. Christian F. Rapp. Principal of District School No. 29, 950 Elberon Ave., Cincinnati. Frank M. Shelton, B.Sc, '99, Mt. Union Coll. 1900, Teacher of Mathematics, High School, 316 Perry St., Fostoria. F. P. Shumaker, M.Sc, '86, Mt. Union Coll. 1888, Superintendent of Schools, Chagrin Falls. Wilbur S. Strickland, B.Sc, '87, Nat. Nor. Univ. 1901, Principal of 8th District School, Hudson Ave., Norwood Station, Cincinnati. John W. Swartz, A.B., '96, Ohio Wesleyan Univ. Superintendent of Schools, Tippecanoe City. David Stanton Tappan, A.B., '64, Miami Univ.; A.M., '78, Wooster Univ.; D.D., '87, Lenox Coll. ; LL.D., '99, Wooster Univ. 1899, President of Miami University, Oxford. Fannie E. Thomson, Ph.B., '05, Oberlin Coll. 1887, Principal of High School, Medina. John S. Weaver, A.B., '67, A.M., '70, Wittenberg Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, t66 Stanton Ave., Springfield. The Western. President, Leila S. McKee; Librarian, Miss C. D. White, Oxford. 1900 A. D. Beechy, A.B., '80, Mt. Union Coll. ; Ph.D., Wooster Univ. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, 60 S. Linwood St., Norwalk. La Fayette Bloom. Principal of 27th District School, 949 Clinton St., Cincinnati. G. W. Burns, A.B., Bethany Coll., W. Va. ; A.M., Farmers' Coll. 1879, Principal, District School No. 18, Laurel Ave., College Hill, Sta. X, Cincinnati. N. H. Chaney, A.B., '80, A.M., '84, Wilmington Coll. ; A.M., '92, Ph.D., '93, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 210 Caldwell Ave., Chillicothe. J. A. Culler, A.B., '84, Wooster Univ. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Bowling Green. J. P. Cummins. Principal of 22d District School, Clifton, Cincinnati. Denison University, Library. Librarian, H. H. Tuttle, Granville. Nettie Fillmore. 1879, Teacher in Woodward High School, 611 Richmond St., Cincinnati. 992 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Ohio 1900 F. P. Gkiger, A.B., '94, Mt. Union Coll. 1897, Principal of High School. Canal Dover. Albert B. Graham. Superintendent of Township Schools, 77 Rice St., Springfield. I. C. Guinther, B.Sc, '90. A.M. ,'00, N. W. O. U. Superintendent of Public Schools, 323 W. Main St., Galion. J. M. Hamilton, A.B., '93, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, Ohio. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, Lebanon. Assistant Principal of School No. 30, Westwood, Cincinnati. H. V. Hotchkiss, Ph.D., Allegheny Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 562 E. Buchtel Ave., Akron. Superintendent of Covedale School, Station F, Cincinnati, S. P. Humphrey, B.Sc, '95, Rio Grande Coll., Ohio. 1897, Superintendent of Public Schools, 222 Park Ave., Ironton. Norman Edward Hutchinson. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Bryan. A. B. Johnson, A.M., '56, Oberlin Coll. 1854, Superintendent of Avondale Schools, 524 Forest Ave., Sta. I, Avondale, Cincinnati. Lura B. Kean, Ph.B., '89, Univ. of Wooster. 1897, Principal of High School, 153 N. Buckeye St., Wooster. Lee R. Knight. 1889, Principal of Kent School, 210 Kent St., Akron. A. N. Krieg, B.Sc, A.M. 1900, Superintendent of Arcadia and Washington Township Schools, Arcadia. Charles A. Krout, A.B., '87, A.M., '90, Wittenberg Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 212 Sycamore St., Tiffin. Claudius T. McCoy. Representative of American Book Co., 317 E. MulberryJSt., Lancaster. Herbert. R. McVay, Ph.B., '90, Ohio Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, Washington C. H. William H. Meck, A.B., '94, Ohio Wes. Univ.; A.M., '98, Miami Univ. 1895, Teacher of History and Civics, Steele High School, 146 W. 4th St., Dayton. R. W. Mitchell. Superintendent of Public Schools, 701 Wayne St., Defiance. John Evans Morris, B.Sc, '84, M.Sc, '87, Mount Union Coll. 1892, Superintendent of Public Schools, 208 E. Oxford St., Alliance. Superintendent of Randolph Township Schools, Englewood. Alfred Tyler Perry, A.B., '89, A.M., '91, Williams Coll. 1900, President of Marietta College, 210, 5th St., Marietta. Arthur Powell, A.B., '80, A.M., '85, Oberlin Coll. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, 421 N. 7th St., Steubenville. Edward D. Roberts, A.B., '99, Univ. of Cincinnati. 1901, First English Assistant, Whittier School, 1620 Dudley St., Cincinnati. Ella A. Rothe. Teacher in Third Intermediate School, 2351 W. McMicken Ave., Cincinnati. Albert Hugh Sherer, A.B., '99, Ind. Univ. 1901. Superintendent of Public Schools, Oxford. William McKay Vance, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1891, Superintendent of Public Schools, Miamisburg. O. Perry Voorhes, B.Sc 1900, Principal of Riverside School, Cincinnati. William Campbell Warfield. With D. C. Heath & Co., 52 Perrin Building, Cincinnati. Arthur H. Wicks, A.B., '95, Baldwin Univ., Berea, Ohio. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 708 Cherry St., Clyde. E. W. Wilkinson. 1900, Principal of First Intermediate School, 3661 Russell Ave., Cincinnati. H. B. Williams, A.B., '91, A.M., '94, O. N. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 129 Central Ave., Sandusky. 1901 Walter H. Aiken. Superintendent of Music, Public Schools, Station K, Cincinnati. F. E. Assenheimer, A.B., '95, Capitol Univ., Ohio. 1898, Assistant Principal of High School, 817 S. Walnut St., Bucyrus. J. K. Baxter, A.M., '93, Hiram Coll. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 107 W. HamtramckSt., Mt. Vernon. Thomas H. Bell. Director of Schools, 176 Cleveland St., Cleveland. Alice L. Betts. 1898, Walnut Hills High School, 1762 E. McMillan St., Cincinnati. W. H. Block, B.Sc, Pd.B. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Huron. T. W. Bookmyer, B.Sc, '80, Nat. Nor. Univ., Lebanon, Ohio. Principal of Business College, 432 Jackson St., Sandusky. C. J. Brooks. 1897, First Assistant of Sixteenth District School, 1530 Westminster Ave., Cincinnati. R. A. Brown, A.B., '95, Marietta Coll., Ohio. Superintendent of Schools, Cedarville- Forrest Baker Bryant, A.B., '99, Otterbein Univ., Ohio. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Shiloh. Edward P. Childs, B.Sc, '94, Denison Univ., Ohio. 1901, Principal of High School, Hazelwood Ave., Newark. Thomas C Coates. Principal of High School, Lancaster. Helen Hutchinson Cowing, B.C., "92, Coll. for Women, Western Reserve Univ., Ohio. 1885, Teacher in Public Schools, 665 Prospect St., Cleveland. F. E. Crane. Principal of Columbian School, Florence Building, Station E, Cincinnati, Ohio] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 993 OHIO— Continued 1901 Warren Darst, A.B., '74. A.M., '83, Nat. Nor. Univ., Ohio. Institute Instructor and Lecturer, Ada. E. P. Dean, A.M. ,'79. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, Ashland. Frederick William Dearness. 1901, Principal of 12th District School, 2634 Harrison Ave., Cincinnati. Samuel C. Derby, A.B., '66, A.M., '77, Harvard Univ. 1881, Professor of Latin, Ohio State University, 93, 15th Ave., Columbus. Charles F. Dutton, Jr., A.B., '93, Oberlin Coll. 1894, Teacher of Science, West High School, 626 Franklin Ave., Cleveland. Frank R. Ellis. With American Book Co., 317 Walnut St., Cincinnati. C. M. Erkenberky. Superintendent of Monroe Township Schools, Manchester. Elizabeth G. Evans, A.B., '97, Wellesley Coll. 1897, Instructor in English, Steele High School, 570 W. 2d St., Dayton. Charles S. Fay. Superintendent of Schools, Reiley Ave., Wyoming. J. R. Fortney. _ . , ■ , _, Kepresenting American Book Co., 317 Walnut St., Cincinnati. J. M. H. Frederick, A.B., '86, Amherst Coll. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 62 Elmwood Ave., Lake wood. Tanetta Gilliland, A.B., '95, A.M., '98, Lake Forest Univ. 1901, Assistant in High School, Wellsville. Wells R. Griswold, Ph.B., '94, Oberlin Coll. 1894, Superintendent of Schools, 310 Mars Ave,, Collinwood. B. B. Harlan, B.Sc, '76. 1894, Teacher of Mathematics, Hign School, 39 Babbitt St., Dayton. Henry Harrison Helter, A.B., '91, O. Wes. Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, W. Anglaize St., Wapakoneta. Ashley J. Huffman, A.B., Wooster Univ., Ohio. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Attica. Anna P. Johnson. Teacher in Fifth Grade, Public Schools, Toledo; res., Perrysburg. J. E. Kinnison, A.M. 1881, Superintendent of Schools, Jackson. W. H. Kirk, A.B., '87, A.M., '90. Baldwin Univ., Berea, Ohio. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, 28 Grassmere St., East Cleveland. Joseph Krug. 1872, _,eacher of German, ".Centra! High and Normal School, 51, 4th Ave., Cleveland. Principal of Normal School, Box 1311, New Philadelphia. Henry S. Lehr, A.M., '74, Mt. Union Coll. ; Ph.D., Wooster Univ., Ohio. 1871, President of Ohio Normal University, 71 Gilbert St., Ada. O. W. Martin, A.M., Ohio Wes. Univ. Teacher of Chemistry, Hughes High School, Cincinnati. William McClain, Jr., A.B., '93, A.M., '95, Ohio Wes. Univ. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, London. J. E. McGilvrey, A.B., '95, Ind. Univ. 1898, Principal, Cleveland Normal School, Marion and Sked Sts., Cleveland. J. E. McKean, A.M. 1900, Superintendent of Schools, 87 S. Main St., Middletown. H. C. Muckley. 1901, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 148 Hawthorne Ave., Cleveland. J. C. Oldt, A.B., '90. A.M., '93. 1890, Superintendent of Public Schools, Put in Bay. John William Perrin, A.M., '89, Wabash Coll. ; Ph.D., '95, Univ. of Chicago. 1899, Professor of History, Western Reserve University, Cleveland. Thomas P. Pierce. Superintendent of Schools, Harrison. Jennie Warren Prentiss. 1896, Director of Laurel Institute, 2165 Euclid Ave., Cleveland. Elmer E. Rayman, A.M., Baldwin Univ., Ohio. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Front St., Berea. Ada Marcy Ritchie. 1880, First Assistant in High School, 2138 Robinwood Ave., Toledo. nstructor of Mathematics, Hughes High School, 2918 Montana Ave., Cincinnati. Harry L. Senger, A.B., '98, Univ, of Cincinnati. First Assistant in 19th District School, 116 E. Macmillan St., Cincinnati. John B. Shotwell. Editor and Proprietor " School Life," 502 Main St., Cincinnati. J. D. Simkins. 1889, Superintendent of Schools, 216 Perry St., St. Marys. C. E. Stevens. 1900, Teacher in Commercial Dept., So. High School, 54 Fernwood Ave., E. Cleveland. J. L. Trisler, Ph.D., Heidelberg Univ., Tiffin, Ohio. Superintendent of Schools, Hartwell. Lucy B. Tucker. 1901, Teacher in 8th Grade, Ohio Avenue School, 181, 10th Ave., Columbus. F. D. Ward, M.Sc, N. W.Ohio Nor. Univ. 1890, Superintendent of Public Schools, 83 Myrtle St., Lorain. G. A. Wyly. 1901, Principal of High School, New Philadelphia. John A. Wright. Superintendent of Schools and " School Examiner," Henry County, Liberty Center, J. W. Zeller, Ph.M., Mt. Union Coll., Ohio. 1877, Superintendent of Public Schools, 311 E. Lincoln St., Findlay. 994 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Pennsylvania OKLAHOMA life member 1886 G.I.Harvey. 1901, Superintendent of Pawnee Training School, and Special United States Disbursing Agent, Pawnee. ACTIVE MEMBERS 189a David R. Boyd, A.B., '78, A.M., '81, Univ. of Wooster; Ph.D., '00. 1892, President of University of Oklahoma, Norman. 1895 H. Edgar Thompson, B.Sc, '88, So. Nor. Sch., Bowling Green, Ky. Ralston. 1898 L. W. Cole, B.Pd., '93, S. W. Kan. Coll. J A.B., '99, Univ. of Okla. 1900, Principal of Preparatory Department, University of Oklahoma, Norman, S. N. Hopkins. Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruction and ex-officio Auditor, 411 N. Broad St., Guthrie. Edmund D. Murdaugh. President of Territorial Normal School of Oklahoma, Edmond. 1899 The University of Oklahoma. President, David R. Boyd ; Librarian, Jay Ferguson, Norman. 1900 Elmira R. Greason. 1892, Principal Teacher, Indian School, Kaw Agency. 1901 Mrs. Adaline Evans. Teacher of Sewing, Indian School, Chilocco. J. H. Vosburgh. Oklahoma City. OREGON LIFE DIRECTOR 1888 Charles Carroll Stratton, A.M., Willamette Univ., Ore ; D.D., '79, Northwestern Univ., 111., and, '80, Ohio Wes. Univ. Ex- President of Portland University, University Park, Portland. life member 1884 *Henry M. James, A.B., '61. A.M., '64, Williams Coll. 370, 14th St., Portland. ACTIVE MEMBERS 189* Edwin DeVore Ressler, A.B., '91, Otterbein Univ. ; A.M., '97, Ohio State Univ. 1901, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene. 1895 J. H. Ackerman. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem. 1897 Charles Friedel, Ph.D., '95, Leipzig. Professor of Physics in University of Oregon, Eugene. 1898 Frank Rigler. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 533 Yamhill St., Portland. 1899 J. A. Beattie, A.M., '76, Bethany Coll.; LL.D. 1900, President of Eastern Oregon State Normal School, Weston. Miss H. D. Cannon. Primary Teacher, St. Helen's Hall, Portland. J. S. Landers, B.Sc, '87, Nor. Ind. Nor. Sch. 1899, Superintendent of Public Schools, The Dalles. Tualatin Academy and Pacific University. Dean, W. N. Ferrin; Librarian, Joseph W. Marsh, Forest Grove. 1901 State Normal School, Monmouth. President, P. L. Campbell; Librarian, J. B. V. Butler, Monmouth. PENNSYLVANIA life directors 1879 Teachers' Institute of the City of Philadelphia. President, Andrew J. Macfarlane ; Secretary, Mary A. Wallace, 913 S. 16th St., Philadelphia. 1891 Eliphalet Oram Lyte, M.Sc, Millersville; A.M., Ph.D., Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1887, Principal of First Pennsylvania State Normal School, Millersville. LIFE MEMBERS 1876 Edward Brooks, A.M., '58, Union Coll. ; Ph.D., '76, Lafayette Coll., and Wash, and Jeff. Coll. 1891, Superintendent of Public Schools, 5971 Drexel Road, Philadelphia. 1879 Rachel Foster Avery. Somerton, Philadelphia. Simon Gratz, A.M., Univ. of Pa. Ex- President of Board of Education, 1919 Spruce St., Philadelphia. Edward Shippen. Ex-President of Board of Education, 1207 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 1880 Edgar Arthur Singer, Ph.D., '96, Univ. of Pa. 1887, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 4662 Penn St., Station F, Philadelphia. 1884 Robert Curry, A.B., '48, A.M., '51, Jefferson Coll. ; Ph.D., '73, Wash, and Jeff. Coll. 2420 Perrysville Ave., Allegheny. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1879 George Morris Philips, A.M., '74, Ph.D., '84. Bucknell Univ. 1881, Principal of State Normal School, West Chester. , ♦Deceased. Pennsylvania] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 995 1881 Andrew J. Morrison, A.M., Ph.D., '01. 1898, Principal of Northeast Manual Training School, 1430 N. 7th St., Philadelphia. 1884 George H. Stout. 1888, Supervising Principal of Newton Boys' Combined School, 3746 Powelton Ave., Philadelphia. 1887 E. Mackev, A.B., '78, Mercersburg Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Public Schools, 1244 Perkiomen Ave., Reading. Nathan C. Schaeffer. LL.D., '95, Western Univ. of Pa. 1893, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg; home address, 546 W.James St., Lancaster. 1893 Eliza A. Bishop. Teacher, 211 Pine St., Harrisburg. R. K. Buehrle, A.M., '78, Ph.D., '87, Franklin and Marshall Coll., Lancaster, Pa. 1880, Superintendent of Schools, 408 Manor St., Lancaster. W. Wilberforce Deatrick, A.B., '76, A.M., '79, Mercersburg Coll. 1891, Professor of Psychology and Higher English, Keystone State Normal School, Kutztown. H. W. Fisher, Grad., State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa. 1875, Supervisor of 17th Ward Schools, 350 Lehigh Ave., E. E., Pittsburgh. Joseph K. Gotwals.A.M. 1872, Superintendent of Schools, 19 E. Chestnut St., Norristown. Mary J. Lambekton. 1891, Supervising Principal of George W. Childs School, 4403 Osage Ave., West Phila- delphia. Enoch C. Lavers, A.M., Pd.D., Ph.D. 1894, Teacher of Mathematics and Pedagogy, Public and High Schools, 324 Cattell St., Easton. Herman T. Lukens, A.M., '88, Univ. of Pa. ; Ph.D., '91, Jena. 1898, Head Training Teacher of State Normal School, California. John A. M. Passmore, M.Sc, '60, State Nor. Sch., Millersville, Pa. ; Ph.D., '00, Richmond Coll., O. 1890, Philadelphia Manager for American Book Co., 318 S. 42d St., Philadelphia. S. C. Schmucker, A.M., '85, M.Sc, '90, Muhlenberg Coll., Pa. ; Ph.D., '93, Univ. of Pa. 1895, Professor of Biological Sciences, State Normal School, 610 S. High St., West Chester H. H. Spayd. 1883, Principal of Public Schools, Box 310, Minersville. J. Liberty Tadd. 1884, Director of Industrial Art School, 319 N. 32d St., Philadelphia. 1893 C. A. Babcock, A.M., '77, LL.B., '83, Hamilton Coll. 1883, Superintendent of Schools, no Bissell St., Oil City. James A. Dewey, M.E., '84, State Nor. Sch., Mansfield, Pa. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, Newport Township, Wanamie. Loyal Freeman Hall, M.E.D., '91, State Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa. 1893, Principal of Centre Ave. Schools, 364 Centre Ave., Butler. William Henry Samuel, Ph.D., '92, Univ. of Pa. 1878, Supervising Principal of Public Schools, 2505 N. 12th St., Philadelphia. Andrew Thomas Smith, Pd.D., '93, School of Pedagogy, Univ. of N. Y. 1899, Principal of State Normal School, Mansfield. Pauline W. Spencer. 1893, Teacher of Literature, Girls' Normal School, 3421 Race St., Philadelphia. 1894 Franklin B. Sawvel, A.M., Hopedale Coll. ; Ph.D., '86, Wittenberg Coll. 1890, Professor of English Literature and Philosophy. Thiel Coll., 109 Shenango St., Greenville. Henry T. Spangler, A.B., '73, A.M.. '76, Ursinus Coll.; D.D., '94, Heidelberg Univ., O. 1893, President, Ursinus College, Collegeville. Charles K. Witmer, A.B., '88, A.M., '91, Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1901, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; res., Main St., Palmyra. 1895 W. G. Gans. 1898, Principal of Union High School, Turtle Creek. James Mac Alister, A.M., LL.D., Brown Univ. ; LL.B., Univ. of N. Y. ; Officier d'Academie, Paris. 1891. President of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. Rt. Rev. J. W. Shanahan, D.D. Bishop of Harrisburg, Harrisburg. Sydney T. Skidmore. A.M., '71, Amherst Coll. ; D.Sc, '01, Franklin and Marshall Coll. 1893, Director of Science Laboratories, Philadelphia Normal School, 1706 N. 18th St., Philadelphia. H. M. Trask. Manager for Silver, Burdett & Co., 1328 Arch St., Philadelphia. 1896 J. George Becht, M.Sc, Lafayette Coll. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, Lycoming County, Muncy. R. M. Cargo. 1868, Principal of Mt. Washington School, 212 Virginia'Ave., Pittsburgh. Watson Cornell. Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Pa. Supervising Principal of Logan Grammar School, 1725 N. 16th St., Philadelphia. Lemuel O. Foose. A.M., '78, Penn Coll., Gettysburg. 1879, Superintendent of City Schools, 121 Chestnut St., Harrisburg. John Arthur Gibson, A.B., '91, Allegheny Coll. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 701 N. Washington St., Butler. George Howell. Superintendent of Schools, 175 Bromley Ave., Scranton. William Leroy MacGowan, A.B., Allegheny Coll. ; Ph.B. and Ph.M. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 9, 5th St., Warren. C. B. McCabe. Principal of North Braddock Schools, Bell Ave. School, Braddock. Theodore B. Noss, A.M., '82, Ph.D., '83, Syracuse Univ. 1883, Principal of State Normal School, California. W. Riddle. Educational Author, 1314 N. Line St., Lancaster. 996 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Pennsylvania 1896 Judson Perry Welsh, A.M., '84. Ph.D., '93, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa. 1890. Principal of State Normal School, Bloomsburg. Margaret Catharine Zillafro, M.E.D.,'89, St. Nor. Sch., Edinboro, Pa. 1901, First Primary Teacher, Box 336, Ardmore. 1897 Francis Burke Brandt, A. B., '9*, Harvard; Ph.D., '95, Columbia. 1896, Professor of Pedagogy, Central High School, 1637 S. 15th St., Philadelphia. Clyde Ernest Ehinger, M.D.,'8o, Chicago Horn. Med. Coll. 1890, Physical Director and Instructor in Hygiene, State Normal School, 15 Normal Ave., West Chester. The Free Library of Philadelphia. Librarian, John Thomson, 1217-1221 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. Mary S. Garrett. 1893, Principal of Home for the Training in Speech of Deaf Children before they are of School Age, Belmont and Monument Aves., Philadelphia. M. A. Grove. 1897, Principal, Department of Commerce, High School, 918 N. 6th St., Harrisburg. Henry Houck. Deputy State Superintendent, Harrisburg. Eli M. Rapp. 1896, Superintendent of Berks County Schools, 115 N. 4th St., Hamburg. First Pennsylvania State Normal School, Millersville. Principal, E. Oram Lyte, Millersville. State Normal School Library, Mansfield. Principal, Andrew Thomas Smith, Mansfield. 1898 David Hendricks Bergey, B.Sc, '84, M.D., '84, Univ. of Pa. ; A.M., '94, 111. Wes. Univ. 1895, First Assistant, Laboratory of Hygiene, University of Pennsylvania,34th and Locust Sts., Philadelphia. A. J. Davis, M.E., Edinboro; M.Sc. Lebanon; A.M., Bucknell Univ.; LL.D., Monongahela. 1887, Principal, State Normal School, Clarion. Franklin Spencer Edmonds, Ph.B., '93, Univ. of Pa. ; A.M., '95, Cent. High Sch. 1897, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Central High School, 1753 N. 33d St. Philadelphia. Maurice Fels, A.B., '83, Johns Hopkins Univ. ; LL.B., '85, Univ. of Pa. 4615 Springfield Ave., Philadelphia. J. R. Flickinger, A.B., '77, A.M., '80 Princeton; D.Sc, '00, Bucknell Coll. 1900, Principal of Cential State Normal School, Lock Haven. H. W. Golden, B.Didac, '90, M.Didac, '92, Edinboro St. Nor. 1897, Principal of 5th Ward Public Schools, Allegheny City ; 8 Dawson Ave., Bellevue. Samuel Hamilton, A.M., Ph.D., '00, Grove City Coll. 1887, Superintendent of County Schools, Braddock. Keystone Literary Society of the Keystone State Normal School. Kutztown. John W. Lansinger, M.Sc, '86, St. Nor. Sch., Millersville. Teacher and Treasurer, State Normal School, Millersville William A. Mason. 1892, Director of Drawing in Schools of Philadelphia, 212 W. Chelton Ave., Germantown. Jesse H. Michener, Ph.D., Univ. of Pa. Principal of Grammar School, 4512 Regent St., Philadelphia. Rev. Eugene Murphy. Director of St. John the Baptist Parochial School, 146 Rector St., Manayunk, Philadelphia. William Noetling, A.M., '59, Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y. Selimsgrove. Mary Craig Peacock. 1894, Teacher in Normal School, Torresdale, Philadelphia. Philomathean Literary Society, Keystone State Normal School. Kutztown. Richard H. Pratt, Lt.-Col. 15th Cavalry, U. S. A. ; LL.D., '98, Dickinson Coll. 1879, Superintendent of United States Indian Industrial School, Carlisle. Margaret S. Prichard. Head of Department of Psychology, Philadelphia Normal School, Philadelphia. Elizabeth S. Tait. Teacher in Philadelphia Normal School, 4103 Girard Ave., Philadelphia. University of Pennsylvania, Library. Provost, Charles C. Harrison; Librarian, Morris Jastrow, Jr., Philadelphia. Edward Weldon. 1898, Member of Board of Education, 117 Church St., Bethlehem. Lightner Witmer, Ph.D., '91, Leipzig, Germany. 1893, Professor of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 1899 Edward E. Allen, A.B., '84, Harvard. 1890, Principal of Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Overbrook. Altoona Mechanics' Library and Reading Room Association. Chairman Library Committee, Charles B. Dudley ; Librarian, Lizzie L. Snyder, Altoona. J. P. Archibald, B.E., '93, M.E., '95, St. Nor. Sch., Indiana, Pa.; A.M., '99, M.Sc, 'oo, Mt. Hope Coll. 1809, Superintendent of Schools, Walnut St., Blairsville. Bryn Mawr College. President, Miss M. Carey Thomas; Librarian, Miss Isabel Ely Lord, Bryn Mawr. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Librarian, Edwin H. Anderson, Schenley Park, Pitsburgh. Dickinson College. President, George Edward Reed, Carlisle. George D. Gideon. Publisher, 17 N. 7th St., Philadelphia. Indiana Normal School of Pennsylvania. Principal, D.J. Waller, Jr.; Librarian, Jerome C. Fetzer, Indiana. Lehigh University. President, Thomas M. Drawn; Librarian, W. H. Chandler, South Bethlehem- Rhode Island] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 997 PENNSYLVANIA— Continued 1899 Benjamin Wiestling Mitchell, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Princeton; Ph.D., '88, Washington-Jefferson. 1897, Professor of Latin and Head of Department of Ancient and Modern Languages, Central High School; res., 4326 Pine St., Philadelphia. Henry Carr Pearson. A.B., '92, Harvard. 1898, Principal of the Allegheny Preparatory School, Lincoln and Grant Aves., Allegheny. James H. Penniman, A.B., '84, Yale. 1886, De Lancey School, 4326 Sansom St., Philadelphia. Scranton Public Library Librarian, Henry J. Carr, Scranton. Joseph R. Smith, M.D., '53, Univ. of Buffalo; A.M., '51, LL.D., '01, Univ. of Mich. Colonel and Assistant Surgeon-General, United States Army, 2300 De Lancey St., Philadelphia. Grace Edgar Spiegle, M.D., '98, Woman's Med. Coll. of Pa. 1893, Teacher of Hygiene and Director of Physical Training, Normal School for Girls, 2115 N. 12th St., Philadelphia. Southwestern State Normal School, California. Principal, Theodore B. Noss; Librarian, Anna M. Shutterly, California. Mrs. Lucy L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Pa. 1893, Head of Department of Biology, Normal School, 1301 Spring Garden St., Phila- delphia. 1900 0. H. Bakeless, M.E., '79. Bloomsburg St. Nor. Sch. ; A.M., '93, Lafayette Coll. 1893, Principal, Indian Training School, Carlisle. Weston D. Bayley, M.D., '88, Hahnemann Med. Coll. Lecturer on Nervous and Mental Diseases, 1438 Poplar St., Philadelphia. F. W. Booth, B.Sc, '77, Iowa Agri. Coll. 1899, General Secretary, American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, 7342 Rural Lane, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia. A. L. Edgerton Crouter, A.M., '85, Gallaudet; LL.D., '93, Illinois. Superintendent. Pennsylvania institute for the Deaf and Dumb, 7406 Germantown Ave., Mt. Airy, Philadelphia. Clyde Furst, A.M., '95, Dickinson Coll. Educational Director, Mountain Seminary, " The Lodge," Birmingham. Chessman A. Herrick, Ph.D., '99, Univ. of Pa. Professor of History, Central High School, Broad and Green Sts., Philadelphia. Mary Hunter Mayer. 1897, Principal, Girls' High School, 141 N. 5th St., Reading. Rev. P. R. McDevitt. Superintendent of Philadelphia Parochial Schools, 21 S. 13th St., Philadelphia. Pedagogical Library of Superintendent of Schools. Superintendent, Dr. Edward Brooks, 696 City Hall, Philadelphia. The Pennsylvania State College. t President, George W. Atherton, State College. James Lane Pennypacker, A.B., '80, Harvard Coll. Director of Christopher Sower Co., Educational Publishers, 614 Arch St., Philadelphia. 1901 Mary Adair. Training Teacher, Philadelphia Normal School, 1709 Race St., Philadelphia. John B. Alker. 1892, Instructor in Woodworking, 17th and Wood Sts., Narberth. William L. Balenttne, Ph.D., '97, Univ. of Pa. 1894, Supervising Principal, Public Schools, 2140 N. 28th St., Philadelphia. Smith Burnham, Ph.B., '92, A.M., '98, Albion Coll. 1898, Professor of History, State Normal School, 143 E. Marshall St., West Chester. Carnegie Free Library of Allegheny. Librarian, Thomas M. Stevenson, Allegheny. C. B. Connelley. 1900, Supervisor of Industrial Schools, Osgood and Maple Ave., Allegheny. Russell H. Conwell. 1890, President of the Temple College, 2020 N. Broad St., Philadelphia. Mrs. Jessie W. Cook. Teacher in Indian School, Carlisle. Milton C. Cooper. Supervising Principal of Asa Packer School, 1447 Venango St., Philadelphia. Andrew Thompson Douthett. Principal of the University Academy, Central Hotel, Uniontown. V. K. Irvine, A.B., '95, Coll. of N. J. 1897, Principal of High School, Box 173, Butler. Edith Mansfield. Training Teacher, State Normal School, Indiana. Mary Maxwell. Teacher, 1928 S. 15th St., Philadelphia Albert Ira Montague, A. B., '96. Amherst Coll. 1899, Teacher of Mathematics, Allegheny Preparatory School, cor. Church and Breading Aves., Ben Avon. J. P. Stephens, M.Sc, '90, Union Christian Coll. 1896, Supervising Principal, 19th Ward Schools, 5706 Margaretta St., Pittsburgh. RHODE ISLAND LIFE DIRECTOR 1882 Thomas W. Bicknell, A.M., '60, Brown Univ., '78, Amherst Coll.; LL.D., '84, Drury Coll. Author, Editor, and Publisher, 49 Westminster Ave., Providence. active members 1891 Thomas B. Stockwell, A.M., '6s, Brown Univ. 1875, Commissioner of Public Schools, Box 1432, Providence. 998 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [South Carolina RHODE ISLAND— Continued 1891 Horace S. Tarbell, A.M., '62, Wesleyan Univ. ; LL.D., '96, Brown Univ. 1884, Superintendent of Schools, 141 Governor St., Providence. 1892 Benjamin Baker, A.M., '78, Brown Univ. 343 Thayer St., Providence. George E. Church, A.B., '72, A.M., '72, Amherst Coll. i88q, Principal of Peace Street Grammar School, 43 Adelaide Ave., Providence. 1894 Walter Ballou Jacobs, A.B., '82, A.M., '85, Brown Univ. 1895, Professor of Theory and Practice of Education, Brown University, 310 Olney St., Providence. Abby Lillian Marlatt, B.Sc, '88, M-Sc, 'go, State Agri. Coll., Kan. 1894, First Assistant and Teacher of Domestic Science, Manual Training'.High School, 263 Benefit St, Providence. 1896 Victor Frazee, A.B., '89, Dalhousie Coll., Halifax, N. S. 1893, Teacher in Hope Street High School, 82 Larch St., Providence. Henry Dwight Hervey, A.B., '89, A.M., '96, Denison Univ., Granville, Ohio. 1898, Superintendent of Schools, 80 Lyon St., Pawtucket. Mrs. Ella M. Pierce. 1891, Supervisor of Primary Schools, 194 Daboll St., Providence. Bessie M. Scholfield._ Supervisor of Kindergarten and Primary Work in Public Schools, 190 Knight St., Providence. W. R. Whittle, A.B., '83, A.M., '88, Colby Univ. 1891. Principal of Schools, 56 Elm St., Westerly. 1897 Rhode Island Normal School. Principal, Charles S. Chapin, Providence. 1898 David Webster Hoyt, A.M., '72, Brown ; '61, Middlebury. 1864, Principal of English High School, 40 Humboldt Ave., Providence. Leonard Worcester Williams, A. B., '95, Hanover Coll.; AM., '99, Princeton Univ.; Ph.D., '01, Brown Univ. 1901, Instructor in Comparative Anatomy, Brown University, 62 George St., Providence. 1899 Sarah Dyer Barnes. Supervisor of Grammar Schools,Providence; res., Manton. Harris Institute Library. President, Edward Harris Rathbun; Librarian, Miss Ama Howard Ward, Woon- socket. 1900 Ella L. Sweeney. 1900, Supervisor of Primary Grades, 58 Barnes St., Providence. 1901 Brown University. President, W, H. P. Faunce ; Librarian, H. L. Koopman. William H. P. Faunce, A.B., '80, A.M., '83, D.D., '95, Brown Univ. ; D.D., 'ot, Yale Univ. 1899, President of Brown University, Providence. SOUTH CAROLINA life member 1891 Martha Schofield. 1868, Founder of Schofield Normal and Industrial School for Colored Youth, Aiken. active members 1895 D. B. Johnson, A.B., '77> A.M., '8o, Univ. of Tenn., Knoxville. 1895, President of Winthrop College, Rock Hill. 1896 E. S. Dreher, A.M., '93, Roanoke Coll., Salem, Va. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Columbia. W. H. Hand. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, Chester. 1897 C. A. Graeser, A.M., '90, Charleston Coll. 1898, Professor of Modern Languages, High School, 6 Glebe St., Charleston. 1898 John S. Marquis, A.B., '76, A.M., '93, Lafayette Coll., Easton, Pa. 1892, Principal of Brainerd Institute, Box 235, Chester. 1899 Henry P. Archer, A.M., '59, Coll. of Charleston. 1885, Superintendent of Instruction, 74 Rutledge Ave., Charleston. John J. McMahan, A.B., '86, A.M., "88, S. Car. Coll. 1899, State Superintendent of Education, 1118 Senate St., Columbia. A. P. Montague, A.M., LL.D. President of Furman University, Greenville. W. K. Tate, A.B., '92, A.M , '00, Univ. of Nashville. 1898, Principal of Memminger Normal School, 131 Coming St., Charleston. W. B. Wilson. Charleston. Franklin Cowles Woodward, A.M., '74, Randolph Macon Coll.; Litt.D., Univ. of N. Car. 1897, President of South Carolina College, Columbia. 1900 James Thomas Coleman, B.Sc, '86, S. Car. Mil. Acad. 1896, Professor of Physics, South Carolina Military Academy, The Citadel, Charleston. R. Ferdinand Gilliam, A.B., '96, Stanford Univ. 1897, Superintendent of City Schools, and Member County Board of Education, Abbeville. Evelyn Holmes. 1896, Director, South Carolina Kindergarten Association Training School, 141 Rutledge Ave., Charleston. Morrison A. Holmes. 1887, Principal, Avery Normal Institute, 57 Bull St., Charleston. Graves L. Knight. Member. State Board of Education, Graniteville. W. Zach McGhee. A.M., '00, S. C. Coll. ; Grad., S. C. Mil. Acad. 1899, Clerk in State Department of Education, Capitol, Columbia. Tennessee] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 999 SOUTH CAROLINA— Continued 1900 John Ogren. Member, Board of Education, 529 King St., Charleston. Clarence J. Owens, A.M., Columbian Univ. 1895, President, Orangeburg College, cor. Broughton and Glover Sts., Orangeburg. A. L. Stokes. 1900, Principal, Richmond Business College, 399 King St., Charleston. H. A. C. Walker, A.B., '97, Wofford Coll., S. C. • 1899, Principal, Graded School, Summerton. Patterson Wardlaw, A.B., '80, Erskine Coll. 1894, Professor of Pedagogy, South Carolina College, 831 Sumter St., Columbia. 1901 Winthrop Normal and Industrial College. President, D. B. Johnson, Rock Hill. SOUTH DAKOTA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1875 Fayette L. Cook. President of South Dakota State Normal School, Spearfish. 1890 William H. H. Beadle, A.B., '61, A.M., '64, LL.B., '67, Univ. of Mich. 1889. President of State Normal School, Madison. 1893 A. Wellington Norton, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, LL.D., '00, Univ. of Rochester. 1899, President of Sioux Falls College, Sioux Falls. 1894 Mattie Jones. 1896, Teacher in Indian Industrial School, Flandreau. Kate Taubman, B.Didac, Iowa St. Nor. Sch. 1900, Principal of High School, 305 Adams Block, Deadwood. 1895 Frank Crane, A.M.. Gale Coll. Pierre. Anna B. Herrig, Grad., Oswego Nor. Sch., N. Y. 1898, Superintendent, Training Department, State Normal School, Madison. George M. Smith, A.B., '73* A.M., '77, Colby Univ. 1891, Professor of Modern Languages, Literature, and Pedagogy, University of South Dakota, Vermillion. 897 Alexander Strachan, A.B., '80, A.M., '82, Univ. of Rochester, N. Y. 1890, Superintendent of Schools, 71 Forest Ave., Deadwood. E. E. Collins. Superintendent of Public Instruction, Vermillion. William W. Girton, Grad., '74, St. Nor. Sch., Platteville, Wis. 1901, Acting President State Normal School, Washington Ave., Madison. Ida P. Hatch. Ex -Superintendent of City Schools, Pierre. . G. L. Pigg, A.B., '73, Berea Coll., Ky. Superintendent of W. S. Indian School, Crow Creek. South Dakota Agricultural College. President, J. W. Heston, Brookings. 1900 C. W. Martindale, A.M., '86, Drake Univ. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 410 Capitol St., Yankton. 1901 Mina H. Aasved. Principal of School, Bristol. William H. Barten. 1893, Teacher in Day School No. 21, Pine Ridge Agency, Allen. John B. Brown, M.Sc, '93, Kan. Agri. Coll. 1900, Superintendent of Indian School, Pine Ridge. John F. Carson. Teacher in Day School, Cheyenne River Agency, Leslie. Claude C. Covey. Teacher in No. 31 Day School, Pine Ridge Agency; res., Merriman, Neb. Sivert A. Jordahl, B.L., '98, Univ. of Minn. Teacher in Lutheran Normal School, Sioux Falls. J. W. Lewis. 18Q7, Teacher in Day School, Pine Ridge. Mrs. Nellie B. McClelland, B.Sc, '90, Amity Coll., College Springs, la. 1898, Teacher in First Primary, Public Schools, Sturgis. J. A. McLouth, Ph.B., '92. Hillsdale Coll., Mich. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Bon Homme County, Springfield. Helen S. Peabody. 1885, Principal of All Saints School, Sioux Falls. Rilla A. Pettis. 1900, Teacher in Indian School, Rapid City. W. H. Ross. 1900, Disciplinarian, Indian Boarding School, Rosebud. G. J. Schellenger. Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Pierre. Miss E. O. Stilwell. Matron, Indian School, Rapid City. Emma L. Truman. 1898, Housekeeper, No. 29 Day School, Pine Ridge Agency, Kyle. Agnes B. Young. Boys' Matron, Indian Scho»l, Crow Creek. TENNESSEE LIFE directors 1886 William Robertson Garrett, A.M., '57. William and Mary Coll. ; Ph.D., '91, Univ. of Nashville. 1895, Professor of American History, Peabody Nor. Coll., 920 S. Summer St., Nashville. 1889 Board of Education of Nashville. President, E. R. Richardson ; Superintendent, Z. H. Brown, Nashville. iooo NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Texas TENNESSEE— Continued LIFE MEMBER 1887 Clara Conway, A. M.,'88, Peabody Nor. Coll. Founder and Organizer of Clara Conway Institute, Memphis, Tenn., Nashville. ACTIVE MEMBERS 1889 W. T. White. A.B., '77, A.M., '93, Univ. of Tenn. 1885, Principal of Girls' High School, 508 Broad St., Knoxville. 1894 Albert Tennyson Barrett, A.M., Univ. of Rochester; Ph.D., Univ. of N. Y. ; LL.D., '8i, S. W. Univ. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, 1001 E. 9th St., Chattanooga. Richard Jones, A.M., '8i, Iowa Coll. ; Ph.D., '93, Heidelberg, Germany. 1898, Professor of Literature, Vanderbilt University, Nashville. 1896 James A. Henry. A.B., '83, AtlantaiUniv. 1886, Principal of Howard High School, 207 prove St., Chattanooga. 1897 J. H. McCallie, B.Sc, Grant Univ. Superintendent of Schools, 425 Vine St., Knoxville. H. C. Weber. Agent for American Book Co., Broad and Spruce Sts., Nashville. 1899 Charles William Dabney, A.B., Hampden -Sidney; Ph.D., Gottingen. 1887, President of University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Marcus M. Ross. 1886, Principal of State Normal School, Fairmont Ave., Fairmont, Va. ; home address, Nashville. Ward Seminary for Young Ladies. President, J. D. Blanton, Nashville. 1900 James N. Anderson, A.M., '87, Univ. of Va. ; Ph.D., ^94, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1900, Instructor in Latin, Vanderbilt University, 1006 Lamar St., Nashville. Z. H. Brown. 1900, Superintendent of City Schools, 1816 West End Ave., Nashville. Mrs. E. G. Buford. 1885, President of " The Academy," 829 Madison St., Clarksville. Rev. J. L. Dickens, A.B., '79, Bethel Coll. ; A.M., '85, McKendree Coll. ; Ph.D., '87, Cumberland Univ. ; LL.D., '91, Butler Univ. ; D.D., '99, Florence Coll. ; S.T.D., 'oi. Am. Univ. of Harriman Dyer. George W. Gordon, B.Sc, '59, Univ. of Nashville, Tenn. 1892, Superintendent of City Schools, 280, 2d St., Memphis. Foster H. Irons, '99, Adv. Diploma Tchrs. Coll., Columbia Univ. 1900, Supervisor of Manual Training, City Schools, Nashville. Israel Hyman Peres, A.B., '89, A.M., '99, LL.B., *ac, Yale. Member, Board of Education, 68 Equitable Building, Memphis. J. M. Steen. Member of School Board, 326 Rayburn Ave., Memphis. Eugene F. Turner. Principal of Fall Grammar School, 834 Meridian St., Nashville. 1901 Medora V. Glase. 1897, Teacher in City High School, 1309 W. Broad St., Nashville. University of Tennessee, Library. President, Charles W. Dabney; Librarian, Sabra W. Vought, Knoxville. TEXAS active members 1874 Alexander Hogg, A.M., '57, Randolph-Macon Coll. ; '74, William and Mary Coll. ; '89, Univ. of Ala. 1900, Editor of " Texas and Pacific Quarterly," 303 Lamar St., Fort Worth. 1892 H. C. Pritchett, A.M., '76, Pritchett Institute, Glasgow, Mo. 1891, Principal of Sam. Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville. 1894 Oscar Henry Cooper, A.B., '72, Yale; A.M., LL.D., '91, Univ. of Nashville. 1899, President of Baylor University, 1435 S. 8th St., Waco. A. H. Wilkins. Representative of American Book Co., 418 Main St., Dallas. 1895 David Shires Bodenhamer. 1885, Professor of Mathematics, Trinity University, Tehuacana. J. M. Fendley, A.B., '82, Univ. of Nashville. 1885, County Superintendent and Principal of Avenue L School, 3202 Ave. N, Galveston. T. G. Harris, A.B., '76, A.M., '80, Carson Coll., Tenn. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, Austin. W. S. Sutton, A.B., '78, A.M., '84, Univ. of Ark. 1897, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Texas, 1812 Congress Ave., Austin. 1896 J. L. Long. 1893, Superintendent of City Schools, High School, Dallas. 1897 Charles T. Alexander. 1900, Southern Manager, Maynard, Merrill & Co., 1122 Columbia St., Waco. N. J. Clancy, Grad., St. Nor. Sch. 1901, Principal of High School, Alvarado, Johnson Co. C. E. Foster, B.Sc, E. Tex. Nor. 1898, Principal of Public Schools, Handley, 1898 J. K. McBride, L.I., Peabody Nor. Coll. ; A.B., '93, Univ. of Nashville. 1900, Principal of Wieland Public School, Lone Oak. University of Texas. President, William L. Prather; Librarian, Benjamin Wyche, Austin. 1899 J. E. Smith. 1885, Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, San Antonio. 1900 Edward Levoisier Blackshear, A.B., '81, Tabor Coll., la. 1896, Principal of State Normal and Industrial College, Prairie View. Virginia] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS iooi TEXAS — Continued 1901 W. W. Barnett, B.Sc, '86, Nor. Nor. Univ. Superintendent of Public Schools, High School, Houston. Fulton N. Lovett. 1901, First Assistant, Public School, Cold Springs ; express office, Shepherd. William L. Prather, B.L., '71, LL.D., '00, Washington and Lee Univ.; LL.D., 'oi, Univ. of Pa. 1899, President of University of Texas, 1914 Nueces St., Austin. UTAH ACTIVE MEMBERS 1895 William Jasper Kerr, B.Sc, D.Sc. 1900, President of Agricultural College of Utah, Logan. University of Utah. President, J. T. Kingsbury; Librarian, George Quincy Coray, Salt Lake City. 1897 Rosalie Pollock. 1901, Supervisor of Primary Schools, 25 S. 7th, East, St., Salt Lake City. 1898 Brigham Young College. President, James H. Linford, Logan. 1899 J. L. Brown, B.Pd., B.Sc, '97, Univ. of Mich. 1897, Superintendent of Public Schools, Utah Co., Pleasant Grove. Susan G. Stokes, A.B., '96, Stanford Univ. 1896, Instructor in Biology, High School, Salt Lake City. 1901 George A. Eaton, A. B., A.M., '92, Harvard Univ. Principal of High School, University Club, Salt Lake City. Mrs. Franc R. Elliott, A.B., B.Sc, Iowa Wes. Univ. Supervisor of Drawing, Roland Hall, Salt Lake City. E. A. Farrington, A.B., '86, Oberlin Coll. 1900, Instructor of Science and Mathematics, Gordon Academy, 25 Union Ave., Salt Lake City. Mary C. May. Director of Kindergarten, State Normal School, 635 E. 1st, South, St., Salt Lake City. VERMONT active members 1898 John L. Alger, A.B., '90, A.M., '95, Brown Univ. 1900, Principal of State Normal School, Johnson. 1899 David Young Comstock, A.B., '73, A.M., '76, Amherst Coll. 1896, Principal of St. Johnsbury Academy, 1 Main St., St. Johnsbury. Walter E. Ranger, A.B., '79, A.M., '83, Bates Coll. 1900, State Superintendent of Education, Montpelier. Isaac Thomas, A.B., '81, A.M., '84, Yale. 1898, Principal of Edmunds High School, 407 College St., Burlington. 1900 Amy M. Burt, Ph.B., '00, Univ. of Vt. 1900, Assistant in High School, Brown Ave., St. Albans. WlLLARD A. FRASIER. 1895, Superintendent of Schools, 138 Church St., Rutland. 1901 Arthur C. Cole, A.B., '94, Olivet Coll., Mich. 1898, Principal of Craftsbury Academy, North Craftsbury. Frank P. Davison. Superintendent and Principal of Graded Schools, North Bennington. Marshall Ware Downing, A.B., '94, Oberlin Coll. Principal of High School, Bellows Falls. Charles H. Dunton, A.B., 'to, Univ. of Vt. ; D.D., '87, Syracuse Univ. 1877, Principal of Troy Conference Academy, Poultney. Philip R. Leavenworth, A.B., '92, Yale Univ. 1897, Principal of State Normal School, Castleton. University of Vermont, Library. Librarian, Edith E. Clarke, Burlington. VIRGINIA active members 1889 George J. Ramsey, A.M., '80, Hampden Sidney Coll., Va. ; LL.D., '98, Southwestern Presbyterian Univ. 1900, Editor-in-Chief, B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., 905 Main St.. Richmond. 1894 John H. Bader, A.B., '85, Washington and Lee Univ. 1893, Superintendent of Public Schools, Staunton. William F. Fox, A.M., '58, Richmond Coll. 1889, Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Richmond. Edward C. Glass. 1893, Superintendent of Schools, 622 Madison St., Lynchburg. 1896 Albert H. Tuttle, B.Sc, '68, State Coll. of Pa. 1888, Professor of Biology, University of Virginia, 1 West Lawn, Charlottesville. 1897 Celestia S. Parrish, Ph.B., '96, Cornell Univ. 1893, Professor of Philosophy in Randolph Macon Woman's College, Lynchburg. George C. Shepard. 1899, Principal of Fairfax Hall, 112 Market St., Winchester. 1898 Maurice M. Lynch. 1886, Superintendent of Schools, Frederick Co., 12 Rouss Ave., Winchester. Joseph W. Southall. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond. 1899 Edward Bell Fishburne, Jr., B.Sc, '93, S. C. Mil. Acad.; Ph.B., A.M., '98, 111. Wes. Univ. 1899, President, Hoge Memorial Military Academy, Blackstone. 1002 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [West Virginia VIRGINIA— Continued 1899 The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. President, Rev. H. B. Frissell ; Librarian, Miss L. E. Herron, Hampton. Nathaniel Cooper Starke, Grad., '89, Va. Military Inst.; Ph.B., Univ. of N. Car. 1901, Principal of the The Virginia High School, Suffolk. State Female Normal School. President, Robert Frazer, Farmville. 1900 Rev. H. B. Frissell, D.D., '00, Harvard. 1893, Principal, Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Box io, Hampton. W. H. Keister. Principal of High School, Harrisonburg. J. A. McGilvray. 1892, Editor of " Virginia School Journal," Richmond. WASHINGTON life members 1886 J. H. Miller. 1900, Principal, State Normal School, Cheney. 1891 John Hull, A.M., '76, 111. Wes. Univ. President of the Reveille Publishing Co., Whatcom" active members. 1890 William Edward Wilson, A.M., '75, Monmouth Coll., 111. 1898, Principal of Washington State Normal School, Ellensburg. 1891 Frank J. Barnard. 1901, Representative of American Book Co., Room 501, Pioneer Building, Seattle. 1894 Frank B. Cooper. 1901, Superintendent of City Schools, 7th and Marion Sts., Seattle. 1895 John T. Forrest, Ph.B.. '83, Central Univ. of Iowa. 1899, Department of Mathematics, State Normal School, 586 Gardner St., New Whatcom. D. E. Sanders, A.M., '97, Kan. Nor. Coll., Ft. Scott. 1900, Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal School, Cheney. 1896 Reuben S. Bingham, A.B., A.M., Hamilton Coll. 1896, Superintendent of City Schools, 616 Tacoma Ave., Tacoma. Charles Francis Reeves, B.Sc, '78, M.Sc, '81, Pa. St. Coll. 1894, Professor of German, and, 1898, Dean of College of Liberal Arts, University of Wash- ington, Seattle; res., Latona. John F. Saylor, B.Sc, '82, Iowa Agri. Coll. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, 527 S. Howard St., Spokane. Albert Henry Yoder, A.B., '93, Ind. Univ. 1900, Editor of " Journal of Childhood and Adolescence," and, 1901, Professor of Peda- gogy, University of Washington, Seattle. 1897 Washington State Normal School at Ellensburg. Principal, W. E. Wilson, Ellensburg. 1898 George Lancaster, Ph.B., Wes. Univ., 111. 1899, Instructor in Mathematics in High School, Everett. University of Washington. President, Frank P. Graves ; Librarian, H. C. Coffman, Seattle. O. C. Whitney, B.L.,'96, Puget Sound Univ. 1895, Principal of Bryant School, 704 S. I St., Tacoma," 1899 F. F. Avery. 1890, Superintendent, Fort Spokane Indian Boarding School, Miles. J. H. Morgan, A.M., '79, Furman Univ. 1893, Vice-Principal of State Normal School, Ellensburg. Ernest Riste. 1901, Principa of Public and High Schools, Cheney, Charles S. Tilton, B.Pd., '01, Vashon Coll., Wash. 1900, Principal of Ross School, Seattle. Jessie B. Wilcox. 1898, Principal of Training School, State Normal School, Ellensburg. 1900 Whatcom State Normal School. Principal, E. T. Mathes, Whatcom. 1901 W. E. Allen, B.L., '98, Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind. 1900, Teacher of Botany, High School, care of Y. M. C. A., Spokane. Ida Agnes Baker, B.Sc, '78, A.M., '82. Central Univ., Pella, la. 1899, Instructor in Latin and Mathematics, State Normal School, 2208 Utter St., Whatcom. J. N. Bowman, A.B., '96, Heidelberg Univ., Tiffin, O. ; A.M., Ph.D., '00, Heidelberg, Germany. 1901, Professor of History, State Normal School, Seahome Hotel, Whatcom. Charles M. Sherman, Ph.B., '94, A.M., Ph.D., '95. 1901, Superintendent of Schools, Snohomish. Whitman College. President, Stephen B. L. Penrose, Walla Walla, Wash. C. N. Young. 1891, Principal of Ward School, 8t2 N. L St., Tacoma. 1877 T. Marcellus Marshall. Glenville. WEST VIRGINIA LIFE DIRECTOR LIFE MEMBER 1870 William H. Cole, A.B., A.M., Ohio Wes. Univ. 1898, Superintendent of Public Schools, 933, 3d Ave., Huntington. Wisconsin] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 1003 WEST VIRGINIA— Continued ACTIVE MEMBERS 1890 W. H. Anderson, A.M., '89, Bethany Coll. 1885, Superintendent of Schools, 45, 14th St., Wheeling. 1891 J. Walter Barnes, A.M., W. Va. Univ. 1892, Principal of State Normal School, Fairmont. Bvrd Prillerman, B.Sc, '89, Knoxville Coll. ; A.M., '94, Westminster Coll. 1895, Professor of English Language, West Virginia Colored Institute, Institute. 1894 Robert A. Armstrong, A.B., '86, A.M., '89, W. Va. Univ. 355 Main St., Clarksburg. 1896 J. N. Deahl, A.B., '93, Harvard; A.M., '99, Columbia Univ. 1901, Assistant Professor of Pedagogy, West Virginia University, Morgantown. Lucy Robinson. Supervisor of Music, 112 S. Front St., Wheeling. Dora B. Rogers. Assistant Principal of High School, 1323 Market St., Parkersburg. 1897 J. R. Trotter, A.B., '90, A.M., '96, Harvard. State Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston. 1898 Charles H. Cole, A.B., '82, A.M., '97, Univ. of Mich. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 119 N. Raleigh St., Martinsburg. 1899 West Virginia University. President, D. B. Purington; Librarian, Eliza J. Skinner, Morgantown. 1900 W. C. Miller, B.L., '93, Univ. of Nashville. Teacher of Science, State Normal School, Fairmont. State Normal School, West Liberty. Principal, James M. Skinner. West Liberty. H. B. Work, A.B., '93, A.M., '96, Wooster Univ., O. 1897, Principal of High School, 70 S. Penn St., Wheeling. 1901 W. M. Blair, Pd.B., Salem Coll., W. Va. Principal of the Normal Department, Salem College, Salem. M. E. Hess, A.M., '96, Waynesburg Coll., Pa. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 317 Wells St., Sistersville. T. Francis Kemper. Department of Mathematics, Salem College, Salem. Public Library, Wheeling, Superintendent, W. H. Anderson, Market St., Wheeling. State Normal School at Fairmont. Principal, Marcus M. Ross; Librarian, W. C. Miller, Fairmont. WISCONSIN life members 1884 Alumni Association, State Normal School at Milwaukee. President, Herbert E. Bolton, Normal School, Milwaukee. Athenaeum Society of State Normal School at Platteville. Librarian, Miss B. A. Gardner, Platteville. John Arthur Aylward, B.A., '84; B.L., '90, Univ. of Wis. Vilas Block, Madison. Beloit City School Board. President and Superintendent, F. E. Converse ; Clerk, A. N. Bort, Beloit. Board of Education of the City of Janesville. President, W. S. Jeffries; Clerk, S. C. Burnham, Janesville. Board of Education, La Crosse. President, Paul W. Mahoney ; Superintendent, John P. Bird, 904 Cass St., La Crosse. Board of Education, Oshkosh. President, Dr. Harvey B. Dale ; Clerk, Dan Witzel, Oshkosh. Board of Regents, State Normal Schools. President, Frank A. Ross, West Superior; Secretary, S. S. Rockwood, Madison. Board of School Directors, Milwaukee. President, H. H. Schwarting, 290, 10th St.; Secretary, Henry E. Legler, 430 Brad- ford St., Milwaukee. City Superintendents' and Supervising Principals' Association of Wisconsin. President, H. L. Terry, Waukesha. Jairus Harolin Carpenter, A.M., '74, Yale; LL.D., '76, Univ. of Wis. Ex -Professor of Law, University of Wisconsin, 315 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. Willard H. Chandler. Ex-State Inspector of High Schools, Sun Prairie. Lewis Herbert Clark. 1892, Professor of Mathematics, State Normal School, River Falls. County Teachers' Association, Milwaukee County. President, Herbert J. Piper, 712 Astor St., Milwaukee. Philip Eden, Ph.B., '72, Univ. of Wis. 601 Pine St., Platteville. John Q. Emery, A.M., Ph.B. 1899, State Normal School Regent, Albion. Lorenzo Dow Harvey, Ph.D., '91, Milton Coll. 1898, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Capitol, Madison. Andrew J. Hutton. 1879, Institute Conductor, State Normal School, 1105 Main St., Whitewater. Charles H. Nye. 1893, Superintendent of Schools of Grant County, 212 N. Adams St., Lancaster. W. D. Parker, A.M., Univ. of Wis. 1899, State Inspector of Free High Schools, 133 E. Gorham St., Madison. 1004 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Wisconsin 1884 John Barber Parkinson, A.B., '60, A.M., '63, Univ. of Wis. 1885, Vice-President, and, 1893, Professor of Constitutional and International Law, Uni- versity of Wisconsin, 803 State St.. Madison. Philadelphian Society of State Normal School at Plattevillk. President, John L. Tormey ; Secretary, Byron C. Hooser, Platteville. Public School Teachers of Janesville. Superintendent, H. C. Buell; Secretary, Lizzie A. Paterson, Janesville. Samuel Shaw, A.M., '75, Univ. of Wis. Lawyer, Crandon, Forest Co. Robert Closson Spencer. 1863, Founder and President of Spencerian Business College, Wisconsin St. and Broad- way, Milwaukee. Joshua Stark, A.B., '48, Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y. « 176 Martin St., Milwaukee. State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Secretary and Superintendent, Reuben G. Thwaites, Madison. State Normal School at Platteville. President, Duncan McGregor; Librarian, Miss B. A. Gardner, Platteville. John William Stearns, A.B., '60, A.M., '64, Harvard; LL.D., '74, Chicago Univ. 1888, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, and, 1897, Director of School of Education. Univ. of Wis., 512 Wisconsin Ave., Madison. Isaac Newton Stewart, B.Sc.,'62, Univ. of Wis. Editor of Milwaukee "Journal," 609 Grand Ave., Milwaukee. Teachers' Association of Wisconsin. President, G. G. Williams, West Superior ; Secretary, W. H. Cheever, Milwaukee. Charles Frederick Viebahn. 1881, Superintendent of City Schools and Principal of High School, 703 Western Ave., Watertown. William Clarke Whitford, A.B.,'53, A.M., '58, Union Coll., N. Y. ; D.D., '85, Blackburn Univ., Illinois. 1858, President of Milton College, Milton, Rock Co. active members 1887 Albert Salisbury, Ph.D., Milton Coll., Wis. 1885, President of State Normal School, Whitewater. 1890 Judson E. Hoyt, A.B., '80, Univ. of Wis. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, 512 Wilson Ave., Menomonie. 1891 Marie E. Doyle. 1894, Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, Superior. 1892 I. C. McNeill. 1896, President of Superior State Normal School, Superior. M. V. O'Shea, B.L., '92, Cornell. 1895, Professor of the Science and Art of Education, University of Wisconsin, 140 Lang- don St., Madison. Albert Willis Tressler, A.B., '91, Univ. of Mich. 1900, Assistant Professor of Pedagogy and Inspector of High Schools, University of Wis- consin, 27 Mendota Court, Madison. 1893 William George Bruce. Editor of "American School Board Journal," 435 Hanover St., Milwaukee. 1894 Richard B. Dudgeon, A.B., '76. Univ. of Wis. 1891, Superintendent of Schools, 520 Jefferson St., Madison. Theron B. Pray. A.M., '72, Univ. of Chicago. 1894, President of State Normal School, 402 Pine St., Stevens Point. 1895 G. L. Bowman. 1896, Teacher of Mathematics and Reading, State Normal School, 1713 Hughitt Ave., Superior. Warren J. Brier. 1898, President of State Normal School, River Falls. C. E. Brown. 1034 Spaight St., Madison. Silas Y. Gillan, A.M., '87, 111. Wes. Univ. 1892, Editor of "Western Teacher" and " Gillan's Monthly," 141 Wisconsin St., Mil- waukee. Rufus Henry Halsey, A.B., '77. Williams Coll. 1898, President of State Normal School, 107 Mt. Vernon St., Oshkosh. Ellen C. Sabin, A.M., '9s, Univ. of Wis. 1891, President of Milwaukee -Downer College, Milwaukee. . H. O. R. Siefert. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, City Hall, Milwaukee. Henry A. Simonds, A.B., '83, A.M., '86, Amherst Coll. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 63 Union St., Oshkosh. Rose C. Swart, A.M., '95, Univ. of Wis. 1884, Inspector of Practice Teaching, State Normal School, 37 Elm St., Oshkosh. Samuel B. Todd, A.B., Univ. of Mich. ; A.M., Univ. of Nashville. Wisconsin State Agent, American Book Co., Pfister Hotel, Milwaukee. E. V. Wernick. 1895, President of Board of Education, Hillsboro. Charles F. A. Zimmerman. Ph.B., '96, III. Wes. Univ. ; A.M., '96, Charles City Coll. 1888, Principal of 17th District School, 622 Otjen St., Milwaukee. 1896 Walter Allen. 1899, First Assistant Superintendent of City Schools, 344 Washington St., Milwaukee. William H. Beach, A.M., Hamilton Coll. 1891, Professor of History and Civics, East Side High School, 229 Pleasant St., Milwaukee, William Owen Brown. 1894. Principal of East Side High School, 719 Webster Ave., Green Bay. Arthur Burch. 1901, Principal, East Division High School, 116, 32d St., Milwaukee, Wisconsin] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 1 005 896 W. H. Cheever, B.Pd., Nor. Coll., Ypsilanti, Mich. 1899, Vice-President of State Normal School, 2510 Sycamore St., Milwaukee. Otis C. Gross, B.Sc, '90, Univ. of Minn. 1896, Superintendent of Schools, 315 Oxford Ave., Eau Claire. Mary Hill. 1869, Assistant Teacher, 170 Mason St., Milwaukee. Harriet Bell Merrill, B.Sc, '90, M.Sc, '93, Univ. of Wis. 1899, Professor of Biology in Milwaukee -Downer College, Milwaukee. Kate S. Nelson. Grade Teacher, Public Schools, no Park Ave., Janesville. George C. Shutts, Ph.B. Teacher of Mathematics, State Normal School, 306 Main St., Whitewater. 1897 Mrs. Helen E. Bateman. 789 Astor St., Milwaukee. Julia Campbell. 1880, Assistant Teacher in Public Schools, 7th Grade, 97, 18th St., Milwaukee. C. P. Cary, B.Sc, Univ. of Chicago. 1901, Superintendent of Wisconsin School for the Deaf, Delavan. F. E. Converse, B.L., '88, Univ. of Mich. 1897, Superintendent of Schools, 412 Prospect Ave., Beloit. George Eber Dafoe. 1892, Principal of High School, Plainfield. Mrs. Medora Dodge Gammon, Grad., Froebel Asso., Chicago. Special Substitute Teacher in Chicago Schools, 2639 N. Hermitage Ave., Ravens- wood, Chicago ; home address, 408 Exchange St., Kenosha. Albert Guttman. 1886, Principal of Schools, Manitowoc. Ellen C. Lloyd Jones. 1887, Associate Principal and Proprietor of Hillside Home School, Hillside. Jane Lloyd Jones. 1887, Associate Principal and Proprietor of Hillside Home School, Hillside. Frederick G. Kraege, B.L., '89, M.L., '95, Univ. of Wis. 1897, Principal of High School, and Superintendent of Public Schools, Mazomanie. Emma J. Luebke. , 1895, Principal of 10th Dist. Primary School No. 1, 872, 10th St., N. W. Sta., Milwaukee. Mary L. Lugg. 1885, Teacher, 17th District School, 464 Russell Ave., Milwaukee. C. O. Marsh. 1893, Principal of High School, 103 Clermont St., Antigo. Charles McKenny, B.Sc, '81, Mich. Agri. Coll.; A.B., '89, A.M., '92, Olivet Coll. 1900, President, State Normal School, 123, 25th St., Milwaukee. E. C. Meland, B.L., '89, Univ. of Wis. Principal of Windsor High School, De Forest. Francis M. Merica, B.Sc, '96, Wm. Taylor Univ.; Ph.B., '97, Univ. of Chicago. 1901, Principal of High School and Superintendent of the Grades, Wauwatosa. James A. Merrill, B.Sc, '93, Harvard. 1900, Teacher of Science, State Normal School, West Superior. John A. Moldstad, A.B., '94, Luther Coll., Decorah, la., and '00, Univ. of Wis. De Forest. John G. Nageler. 1896, Principal of Primary School, 2517 Elm St., Milwaukee. Oliver Needham, Grad., '96, Adv. Course, '00, St. Nor. Sch'., River Falls. 1901, Principal of Graded School, Rural Route 3, La Crosse. Richard J. O'Hanlon. 1892, Principal of 21st District School, 692 Farwell Ave., Milwaukee. J. P. Peterson. " 1894, School Director, Polk County, West Denmark. Lorenzo D. Roberts. 1888, County Superintendent of Schools, Main St., Shawano. John F. Sims. 1896, Department of Geography, U. S. History, and Economics in State Normal School, River Falls. Harriet E. Smith, Grad., Oshkosh Nor. Sch. 1892, Principal of 16th District Primary School, 2409 Cedar St., Milwaukee. State Normal School, Oshkosh. President, Rufus H. Halsey; Librarian, Ella G. Parmele, Oshkosh. Phebe Swan. 1897, Librarian of State Normal School, Whitewater. J. M. Turner. Excursion Agent, Wisconsin Outing Club, 400 S. Water St., Burlington. E. W. Walker. Institute Conductor, State Normal School, 1910 John Ave., Superior. Edith M. Watson. 1896, Kindergartner, Superior; address for igor, 12 Rutland Sq., Boston, Mass. A. W. Weber, Ph.B , '01, Univ. of Wis. 931 W. Johnson St., Madison. H. A. Whipple. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, 216, 8th St., Baraboo. William Hill Williams, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, Williams Coll. 1897, Teacher, Mathematics in State Normal School, Platteville. 1898 Thomas Higdon Gentle. 1900, Director of Training School, State Normal School, Platteville. Milwaukee Public Library. Librarian, George W. Peckham, Milwaukee. Adolphus H. Sage, B.Sc, '86, Cornell Univ. 1893, Professor of Physics, State Normal School, 52 High St., Oshkosh State Normal School, Whitewater. President, Albert Salisbury, Whitewater. 1006 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Hawaii WISCONSIN— Continued 1898 Guy Allan Tawney, A.B., '93, A.M., '94, Princeton; Ph.D., '96, Leipzig. 1898, Squire Professor of Mental Science and Philosophy, 717 Chapin St., Beloit. 1899 Mrs. Annie B. Dean. Student of Education, 719 State St., Madison. William E. Goddard, A.B., '90, Univ. of Mich. 1894, Agent for Ginn & Co., 209 S. Carroll St., Madison. John A. Hagemann, Ph.B., '99, Univ. of Wis. 1899. Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High School, Fort Atkinson. George P. Hambrecht. 1898, Superintendent of City Schools, 407 High St., Grand Rapids. Charles H. Haskins, A.B., '87, Ph.D., '90, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1892, Professor of European History, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Lawrence University. President, Samuel Plantz; Librarian, Zelia Smith, Appleton. F. F. Showers, B.L., Univ. of Wis. 1899, Superintendent of City Schools, Antigo. James W. Simmons. Superintendent of Schools, 640 Clark St., Stevens Point. V. A. Suydam, B.Sc, '96, Univ. of Wis. ' 1900, Principal of High School, Ripon. 1900 A. H. Fletcher. 1901, Teacher of English and Physical Geography, State Normal School, River Falls. Richard Cecil Hughes, A.B., '84, A.M., '87, D.D., '00, Wooster Univ. 1901, President of Ripon College, Ripon. Alice H. Shultes. 1886, Supervisor of Practice, State Normal School, River Falls. Superior State Normal School Library. President, I. C. McNeill, Superior. 1901 Phojbe Cunningham. Teacher in Public Schools, 301 Court St., Janesville. Alletta F. Dean. Student, University of Wisconsin, 501 N. Henry St., Madison. John N. Foster. 1899, Superintendent of Schools, Lake Geneva. Margaret E. Joyce. 1901, Teacher in Public Schools, 2d Grade, 158 Lincoln St., Janesville. Minnie F. Joyce. Teacher in Public Schools, 158 Lincoln St., Janesville. Samuel Adams Lynch, L.B., Pd.B., '92, Univ. of Mo. ; A.M., 'oo, Univ. of Chicago. Teacher of English, Superior State Normal School, 1512 Belknap St., Superior. Leroy A. McGee. 1899, Teacher, Indian Service, Green Bay Indian Agency, Gresham. A. Muellenschlader. 1901, Teacher in 4th Grade, Public Schools, 210 Lincoln St., Janesville. Reuben Perry. 1895, Superintendent of Indian School, Lac du Flambeau. Kate S. Richarson. Teacher in 1st Grade, Public Schools, 259 S. Academy St., Janesville. Walter J. Wicks, A.B., B.D. 1899, Superintendent of Menominee Boarding School, Keshena. WYOMING „ _ _ active members 1894 Estelle Reel. 1898, General Superintendent of Indian Schools; address, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. 1895 Henry Merz, B.Sc, A.M.. Blackburn Univ. 1888, Professor of German and Social Science, University of Wyoming, 407, 9th St., Laramie. 1897 J. O. Churchill. Superintendent of Schools, 2304 Ferguson St., Cheyenne. The University of Wyoming. President, Elmer E. Smiley ; Librarian, Grace Raymond Hebard, Laramie. 1899 T. T. Tynan. 1899, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1308 Ferguson St., Cheyenne. 1900 Elmer E. Smiley, A.B., '85, Syracuse Univ.; B.D., '90, A.M., '01, Yale; D.D., '99, Syracuse Univ. 1898, President of the University of Wyoming, Laramie. 1901 Mary C. Ramsey, B.Sc, Simpson Coll., Indianola, la. 1901, Field Matron, Shoshone Agency. ALASKA _ _, active member 1 5 Cassia Patton. 1894, Teacher of School No. 2, Sitka. HAWAII active members 1895 Allie M. Felker. Grad., '84, St. Nor. Sch., San Jose. 1899, Assistant in Princess Kaiulani School, Box 100, Honolulu. S. Lillian Byington. 1899, Teacher of Music, Kamehameha Girls' School, Honolulu. 1899 Charles Bartlett Dyke, A.B., '98. Stanford Univ. ; A.M., '99, Columbia Univ. Principal of Kamehameha Schools, Honolulu. 1900 Mrs. Nina L. D. Frasher. 1900, Principal of the Princess Kaiulani School, Nuuanu Valley, Honolulu. Hungary] LIFE, ACTIVE, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERS 1007 PORTO RICO ACTIVE MEMBERS 1890 Charles B. Scott, A.M., '87, Rutgers Coll. 1899, in charge of Schools of American Missionary Association, Santurce, San Juan. 1893 M. G. Brumbaugh, A.M., '93 Ph.D., '94, Univ. of Pa. 1900, Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, San Juan. Obediah M. Wood. Aquadilla. 1901 S. B. Heckman, Ph.B., '93, Earlham Coll. ; A.B., '94, Harvard Univ. 1900, Assistant Commissioner of Education, San Juan. Enrique C. Hernandez, A.M., '89, Univ. of Madrid. 1900, Secretary to Commissioner of Education, San Juan. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS active members 189a Allen Allensworth, A.M. 1899, Enlisted Men's Military School, Manila. 1894 Fred Washington Atkinson, A.B., 'oo, Harvard; Ph.D., '93, Leipzig. 1900, General Superintendent of Education in Philippine Islands, Manila. Mason S. Stone, A.B., '83, Univ. of Vt. 1901, Division Superintendent of Schools. Bacalad, Negros. 1899 Henry S. Townsend, A.B., 80, A.M., '83, Univ. of Des Moines. 1901, Division Superintendent of Public Instruction, Manila. 1900 E. A. Coddington, B.Sc, '98, Olivet Coll. Teacher, Capies, Panny. C. H. Maxson, B.Sc, '91, B.D., '99, State Univ. of Iowa. 1001, Teacher in Government Schools, care of Educational Department, Manila. AUSTRALIA active member 1901 Elias John Forbes. 1892, Manager, Australian Branch, G. C. Merriam & Co., 8 Spring St., Sydney, New South Wales. CANADA ACTIVE MEMBERS 1890 James L. Hughes. Inspector of Schools, 58 Henry St., Toronto. 1891 Samuel Bower Sinclair, A.M., '93, Univ. of Toronto. 1893, Vice-Principal of Normal School, Ottawa. 1895 Mrs. Ada M. Hughes. Superintendent of Kindergartens, Public Schools, 58 Henry St., Toronto. 1901 Frederick D. Meader. Student, University of Toronto; res., Orillia. Laura J. Soper, Supervisor of Music, Box 565, Windsor. CHILE active member 1901 Library of Congress of Chili. Librarian, Adolph Labatut, Santiago. ENGLAND active members 1899 Samuel S. Fechheimer Fletcher, A.B., '94, London; Ph.D., '97, Jena. 1898, Lecturer on Education in the University of Cambridge, and Teacher of Method in the C. U. Day Training College, 16 Warkworth St., Cambridge, England. 1901 Fred J. Matheson. Care of Ginn & Co., 9 St. Martin's St., Leicester Sq., London, W. C. Alice Ravenhill. Inspector of Hygiene, W. R. C. C, Yorkshire; res., 3 Cleveland Gardens, Ealing. GERMANY ACTIVE member 1897 Frederic W. Sanders, A.B., '83, Coll. of City of N. Y. ; A.M., '92, Harvard Univ.; Ph.D., '95, Univ. of Chicago. Care of Messrs. Knauth, Nachod & Kuhne, Leipzig. HUNGARY ACTIVE MEMBER 1893 Bexa Kr£csy, State High School Teacher's Diploma, '81. State High School, 6th District at Budapest, VI Lovag Utca 18, Budapest. 1008 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION [Wales JAPAN active member 1900 Imperial Library of Japan. Librarian, I. Tanaka, Uyeno Park, Tokyo. TURKEY ACTIVE MEMBER 1898 William Smith Murray, B.Sc, '88, M.Sc, '93, Syracuse Univ. 1901, Professor in Robert College and Principal in Preparatory Department, Constantinople. 1901 Lucius O. Lee, D.D.,'97, Tabor Coll., la. 1881, Professor of Systematic Theology, etc., Theological Seminary, Marash. WALES active member 1900 Cardiff Free Public Libraries. Librarian, John Ballinger, Central Library, Cardiff.} INDEX TO LIST OF LIFE DIRECTORS, LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS [The names of Life Directors and Life Members are printed in italics.] Aasved, Mina H., S. D., 'oi Abbott, F. B., Kan., '09 Abbott, L. R., 111., '00 Abbott, Osmer, Cal., '99 Abercrombie, J. W., Ala., *oo Ackerman, J. H., Ore., '95 Adair, Mary, Pa., '01 Adams, Cecilia, Colo., '98 Adams, F. Y., Ariz., '99 Adams, H. L., Iowa, '00 Addicott, J. E„ Cal., '99 Adee.J. N., 111., '95 Agard, I. M., Conn., '99 Agricultural Coll., Kan., '97 Ahem, M. E., 111., '96 Aiken, Walter H., Ohio, '01 Ainsworth, D. E., N. Y., '99 Aiton, Geo. B., Minn., '94 Ala. Polytech. Inst.. Ala., '97 Albert, C. J., 111., '96 Albrecht, F. J., III., '91 Albright, C. E., Ohio, '95 Albro, S. H., N. Y., '95 AJden, Amelia D., N. Y., '96 Alderman, E. A., La., '94 Aldrich, Chas. S., 111., '00 Aldridge, Vincent, N. Y., '91 ■ Alexander, Charles T., Tex., '97 Alger, John L., Vt.. '98 Alker, John B., Pa., '01 Alkire, Milem J., 111., '01 Allen, E. A., Ind. Terr., '01 Allen, Edward E., Pa., '99 Allen, Mrs. Ella N., N. Y., '92 Allen, Ira IV., 111., '70 Allen, L. H., 111., '97 Allen, L. R., Mass., '99 Allen, Walter, Wis., '96 Allen, W. E., Wash., \>i Allensworth, Allen, P. I., '92 Alley, F. S., Ky., '96 Allgood, Robt. V., Ala., '98 Allfn. R. H., 111., '97 Allison, J. J., 111., '93 Altoona Mech. Lib'y, Pa., '99 A I. Asso., Milwaukee, Wis., '84 Ambrose, H.T..N.Y., '95 Ames, Chas. H., Mass., '96 Amherst Coll. Lib'y, Mass., '97 Amidon, L. E., Mich., '96 Anderson, John /., N. Y., '71 Anderson, J. N., Tenn., '00 Anderson, L. F., Mich., '00 Anderson, Louis, Minn., '01 Anderson, W. D., N. J., '00 Anderson, W. H., W. Va., '90 Anderson, W. J., Ariz., '99 Andrews, E. Benj., Neb., 99 Andrews, Wm. E„ 111., '00 Arbury, F. W., Mich., '95 Archer, Henry P.. S. C, '99 Archibald, J. P., Pa., '99 Arey, Oliver C, N. Y., '70 Armington, J. W., Mass., 01 Armitage, B. F., III., '96 Armour Inst, of Tech., 111., '00 Arms, S. Dwight, N. Y., '00 [Deceased members are indicated by a *.~] Armstrong, Geo. P., Mass., '96 Armstrong, G. W., Mo., '98 Armstrong, James E., 111., '00 Armstrong, Robert, Colo., '00 Armstrong, Robt. A., W. Va., '94 Arnold, E. H.,Conn., '96 Arnold, Sarah L., Mass., '95 Arrowsmith, S. V., N. J., '98 Asbury, J. W., III. ,'99 Ascher, Margarethe M., Mich., '01 Ashmore, Otis, Ga., W Assenheimer, F. E., Ohio, 'oil Athenceum Soc, Wis., '84 Atkinson. Fred W., P. I., '94 Atlanta Univ., Ga., '95 Augsburg, D. R., Cal., '95 Aurianne, A., La., '99 Austin, E. T.. Mich., '01 Austin, Isabella, Minn., '01 Avery, A. H., Iowa, '96 Avery, F. F., Wash., '99 Avery, Lewis B., Cal., '95 Avery, Rachel F„ Pa., '79 Ayers, Howard, Ohio, '99 Aylward, John A., Wis., '84 Ayres, Edw., Ind., '92 Babcock, C. A., Pa., '93 Bacon, Carl E., 111., '97 Bacon, Paul V., 111., '07 Bader, John H., Va., 94 Baer, Clara G., La., '97 Bagley, Wm. C, Mo., '01 Bagnall, F. A., Mass., '01 Bahr, Lulu C, Cal., '99 Bailey, Emma V., 111., '97 Bailey, M. A., N. Y., '95 Bailey, T. P., Jr., 111., '99 Bailey, Walter J., Cal., \$ Bakeless, O. H., Pa., '00 Baker, Anna M., Ind., '99 Baker, Benj., R. I., '92 Baker, Ida A., Wash., '01 Baker, Jas. H., Colo., '84 Baker, O. M., Mass., '92 Baker, Thos. O., N. Y., '92 Baker, W.H., Cal., '99 Baker, W. H„ Ga., V> Balcom, A. G., N. J., '98 Baldwin, H. J., Cal., '90 Baldwin, R. L., Mass., 01 Baldwin, Wm. A., Mass., '99 Balentine, Wm. L., Pa., '01 Ball, Frank H., Cal., '97 Ball, Kath. M., Cal„ '99 Ball, Miss Lew A., Cal., '99 Ballard, C. A., Minn., '96 Balliet, Thos. M., Mass., '95 Ballin, Hans, Conn., '01 Ballou, C. G., Ohio, '95 Ballon, Madge D., Mass., '01 Bancroft, Jessie H„ N. Y., '97 Bancroft, Margaret, N. T., '97 Bangs, J. Edward, III., 99 Banker, Lizzie L., Neb., '90 Barbour, F. A., Mich., 'oi Barbour, O. F., 111., '89 Bardeen, C. W., N.Y., '90 Bardwell, C. M., 111., '92 Bardwell, D. L.,N. Y., '99 Bargen, I. I., Minn., '97 Barnard, Frank J., Wash., '91 Barnard, Jas.'U., Mo., '93 Barnes, Earl, N. Y., '91 Barnes, Frank C, N. Y., '01 Barnes, Mrs. F. S., N. Y., '96 Barnes, J. Walter, W. Va., fy Barnes, O. P., Kan., '95 Barnes, Sarah D., R. I.. '99 Barnett, W. W., Tex., '01 Barnum, Anna., N. D., '97 Barr, Jas. A., Cal., '98 Barr, Robert J.. Neb., '99 Barrett, A.T., Tenn., '94 Barrett, Chas. S., Ohio, '95 Barrett, H. M., Colo., '95 Barrett, R. C, Iowa, '96 Barrett, S. M., Mo., '97 Barringer, Wm. N., N. J., '94 Barrows, Franklin W., N. Y., '01 Barten, Wm. H., S. D., '01 Barstow, C. L., N. Y., '97 Bartholf, Wm. J.,I11.,'97 Bartholomew, Susie M.,Ky., '94 Bartholomew, IV. H., Ky., '77 Bartlett, Wm. A., Minn., '97 Barton, R. L., Mo., '97 Bascotn, John, Mass., '84 Bashford, Jas. W., Ohio, '94 Bass, E. E., Miss., '95 Bass, Geo. F., Ind., '96 Bass, Willard S., 111., '01 Bateman, Mrs. H. E., Wis., '97 Bates, Wm. C, Mass., '96 Bauer, N. L. A., La., '01 Bauman, E. G., Ind., '98 Baxter, Chas. J., N. J., '96 Baxter, J. K, Ohio, 01 Bayley, W. D.,Pa., '00 Bayliss, Alfred, III. ,'96 Baylor, Adelaide S., Ind., '97 Beach, Wm. H., Wis., '96 Beadle. Wm. H. H„ S. D.. '90 Beardshear, W. M., Iowa, 89 Beardsley, A. E., Colo., '95 Beattie, J. A., Ore., '99 Beattys, Frank D., N. Y., '94 Beazell, Jas. H., Mich., '97 Becht, J. Geo., Pa., '96 Beck, Geo., Ind. Terr., '84 Beechy, A. D., Ohio, '00 Beggs, Robt. H., Colo., '84 Beggs, S. S., Mich., '96 Beistle, Ella, Ohio, '97 Belknap, Emmet, N. Y., '92 Bell, Alex. Graham, D. C, '84 Bell, Hill M., Iowa, '01 Bell, Thomas H., Ohio, 'or Bell, Wm.A., Ohio, '76 Bellis, Wm., Mich.. '01 Belman, W. C.,Ind^,'9s Beloit Sch. Board, Wis., '84 Bender, Ida C, N. Y., '95 Benedict, J. C, N. Y., '01 Benedict, W. H., N. Y., '92 1009 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ♦Benham, N. L., N. Y., '95 Benner, Henry, Mich., '01 Bennett, Chas. A., 111., '96 Bennett, C. IV., Ohio, '84 Bennett, Mrs. LydiaA., N. J., '96 Bennett, Myron E., Me., '01 Benson, B. K.,Ga.,'oo Benson, Christine, Cal., '97 Benton, Geo. W., Ind., '94 Bergey, D. H., Pa., '98 Berkaw, Geo. R., Mich., '01 Berlin, A. H., Del., '96 Bernstein, Nathan, Neb., '00 Berringer, E. J., Ariz., '99 Berry, B. D., 111., '95 Berry, W. T., Ky., '98 Bessey, Chas. E., Neb., '95 Betts. Alice L., Ohio, '01 Bevans, Homer, 111., '97 Bicknell, Thos. W., R. I., '82 Bierly, H. Elmer, Fla., '99 Bigelow, Anson H., Iowa, '01 Billingsly, J. J., Iowa, '95 Bingham, Cornelia D., 111., 'oo Bingham, Reuben S., Wash., '96 Bingham, Robt., N. C. '84 Birchard, C. C, Mass., '95 Bishop, Eliza A., Pa., '92 Bishop, J. Remsen, Ohio, '94 Bishop, Nathan L., Conn., '95 Bissell, Annie M., N. Y., '95 Bixler, W. S., 111., '00 Black, C. C, Ark., '01 Black, Jas. C, Idaho, '88 Black, S. T., Cal., '95 Black, Wm. H., Mo., '95 Blackshear, E. L.,Tex., '00 Blair, Francis G., 111., '99 Blair, John J., N. C, '95 Blair, W. M., W. Va., '01 Blake, Mrs. E. M., Ark.. '98 Blaker, Mrs. E. A., Ind., '96 Blakesley, O. J., Colo., '96 Blakiston, Mary, Ohio, '95 Blewett, Ben, Mo., '97 Bliss. Fred. L., Mich., '95 Bliss, J. J., Ohio. '96 Block, Louis J., 111., '99 Block, W. H., Ohio, '01 Blodgett, A. B., N. Y., '90 Bloom, La Fayette, Ohio, '00 B. of Ed., Abilene, Kan., '86 B. of Ed., Beloit, Wis., '84 B. of Ed., Dodge City, Kan., '86 B, of Ed., Janesville, Wis., '84 B. of Ed., La Crosse, Wis., '84 B. of Ed., Milwaukee, Wis., '84 B. of Ed., Nashville, Tenn., '89 B.ofEd., Northfield, Minn., '90 B. of Ed., Oshkosh, Wis., '84 B. of Ed., Ottawa, Kan., '86 B. of Ed., Sedgwick, Kan., '86 B. of Regents, St. Nor. Sch., Wis., '84 Bodenhamer, D. S., Tex., '95 Bodler, Anna. N. J., '98 Bodwell, Edwin J., Neb., '95 Boice, H. B., N. J., '96 Bolenbaugh, G. B., Ohio, '96 Bolton, Frederick £., Iowa, '00 Boltwood, H. L., 111., '99 Bond, G. G., Ga., '94 Bond, J. D., Minn., '96 . Bonebrake, Lewis D., Ohio, '90 Bookmyer, T. W., Ohio, '01 Boone, Richard G., Ohio, '84 Booth, F. W., Pa., '00 Boston College, Mass., '97 Bostwick, O. P., Iowa, '90 Botkin, Mrs. Sidney C, Ariz., '99 Boutelle, C. M., Minn., '96 Bouton, Eugene, Mass., '95 Bowers, H. W., Ind., '96 Bowles, J. J., Mo., 'oo Bowman, G. L., Wis., '95 Bowman, J. N., Wash., '01 Boyd, David R., Okla., '92 Boyd, Mrs, Gaston, Kan., '97 Boyd, G. F., Miss., 'or Boyd, W. W., Ohio, '94 Boyden, Albert G., Mass., '90 Boyden, Arthur C, Mass., '97 Boyden, Wallace G, Mass., '96 Boyle, Chas. A., Kan., '97 Boynton, F. D., N. Y.,'oi Bracelin, Gertrude, Mich., '01 Bradley, Chas. A., Colo., '93 Bradley, John E., Mass., '90 Bradley, Milton, Mass., '92 Bradner, Elbert, Ind., '01 Bradner, J. W., Ky., '01 Brandegee, J. E., N. Y., '96 Brandt, F. B., Pa., '97 Bricker, Jas. I., Mich., '01 Brier, Warren J., Wis., '95 Briggs, R. D., Mich., '01 Brigham Young Coll., Utah, '98 Bright, O. T., 111., '93 Bristol, E. N., N. Y., '96 Brittain, M. L., Ga., '00 Brock, H. Z., Mich., '97 Brockett, Zue H., D. C., '98 Broderick, Kate G., N. Y., '96 Brooks, C. J., Ohio, '01 Brooks, Edw., Pa., '76 Brooks, Sarah C, Minn., '94 Brooks, Stratton D., 111., '01 Brown, C. E., Wis., '95 Brown, C. A., Ala., '98 Brown, Claude, 111., '00 Brown, Cora S., Ind., '01 Brown, Edwin N., Mich., '01 Brown, Elias, D. C, '98 Brown, Eliz. V., D. C, '98 Brown, Ellis W., D. C. '98 Brown, Elmer E., Cal., '91 Brown, Eugene, Iowa, '97 Brown, Geo. P., 111., '80 Brown, Geo. W., Mass., '96 Brown, H. B., Ind., '95 Brown, Henry E., 111., '01 Brown, Hugh, Mich., '98 Brown, J. B., S. D., '01 Brown, J. L., Utah, '99 Brown, John A., N. H., '99 Brown, John F., Iowa, '96 Brown, J. Stanley, III., '97 Brown, Kate L., Neb., '97 Brown, Marion, La., '89 Brown, R. A.. Ohio, '01 Brown Univ. Library, R. I., 'oi Brown, Wm. O., Wis., '96 Brown, Z. H., Tenn., '00 Brownell, H. G., Ky., '01 Bruce, Wm. G., Wis., '93 Brumbaugh, G. W., Ohio, '96 Brumbaugh, M. G., P. R., '93 Bruot, Marie L., Ohio, '96 Bryan, Wm. J. S., Mo., '99 Bryan, Wm. L., Ind., '93 Bryant, Miss C. L„ Mo., '99 Bryant, Forrest B., Ohio, '01 Bryn Mawr Coll., Pa., '99 Bryson Library, Teachers Coll., N. Y., '98 Buchanan, Elizabeth, Mo., '00 Buchanan, Geo. V., Mo., '94 Buchanan, John T., N. Y., '90 Buchanan, L. A., Cal., '99 Buchholz, L. W.. Fla., '98 Buckland, B. J., Minn., '01 Budd. Mrs. Nellie M., Minn., '01 Buechele. J. L., Iowa, '97 Buehrle, R. K., Pa., '92 Buffalo Pub. Library, N. Y., '99 Buford, Mrs. E. G., Tenn., 'oo Bugbee, Percy I., N. Y., '01 Bulkley, Julia E., 111., '95 Bunnell, C, Ind., '99 Burch, Arthur, Wis., '96 Burdick, A. Hall, N. Y., '92 Burgess, I. B., 111., '99 Burk, Fred L., Cal., '92 Burke, Mrs. B. Ellen, N. Y., '94 Burke, J. E., Mass., '95 Burks, J. D„ N. Y„ '99 Burnham, Ernest, Mich., '01 Burnham, Smith, Pa., '01 Burnham, W. R., Conn., '99 Burns, G. W., Ohio, '00 Burns, J. J., Ohio. '80 Burns, Ralph H., Minn., '96 Burris, Wm. P., N. Y., '95 Burroughs, Geo. S., Ohio, '95 Burt, Amy M., Vt., '00 Burton, R. W., 111., '96 Busby, Isaac V„ Ind., '96 Bushnell, H. T., Iowa, '97 Butler College, Ind., '00 Butler, Nicholas M„ N. Y., '85 Butte Free Pub. Lib., Mont., '00 Button, Wm. J., 111., '96 Butts, Mrs. Annice E. B., 111. ,'96 Buzzell, Delos, 111., '97 Byington, S. Lillian, H. I., '95 Cahalan, Mary A., Ala., '95 Caldwell, B. C., La., '96 Caldwell, B. H., Ark., '01 Caldwell, H. W., Neb., '96 Caldwell, J. H., Ark., '01 Calkins, F. L., HI., '95 Call, A. D., Mass., '98 Cammack, Ira I., Mo., '95 Camp, David N., Conn., '92 Campbell, A. A., Ind., '01 Campbell, A. G., Kan., '86 Campbell, Julia, Wis., '97 CampKell, W. H., 111., '95 Canfield, James H., N. Y., '84 Cannon, Geo. L., Colo., '95 Cannon, Miss H. D., Ore., '99 Capen, Elmer H., Mass., '96 Cardiff Free Public Libraries, Wales, '00 Carey, C. E., Ohio, '95 Carfrey, J. H., Mass., '97 Cargo, R. M., Pa., '96 Carleton, E. A., Mont., '97 Carlisle, Ellor E., Mass., '00 Carmen, Geo. N., 111., '00 Carnagey, J. A., Ind., '95 Carnegie Lib., Allegheny. Pa., 'or Carnegie Lib., Pittsburg, Pa., '99 Carpenter, E. A., Mich., '01 Carpenter, Ellen W., 111., '01 Carpenter, Estelle, Cal., '01 Carpenter, J. H., Wis., '84 Carr, J. M., Ohio, '98 Carr, J. W„ Ind., '97 Carrington, W. T„ Mo., '99 Carroll, C. F., Mass., '95 Carroll, Mary H., N. Y., '98 Carson, C. H., Jr., La., '00 Carson, John F., S. D., '01 Carter, A. H., Ark., '01 Carter, Joseph, III., '99 Cary, Alice D., Ga., '98 Cary, C. P., Wis., '97 Case, Richard, N. J., '94 Casey, W. V., Colo., '95 Cassilly, Francis B., 111.. '99 Castle, E. H., N. Y., '01 Gates, E. E., Md., '98 Catey, Minnie L., Cal., '99 Caviness, A. L., Neb., '01 Cecil, Callie M.. Mich., '01 Chadsey, Chas. E., Colo., '95 Chalmers, W. W., Ohio, '95 Chamberlain, A. H., Cal., '97 Chambers, Will G., Minn., '01 Champlin, Howard, Ohio, '96 Chancellor, Wm. E., N. L, '00 Chandler, Anna M., Mich., '99 Chandler, John W., N. Y., '90 Chandler, Willard H., Wis., '84 Chaney, N. H., Ohio, '00 Chapin, E. P., Mich., '01 Chaplain, Alexander, Md., '01 Chaplin, Henry L., 111., '99 Chapman, F. E., Mass., '94 Chase, Susan F., N. Y., '98 Chase, W. J., 111., '99 Cheever, W. H., Wis., '96 Cheney, Augustus /., 111., '84 INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS IOII Cheney, Francis J., N. Y., '91 Chicago Pub. Library, 111., '98 Childs, Edward P., Ohio, 'oi Church, Geo. E., R. I., '92 Churchill, J. 0.,Wyo.,'97 City Lib'y, Springfield, Mass., '98 Clair, Francis R., N. Y., '94 Clancy, Albert W., 111., '92 Clancy, N. J., Tex., '97 Clark. Esther A., Neb., '01 Clark, Frank H., Colo., '86 Clark. F. H., Cal., '99 Clark, Mrs. Ida H., Mich., '00 Clark, Jessie L., Kan., '95 Clark, John S., Mass., '92 Clark, L. H., Wis., '84 Clark, V.S.,D.C, '99 Clark, W. A., Neb., '95 Clarke, Elva E., Kan., '94 Clarke, Ernest P., Mich., '01 Clarke, Francis D., Mich., '97 Classen, Mrs. A. W., Cal., '89 Claxton, P. P., N. C, '98 Cleary, P. R., Mich., '01 Clendenen, T. C, 111., '97 Cleveland Pub. Lib'y, Ohio, '97 Clock, Mrs. D. v. H., 111., '01 Clum, George V., 111., '99 Coatcs, T. C., Ohio, 'oi Cobb, Chas. D., N. C, '00 Cobb, Chas. N..N. Y.,'94 Cobb. Collier, N. C, *99 Coburn, F. 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Y., '85 Cook, Elizabeth B., 111., '96 Cook, F. L., S. D., '75 Cook, Geo. B., Ark., '95 Cook, H. Moreland, N. D., '01 Cook, Ida M., 111., '99 Cook, Mrs. Jesse W., Pa., '01 Cook, John W., III., '90 Cook, Newell, Mich., '01 Cook, Webster, Mich., '01 Cooley, Mrs. A. W., N. D., '96 Cooley, E. G., 111., '97 Cooley, F. A., Cal., '99 Cooley, F. W., Mich., '95 Cooley, L. C, N. Y., '96 Cooper, Erma E., Mich., '01 Cooper, F. B., Wash., '94 Cooper, F. I., Mass., '93 Cooper, Milton C, Pa., '01 Cooper, O. H., Tex., '94 Coover, N., Kan., '86 Copeland, A. B., Colo., '99 Copeland, Chas. H„ Ind., '99 Corbett, H. R., 111., '90 Corbin, J. C, Ark., '98 Cornell Univ. Library, N. Y., '96 Cornell, Watson, Pa., '96 Corson, O. T., Ohio, '87 Corthell, W. J., Me., '92 Co. Teachers'1 Asso., Wis., '84 (Nottingham, J. M., Mo., '97 Cotton, F. A., Ind., '98 Coulter, Minnie, Cal., '99 Courville, Elizabeth, Mich., '01 Covey, Claude C, S. D., '01 Cowgill, Paul A., Ind., '98 Cowing, Helen H., Ohio, '01 Cox, Edwin B., Ohio, '89 Cox, E. Morris, Cal., '96 Cox, Henry C, 111.. '95 Cox, Jean N., N. J., '97 Cox, Martin L., N. J., '93 Cox, T. L.. Ark., '00 Cox, Wm.J. M., 111., '99 Coy, Emma, 111., '97 Coy, E. W., Ohio, '83 Crabbe, J. G., Ky.,'97 Crabtree, J. W.. Neb., '95 Craig, Arthur U., D. C, '99 Craig, Oscar J., Mont., '92 Craig, Wm. B., Iowa, '00 Crane, Mrs. Chas. R., 111., '97 Crane, F. E., Ohio, 'oi Crane, Frank, S. D., '95 Crane, Julia E., N. Y., '95 Crane, Wm. I., Ohio, '99 Cranston. R. W., Minn., '96 Creager, W. B., Ariz., '99 Crissy, I. O..N. Y.,'98 Crist, Henry M., N. Y., '96 Critchett, E. T., Minn., '98 Crocker, H. G., Cal., '99 Crockett, May M„ 111., '95 Cronebaugh, C. L., Ohio, '99 Cropsey, Miss N., Ind., '91 Crosby, H. E., Iowa, '01 Crosby, W.E.,S.V., '70 Crosier, M. E., Iowa, '95 Cross, J. G., Cal., '99 Crouch, Sarah E.. Mo., '95 Crouse, Mrs. J. N., 111., '93 Crouter, A. L. E., Pa., '00 Cruikshank, J as., N. Y., '57 Cubberly, E. P., Cal., '94 Culbertson, E. D. Y., Iowa, '95 Culler, J. A., Ohio, '00 Cummins, J. P., Ohio. '00 Cunningham, J. B., Ala., '95 Cunningham, Phoebe, Wis., '01 Curran, Ulysses T., Ohio, '66 Currier, C. F. A., Mass., '00 Currier, E. H., N. Y., '97 Curry, Robert, Pa., '84 Curtis, A. E., Mich., '96 Curtis, Virgil G., Ohio, '92 Curtiss, Fred. A., Conn., '94 Dabney, C. W., Tenn., '99 Dafoe, Geo. Eber, Wis., '97 Dailey, M. E , Cal., '98 Dakin, Mrs. Esse B., Ind., '01 Dana, Fenella, Kan., '95 Daniels. J. W., Idaho, '98 Darst, Warren, Ohio, '01 Davenport, Benella, Fla., '00 Davey, Vernon L., N. J.,'oo Davidson, Chas. C, Ohio, '80 Davidson, F. P., Cal.. '99 Davidson, Wm. M., Kan., '90 Davis, A. J., Pa., '98 Davis, Allan, D. C, '95 Davis, Boothe C, N. Y., '96 Davis, B. M., Cal., 'oi Davis, Ellery W., Neb., '99 Davis, Emma C. Ohio, '94 Davis, Geo. S., N. Y., '96 Davis, Geo. W., III., '96 Davis, Mrs. Grace D., Mo., '01 Davis, Jehiel K., 111., '00 Davis, John W., N. Y., '95 Davis, L. O., Mich., '01 Davis, W. M., Mass.. '99 Davison, Frank P., Vt., '01 Dawson, H. T., N. Y„ '95 Deahl, J. N., W. Va., '96 Dean, Alletta F., Wis , '01 Dean, Mrs. Annie B., Wis., '99 Dean, Arthur D., Mass., '01 Dean, E. P., Ohio, '01 Dean, R. B., Mich., '01 Deane, Chas. W., Conn., '89 Dearborn, Ambrose C, 111., '01 Dearmont, W. S., Mo., '99 Dearness, F. W., Ohio, '01 Deatrick, W. W., Pa., '92 Decker, Wm. H., N. Mex.. '99 De Garmo, Chas., N. Y., '89 Delano. Edward C., 111., '95 Demarest, J. B. T.. N. Y., '00 Denfeld, Robt. E., Minn., '90 Denison Univ. Library, Ohio, '00 Dept. Pub. Instr., 111., '99 Deputy, M. W., Ind.. '01 Derby, Samuel C, Ohio, 'or Deupree, J. G., Miss., '97 Dewey, J as. A., Pa., '93 Dewey, John, 111., '97 Dewey, Melvil, N. Y., '92 De Wolf. Daniel F„ Ohio, '81 Dexter, E. G., 111., '98 Dial, S. T., Ohio, '95 Dick, Fred., Colo., '95 Dickens, J. L., Tenn., '00 Dickinson College, Pa., '99 Dickinson, Frances, 111., '01 Dickey, C. L., Ohio, '95 Dietrich, John, Colo., '95 Dillman, L. M., 111., '86 Dinsmore, J. W., Ky., '98 Dix, Wm. T., 111., '96 Dixon, B. y. B., La., '97 Doane, Letitia L., 111., '97 Dodd, Arthur A., Mo., '95 Dodge, M. Luella, 111., '97 Dodge, R. E., N. Y., '98 Dodge, Wm. C, 111.. '96 Doggett, W. E.. N. Y.. 'oo Dolphin, MissM. E., Kan., '95 Donohoe, Mary J., N. J., '94 Dougherty, Mabel E., 111., '96 Dougherty, N. C, 111., '87 Doughty, Jas. C, Nev., '99 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Douthett, A. T., Pa., 'oi Dow, James J., Minn., '96 Downey, Miss B. P., Mont., '99 Downing, A. S., N. Y., '91 Downing, M-. W., Vt., '01 Downs, Edgar R., Colo., '94 Doyle, Marie E., Wis., '91 Doyne, J. J., Ark., '99 Dozier, Melville, Cal., '95 Draper, Andrew S., 111., '88 Dreher, E. S., S. C, '96 Dresser, Mrs. R. L. R., N. J., '99 Drew, Nellie L., Minn., '01 Ducker, W. H., 111., '95 Dudgeon, R. B., Wis., '04 Dudley, Mrs. E., Iowa, yj Dunton, Charles H., Vt,, 01 Dutton, Bettie A., Ohio, '80 Dutton, Chas, F., jr., Ohio, '01 Dutton, S. T., N. Y., '95 Dyer, F. B., Ohio, '96 Dyer, Edwin F., Colo., '00 Dyer, Frank R., Kan., '91 Dyke, Chas. B., H. I., '99 Eakins, Mrs. Millie R., N. J., '96 E. 111. St. Nor. School, 111., '99 Eastman, Wm. R., N. Y., '96 Easton, Warren, La., '95 Eaton, 'G. A., Utah, '01 Eaton, Ira T., 111., '94 Eaton, John, D. C, '93 Ebaugh, Z. C, Md., '97 Eberlein, Amanda R., 111., '01 Eberlein, Ella, Mo., '01 Eden, Philip, Wis., '84 Edgerly, Jos, G., Mass., '96 Ed. Asso., N. D. '96 Editor's Library, N. Y., '97 Edmonds, F. S., Pa., '98 Edmund, Gertrude, Mass., '97 Edsall, James M., N. Y., '01 Edson, A. W., N. Y., '96 Edwards, Anna E., Cal., '99 Edwards, H. R., Minn., '97 Edwards, J. E., Md., '98 Edwards, W. A., Cal., '99 Edwards, W. S., Cal., '99 Ehinger, C. E., Pa., '97 Elder, Ella C, N. Y., '96 Elder, E. W., Colo., '93 Elgas, Mathew J., N. Y., '91 Eliot, Chas. W., Mass., '92 Elliff, J. D., Mo., '98 Elliott, A. M., Md., '99 Elliott, E. C, Colo., '99 Elliott, Mrs. Franc R., Utah, 'or Elliott, J. F., Ala., '98 Elliott, Nellie L., Iowa, 'oi Ellis, Frank R., Ohio, '01 Ellis, John C, 111., '87 Ellis, Wm. Austin, Mich., '87 Ellis, W. S., Ind., '00 Ellsworth, Henry W., N. Y., '96 Elmer, Erances A., Minn., '97 Elson, W. H., Mich., '95 Eiterich, Bertha, N. J., '00 Elwell, Mrs. O. F., N. J„ '96 Ely, Sarah Y., N. J., '92 Emerson, Henry P., N. Y., '93 Emery, John Q., Wis., '84 Emm, Henry C, Minn., '00 English, Rebecca F„ Cal., '88 Eppstein, J. M., 111., '01 Erkenberry, C. M., Ohio, '01 Errant, Joseph W., 111., '00 Estabrook, J. B., Mich., '99 Estee, Jas. A., N. Y., '96 Evans, Mrs. Adaline, Okla., '01 Evans, Chas. H., Mo., '86 Evans, Elizabeth G., Ohio, '01 Evans, Lawton B., Ga., '94 Evans, Wm. P., Mo., '98 Everett, John P., Mich., 'or Ewing, K. D., Mich., '99 Ewing, W. W., Ariz., '01 Faber, Jerdina, N. Mex., 'or Fagan, Rev. J. P., D. C, '99 Fairchild, E. T., Kan., '86 Fall, Delos, Mich., '97 Fant, John C, Miss., '97 Farley, Anne J., N. Y., '97 Farley, D. H., N. J., '96 Farley, Geo. L„ Neb., '97 Farmer, A. E., Idaho, '01 Farnsworth, Fannie P., Minn., '9 Farnsworth, S. A., Minn,, '94 Farrand, Wilson, N. J., '95 Farrell, Edw. D., N. Y., *go Farrington, E. A., Utah, 'or Farson, M. Elizabeth, 111., '97 Faulkner, R. D., Cal., '99 Faunce, Wm. H. P., R. I., '01 Fay, Charles S., Ohio, '01 Fay, Edw. A., D. C, '99 Felker, Allie M., H. I., '95 Fell, Anna M., N.J. ,'97 Fell, Thomas, Md.,'98 Felmley, David, 111., '00 Fels, Maurice, Pa., '98 Fendley, J. M., Tex., '95 Fenton, Geo., N. Y., '92 Ferguson, E. E., Mich., '96 Fernald, M. C, Me., '90 Ferris, W. N., Mich, '99 Fillmore, Nettie, Ohio, '00 Finch, Dorothy, Mich., '01 Fishbume, E. B., Va., '99 Fisher, Gilman C, Mass., '92 Fisher, H. W., Pa., '92 Fisk, Herbert F., 111., '91 Fitch, Ferris S., Mich., '90 Fitz, Geo W., Mass., '98 Fitzgibbons, T. F., Ind., '95 Fitzpatrick, Frank A., Mass., '8 Fleshman, Arthur C, Ind., '94 Fletcher, A. H., Wis., '00 Fletcher, S. S. F., Eng., '99 Flickinger, J. R., Pa., '98 Fling, Allen C, Neb., '98 Floyd, Laura D., Ind., '98 Floyd, W. L., Fla., '00 Foerste, A. F., Ohio, '96 Foos, Anna, Neb., '97 Foose, L. O., Pa., '96 Foote, Mary C, 111., '97 Forbes, Alexander, 111., '76 Forbes, E. J., Australia, 'or Forbes, John A., 111., '98 Ford, Lyman H., Iowa, '97 Fordyce, Chas., Neb., '99 Foresman, H. A., 111., '96 Foresman, Robt., 111., '96 Forrest, J. T., Wash., '93 Fort, W. H., Mich., '97 Fortney, J. R., Ohio, 'or Foshay, Jas. A., Cal., '93 Foster, C. E., Tex., '97 Foster, John N., Wis., '01 Fowler, W. K., Neb., '92 Fox, Wm. F., Va.,'94 Francis, J. H.( Cal., '99 Franck, Augusta L., Mich., '01 Frank, H. L., Ohio, '99 Franklin, Geo. A., Minn., '07 Frasher, Mrs. N. L. D., H. I., 'o< Frasier, W. A., Vt., '00 Frazee, Victor, R. I., '96 Frederick, J. M. H., Ohio, 'or Frederick, 0. G., Mich., '00 Freeman, J. H., 111., '93 Freeman, John T., D. C., '98 Freer, H. H., Iowa, '84 French, Geo. W., N. Y., '93 French, Harlan P., N. Y., '91 French, John D., Neb., '99 French, O. E., Iowa, '93 French, Perineal, Idaho, '99 French, Walter H., Mich., '00 Friedberg, Wm. B., N. Y., '92 Friedel, Chas., Ore., '97 Friedman, Anna E., N. Y., '93 Frisbee, H. D., N. Y., '99 Frissell, H. B., Va., '00 Frogge, S. L., Ky„ '01 Frost, H. H., Mich., '95 Frost, J. M., 111., '97 Fruchte, Amelia C, Mo., '96 Fry, W. W., Fla., foo Fuller, Sarah, Mass., '00 Fulton, Robt. B., Miss., '94 Fulton, W. L., Ohio, '96 Fultz, Francis M., Iowa, '01 Funk, Clara, Ind., '99 Funk, J. P., Ind., '99 Furst, Clyde, Pa. , '00 Futrall, Thos. A., Ark., '87 Gage, Nathaniel P., D. C, '98 Galbreath, T. C, Md., '99 Gallup, E. E., Mich., 'or Gammon, Mrs. M. D., Wis., '97 Gans, W. G., Pa., '95 Gantvoort, A. J., Ohio. '94 Gardner, Helen R., Mich., '01 Gardner, W. H., Neb., '01 Garrett, Mary S., Pa., '97 Garrett, Wm. R., Tenn., '86 Garrette, Irene, Iowa, '97 Garvin, John B., Colo., '95 Garwood, Ralph S., Mich., 'or Gastman, E. A., 111., '95 Gaston. Chas. R., N. Y., '01 Gates, Elmer, Md., '98 Gates, Howard, Ark., '96 Gates, Merrill E., D. C, '99 Gayhart, Walter C, Nev., '93 Gaylord, J. S., Minn., '00 Geer, David S., 111., '86 Geeting, D. M., Ind., '95 Geiger, F. P., Ohio, '00 Gentle, T. H., Wis., '98 George, Austin, Mich, '93 ' Germann, Geo. B., N. Y., '98 Gettemy, Mrs. M. E., 111., '92 Gibson, C. B., Ga., '98 Gibson, John A., Pa., '96 Giddens, L. P., Ala., '00 Gideon, Geo. D., Pa., '99 Gies, Fannie G., Minn., '01 Giffin, W. M., 111., '95 Gilbert, C. B., N. Y./93 Gilbert, D. B., Neb., 'oi Gilbert, Irene, Mo., '00 Gilbert, Mrs. M. E., 111., '99 Gilbert, Newell D., 111., '95 Gill, Chas. M., Mo., '01 Gillam.I. T., Ark., '01 Gillan, Silas Y., Wis., '93 Gilleland, Tenetta, Ohio, '01 Gillespie, Mary, 111., '97 Gilliam, R. F., S. C, '00 Gilman, Daniel C, Md., '96 Girton, Wm. W., S. D., '99 Girzi, Olga J., Mich., '01 Given, Miss M. E., D. C, '01 Gladding, A. E., Ohio, '96 Glascock, Wm. H., Ind., '99 Glase, Medora V., Tenn., 'or Glass, E. C, Va., '94 Glenn, Chas. B., Ala., '00 Glenn, G. R., Ga., '95 Glotfelter, J. H., Kan., '99 Glover, Nathan L., Ohio, '89 Gminder, A. J., Md., '98 Goddard, Carrie, Kan., '01 Goddard, Wm. E., Wis., '99 Goggin, Catherine, 111., '98 Golden, H. W., Pa., '98 Goodhue, Lincoln P., 111., '93 Goodknight, J. L., 111., '93 Goodnough, Walter S., N. Y., '82 Goodrich, J. F., Mich., 'or Goodwin, A. C, Ind., '99 Goodwin, E. R., Mass., 'oi Goodyear, E. F., Cal., '99 Gordon, C. H., Neb., '00 Gordon, G. W., Tenn., '00 Gordon, Jos. C, 111., '97 Gordy, J. P., N Y., '96 Gordy, W. F., Conn., '98 Gorton, Chas. E., N. Y., '96 Goss, Mrs. J. Ahnfeldt, Mich., '01 Gotwals, Jos. K., Pa., '92 Gove, Aaron, Colo., 88 Gower, Hattie F., Cal., '99 INDEX 70 LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1013 Graeser, C. A., S. C, '97 Graham, Albert B., Ohio, '00 Graham, B. C, Fla., 'oo Graham, Hugh A., Mich., '95 Graham, Jas. D., Cal., '99 Grant, Miss A, L., D. C, '98, Grant, H. L., Minn., '96 Gratz, Simon, Pa., '79 Grawn, Chas. T., Mich., 'oi Gray, Arthur W., Cal., '00 Gray, Frank D., Ind., 'oo Gray, H. W., N. Y., '98 Gray, Jennie B., N. C, '00 Greason, Elmira R., Okla., '00 Greeley, J. P., Cal., '88 Green, fas. M., N. J., '92 Greene, John A., N. Y., 93 Greenlee, L. C, Colo., '92 Greenman, A. V., III., '97 Greenwood, J. M., Mo., '86 Gregory, Benj. C, N. J., '94 Gregory, G. A., Neb., 00 Gregory, Lyman, Cal., '99 Grenfell, Helen L., Colo., '99 Griffin, E. H., Md., '99 Griffin, Mary E., Mo., '01 Griffith, E. W., N. Y., '96 Griffith, Geo.. N. Y., '93 Griffiths, G. C., 111., '96 Griggs, Herbert, Colo., '99 Grimsley, G. A., N. C, '98 Grindle, H. D., Ohio, '98 Grisham, G. N., Mo., '00 Griswold, Wells R., Ohio, '01 Gross, Otis C, Wis., '96 Groszmann, M. P. E., N. Y., '94 Grote, Caroline, 111., '01 Grove, M. A., Pa., '97 Grover, Edwin O., 111., '00 Groves, Chas. W., 111., '96 Grussendorf, D. A., Minn., '98 Graver, E. A., N. Y., '00 Guden, Anna J., N. J., '94 Guilliams, J. M., Ga., '97 Guinther, I. C, Ohio, '00 Gunn, A. F., Cal., '99 Gunnison, W. B., N. Y., '96 Guss, Roland W., Mass., 95 Guttmann, Albert, Wis., '97 Haas, Nelson. N. J., '01 Hadley, Hiram, N. Mex.. '91 Haertel, M. H., 111., ;99 Hagemann, J. A., Wis., '99 Hagerty, C. T., N. Mex., '95 Haggett, Geo. B., N. Mex., '97 Haight, Nora B., Kan., '01 Haight, R. A., 111., '95 Hailmann, W. N., Ohio, '79 Hale, Geo. D., N. Y., '91 Hale.Wm. G., IH.,'99 Hale, Wm. H. C, Mich., '01 Haley, Eliza A., 111., '01 Haley, Margaret A., 111., '01 Hall, Clark B., Mich., '01 Hall, Dana W., 111., '91 Hall, Edwin H., Mass., '99 Hall, Frank H., 111., '97 Hall, G. Stanley, Mass., '91 Hall, H. L., Ind., '01 Hall, Isaac Freeman, Mass., '95 Hall, Loyal Freeman, Pa., '93 Hall, Mary F., N. Y., '93 Hall, W. S., 111., '99 Halland, J.G., N. D.,'97 Halleck, R. 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D., Ohio, '01 Simmons, J. W., Wis., '99 Simonds, H. A., Wis., '95 Simonson, R. B. D., Mo., '00 Sims, J. F., Wis., '97 Sinclair, S. B., Can., '91 Singer, Edgar A., Pa., '80 Sisson, E. O., 111., '97 Skidmore, Sydney T., Pa., '95 Skinner, Chas. /?., N. Y., '90 Skinner, Elizabeth, Colo., '99 Skinner, Wm. C, Mich., '95 Slack, H. W., Minn., '97 Slaton, W. F., Ga., '97 Slaton, W. M., Ga., '94 Slauson, H. M., Mich., '94 Sloan, Lucy A., Mich., '00 Sloane, Clyde. 111., '98 Smalley, D. H., 111.. '99 Smallwood. Mabel E., 111., '96 Smedley, Eva A., 111., '97 Smiley, Elmer, E., Wyo., '00 Smiley, Mrs. Mary S., Colo., '01 Smiley, Wm. H., Colo., '92 Smith, Alex., III., '99 Smith, Arthur, P., Mass., '90 Smith, A. Thos., Pa., '93 Smith, Anna T„ D. C, '95 Smith, Mrs. C. B., 111.. '98 Smith College, Mass., '98 Smith, D. E., N. Y., '01 Smith, E. E., 111., '96 Smith, E. R., 111., '97 Smith, E. S., 111., '01 Smith, Euler, B., Ga., '87 Smith, F. Everett, S. D., '01 Smith, F. P., Kan., '97 Smith, Geo. M., S. D., '95 Smith. Geo. W.. 111., '99 Smith, Harriet E., Wis., '97 Smith, Henry B., Colo., '99 Smith, H.J..N.Y., '95 Smith, living B., N. Y., '99 Smith, J. E., Tex., '99 Smith, J. F., Ohio, '98 Smith,}. L., III., 'oo Smith, J. Mace, N. Y., '95 Smith, Jos. R., Pa., '99 Smith, M. B., Mass., '99 Smith. Sidney F., D. C, '95 Smith College, Mass., '98 Smyth, W. S., 111., '93 Snedden, D. S., Cal., '99 Snow, Bonnie E., Minn., '96 Snow, Francis H., Kan., '93 111., 'Q7- ^N.f.,'94 M., Ga., '97 Snow, Mary S,, N. Y., '98 Snyder, A. J., Ill,, - Snyder, Henry, Snyder, Jessie J Snyder, J. H., Ohio, '96 Snyder, J. L., Mich., '89 Snyder, W. H., Mass., 'oi Snyder, W. R., Ind., '95 Snyder, Z. X., Colo., '87 Snyder, Mrs. Z. X., Colo., '96 Sold an F. Louis, Mo., '77 Sollitt, Alice E., 111., '93 Somerville Pub. Lib'y, Mass., '00 Soper, Laura J., Can., '01 Soule, Geo., La., '92 S. Dak. Agri. Coll., S. D., '99 S. 111. Nor. Univ., 111., '99 Southall. J. W„ Va., '98 Spain, Chas. L., Mich., '01 Spangler, H. T., Pa., '94 Spaulding, F. E., N. J., '96 Spaulding, Randall, N J., '92 Spaunhurst, J. F., Ind., '00 Spayd, H. H., Pa., '92 Speer, W. W., 111., '96 Spencer, Catherine. Mo., '97 Spencer, Pauline W., Pa., '93 Spencer, Root. C, Wis., '84 Spencer, Mrs. Sara A., D. C, '92 Spencer. Thos. E., Mo., '00 Spero, Mrs. Anna K., Cal., '77 Spiegle, Grace E., Pa., '99 Spindler, J. W., Kan., '99 Springer, DurandW., Mich., '94 Squire, Mary V., N. Y., '96 Stableton, J. K., 111., '00 Stalker, Francis M., Ind., *oi Stanley, Edmund, Kan., '86 Stanton, Otis G., Ind., '01 Staples, Helen F., Minn., '96 Stapleton, M. A. C, Mont., '99 Stark, Joshua, Wis., '84 Starke, N. C, Va., '99 St. F. N. Sch., Farmville, Va.,'99 State Agri. Coll., Kan.. '97 St. Historical Soc, Wis., '84 State Library, Cal., '90 State Library, Mass., 98 State Nor. Coll., Mich., '00 St. N. and Ind. Coll., N. C, '98 St. N. Sch., Brockport, N. Y.,'00 St. N. Sch., California, Pa., '99 St. N. Sch., Carbondale, 111., 99 St. N. Sch., Cedar Falls, Iowa.V St. N. Sch.. Charleston, 111., '99 St. N. Sch., Chico, Cal., '97 St. N. Sch., De Kalb, 111., '99 St. N. Sch.,EIlensburg,Wash.,'97 St. N. Sch., Fairmont, W.Va.,'01 St. N. Sch., Farmville, Va., '99 St. N. Sch., Fitchburg. Mass., '98 St. N. Sch., Greeley, Colo., '97 St. N. Sch., Indiana, Pa., '99 St. N. Sch., Jacksonville, Ala., '99 St. N. Sch., Los Angeles, Cal. ,'97 St. N. Sch., Mankato, Minn, '99 St. N. Sch., Mansfield, Pa., '97 St. N. Sch., Mayville, N. D., '00 St. N. Sch., Millersville. Pa., '97 St. N. Sch., Marquette, Mich. ,'99 St. N. Sch., Monmouth. Ore., '01 St. N. Sch., Moorhead, Minn., '97 St. N. Sch., New Paltz, N. Y.,'99 St. N. Sch., Normal, 111., '98 St. N. Sch., Oshkosh, Wis., '98 St. N. Sch., Oswego, N. Y., '00 St. IV. Sch., Platteville,Wis.,'84 St. N. Sch., Providence, R. I. ,'97 St. N. Sch., Salem, Mass., '00 St. N. Sch., San Jose, Cal., '98 St. N. Sch., St. Cloud, Minn. ,'97 St. N. Sch., Superior, Wis., *oo St. N. Sch., Terre Haute, Ind. ,'97 St. N. Sch., Trenton, N. J., '97 St. N. Sch., Westfield, Mass., '97 St, N. Sch.,W. Liberty ,W.Va.,'oo St. Nor. Sch., Whatcom, Wash., '00 St. N. Sch., Whitewater, Wis.,'98 St. N. Sch., Winona, Minn., '97 St. Teachers' Assoc, of III., '90 St. Univ. Lib'y, Iowa, '97 St. Univ. Lib'y, Ohio, '97 St. Clair, W. T., Ky., '01 Stearns, J. W„ Wis., '84 Steele, Wm. L , 111., '90 Steen, J. M., Tenn., '00 Steere, E. A., Mont., '96 Stehman, J. H., 111., '97 Stein, F. W., Cal., '99 Stephens, H. Morse, N, Y., '96 Stephens, J. P., Pa., '01 Stephens, M. Bates, Md., '98 Stephenson, Lillie S., 111., '95 Stern Menco, N. Y., '82 Stetson, W. W., Me., '95 Stevens, C. E., Ohio, 'or Stevens, Edw. L., N. Y., '99 Stevens, Moses C., Ind., '76 Stevens, Plowden, jr., N. Y., '93 Stevenson, A. L., 111., '97 Stevenson, Wm. C, Md., '90 Steward, Darius, Minn., '00 Stewart, I. N., Wis., '84 Stewart, John A., Mich., '84 Stewart, Jos. S., Ga., '95 Stewart, N. Coe., Ohio, '92 Stewart, Sarah A., N. Y., '84 Stickney. Lucia, Ohio, '93 Stigall, Oliver, Mo., '98 Stilwell, Miss E. O., S, D., '01 Stitt, E. W., N. Y.. '96 St. Louis Pub. Lib'y, Mo., '00 Stockwell. Mrs. H. H., N. D., '94 Stockwell, Thos. B., R. I., '91 Stockwell, Walter L., N. D., '94 Stokes, A. L., S. C, '00 Stokes, Horace A., Ohio, '95 Stokes, Susan G., Utah, '99 Stone, Mason S., P. I., '94 Stoneroad, Rebecca D., D. C, '96 Storm, A. V., Iowa, '94 Stout, Geo. H., Pa., '84 Stout, Isaac H., N. Y., '90 Stout, J. D., Iowa, '98 Stovall, Anna M., Cal., '99 Stowell, Thos. B., N. Y., '91 Strachan, Alex., S. D., '97 Stratton, C. C, Ore., '88 Stratton, F. E., Minn., '86 Straubenmiiller, G.. N. Y., '97 Strickland, W. S., Ohio, '99 Strine, J. H., Cal., '99 Stroeter, E. H., Mo., '99 Strong, Edwin A., Mich., '92 Strong, Jas. W., Minn., '95 Struthers, Hester C, N. C, '98 Stuart, Alex., T., D. C, '00 Stuart, Margaret, 111., '01 Stuart, Giles A., Conn., '99 Stubbs, J.E., Nev., '95 Study, J. N., Ind., '97 Stuver, E., Colo., '95 Sudborougk, Mrs. G., Neb., '80 Sullivan, Ella C, 111., '99 Summers, Alex., D. C., '98 Sunderlin, A. V., Iowa, '00 Super, Chas. W., Ohio, '91 Superior St. Nor. Sch. Lib'y, '00 Suplee, Etta, Iowa, '95 Suplee, Fannie, Iowa, '95 S-upt. and Prin. Asso., Wis., '84 Surette, Thos. W., N. Y., '01 Suter, Anna, Ind., '90 Suter, Miss H. A., La., '94 Sutherland, E. B., Mich, '01 Sutherland, Marg. W., Ohio, '95 Sutton, W. S., Tex ., '95 Suydam, V. A., Wis., '99 Swain, G. R., Mich., 'or. Swain, Jos., Ind., '93 Swan, Phebe, Wis., 97 Swanger, F. A., Cal., '99 Swart, Rose C, Wis.. '95 Swartz, Jno. W., Ohio, '99 Sweeney, Ella L., R. I., '00 Sweet, Benj. A., 111., '00 INDEX TO LIFE AND ACTIVE MEMBERS 1019 Swett, John, Cal., '99 Swingle, W. M., N. J., '98 Syracuse Cent. Lib., N. Y., '98 Tadd, J., Liberty, Pa., '92 Tait, Elizabeth S.. Pa., '98 Talbot, Henry, 111., '92 Tapley, Wm. W., Mass., '92 Tappan, David S., Ohio, '99 Tarbell, Horace S., R. I., '91 Tarr, RalphS.. N.Y., '99 Tate, W. K., S. C, '99 Taubman, Kate, S. D., '94 Tawney, Guy A., Wis , '98 Taylor, A. /P., 111., '86 Taylor, Edw., Ky., '96 Taylor, Henry J., Iowa, '84 Taylor, Jos. S., N. Y., '94 Taylor, R. A.. N. Y., 'oi Teh's Asso. Cowley Co., Kan, '86 Teh's Asso. Riley Co., Kan., '86 Teachers' Association, Wis., '84 Teachers Coll., Dept. Man. Tr., N. Y., '99 rch's Inst. Phila.. Pa., '79 Templeton, J. C, Cal., '94 Terrel, Harriet E., Ohio, '96 Terrell, Robert H., D. C, '98 Thames, W. I., Miss., '97 Tharpe, F. D., Mo., '91 Thatcher, Jas. L., Iowa, '96 Thayer, Ada F., N. Y.. '96 Theilman, Louis, Mo., '95 Thiry. J. H., N. Y., '97 Thomas, Blanche T., Ariz., '98 Thomas, D. W., Ind., '96 Thomas, Emma A., Mich., '96 Thomas, Isaac, Vt., '99 Thomas, Jennie L., M ich„ '00 Thomas, W. Scott, N. Y., '99 Thompson, A. B., Ind., '01 Thompson, D. M., N. C, '98 Thompson, E. C, Mich., '94 Thompson, Fannie E., Ohio,' 99 Thompson, H. E., Ok!a., '95 Thompson, J. H., Mich., '01 Thompson, John G., Mass., '95 Thompson, L. S., N. J., '76 Thompson. O. D., Mich., '96 Thompson, T. E., Mass., '97 Thompson, Wm. 0.,Ohio, '94 Thompson, Frank D., III., '95 Thorndyke, E. L., N. Y., '98 Thornhill, E. A.. 111., '01 Thorson, I. A., Minn., '98 Thudium, C. C, Mo., '98 Thurber, Chas. H., Mass., '93 Thweatt, Hiram H., Ga., '00 Thwing, Chas. F.,Ohio, '95 Thwing, F. F., Ky., '01 Tibbets, Anna, Neb., '94 Tibbetts, A. C, Minn., '95 Tibbits, H. S.. 111., '00 Tighe, R. J., N. C, '00 Tillotson, D. C, Kan., '86 Tilton, Chas. S., Wash., '99 Tinker, B. W., Conn., '97 Todd, Samuel B., Wis., '95 Toepel, Theo.. Ga., '01 Tolman, Henry L., 111., '97 Tompkins, A., 111., '96 Tormey, J. A., Minn., '97 Tower, Belle M., Mich., '97 Towne, Geo. L., Neb., '00 Townsend, H. S., P. I., '99 Townsend, J. A., N. Y., '99 Tracy, Frank N., 111., '96 Trant, Amelia Earle. N. Y., '96 Trask, H. M., Pa., '95 Travell. Ira W., N. J., '97 Trent, E. O.. Ark., 'oi Tressler, A. W., Wis., '92 Treudley, F., Ohio, '91 Triplet, Wm., Colo., '01 Trisler, J. L., Ohio, 'or Trotter, J. R.. W. Va., '97 Trowbridge, G. S., Cal., '99 Truman, Emma L., S. D., 'oi Trybom, J. H., Mich., '00 Tual. Acad. Pacif. Univ.,Ore.,'9g Tucker, Lucy B., Ohio, '01 Tuger, Margaret E., N. Y., '01 Turner, Alfred, Mass., '95 Turner, C. W.,Neb., '99 Turner, Eugene F., Tenn., '00 Turner, F. L., 111., '00 Turner, J. E., 111., '95 Turner, J. M., Wis., '97 Turner, Marie L., Mo., '95 Tuttle, Albert H., Va., '96 Tutwiler, Julia S., Ala., '82 Twichell, Hattie, Mass., '95 Twichell, W. S., N. J., '01 Twiggs, T. P., Mich., 'oi Twining, Nathan C, 111., '84 Twiss, Geo. R., Ohio, '94 Twitchell, W. I., Conn., '01 Twitmyer Geo. W., Del., '90 Tynan, T. T., Wyo.. '99 Underbill, Volney, III., '93 University, Atlanta, Ga., '95 University, Brown, R. I.. '01 University, Columbia, N. Y.,'95 University, Cornell, N. Y., '96 University, Denison, Ohio, '00 University, Harvard, Mass., '95 University, J. B. Stetson, Fla.,'99 University, Johns Hopkins, Md., '99 . . , University, Lawrence, Wis., 99 University, Lehigh, Pa., '99 University, Leland Stanford Jr., Cal., '97 University, Mercer, Ga., '99 University, Miami, Ohio, '95 University, S. 111. Nor., '99 University, West Virginia, '99 University of Arizona, '01 University of California, '95 University of Chicago, 111., '99 University of Georgia, '95 University of Illinois, '99 University of Indiana, '99 University of Iowa, '97 University of Michigan, '98 University of Minnesota, '00 University of Missouri, '95 University of Nebraska, '98 University of N. Carolina. '99 University of N. Dakota, '99 University of Ohio, '97 University of Oklahoma, '99 University of Omaha, Neb., '97 University of Pennsylvania, '98 University of Rochester, N. Y., '00 University of State of N. Y., '93 University of Tennessee, '01 University of Texas, '98 University of Utah, '95 University of Vermont, '01 University of Washington, '98 University of Wyoming, '97 Updegraff, H., N. Y., '99 Upton, R. R., Ohio, '98 Vail, Henry H., N. Y., '97 Vaile, E. O., 111., '95 Valparaiso Coll., Ind., '97 Van Adestine, Elizabeth, Mich., '01 Van A ken. Mrs. G., N. Y., '84 Vance, Sophie, Ohio, '90 Vance, Wm. McK., Ohio, '00 Van Cleve, C. L., Ohio, '96 Van Cleve, Edw. M., Ohio, '97 Vandyke, J. A., Minn., '96 Van Liew, Chas. C, Cal., '94 Van Rensselaer, Martha.N Y.,*94 Van Sickle, Jas. H., Md., '92 Van Winkle. J. D., Ark., '00 Vassar College, N. Y.. '98 Vaughan, Mary E., 111., '00 Veatch, Nathan T., Kan., '95 Veenfliet, Mrs. M. L., Mich., '01 Vert. Edmund J., Minn., '95 Viebahn, Chas. F., Wis., r84 Virtue, G. O., Minn., '98 Vogel, Wm. H., Ohio, V Volland, A. J., Mich., '97 Voorhes, O. P., Ohio, '00 Voorhis, Geo. H., N. J., '93 Vosburgh, J. H., Okla., '01 Wabash College, Ind., '95 Wade, Margaret I., N. J., '94 Wadhams, John A., 111., '01 Wagner, Harr, Cal., '99 Wagner, W. H., Neb., '99 Waite, Geo. S., Mich., '00 Wakeman, J. W., N. J., '92 Waldo, Eveline A., La., '97 Walke, Mathilda L., Ohio, '92 Walker, B. M., Miss., '99 Walker, E. W., Wis., '97 Walker, H. A. C, S. C, '00 Walker, P. R., Ill,, '90 Walker, R. E., 111.. '99 Walls, Callie K. Ky., '01 Walrath, M. H., N. Y., '96 Walsh, Elizabeth B., Ky., 'oo Walsh, J. H., N. Y., '95 Walter, Mary, Ohio, '98 Walter, Sarah J., Conn., '98 Walters, Wm. W., Mo., '01 Walton, Geo. A., Mass., '92 ♦Ward, Edw. G., N. Y., '99 Ward, F. D., Ohio, '01 Ward, Henry B., Neb., '97 Ward Seminary, Tenn., '99 Wardlaw, P., S. C, '00 Ware, N. E., Ga., ^96 Warfield, Wm. C, Ohio, '00 Waring, J. H. N., D. C, '98 Warner, A. B., Iowa, '94 Warner, Chas. F., Mass., '99 Warr, J. W., III., '95 Warnner, E. C, Mich., '99 Washburn, Kirk N., Mass., '96 Washburne, Marion F., 111., '00 Waterhouse, A. H., Neb., '96 Waterman, Richard, 111., '96 Watson, Edith M., Wis., '07 Watt, W. E., 111., '95 Way, R. B., Mich., '01 Weaver, E. W., N. Y., '97 Weaver, John S., Ohio, '99 Weaver, Sterrie A., Mass., '00 Webb, Louis K., Cal., '99 Weber, A. W., Wis., '97 Weber, H. C„ Tenn., V Webster, E. E., Mich., '99 Webster, Geo. W., 111., '99 Webster, R. H„ Cal., '99 Webster, W. F., Minn., '96 Weeks, C. W., Minn., '95 Weir, Samud, N. Y., '01 Welch, W. W., Mont., '01 Weld, Frank A., Minn., '95 Weldon, Edw., Pa., '98 Welles, Frank E., N. Y., '95 Wellesley College, Mass., '00 Welsh, J. P., Pa., '96 Wentz, Etta L., N. Y., '96 Wernick, E. V„ Wis., '95 Wertz, Adda P., 111., '01 Wescott, F. H., 111., '97 West, Geo. A., N. J.. '01 Westcott, Edith, D.C., '98 Westcott, O. S., 111., '95 Western, The, Ohio, '99 Westervelt, Z. F., N. Y„ '97 Westfall, Mary B., Ohio, '97 West Virginia Univ., '99 Whatcom St. Nor. Sch.,Wash., '00 Wheaton Coll., 111., '99 Wheeler, Henry N., Mass.. '92 Wheeler, Willard J., Ala., 'oo Wheeling Pub. Lib'y, W. Va., '01 Wheelock, Chas. F., N. Y., '95 Whipple, H. A., Wis., '97 Whitcomb, Arthur K., Mass., '92 White, Adeline R., Mont., 'oi White, Chas. G., Mich., '95 White, Chas. L., Me., '91 White, Daniel A., 111., '95 White, Daniel H., Cal., '99 White, Emerson E., Ohio, '70 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION White, Fred. C, N. Y., '99 White, H. C, Ga., '96 White, J. T., Md., '98 White, J. U., Mo., '87 White, Wm. M., Ohio, '96 White, W. S., Mich., '97 White, W. T„ Tenn., '89 Whiteford, J. A., Mo., '95 WhitehilI,MissO. P., N. Mex.,'99 Whitfield, H. L., Miss., '00 Whitford, Wm. C, Wis., '84 Whitman College, Wash., 'oi Whitney, Allen S., Mich., '94 Whitney, M. A.. III., '91 Whitney, 0. C, Wash., '98 Whitney, S. Emory, Mich., '93 Whitsett, W. T., N. C, 'oo Whittemore, Henry, Mass., '95 Whittle, W. R., R. I., '96 Wiard, Louise A., Ky., '96 Wicks, Arthur H., Ohio, '00 Wicks, John F., 111., '97 Wicks, Walter J., Wis., '01 Widner, Esther A., Ohio, *8o Wiggs, Mrs. W. H., Ga., 'oo Wilber, Flora, 111., '01 Wilcox, Albert H., N. Y., 'oo Wilcox, Jessie B., Wash., '99 Wiley, Wm. H., Ind., '96 Wilkins, A. H., Tex., '94 Wilkinson, E. W., Ohio, '00 Wilkinson, J. J., 111., '96 Wilkinson, L N., Kan., '84 Wilkinson, Warring, Cal., '99 Willard, F. E., Iowa, '96 Williams, Anna L., Cal., '99 Williams Coll. Lib'y, Mass., '97 Williams, David, Fla., '97 Williams, Mrs. Delia, Ohio, '70 Williams. H. B., Ohio, 'oo Williams. J. D., 111., '96 Williams, L. W., R.I. ,'98 Williams, M. Ida, Cal., '99 Williams, Philo J„ Kan., '86 Williams, Sherman, N. Y., '98 Williams, Thyrza C, N. J., '97 Williams, Wm. H., Wis., '97 Williamson, J. E., Iowa, '95 Willis, H. B., N.J. ,'92 Willis, W. A., Iowa, '84 Willis, W. S.,N.J., 'oi Wilmington Inst. Free Lib'y, Del., '00 Wilson, C. B., Mass., '96 Wilson, Eugene A., Mich., 'gg Wilson, Harry G., 111., '95 Wilson, H. B., Ind., '00 Wilson, H. G., Ariz., '01 Wilson, J. Alfred, N. J., '99 Wilson, J. Ormond, D. C, '80 Wilson, J. W., Kan., '01 Wilson, M. C, Ala., '00 Wilson, Mrs. L. L. W., Pa., '99 Wilson, P. J., Mich., '01 Wilson, V. L., Iowa, '97 Wilson, W. B., S. C, 'gg Wilson, Wm. E., Wash., '90 Windate, Ida M., Mass., '96 Winne, Jas., N. Y., '92 Winship, Albert E., Mass., '92 Winston, Geo. T., N. C, '96 Winters, T. H., Ohio, '97 Winthrop Nor. Coll., S. C, '01 Wirt, Wm. A., Ind., '00 Wise, Henry A., Md., '85 Witherspoon, Jas. H., Ark., '99 Witmer, Chas. K., Pa., '94 Witmer, Lightner, Pa., '98 Witter, F. M„ Iowa, '97 Wolfe, H. K., Neb., '96 Wolfe, L. E., Kan., '90 Woman's Coll., Md,, '99 Wood, Charles H., Ind., '01 Wood, Court F., D. C, '97 Wood, Emory M., Mich., '89 Wood, Jas. A., N. Mex., '97 Wood, John A., Ind., '98 Wood, O. M., P. R., '93 Woodhull.J. F.,N. Y.,*99 Woodley, O. I., N. Y. '96 Woodmansee, M. A., Ohio, '98 Woods, Francis M., 111., '96 Woodward, C. M„ Mo., '87 Woodward, Eliz. J., Mass., '99 Woodward, F. C, S. C, '99 Woodward, J. C, Ga., '97 Woody, H. G., Ind., '93 Wooley, L. C, N. J., '93 Woolsey, P. S., Cal., '01 Work, H. B., W. Va., '00 Worley, G. W., Ind., '01 Wooster, Lizzie E., Kan., '00 Wreidt, E. A., Mich., '01 Wright, A. M., N. Y., '93 Wright, Anna J., Ohio, '94 Wright, Edmund W., Me., '89 Wright, G. H. B., Cal., '01 Wright, G. S., Mich., 'oi Wright, John A., Ohio, '01 Wright, L. L., Mich., '96 Wright, O. A., Ohio, '98 Wright, R. R., Ga., '00 Wright, Wm. R., Mich., '92 Wylie, Mrs. M. J. B., N. Y., '91 Wyly, G. A., Ohio, '01 Yates, A. A.,N. Y.,'98 Yates, Lydia A., N. C, '98 Yerby, John D., Ala., '95 Yoder, A. H., Wash., '96 Yost, E. W., Mich., 'oi Young, Mrs. Agnes B., S. D., 'oi Young, C. N., Wash., '01 Young, Mrs. Ella F., 111., '00 Young, J. B., Iowa, '96 Young, J. S., 111., '95 Young, Nathan B., Fla., '96 Young, Robert G., Mont., '89 Zeller, J.W., Ohio, '01 Ziek, Mary, Iowa, '98 Zillafro, Margaret C, Pa., '96 Zimmerman, C. F. A., Wis., '95 Zirkle, H. W., Colo., '98 CLASSIFIED MEMBERSHIP BY STATES IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE YEAR IQOI — (DETROIT MEETING) State or Territory Total. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. . North Central Division.. Western Division Colonies Foreign North Atlantic Division- Maine , New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey , Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division- Delaware Maryland. . District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida South Central Division- Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Oklahoma Indian Territory North Central Division- Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Iowa Minnesota. Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas Western Division- Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Colonies — Alaska Hawaii Porto Rico Philippine Islands Foreign- Canada Other countries Active Membership ^Q a 2,018 563 176 117 912 229 7 6 no 16 18 238 66 100 3 24 39 15 iS5 79 252 74 79 5i 67 60 13 14 33 35 15 6 43 12 n 6 3 4 19 Ja 103 27 39 398 s° 2,810 700 215 163 1,408 292 16 16 24 292 78 124 6 29 48 16 254 113 342 165 126 79 88 87 17 32 43 62 7 55 15 IS 10 3 9 27 11 118 isa 7.372 609 258 605 5.483 394 23 9 63 3 17 220 95 199 183 85 10 9 32 129 90 61 6 499 244 800 2,028 167 365 294 328 81 109 282 286 66 8 63 16 19 •a S 182 1,309 473 768 6,891 686 16 39 13 7 21 196 23 41 512 173 323 7 76 137 22 56 29 30 77 39 215 108 46 148 116 71 9 753 357 1,142 2,193 293 444 382 415 98 141 325 348 88 15 118 31 34 32 6 '9 81 45 217 1021 RECORD OF MEMBERSHIP BY STATES IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR EACH YEAR FROM 1884-I9OI, INCLUSIVE Excepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held. Heavier numbers show membership from the state in which the meeting for the year was held. State or Territory B 0 •8 « 0 « V a. 0 M 0 '0 e a £ e 1 "3 « Ph 0 c 0 a H O a Ph b E J5 "a V V 3 ■ e 0 _c '£ s ~v M C < a 0 JU eg | <5 m H O C/3 fc Cfl H Cfl < 0 CQ 2 1* 3 O Q 1884 1885 188b 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 Total 2,729 b25 i,i97 9."5 7,216 1,984 5,474 4,778 3,360 5,915 11,297 9,072 7,111 10,533 13,656 4,641 10,182 N. Atlantic Div- • 792 40b 38b 773 803 101 795 42b 1,187 1,711 1,462 2,940 942 1,492 1,877 783 1,309 S. Atlantic Div-- 77 ib 31 44 "3 128 95 151 309 271 289 237 172 1,146 361 1,181 473 S. Central Div-- in 19 47 37° 216 1,074 2b 1 417 253 460 899 419 304 1,588 818 4^4 768 N. Central Div-- 1,712 17b 708 7,67i 1,074 642 4,156 2,933 1,456 3,357 7,211 5.083 5,315 5,882 5,074 1,903 6,981 Western Div — zb 7 25 102 4,974 38 122 19b 104 73 1,403 377 3bb 412 5,487 354 686 16 11 1 155 3b I 45 655 51 43 33 ib 12 13 39 6 39 N. Atlantic Div. 21 2 5 25 11 32 30 10 5 24 7 7 10 16 12 13 N. Hampshire 04 b 10 23 11 32 9 5 7 27 8 b 6 14 5 7 43 8 3 41 4 4° 4 20 4 13 14 15 n 11 8 21 Massachusetts 310 145 «5 277 206 28 290 114 212 . 52 191 197 159 159 294 139 196 Rhode Island.. 5o 13 13 29 3° 4 31 42 23 12 55 35 23 36 50 18 23 Connecticut... 40 18 23 3b 48 4 31 18 63 13 26 43 24 31 46 24 41 New York 143 169 91 211 210 29 228 117 611 326 521 2,132 411 5°9 756 327 512 New Jersey.. . 40 27 35 23 4i 13 12 ib 6s 969 168 179 no 172 154 93 *73 Pennsylvania. Hi 28 121 108 242 23 99 76 178 323 437 325 187 S3" 536 157 323 S. Atlantic Div. 1 4 3 1 2 5 6 8 17 11 8 9 9 4 7 5 10 8 17 3 7 13 49 45 53 23 31 80 50 81 76 District of Col. 3° 1 7 12 32 13 21 10 35 24 47 29 57 382 99 57 137 b 4 3 2 18 12 2 8 2 24 36 21 10 63 22 38 22 West Virginia. 15 3 3 8 6 b 27 49 20 37 49 52 ib 129 29 18 5b N. Carolina... 3 2 2 8 12 2 13 17 IS 5 14 4 76 27 72 29 S. Carolina . .. 5 4 1 2 13 22 4 18 14 52 1 31 7 92 22 691 30 11 1 2 10 ib 43 23 31 163 64 62 43 30 2bi 87 i4S 77 1 1 1 ib 7 4 3 2 19 13 9 54 16 71 39 S. Central Div. 33 2 8 151 22 114 39 57 42 128 176 77 98 408 13b 68 215 Tennessee 12 b 5 b2 83 607 97 124 57 124 66 57 25 248 "3 96 108 9 1 1 ib 45 123 35 79 Si 41 41 59 25 229 69 74 35 Mississippi.... 7 1 2 7 10 «7 44 42 36 20 49 25 19 100 65 27 20 3 7 8 11 7 19 13 2S 21 35 108 25 42 146 bo 26 4b 22 1 15 55 29 89 20 53 9 82 294 99 41 257 221 55 148 22 8 b7 12 29 12 34 33 2S 84 b3 41 132 9b 46 nb 4 58 14 II 60 47 21 71 Indian T'y 3 1 1 8 b J 3 4 1 23 2 7 11 1 19 N. Central Div. Ohio 121 43 b7 5«i 22; bo 361 355 i78 990 592 565 357 I.3I3 580 286 753 54 15 4b 418 71 89 20b 149 65 258 321 250 205 591 354 173 357 354 33 104 l/Jao 222 204 625 bbb 214 871 i,495 1,174 78s 1,340 1,21b 557 1,142 77 12 20 273 40 29 137 259 28s 155 204 589 327 379 196 no 2,193 Wisconsin .... !>46 18 18 48b 57 28 443 222 72 143 188 413 1,870 361 287 187 293 3°4 18 87 1,146 9b 67 572 278 no 164 1,086 S78 543 383 593 82 444 Minnesota 132 9 11 649 58 ib 933 118 54 8b 193 303 333 164 267 121 382 46 11 73 025 133 68 249 320 189 435 1,113 40b 28s 795 673 166 4i5 North Dakota. 8 \ 99 32 ib 8 28 34 53 26 38 16 98 South Dakota. 1 149 7 \ 109 31 20 9 78 83 118 45 86 • 30 141 3Q 5 27 634 40 10 147 220 12b 127 742 363 251 103 33i 86 325 16 11 iyo 960 124 64 275 283 127 in 1,171 325 187 382 453 89 348 Western Div. 3 1 1 9 4 5 37 24 9 3 IS 43 78 20 70 24 88 Wyoming 1 2 2 8 8 5 13 4 2 48 7 10 8 13 7 15 12 3 11 40 109 8 56 114 59 58 1,136 177 US 196 465 65 118 New Mexico . . 2 2b 2 1 7 5 26 16 21 27 90 18 31 1 45 1 1 2 2 11 b b 21 158 19 34 1 3 4 127 10 8 4 89 37 22 25 106 8 32 1 1 b 134 1 2 5 3 2 49 3 6 3 6 b 3 12 32 56 19 81 Washington. . . 1 1 3 27 1 6 18 1 2 ib 8 20 3 1 1 11 204 8 7 5 5 14 9 7 10 79 13 45 California . . . ■i 4 18 4,278 13 8 5 10 1 53 Si Sb 87 4,357 IS6 217 Colonies 33 "io 13 1 J3 1 9 a 39 1 5 4 3 6 Philippine Isls 6 11 1 155 36 1 45 655 5i 43 INVENTORY AND PRICE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN THE DEPOSITORY AT WASHING- TON, D. C, JULY I, 1 90 1 Price per Number of Prices in single vol- copies sets, carriage ume, carriage MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS in stock not prepafd prepaid Historical Sketch of the National Educational Association, 1857-91 , 162 $0.20 $0.25 X REPRINTS OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1891 Paper cover, 147 pages 155 $0.20 $0.25 1892 " 237 "........ 396 .20 .25 1894 " " 184 " 286 .20 .25 1898 " " 194 " 38 .20 .25 1900 " " 120 "........ 201 .20 .25 X REPRINTS OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 885 Paper cover, 120 pages . . . . . . . 13 $0.10 $0.15 73 ': 131 •"> -15 98 " . . . . . . . 225 .10 .15 80 " . . . . . . . . . 232 .10 .15 114 " 95 .10 .15 95 " 121 .10 .15 81 " 46 .10 .15 890 891 894 895 X REPRINTS OF REPORTS OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES fReport of Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools, paper cover, 249 pages $0.30 $0.30 f Report of Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Schools, paper cover, 235 pages .30 .30 Report of Committee on Rural Schools, paper cover, 228 pages .... .20 .25 Report of Committee on College-Entrance Requirements, paper cover, 188 pages .20 .25 Report of Committee on Normal Schools, paper cover, 64 pages .... .10 .15 Report of Committee on Public Libraries and Public Schools, paper cover, 80 pages .10 .15 PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION 1865 Paper cover, 117 pages ....... 15 $0.50 * 1866 " " 140 " 17 .50 * BOUND VOLUMES OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1873 Elmira 230 $1-25 $1-50 1874 Detroit 254 1.25 1.50 1875 Minneapolis 168 1.25 1.50 1876 Baltimore .......... 261 1.25 1.50 1877 Louisville .......... 160 1.25 1.50 1878 (No meeting) 1879 Philadelphia . . «. 273 1.25 1.50 1880 Chautauqua 218 1.25 1.50 1881 Atlanta 477 1.25 1.50 1882 Saratoga Springs ......... 18 1.50 * 1883 Saratoga Springs .........* * * 1884 Madison 542 1.50 1.75 1885 Saratoga Springs 7 1.50 * 1886 Topeka 308 1.50 1.75 1887 Chicago 112 1.50 1.75 1888 San Francisco 232 1.50 1.75 1889 Nashville 409 1.50 1.75 1890 St. Paul 432 1.75 2.00 1891 Toronto . 691 1.75 2.00 1892 Saratoga Springs ......... 677 1.75 2.00 1893 Chicago (International Congress of Education) . . . 454 1.75 2.00 1894 Asbury Park 424 1.75 2.00 1895 Denver 300 1.75 2.00 1896 Buffalo 223 1.75 2.00 1897 Milwaukee 154 1.75 2.00 1898 Washington, D. C 32 1.75 2.00 1899 Los Angeles ......... 46 *-75 2-°° 1900 Charleston 125 1.75 2.00 1901 Detroit in press , 1.75 2.00 Subject Index free 1.00 * Stock exhausted. t The Reports of the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Fifteen are printed and sold by the Ameri- can Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid. X All reprints noted above are included in the bound volumes of Proceedings except the Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools. A complete Subject Index of all published proceedings to 1897 has been issued in a separate volume, bound in cloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings. The index will be sent free of charge to those who purchase five or more volumes ; to others it will be sent postpaid for $1.00. The index volume will be supplied to active members for 25 cents for postage, wrapping, etc. All publications can be obtained of the Secretary. Remittances should be made by Draft or P. O. Money Order. Irwin Shkpard, Secretary, Winona, Minn. 1023 INDEX [Names of authors of papers are set in small capitals. A f indicates a memorial sketch.] A B C of Reference Work— W.I. Fletcher, 847. Act of Incorporation, 4. Active Members, List of, 935. Active Membership, Growth of the, 42. Adams, C. F. — Discussion, 593, 594. Addresses of Welcome — Gov. A. T. Bliss, 51; State Supt. Delos Fall, 52; Pres. James B. Angell, 56; Supt. Wales C. Martindale, 57. Advancement of Pupils thru Grades, 280. Advisory Board, Membership of, 37 ; Reso- lution Concerning, 37. Agricultural School for Indian Service, 921. Agriculture as a Science for the Elementary Schools — Joseph Carter, 785. Ahern, Mary Eileen — Secretary's Min- utes, 829. Aikin, Walter H. — Supervisors and Su- pervision, 714. Algebra Conference — Leader, George W. Evans, 589. Allen, E. A. — Introspection, 914. American Book Co., Royalty Sales, 45. An All -Around Mechanical Training for Indians — Frank K. Rogers, 909; Dis- cussion, 910. Angell, James B. — Address of Welcome, 56 ; In Memory of B. A. Hinsdale, 387. Annual Meeting, Minutes of, 24. Annual Volume, Remarks Concerning, 47 ; Cost of, 48, Appendixes to History of Establishment of Bureau of Education : A, Letter to John D. Philbrick, 415; B, Extract from Ad- dress by Daniel Reed, 415 ; C, Resolu- tions Concerning, 417; Membership of Committee on, 417; Extract from Ad- dress of A J. Rickoff, 418 ; D, Resolu- tions, 419; E, National Bureau of Edu- cation— Address by E. E. White, 420 ; F, Report on Technical Schools, 425 ; G, Speech of James A. Garfield in House of Representatives on National Bureau of Education, 426 ; H, Barnard's Plan for Central Agency of Education, 435 ; Plan of Publication, 436 ; I, Plan for New Series American Journal of Education, 436; J, History of Plan of Publication, 438. Arms, S. Dwight — The Status of Science Instruction in the State of New York, 79 1 . Art Education, Department of, 683 ; The Economic Value of, 685 ; The Economic Basis of, 549. Art Principle, Rhythm as an, 692. Art-Unresponsiveness in Children, 549. Artistic Handicraft in Primary and Inter- mediate Grades — Helen M. Maxwell, 654; Discussion, 656. Aspects of Grammar-School Training, 320. Aspects of Physical Training, 765. Augur, A. W. — Discussion, 592. Avery, F. F— The Indian Pupil Should Improve His Government Allotment, 919; Secretary's Minutes, 890. Ayres, Edward — Discussion, 288. Back Volumes, Sales of, 46. Bakeless, O. H. — The Unification of In- dustrial and Academic Features of the Indian Schools, 902. Baker, James H. — Discussion, 468. Balliet, Thos. M. — Discussion, 278, 302. Ballin, Hans — The Ethical, Physiologi- cal, and Psychological Aspect of Physi- cal Training, 765. Barnard, Henry, "|", 390. Barnard as an Educational Critic — Francis W. Parker, 406. Barnard's Home Life and Work in Con- necticut and Rhode Island — Charles H. Keyes, 400. Barnard's Influence on Schools in the West — Newton C. Dougherty, 395. Barnard's Influence on the Establishment of Normal Schools — E. O. Lyte, 390. Barnard's Relation to the Office of Com- missioner of Education — W.T.Harris,4o8. Barnhart, J. F. — Writing in the Grades Below the High School When the Com- mercial Branches Are Taught in the High School, 749. Barrett, R. C. — Discussion, 294. Barrows, Franklin W. — Leader of Zoology Conference ; Introductory Remarks, 584; Discussion, 604. Bassett, Mrs. L.— Discussion, 603. Bates, R. Charles — Possibilities of Man- ual Training for Moral Ends, 270. Bayliss, Alfred — Discussion, 293. Baylor, Miss — Discussion, 601. Beals, Samuel De Witt.f, 925. Beardshear, W. M. — Remarks as President- elect, 25. Beazell, J. H. — Secretary's Minutes, 566. Belfield, H. H. — Discussion, 679. Benedict, J. C. — Discussion, 747. Bevans, Mr. — Discussion, 269. Bishop, J. Remsen. — The Function of the High School of Today, 570. IO25 1026 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Black, William H. — Secretary's Minutes, 605. Blatchley, W. S. — What the Teacher of Science Can Do to Make the Teaching of Science in Secondary Schools More Popular, 777. Bliss, A. T. — Address of Welcome, 51. Board of Directors, Minutes of, for 1900- 1901,32; 1901-1902,40. Board of Trustees, Report of, 10. Bonebrake, Lewis D. — Leader of Round Table, 293 ; The Centralization of Rural Schools, 804. Bookmyer, T. W. — Discussion, 733. Boone, Richard C. — Response to Ad- dresses of Welcome, 59; A Standard Course of Study for Elementary Schools in Cities, 303 ; Discussion, 320. Botany Conference — Leader, Lewis Mur- bach, 582 ; Discussion, 583. Boynton, F. D. — Discussion, 287. Brain-Disorderliness, Physical Training as Corrective of, 759. Brandt, Francis Burke — The State in its Relation to the Defective Child, 876. Brereton, Cloudesley S. H. — The Edu- cational Crisis in England, 151 ; Dis-' cussion, 454. Briggs, L. B. R. — Some Aspects of Gram- mar-School Training, 320. Bright, O. T. — Discussion, 294. Brooks, Sarah C. — Discussion, 294. Brooks, Stratton D. — Discussion, 576. Brown, Cora Stanton — The Public School as a Social Center, 888. Brown, Elmer E. — Educational Progress of the Year, 366. Brown, Henry E. — Discussion, 748. Brown Z. H. — Discussion, 278. Bruce, Wm. George — Schoolroom Tem- perature and Humidity, 8 1 1 ; Secretary's Minutes, 804. Bryan, William J. S. — President's Ad- dress, 567 ; Leader of Physiology Con- ference, Introductory Remarks, 602 ; Discussion, 585. Buchanan, G. V. — Discussion, 283. Buck, P. M. — Discussion, 579, 841. Burnham, Mr. — Discussion, 601. Business Education, Department of, 721. Business Education ? What Constitutes a, 724. Business Training in Public Schools, 740. Butler, Amos W. — Education and Crime, 560. Butler, Nicholas Murray — Nominating Cor- responding Members, 38 ; Remarks on Resolution, 26 ; Resolution, 356. Calendar of Meetings, 6. Canfield, James H. — Public Libraries and the Public Schools, 836; Discussion, 612. Carr, J. W. — Discussion, 288. Carrington, W. T. — Discussion, 294. Carter, Joseph — Agriculture as a Science for the Elementary School, 785; Dis- cussion, 220, 269, 280. Cash Receipts, Secretary's Office, 47. Castle, E. W. — History as a Study of Life, 599 ; Discussion, 600. Centralization of Rural Schools — Lewis D. Bonebrake, 804. Chadsey, Charles E. — Discussion, 581. Chancellor, William E. — Education for Social Control, 619. Chandler, Miss — Discussion, 583. Character - Building among Indian Chil- dren— Cora M. Folsom, 911. Chemical Library, The — Discussion, 597. Chemistry Conference — Leader, C. E. Linebarger, 595 ; Discussion, 596. Cheney, F. J. — Discussion, 644. Chicago Public Schools, Manual Training in, 257. Chicago School Children, Hearing Tests of, 880. Child Study, Department of, 500. Child Study the Basis of the Ideal School,474. Christopher, W. S. — Medical Inspection in Schools, 236. Church and the Public School, The — T. A. Mott, 541 ; Discussion, 548. Chute, H. N. — Discussion, 593, 594. Civilization and Higher Education — Wm. T. Harris, 896. Cobb, Chas. Newell — Secretary's Minutes, 771. Coburn, Frederick W. — The Economic Value of Art Education, 685. Coleman, E. M. — Discussion, 285. College Attendance Affected by Growth of High Schools, 174. Columbia's Emblem, 150. Commercial Studies Conference — Leader, Thomas H. H. Knight, 580 ; Discussion, 58l. Commercial Teachers, Education and Training of the, 734. Commissioner of Education, Establishment of Office of— Wm. T. Harris, 408. Committee : on Constitution and By-Laws, Department of Superintendence, 196 ; to Draft Syllabus in Geometry, Secondary Department, 599 ; on Education, St. Louis Exposition, Letter of, 37 ; on a National University, Report of the, 457 ; on Necrology, Report of, 925 ; on Nomi- nations, Members of, 22, Report of, 24 ; on Nominations, Department of Super- intendence, List of, 190, Report of, 194; on President's Address, 26 ; on Prize Essays on School Hygiene, Report of, 356; on Resolutions, Members of, 21, Report of, 26 ; on Resolutions, Depart- ment of Superintendence, List of, 190, Report of, 194. Compulsory Education — H. B. Peairs, 922. Constitution of General Association, 1. Constructive Work in Elementary Schools, 647. Cook, John W. — Discussion, 365. Cooley, Edwin G. — The Gospel of Work, 197. INDEX 1027 Cooper, Frank B. — Discussion, 232. Correlation of High-School and Grammar- Grade Work, 287. Corresponding Members, 933. Course of Study for Elementary Schools in Cities, 303. Course of Study, The Situation as Regards the, 332. Covey, C. C. — The Reservation Day School Should be the Prime Factor in Indian Education. 900. Cox, William J. M. — Discussion, 27. Crandall, C. J. — The Indian Employee, 918. Crime, Education and, 560. Crisis in England, The Educational, 151. Crissy, I. O. — What Constitutes a Business Education? 724; Discussion, 581. Crosby, W. E. — Preliminary Report of the Committee on Necrology, 23 ; Report of the Committee on Necrology, 925, Crunden, Frederick M. — The Library and the School, 108; Discussion, 841. Curriculum, Is the, Overcrowded ? 95 ; So- cial Science and the, 124. Curtis, Virgil G. — The Relation of Man- ual Training to Technical Education, 657- Davis, Allan. — Discussion, 581. Day School the Gradual Uplifter of the Tribe — Sister Macaria Murphy, 913. Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded, Depart- ment of Education of the, 868. Declaration of Principles, 26. Defective Child, Relation of State to, 876. De Garmo, Chas. — The Economis Basis of Art, etc., 549. Democracy, The Functions of a University in a Prosperous, 165. Department of Art Education, 683 ; of Business Education, 721 ; of Child Study, 500 ; of Education of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded, 868 ; of Elementary Education, 540 ; of Higher Education, 605 ; of Indian Education, 890; of Kin- dergarten Education, 501 ; Library, 829; of Manual Training, 646 ; of Music Edu- cation, 704 ; National Council, 349 ; of Normal Schools, 635 ; of Physical Edu- cation, 758 ; of School Administration, 803; of Science Instruction, 771 ; of Secondary Education, 565 ; of Superin- tendence, 189. Department of Superintendence, Early History — Emerson E. White, 233. Department of Superintendence, Past and Future Work of, 227. Detroit Elementary Schools, Manual Train- ing in, 250. Developing Teaching Force in Small Cities, 280. Dewey, John — The Situation as Regards the Course of Study, 332. Dewey, Melvil — The Place of the Li- brary in Education, 858. Dissette, Mary — The Future of the Pueblo Indian, 921. Doggett, W. E. — President's Address, 722. Domestic Science Conference — Leader, Miss Abby W. Marlatt, 586 ; Discussion, 587. Domestic Science in the Public Schools of Chicago, 257. Dougherty, Newton C. — The Influence of Henry Barnard on Schools in the West, 395- Downing, A. S. — Discussion, 645. Draper, A. S. — Discussion, 318,319. Duty of the Association in Shaping Public Educational Opinion — James M. Green, 61. Duty of the Public-School [System with Respect to Business Training — Myron T. Scudder, 740 ; Discussion, 747. Eaton, John — Letter on Barnard's Connec- tion with Bureau of Education, 412. Economic Basis of Art, etc. — Charles De Garmo, 549; Discussion, 555. Economic Value of Art Education — Fred- eric W. Coburn, 685. Economics, Ideals and Methods of Teach- ing, 131. Economics in the Public Schools — George Gunton, 131. Education and Crime — Amos W. Butler,56o. Education and Training of Commercial Teachers — William A. Scott, 734; Dis- cussion, 738. Education at the Paris Exposition — How- ard J. Rogers, 201. Education, Compulsory, 922. Education for Social Control — William E. Chancellor, 619. Education for the Trades in America, etc. — Charles F. Warner, 665; Discussion, 667. Education, Progress in, 66. Education, The Moral Factor in, 627. Educational Crisis in England — Cloudesley S. H. Brereton, 151. Educational Critic, Barnard as an, 406. Educational Exhibits at Paris in 1900 Howard J. Rogers, 447. Educational Lessons of the Paris Exposi- tion in 1900 — Anna Tolman Smith, 439 ; Discussion, 454. Educational Pioneering in Southern Moun- tains— William Goodell Frost, 555. Educational Press, 50. Educational Progress of the Year — Elmer E. Brown, 366. Elementary Schools, Agriculture as a Sci- ence for the, 785. Elementary Schools in Cities, A Standard Course of Study for, 303. Elementary Schools, Textile Arts as Con- structive Work in, 647. Eligibility of Indian Children to Rights of Indian Schools — H. B. Peairs, 916. Ellis, Miss Grace — Discussion, 604. Emblem, Our National Floral, 148. English Conference, The — Leader, James H. Harris, 578; Discussion, 579. 1028 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Ethical, Physiological, and Psychological Aspect of Physical Training — Hans Bal- lin, 765 ; Discussion, 769. Evans, George W.— Leader of Algebra Conference ; Introductory Remarks, 589. Evans, Prof. — Discussion, 599. Examinations, The Use and Control of, 240. Fad ? What is a, 85. Fairchild, George Thompson,-!", 92D- Fall, Delos — Address of Welcome, 52; Discussion, 302. Farson, Miss M. Elizabeth — -Discussion, 278. Faunce, William H. P. — The Moral Fac- tor in Education, 627. Federal and State Interest in a Higher Education — Robert B. Fulton, 169. Fillmore, Nettie — Secretary's Minutes, 566. Fletcher, W. I.— The A B C of Refer- ence Work, 847. Folsom, Cora M. — Character -Building among Indian Children, 911. Fowler, William K. — Discussion, 92. Frederick, Frank Forest — The Study of Fine Art in American Colleges and Universities, 695. Frissell, H. B. — Learning by Doing, 893; Discussion, 644; President's Address, 893. Frost, William Goodell — Educational Pioneering in Southern Mountains, 555. Fulton, Robert B. — Federal and State Interest in a Higher Education, 169. Function of the High School of Today — J. Remsen, Bisop, 570; Discussion, 576. Function of the State University — Richard H. Jesse, 606 ; Discussion, 612. Functions of a University in a Prosperous Democracy — Charles F. Thwing, 165. Future of the Pueblo Indian — Mary Dis- sette, 921. Gantvoort, Arnold J. — President's Ad- dress, 705. Garfield, James A. — Speech on National Bureau of Education in House of Repre- sentatives, 426. Gass, Benjamin Rea, f. 927. Gaylord, J. S. — Discussion, 294. Geology, The Relation of Physical Geog- raphy to, 796. Geometry Conference — Leader, Alan San- ders, 598 ; Discussion, 599. George Washington Memorial Association, 464 ; Articles of Incorporation of, 465. German Conference — Leader, Joseph Krug, 590. Gies, Miss Fanny G. — Discussion, 294. Gilbert, Charles B. — Discussion, 365, 680. Gilbert, James E. — Remarks on Society of Religious Education, 34, 35. Gladfelter, Miss — Discussion, 588. Glotfelter, J. H. — Discussion, 280. Goodman, C. W. — The Necessity for a Large Agricultural School in the Indian Service, 921. Gospel of Work, The — Edwin G. Cooley, 197; Discussion, 201. Goss, Mrs. Josephine Ahnefeldt — The Value of Truant Schools, 820. Gove, Aaron — Discussion, 238, 283,364,488. Grading for Efficient Organization, 285. Graham, A. B. — Discussion, 293. Grammar-School Training, Some Aspects of, 320. Grant, G. M. — Some of Our Mistakes, 118. Gray, H. W. — Secretary's Minutes, 704. Greek Conference — -Leader, Isaac N. Jud- son, 589. Green, James M. — Closing Address, 30; President's Address, 61. Greenwood, James M. — High-School Statistical Information, 490 ; Past and Future Work of the Department of Su- perintendence, 227. Griffith, George — Discussion 270, 283. Gruver, E. A. — Secretary's Minutes, 869. Gunton, George — Economics in the Pub- lic Schools, 131 ; Discussion, 555. Guthrie, Miss — Discussion, 601. Hadley, Arthur T. — Use and Control of Examinations, 240. Hailmann, W. N. — Discussion, 277, 319. Hall, Caleb G., |, 927. Hall, G. Stanley — The Ideal School as Based on Child Study, 474 ; Work and Play, 518, 523; Discussion, 301. Halleck, Reuben Post — The Teacher as a Social-Economic Power, 143. Halsey, R. H. — Discussion, 319. Handicraft in Primary and Intermediate Grades, 654. Handwork as a Part of School Work, 100. Harper, William R. — Report of the Com- mittee on a National University, 457. Harris, James H. — Leader of English Con- ference ; Introductory Remarks, 578. Harris, William T. — Civilization and Higher Education, 896 ; Discussion, 180, 221, 330, 588 ; Establishment of Office of Commissioner of Education, etc., 408 ; Isolation in the School, 357 ; Recent Growth of Public High Schools as Affect- ing the Attendance of Colleges, 174. Hart, J. C. — Discussion, 910; Transfer of Indian Pupils from Day to Reservation or Non-Reservation Schools, 917. Harvey, N. A. — A Plea for the Study of Educational Philosophy by Teachers of Science, 772. Haupert, Charles. — Music Teachers in Their Relation to the Schools, 706. Hearing Tests of Chicago School Chil- dren, Some Results of, 880. Higher Education, Civilization and, 896 Higher Education, Department of, 605. Higher Education, Federal and State In- terest in, 169. Higher Education, Total Enrollment in, Table, 178. High School, Literature in Grades below the, 288. High School of Today, The Function of the, 570. INDEX 1029 High-School Statistical Information — James M. Greenwood, 490. High Schools, Recent Growth of, as Affect- ing College Attendance, 174. Hinsdale, Burke Aaron, "\, 387, 927. History as a Study of Life— E. W. Castle, 599; Discussion, 601. History Conference — Leader, J. J. Shep- pard, 599. History of Department of Superintendence, 233- Holmes, Miss Evelyn, President's Ad- dress, Kindergarten Deparment, 523. Holmes, Manfred J. — Secretary's Minutes, 500. Holzinger, Mary — Report of Round Table, 892. How Early May Handwork be Made a Part of School Work ?— Charles R. Rich- ards, 100. How Shall Children be Led to Love Good Books ? — Miss Isabel Lawrence, 850. Hoyt, John W. — Discussion, 471. Hoyt, Judson E. — Manual Training in the Menomonie Public Schools, 261. Hubbard, F. V. — Discussion, 282. Hughes, Miss — Discussion, 295. Humidity of Atmosphere in the School- room, 811. Hutton, A. J. — Discussion, 293. Ideal School as Based on Child Study — G. Stanley Hall, 474 ; Discussion, 488. Ideals and Methods of Economic Teach- ing— Frederic W. Speirs, 137. Incorporation, Act of, 4 ; Certificate of, 5. Index, General, 1024. Index to List of Members, 1009. Indian Children, Character Building among, 911. Indian Education, Day School a Prime Factor in, 900. Indian Education, Department of, 890. Indian Education, Practical Methods in, 920. Indian Employee, The — C. J. Crandall, 918. Indian Pupil Should Improve His Govern- ment Allotment — F. F. Avery, 919. Indian Schools, Some Features of, 902. Indian Schools ? What Shall be Taught in the, 904. Indians, Mechanical Training for, 909. Individual Instruction, The Need of, 295. Ingerson, Carl J. — Leader of Physics Con- ference, Introductory Remarks, 591. Inspection and Supervision in Large Cities, 276. Instruction, The Need of Individual, 295. Introspection — E. A. Allen, 914. Inventory and Price List of Publications, 1023. Ionization Theory, The — Discussion, 597. Irons, Foster H. — Secretary's Minutes, 647. Is the Curriculum Overcrowded? — James H. Van Sickle, 95- Isolation in the School — Wm. T. Harris, 357 ; Discussion, 363. Jacobs, Walter Ballou — Discussion, 644. Jesse, Richard H. — The Function of the State University, 606 ; Discussion, 613. Jones, Frank L. — Discussion, 293. Jones, L. H. — Discussion, 221, 276,277. Journal of Proceedings, 21. Judson, Isaac N. — Leader of Greek Con- ference ; Introductory Remarks, 589. Keating, J. F. — Discussion, 288. Kennedy, John — The Need of Individ- ual Instruction, 295 ; Discussion, 303. Kern, O. J. — Discussion, 293. Keyes, Charles H. — Henry Barnard's Home Life and His Work as Commis- sioner of Connecticut and Rhode Island, 400 ; Discussion, 538, 587, 656. Kindergarten Department, President's Ad- dress, 523. Kindergarten, Rhythm in the, 532 ; Work and Play in the, 502. King, William F. — Discussion, 612. Kirk, John R. — Discussion, 282. Kleinsorge, John Arnold, "f, 928. Knight, Thomas H. H. — Leader of Com- mercial Studies Conference ; Introduc- tory Remarks, 580. Knowledge of English Language Essen- tial to Assignment to Non- Reservation School — C. F. Pierce, 917. Krohn, W. O. — Physical Training as Cor- rective of Brain-Disorderliness, 759; Discussion, 239, 769. Krug, Joseph — Leader of German Confer- ence ; Introductory Remarks, 590 Lake, Theodore F. — The Phonograph as an Aid in Teaching Shorthand, 754. Lane, Albert G. — On Report of Trustees, 32, 33 ; Discussion, 279. Latin Conference — Leader, F. P. Moul- ton, 579. Law and the Day School for the Deaf — S. Wesselius, 870. Lawrence, Miss Isabel — How Shall Children be Led to Love Good Books ? 850 ; Leader of Round Table, 294. Learning by Doing — H. B. Frissell, 893. Le Conte, Joseph, "|\ 928. Leiter, Mrs. Frances W. — Physical Ed- ucation Legislation .... Its Needs, 760. Legislation and Modern School Building, 815. Legislation, Physical Education, 760. Lessons of the Educational Exhibits at Paris in 1900 — Howard J. Rogers, 447 ; Discussion, 454. Lessons of the Paris Exposition, 439. Lewis, Leslie — Discussion, 276. Libraries and Public Schools, 837. Library and the Normal Schools, 841. Library and the School as Co-ordinate Forces in Education — Livingstone Mc- Cartney, 864. Library Department, 829. Library in Education, The Place of the. 857- Library Movement, The — R. C. Metcalf, 830. 1030 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Library, The School and the, 108. Lindgren, Mrs. Ethel Roe — Rhythm in the Kindergarten, 532. Linebarger, C. E. — Leader of Chemistry Conference ; Introductory Remarks, 595 ; Discussion, 596, 597. List of Corresponding Members, 38, 42. List of Life, Active, and Corresponding Members, 933; Index to, 1009. Literature in Grades below the High School — Miss Mae E. Schreiber, 288. Locke, George H. — Discussion, 641. Lowry, Charles D. — Discussion, 279. Lyte, E. Oram — Barnard's Influence on Establishment of Normal Schools, 390 ; Report of Committee on Resolutions, 26. Lyttle, Eugene W. — Discussion, 601. MacCracken, W. H. — Discussion, 585. MacDonald, John — Discussion, 215. MacDonald, Supt. — Discussion, 283. MacMillan, D. P.— Some Results of Hearing Tests of Chicago School Chil- dren, 880. Manual Training, Aims of, 252 ; Depart- ment of, 646 ; Its Relation to Technical Education, 657. Manual Training in the Detroit Public Schools — J. H. Trybom, 250. Manual Training in the Menomonie Pub- lic Schools — Judson E. Hoyt, 261 ; Dis- cussion, 269. Mark, E. H. — Discussion, 201, 279. Marlatt, Abby L. — Discussion, 587, 588 ; Leader of Domestic Science Conference ; Introductory Remarks, 586. Martindale, Wales C. — Address of Welcome, 57. Material for Literature in Grades, 290. Maxwell, Helen M. — Artistic Handi- craft in Primary and Intermediate Grades, 654. Maxwell, W. H. — Discussion, 239. McCartha. C. L. — Discussion, 601. McCartney, Livingstone — The Library and the School as Co-ordinate Forces in Education, 864. McCowan, S. M. — Practical Methods in Indian Education, 920. McCracken, S. B. — Discussion, 604. McElroy, E. B., |, 929. McKenny, Charles — Discussion, 644. McMurry, Charles A. — Discussion, 319. McNeill, I. C. — Discussion, 280. Mechanical Training for Indians, 909. Medical Inspection in Public Schools — W. S. Christopher, 236; Discussion, 238. Meetings, Calendar of, 6. Mehan, John M., "f", 929. Members of National Council, 352. Membership by States, 102 1, 1022. Membership of Committee on a National University, 457. Menomonie Public Schools, Manual Train- ing in, 261. Merrill, Jacob B., f, 930. Metcalf, R. C. — The Library Movement — What it Means and What it Should Include, 830. Methods of Economic Teaching, 137. Miller, George McA. — Discussion, 613. Miller, Lewis, f, 930. Millspaugh, J. F. — Discussion, 301. Mingins, Clara W. — Secretary's Minutes, 501. Minutes of Annual Meeting, 24 ; of Board of Directors, 1 900-1 901, 32 ; of Board of Directors for 1901-1902, 40. Mistakes, Some of Our, 118. Mitchell, Clara I. — Textile Arts as Constructive Work in Elementary Schools, 647. Montfort, R. V. K., "f, 931. Moore, B. F. — Discussion, 288 ; Secretary's Minutes, 540. Moral Ends of Manual Training, 270. Moral Factor in Education, The — William H. P. Faunce, 627. Morrison, Gilbert B. — Discussion, 681. Mast, T. O. — Discussion, 604. Mott, T. A.— The Church and the Public School, 541 ; Leader of Round Table, 287; Discussion, 288. Moulton, F. P. — Leader of Latin Confer- ence ; Introductory Remarks, 579. Murbach, Lewis — Discussion, 584, 585, 603; Leader of Botany Conference; Introduc- tory Remarks, 582. Murphy, M. M. — Discussion, 914. Murphy, Sister Macaria — The Day School the Gradual Uplifter of the Tribe, 913; Discussion, 914. Music Education, Department of, 704. Music Education, The Rights of Boys and Girls in, 718. Music, Relation of, to Life, 181. Music Teachers in Their Relation to the Schools — Charles Haupert, 706. Musrush, F. S.- — Discussion, 753. National Council, The — Constitution, 349 ; Officers, 351; Members, 352; Secretary's Minutes, 354 ; Papers and Discussions, 357- National Education in the Sixteenth Cen- tury, The Rise of the, 613. National University, Report of Committee on, 457. National University, Resolution on, 25. Nattrass, Supt. — Discussion, 294. Necessary Elements in Work and Play — C. Geraldine O'Grady, 527. Necessity for Large Agricultural School in Indian Service — C. W. Goodman, 921. Necrology, Report of the Committee on, 925- Need of Individual Instruction — John Ken- nedy, 295 ; Discussion, 301. Nellis, George W. — Discussion, 922. New York, Science Instruction in the State of, 791. Nichols, W. H. — Discussion, 601. Nominating Corresponding Members, 38, 42. INDEX 103I Normal Schools and the Library, 841. Normal Schools, Barnard's Influence on Establishment of, 390. Normal Schools, Department of, 635. Norris, A. C. — Discussion, 596. Northrup, Cyrus — Discussion, 355. Norton, William Harmon — The Rela- tion of Physical Geography to Geology, 796. Observation of Experts as a Means of Training, 294. Officers, List of, for 1900-1901, 8; for 1901- 1902, 12. Officers of National Council, 351. Ogg, R. A. — Discussion, 282, 548. O'Grady, Miss C. Geraldine— Neces- sary Elements in Work and Play, 527. Olson, J. W. — Discussion, 294. Omissions from the Volume of Proceed- ings, 46. Organization of Inspection and Super- vision, 276. Organization in the Interests of Pupils, 285. Osborne, F. A. — Discussion, 594. O'Shea, M. V.— Work and Play in Youth, 513. Our National Floral Emblem — Edna Dean Proctor, 148. Palmer, F. B. — Discussion, 643. Paris Exposition, Education at the, 201 ; Educational Lessons of the, 439. Parker, Francis W. — Henry Barnard as an Educational Critic, 406 ; Discussion, 216, 269, 587, 588, 656. Parsons, C. H. — Relation of State Legis- lation to Modern School Building, 815. Parsons, James Russell, Jr. — Discussion, 180. Past and Future Work of the Department of Superintendence — James M. Green- wood, 227 ; Discussion, 232. Peairs, H. B. — Compulsory Education, 922 ; Eligibility of Indian Children to Rights in Indian Schools, 916. Pearse, C. G. — Discussion, 279. Peres, Israel H. — What Constitutes an Efficient Superintendent ? 825. Perrin, John William — The Rise of National Education in the Sixteenth Century, 613. Perry, Reuben — Discussion, 914. Pettie, Miss E. — Discussion, 604. Pettiorew, Miss Nellie G. — The Super- visor from the Standpoint of the Regular Grade Teacher, 709. Pierce, C. F.— Knowledge of English Language Essential to Assignment to Non-Reservation School, 917. Phillips, Daniel E. — Discussion, 287. Phillips, J. H. — Secretary's Minutes, 357. Phonograph as an Aid in Teaching Short- hand— Theodore F. Lake, 754. Physical Education, Department of, 758. Physical Education Legislation — Mrs. Frances W. Leiter, 760. Physical Training as Corrective of Brain- Disorderliness — W. O. Krohn, 759. Physical Training, Various Aspects of, 765. Physics Conference — Leader, Carl J. Inger- son, 591 ; Discussion, 592. Physiography Conference — Leader, W. H. Snyder, 602. Physiology Conference — Leader, W. J. S. Bryan, 602 ; Discussion, 603. Place of the Library in Education — Melvil Dewey, 858. Plea for the Study of Educational Phi- losophy by Teachers of Science — N. A. Harvey, 772. Pollock, Dr. — Discussion, 583. Pomeroy, Miss Florence — Discussion, 601. Possibilities of Manual Training for Moral Ends — R. Charles Bates, 270. Powe, Charlotte M. — Work and Play in the Primary and Grammar Grades, 507. Powell, Arthur — Discussion, 281. Practical Methods in Indian Education — S. M. McCowan, 920. Prather, William L. — Discussion, 612. Pray, Mabel L. — Secretary's Minutes, 758. Presidential Address: Department of Art Education, Miss Bonnie E. Snow, 684 ; Business Department, W. E. Doggett, 722 ; Indian Education, H. B. Frissell, 893 ; Kindergarten, Miss Evelyn Holmes, 523 ; Library, R. C. Metcalf, 830 ; Music, A. J. Gantvoort, 705 ; Physical Educa- tion, W. O. Krohn, 759 ; Science Instruc- tion, N. A. Harvey, 772 ; Secondary Department, William J. S. Bryan, 567. President's Address — James M. Green, 61 ; Resolution on, 26 ; Committee on, 26. Prettyman, E. B. — Discussion, 215. Price List of Publications, 1023. Primary and Grammar Grades, Work and Play in the, 507. Proceedings, Journal of, 21. Proctor, Edna Dean — Our National Floral Emblem, 148. Progress and Aims of Domestic Science in the Public Schools of Chicago — Henry S. Tibbits, 257. Progress in Education — J. Lancaster Spaulding, 66. Public Libraries and the Public Schools — James H. Canfield, 836 ; Discussion, 841. Public School as a Social Center— Cora Stanton Brown, 888. Public-School System and Business Train- ing, 740. Public Schools, Economics in the, 131. Public Schools, Medical Inspection in, 236. Public Schools of Chicago, Domestic Science in, 257. Publications, Inventory and Price List of, 1023. Pueblo Indian, Future of the, 921. Putnam, Alice H. — Work and Play in the Kindergarten, 502. Raab, Henry, f, 93T- Ratliff, Russell — Discussion, 920. J032 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Ravenhill, Miss Alice R. — Discussion, 587. Recent Growth of Public High Schools as Affecting the Attendance of Colleges — W. T. Harris, 174. Reed, Daniel, Extract from Address by, 415- Reference Work, The A B C of, 847. Relation of Manual Training to Technical Education — Virgil G. Curtis, 657. Relation of Music Teachers to the Schools, 706. Relation of Music to Life — Thomas Whit- ney Surette, 181. Relation of Physical Geography to Geology — William Harmon Norton, 796. Relation of State Legislation to Modern School Building — C. H. Parsons, 815. Report : of Board of Trustees, 18 ; of Com- mittee on a National University, 457, Discussion, 468 ; of Committee on Ne- crology, 925, Preliminary, 23 ; of Com- mittee on Nominations, 24 ; of Commit- tee on Prize Essays on School Hygiene, 356 ; of Permanent Secretary, 43 ; of Committee on Resolutions, 26 ; of Round Table, 892 ; of Treasurer, 16. Reports of Special Committees, History of, 44 ; Table of Distribution, 45. Reservation Day School Should be the Prime Factor in Indian Education — C. C. Covey, 900. Response to Addresses of Welcome — Rich- ard G. Boone, 59. Resolution: for Advisory Board, 37; for Ap- propriation Concerning Rural- Schools, 36, 41 ; on Committee on National Uni- versity, 25, 42 ; Concerning a National University, 355 ; of Department of Man- ual Training, 646 ; on President's Ad- dress, 26 ; on Society of Religious Edu- cation, 34. Resolutions : Concerning Consolidation of Rural Schools, 356 ; on Republishing Papers on School Supervision, 194. Rhythm in the Kindergarten — Mrs. Ethel Roe Lindgren, 532 ; Discussion, 538. Rice, Mrs. Harriette — Rhythm as an Art Principle, 692. Richards, Charles R. — How Early May Handwork be Made a Part of School Work? ioo; Discussion, 656, 673. Richeson, John — Discussion, 282. Rickoff , A. J. — Extract from Address of , 4 1 8. Ridge, John Cyrus, "f", 932. Rights of Boys and Girls in Music Educa- tion— N. Coe Stewart, 718. Rise of National Education in the Six- teenth Century — John W. Perrin, 613. Roberts, Dimon — Discussion, 295. Rockwood, George H. — Discussion, 287. Rogers, Frank K.— An Ail-Around Mechanical Training for Indians, 909. Rogers, Howard, J. — Education at the Paris Exposition, 201; Lessons of the Educational Exhibits at Paris in 1900, 447- Round Table of State and County Superin- tendents ; Leader, L. D. Bonebrake, 293. Round Table of Superintendents of Large Cities ; Leader, F. Louis Soldan, 276. Round Table of Training Teachers ; Leader, Miss Isabel Lawrence, 294. Round Table, Report of, 892. Round Tables of Secondary Department, 578. Round Tables of Superintendents of Small Cities ; Section A — Leader, L. E. Wolfe, 280; Section B — Leader, William J. Shearer, 285 ; Section C — Leader, T. A. Mott, 287 ; Section D —Leader, A. S* Downing, 288. Rounds, C. C. — Discussion, 644. Rowe, H. M. — Discussion, 582. Royalty Sales by American Book Co., 45. Rural . Schools, Resolution for Appropria- tion, 36, 41. Rural Schools, The Centralization of, 804. Russell, James E. — The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools, 636 ; Discussion, 295, 645. Sales of Back Volumes, 46. Sanders, Alan — Leader of Geometry Con- ference ; Introductory Remarks, 598. Schoch, Parke — Discussion, 738. School Administration, Department of, 803. School and the Library, The — Frederick M. Crunden, 108. School, Isolation in the, 357. Schoolroom Temperature and Humidity — William George Bruce, 811. Schools in the West, Barnard's Influence on, 395. Schreiber, Mae E. — Literature in Grades below the High School, 288. Schuyler, William — Discussion, 600,601. Science Instruction, Department of, 771. Science Instruction in the State of New York, 791. Science Teaching in Secondary Schools, 777- • Scott, William A.— The Education and Training of Commercial Teachers, 734. Scudder, Myron T. — The Duty of the Public-School System with Respect to Business Training, 740 ; Secretary's Minutes, 635. Seaver, E. P. — Discussion, 239. Secondary Education, Department of, 565. Secondary Schools, Teaching of Science in, 777- Secondary Schools, Total Enrollmemt in, 178. Secretary, Report of the, 43. Secretary's Minutes : Department of Art Education, 683 ; of Business Education, 721 ; of Child Study, 500; of the Deaf, Blind, and Feeble-Minded, 868; of Ele- mentary Education, 540 ; of Higher Education, 605 ; of Indian Education, 890; of Kindergarten Education, 501; of Library Department, 829 ; of Manual Training, 646; of Music Education, 704 ; INDEX 1033 of Normal Schools, 635 ; of National Council, 354 ; of Physical Education, 758 ; of School Administration, 803 ; of Science Instruction, 771 ; of Secondary Education, 565 ; of Superintendence, 189. Selleck, W. F. — Discussion, 280. Seymour, Randolph B. — Discussion, 731. Shearer, William J. — Discussion, 285. Shepard, Irwin — -Report of the Secretary, 43; Secretary's Minutes of Annual Meet- ing, 26. Sheppard, J. J. — Leader of History Con- ference, 599; Discussion, 601. Shorthand, The Phonograph as an Aid in Teaching, 754. Siefert, H. O. R. — Discussion, 276, 277. Simplified Spelling, Application for De- partment of, 36. Simplified Spelling, Discussion — E. O. Vaile, 209. Situation as Regards the Course of Study — John Dewey, 332. Skinner, Charles R. — Discussion, 221, 294. Slaton, W. F. — Discussion, 276. Smith, Anna Tolman — Educational Les- sons of the Paris Exposition, 439. Snow, Miss Bonnie E. — President's Ad- dress, 684. Snyder, J. L. — Discussion, 656. Snyder, W. H. — Leader of Physiography Conference ; Introductory Remarks, 602. Snyder, Z. X. — Discussion, 643. Social Center, The Public School as a, 888. Social Control, Education for, 619. Social-Economic Power, The Teacher as a, 143- Social Science and the Curriculum — George E. Vincent, 124. Society of Religious Education, Applica- tion of, 34. Soldan, F. Louis — What is a Fad ? 85 ; Leader of Round Table, 276 ; Discus- sion, 276, 277, 319. Some Aspects ot Grammar-School Train- ing— L. B. R. Briggs, 320 ; Discussion, 330. Some of Our Mistakes — G. M. Grant, 118. Some Results of Hearing Tests of Chicago School Children— D. P. MacMillan, 880. Southern Mountains, Educational Pioneer- ing in, 555. Spaulding, J. Lancaster — Progress in Education, 66. Special Committee Reports, History of, 44. Speirs, Frederic W. — Ideals and Meth- ods of Economic Teaching, 137. Standard Course of Study for Elementary Schools in Cities — R. G. Boone, 303; Discussion, 318. State in its Relation to the Defective Child — Francis Burke Brandt, 876. State Interest in Higher Education, 169 State University, The Function of the, 606. Statistical Information, High-School, 490. Statistical Tables of Membership, 1021, 1022. Status of Science Instruction in the State of New York — S. Dwight Arms, 791. Steward, Darius — Discussion, 280. Stewart, N. Coe — The Rights of Boys and Girls in Music Education, 718. Stickney, Miss Lucia — Discussion, 489. Stitt, Edward W. — Secretary's Minutes,72l. Stone, M. S. — Discussion, 294. Stout, J. H. — Discussion, 269. Students in Private High Schools — Table, 177. Students in Public High Schools — Table, 177. Study, Justin N. — Discussion, 288. Study of Fine Art in American Colleges and Universities — Frank Forest Freder- ick, 695. Summary of Treasurers' Reports, 48. Superintendent? What Constitutes an Efficient, 825. Superintendents of Large Cities, Round Table of, 276. . Supervisor from the Standpoint of the Regular Grade Teacher — Miss Nellie G. Pettigrew, 709. Supervisors and Supervision — Walter H. Aikin, 714. Surette, Thomas Whitney — The Rela- tion of Music to Life, 181. Swain, Joseph — Resolution, 355. Taylor, A. R. — Report of Committee, 356. Teacher as a Social-Economic Power — Reuben Post Halleck, 143. Teachers for Secondary Schools, The Train- ing of, 636. Technical Education vs. Manual Training, 657. Technical High School vs. Education for the Trades, 665. Temperature of the Schoolroom, 811. Textile Arts as Constructive Work in Elementary Schools — Miss Clara I. Mitchell, 647. Tibbits, Henry S. — Progress and Aims of Domestic Science in the Public Schools of Chicago, 257. Thompson, Langdon S. — Discussion, 656. Thompson, Slason — Discussion, 216. Thornhill, E. A. — Discussion, 593. Thwing, Charles F. — The Functions of a University in a Prosperous Democracy, 165. Total Enrollment in Secondary Schools, 178. Trades in America, Education for the, 665. Training of Commercial Teachers, 734. Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools — James E. Russell, 636 ; Discussion, 641. Transfer of Indian Pupils from Day to Res- ervation and Non- Reservation Schools — J. C. Hart, 917. Transportation Companies, Relations with, 49- Treasurer's Report, 16. Treasurers' Reports, Analysis of, 48. Treudley, F. — Discussion, 282. IQ34 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Truant Schools, The Value of, 820. Trustees, Report of Board of, 18. Trybom, J. H. — Manual Training in the Detroit Elementary Schools, 250 ; Dis- cussion, 270. Twiggs, Templeton P. — Discussion, 581. Tynan, T. T. — Discussion, 294. Unification of Industrial and Academic P'eatures of the Indian Schools — O. H. Bakeless, 902. University, Functions of a, in a Prosperous Democracy, 165. Use and Control of Examinations — Ar- thur T. Hadley, 240. Vaile, E. O.— Discussion of Simplified Spelling, 209, 224. Value of Truant Schools — Mrs. Josephine Ahnefeldt-Goss, 820. Van Sickle, James H. — Is the Curriculum Overcrowded ? 95. Vincent, George E. — Social Science and the Curriculum, 124. Volume of Proceedings, Remarks Concern- ing, 47 ; Cost of, 48. Walker, P. R. — Discussion, 283. Warner, Charles F. — Education for the Trades in America, etc., 665; Discus- sion, 681. Warren, Miss Irene — What the Normal Schools Can Do for Teachers on the Li- brary Side, 841. Wesselius, S. — The Law and the Day School for the Deaf, 870. What Constitutes a Business Education ? 1. O. Crissy, 724 ; Discussion, 730. What Constitutes an Efficient Superintend- ent?— Israel H. Peres, 825. What Is a Fad?— F. Louis Soldan, 85 ; Discussion, 92. What Shall be Taught in an Indian School? — Calvin N. Woodward, 904. What the Normal Schools Can Do for Teachers on the Library Side — Miss Irene Warren, 841. What the Teacher of Science Can Do to Make the Teaching of Science in Sec- ondary Schools More Popular — W. S. Blatchley, 777. Whitcomb, A. K. — Discussion, 280, 283, 302. White, Emerson E. — Address in 1866 on National Bureau of Education, 420 ; De- partment of Superintendence; Its Early History, 233 ; Discussion, 220. Whitney, M. A. — Discussion, 282, 318. Williams, L. L. — Discussion, 730. Williams, William J., "j", 932. Williamson, Miss- -Discussion, 583. Wilson, H. L. — Discussion, 601. Winship, A. E. — Discussion, 587. Wolfe, L. E. — Leader of Round Table, 280. Wood, Herbert C. — -Discussion, 594. Woodmansee, Mary A. — Secretary's Min- utes, 683. Woodward, Calvin N. — What Shall be Taught in an Indian School? 904 ; Dis- cussion, 28, 270, 676. Work and Play in the Kindergarten — Alice H. Putnam, 502. Work and Play in the Primary Grades — Charlotte M. Powe, 507. Work and Play in Youth — M. V. O'Shea, 513- Work and Play, Necessary Elements in, 527- Work, The Gospel of, 197. Writing in Grades below the High School — J. F. Barnhart, 749 ; Discussion, 753. Young, Mrs. Ella F. — Discussion, 363, 365. Youth, Work and Play in, 513. Zoology Conference — Leader, Franklin W. Barrows, 584 ; Discussion, 584. L National Education Association 13 of the United States N3A13 Addresses and pro- 1901 ceedings . . . PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY